pg.

1
 DISINFORMATION:
The Unseen World

Editors
Azmi Ab Rahman
Irwan Kamaruddin Abd. Kadir
Alwi Mohd Yunus

Penerbit FPM Rembau

pg. 2
© FIRST PUBLISHED 2020

Faculty of Information Management, Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM)

Puncak Perdana, Shah Alam.
ISBN:
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Faculty of
Information Management, Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM) Puncak
Perdana, Shah Alam

Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Disinformation: The unseen world / Edited by Azmi Ab Rahman, Irwan

Kamaruddin Abd. Kadir, Alwi Mohd Yunus and Ahmad Nazri Mansor–
Rembau: Penerbit FPM Rembau,©2020.

[iii]; 171p.; 23 x 16cm.

Includes bibliographical references and indexes

eISBN 978-967-2398-04-2
1. False Information 2. Disinformation I. Azmi Ab Rahman
II. Irwan Kamaruddin Abd. Kadir III. Alwi Mohd Yunus

Published by:
Penerbit FPM Rembau
Faculty of Information Management
Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM)
UiTM Negeri Sembilan Kampus Rembau
Printed by
Faculty of Information Management
Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM)
Selangor, Puncak Perdana Campus.

pg. 3
 CONTENTS

CONTRIBUTORS

FOREWORD

SOCIAL MEDIA AND TYPES OF SOCIAL MEDIA

9

FIONA MANYIE ANAK KAMBA

HALIMATUL SAADIAH BT OSMAN

USES AND BENEFIT OF SOCIAL MEDIA

16
HANIS QURRATU’AINI BINTI HASMI

NUR AIN BINTI RAZALI

ETHICAL ISSUES IN ONLINE SOCIAL NETWORKING.

23
NUR ALIYAH BINTI ABDUL RAZIL
NURUL HUSNA BINTI IDRIS

pg. 4
 DISINFORMATION AND CYBERCRIME
32
FARHA KAESAH HANAN BINTI ABDUL HAMID, 
NUR MAHSYAR BINTI MUHAMMAD ZAWAWI
MUHAMMAD LUQMAN NURHAKIM BIN RODILAN

DISADVANTAGE OF SOCIAL MEDIA TO SOCIETY

45

AHMAD ZUL FAKAR BIN MOHAMED ISA

SITI DAYANA BINTI AMRAN

METHOD TO DISSEMINATE INFORMATION

54

NAILY HAZIRAH BINTI MUHAMAD SAHRIN 

 NORSUZIJULIANA BINTI MOHD SHAROM

WHAT IS DISINFORMATION
67
NORSHAFIQQA BINTI SHAFIE
FAUZANA BINTI ALI

pg. 5
THE PHASES, ELEMENT OF INFORMATION

DISORDER AND TYPE OF DISINFORMATION

74

NURUL NABIHA BINTI SULIMAN

NORHANISAH BINTI SABLI

CAUSES AND HOW TO PREVENT DISINFORMATION

85

NUR LIYANA MARYAM BINTI RAMLI 

NURUL IZZATI BINTI HASAN

WAYS TO SPOT DISINFORMATION ON SOCIAL

MEDIA 94

NUR KHUSNINA BINTI ABDUL RAHMAN

WAN NUR SHAHIDATUL KHADIJAH BINTI WAN MANAN

IMPACTS OF DISINFORMATION

102

HANNIS SURAYA BINTI ISHAK 

  SYAHIRAH NURFATINI BT AHMAD FAUZI

pg. 6
TARGETTED GROUP OF DISINFORMATION
111

SYAFIQAH SUHAILAH

AIMAN SYAKIRAH

THE IMPACT OF DISINFORMATION IN

RELATIONSHIP AMOUNG COUNTRIES.

120

NUR MUHAMAD FIKRI BIN MAT NAZRI

AHMAD HASIF BIN ATAN

MEDIA MANIPULATION ON DISINFORMATION

ONLINE AND THE VULNERABILITY OF SOCIAL
MEDIA.

129

ANIS ISZATY BINTI AMIR

NURUL AIN BINTI AHMAD POAD

pg. 7
DISINFORMATION VS MISINFORMATION
143

MOHAMAD AIDIL BIN MOHAMAD @ ALIAS

MOHD ZULHUSNI BIN MAT RANI

WHY DISINFORMATION

153

MAS ALIFFAH BT AZHAR

SITI NUR ‘AUNIE BT MOHAMED ASRI

HOW TO PREVENT DISINFORMATION

161
NURADILA BINTI MOHD NOOR
QURRATULL AINI BINTI MOHD MALIKI

pg. 8
 PREFACE

Technology leads to spread of information and news in seconds.

False and misleading information and news also is easily spread
using the available technology. This phenomenon lead to
disinformation.

This book highlights origin and causes of disinformation. It also

discusses the impact of disinformation on human. The ways to
overcome the disinformation is also discused

This book can be a simple guide for any reader that is interested
in the digital cultural preservation.

Azmi Ab Rahman
Irwan Kamaruddin Abd. Kadir
Alwi Mohd Yunus

pg. 9
 SOCIAL MEDIA AND TYPES OF SOCIAL MEDIA
INTRODUCTION OF SOCIAL MEDIA

FIONA MANYIE ANAK KAMBA AND

HALIMATUL SAADIAH BT OSMAN

What is social media? Social media is the platforms which help

people to create an opportunity to connect the people
surrounding. By using the social media, its help people to
communicate each other without need to come and see face to
face. Other than that, social media is not only help people to
communicate each other social media also is a platform where
people can share the information, ideas, express their
expressions and feeling, expand their business, and many more.
In context of health management, the health ministry provide
information and giving statistical number of patient had been
infected, cured and death through the social media platform
such as Facebook. The health ministry also had made live
streaming session to inform the Malaysian citizen about the
condition of the virus outbreak so that the citizen know about
the current situation about the country. According to Tibebu et
al., (2018) Social media has been previously used as a tool to
provide data on urgent public health issues.
Today the world seems to be moving forward by the usage of
technologies that being applied in our daily life. As we know,
from the aged of kids until adults the usage of social media
were being widespread among us. The usage of social media
were using for the communication forms which is people can
interact with each other around the world with the easiest way.
According to Grover and Stewart (2010) Social media tools are
rapidly changing the communications landscape. The
emergence has impacted significantly how students learn and
the way instructors teach. In higher education settings,
instructors, students and others collaborate on the tasks of

pg. 10
knowledge construction. Social media is not only used for
communication purposes, but it also useful in this situation
where our country is facing an pandemic outbreak which is the
learning process need be carry out which is in online distance
learning (ODL) that using social media as the platforms of
learning process. This method had being applied in education
institution to make sure that the learning process begin with
smoothly as the planning. In context of education, social media
playing an important roles in teaching and learning process
where the lectures giving the lectures through the online
platforms and all the assessment need to be evaluate through
online process. Social media also can be used in the health
management which is in this serious situation where our country
is facing a pandemic outbreak.
In context of business, social media had been spread widely
used it is because the business person wanted to expanding their
market in order to make the people acknowledge about their
product or services that provided by them through the social
media. Social media is the platform where the business person
can promote their product or services in easiest way where the
buyers can easily got the information about the product that
they market. Using social media in business purposes it could
increase the brand awareness to the social media user. As we
know we often scrolling our social media to know about the
new product or services that discover in the social media
platform. As the business person, social media is the right
platform to promote their business and service because it is the
natural place to get new and it highly targeted potential
customers. So that it will increase the number of customers that
interested with the product or services that being promoted.
Social media also give opportunity to business person to interact
with the customer and with the communication it help the
business person to get their feedback or testimony about the
product or services that being used by them.

pg. 11
Furthermore, in context of entertainment social media is the
platform where the celebrities can develop their closer
relationship with their fans with that relationship it could lead to
get the strong supporter from them. Celebrities also can do their
performance in their live streaming and also they can promote
their upcoming events, dramas, film and many more. By using
the social media, celebrities also can share about the daily life
routine and expose them about their life career. By exposing
their life career of celebrities, it help their fans to know more
information about their favorite artists. Social media also help
the celebrities to communicate with their fans by doing live
streaming and doing some posting about themselves. Social
media also can made the celebrities expand their talent or career
throughout to a wider level which is international level in
future.

pg. 12
TYPES OF SOCIAL MEDIA.
Social media is the platforms which help people to
create an opportunity to connect the people surrounding. Social
media not only for entertain our daily life, but social media has
several types that can help to complete one’s daily life. Social
media can divide into six main types which are social
networking sites, social review sites, image sharing sites, video
hosting sites and community blog. Each types of social media
give its own benefit to people in completing their tasks or work
and ease people daily life by saving more time.
One of the most well-known types of social media is
social networking sites. A social networking sites is an online
platform, which people use to build social networks or social
relationship with other people that have the same interest with
them, share similar personal or career, backgrounds, real life
connection and even share a same activity. Social networking
sites also allow people to share digital photos and videos, and
posts. There are many examples of social networking sites such
as Facebook, WhatsApp, Telegram, Instagram, Twitter, Tumblr,
Skype, Pinterest, Gmail and others. Facebook is the most
widely use social networking sites all around the world and use
by people from all ages. The main reason why people likes and
love to use Facebook is because it is easy and convenient to use.
Facebook help people to find a long-lost family member or
friends, makes people who are far away become near, share
digital photos and videos, watch movies and latest news and
buy and sell products or items in the Marketplace. Facebook
only can be accessed or use from devices that have Internet
connectivity.
WhatsApp was founded by Brian Acton and Jan Koum
in 2009. WhatsApp allow user to send text messages and voice
messages, makes voice and video calls, share images, videos,
documents, links and the locations. As for WhatsApp, this
social media requires people to provide cellular mobile number
to register with the service before using it and WhatsApp also

pg. 13
need Internet connectivity to access it. Next is Instagram.
Instagram is the fastest growing social networking sites in
spotlight in the recent years. According to Frommer (2010),
Instagram is an online, mobile phone photo-sharing, video
sharing, and social network service (SNS) that enables its users
to take pictures and videos, and then share them on other
platforms.
Second, social review sites are the websites that are used
by people to post a review about people, products, services and
businesses. Social review sites are very important in making
decision as people will need it when planning for a trip, buying
a product and use a service. It also plays an important role
business as it gives many benefits from studying the customer
review, either it is good or bad. In the business aspect, social
review sites help the business to understand the customer
perspective, in order to make an improvement. Social review
sites also help a business to solve problem by participating with
the reviewers and solve any challenges become it become a
huge deal to the business.
Third, image sharing sites is the publishing and transfer
of a user’s digital photos online. Image sharing sites exist
because people love to share their photos and because of this,
image sharing sites has offer its user for uploading and sharing
photo either in publicly or in privately. Social media platform
such as Instagram, Snapchat and Pinterest are designed to
amplify the power of image sharing. Image sharing sites also
can be used to encourage other users to snap and share their
photo with their product with a hashtag. It also can create
inspiration by bonding over a same interest with other people.
Next is video hosting sites. Video hosting sites enable
user to upload, store and playback video content from the
Internet. YouTube is a very famous video hosting sites all
around the world. YouTube help the creators to put together the
content and share it to the platform that optimized for
streaming.

pg. 14
 Lastly is community blog. Community blog is a
platform expressing thought or opinion, sharing knowledge or
interest and daily journals. A community blog like Tumblr give
a medium for a person to express their thoughts and help them
to connect with the readers. Community blog can be used to
develop a person voice. By using Tumblr, a person can clear out
his or her vision about something and will get some readers.
Community blog also can be used as a medium to share and re-
post older content.

pg. 15
 REFERENCES

A. Van House, N. (2007). Flickr and public image-sharing: distant

closeness and photo exhibition. 2717-2722.

Fedock, B., McCartney, M. and Neeley, D. (2019), "Online

adjunct higher education teachers’ perceptions of using social
media sites as instructional approaches", Journal of Research in
Innovative Teaching & Learning, Vol. 12 No. 3, pp. 222-235.
https://doi-org.ezaccess.library.uitm.edu.my/10.1108/JRIT-02-
2018-0005 

Hu, Y., Manikonda, L., & Kambhampati, S. (2014). What we

Instagram: a first analysis of instagram photo content and user
types. 595-598.

Kjellberg, S., Haider, J., & Olof, S. (2016). Researchers' use of

social network sites: a scoping review. 1-34.

Lu, H.-P., & Cheng, Y.-H. (2020). Suustainability in onlinevideo

hosting services: the effects of serendipity and flow experience
on prolonged usage time. 1-20.

Lux, M., Marques, O., & Pitman, A. (2008). using visual features
to improve tag suggestions in image sharing sites. 426-429.

Munzel, A., & H. Kunz, W. (2014). Creators, multipliers and

lurkers: who contributes and who benefits at online review sites.
Journal of Service Management, 49-74.

N. Hampton, K., Goulet, L. S., Rainie, L., & Purcell, K. (2011).

Social networking sites and our lives. 2-85.

O'Hara , K., Massimi , M., Harper, R., Rubens, S., & Morris, J.
(2014). Everyday dwelling with WhatsApp. 1131-1143.

pg. 16
Petersen, S. A., Chabert, G., & Divitini, M. (n.d.). Language
learning: design considerations for mobile community blogs.

Sheldon, P., & Bryant, K. (2015). Instagram: motives for its use
and relationship to narcissism contextual age. computers in
Human Behaviour, 89-97.

Tibebu, S., Chang, V. C., Drouin, C.-A., Thompson, W., & Do, M.
T. (2018). What can social media tell us about the opioid crisis
in Canada? Maladies Chroniques et Blessures Au Canada,
38(6), 263–267.
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Verduyn, P., Ybarra, O., Resibois, M., Jonides, J., & Kross, E.
(n.d.). Do social network sites enhance or undermine subjective
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Yang, S.-H. (2009). Using blogs to enhance critical reflection and

community of practice. Educational Technology & Society, 11-
21.

pg. 17
 USES AND BENEFIT OF SOCIAL MEDIA
HANIS QURRATU’AINI BINTI HASMI
AND
NUR AIN BINTI RAZALI

USES OF SOCIAL MEDIA

Almost all of the students in the world uses social media

to complete their assignments or project. They could get more
knowledge and useful information that be used to complete their
work by using social media. It also will make easier for the
students to seek more information and complete their
assignment or project. Students use social media to exchange
the information that they get to ensure that their content is
different from each other to avoid plagiarism. For example,
social media such as WhatsApp and Telegram frequently been
used by the students to share the information or content.
Nowadays, lecturers and teachers have been used Google
Classroom, Hangouts, and Zoom to do online distance learning
(ODL) to ensure that the class can still ongoing without having
face-to-face with the students. By using these social media, it
will contribute more information and knowledge to the students
around the world. Students use social media to share
information, discuss study material or topics, and network to
complete homework assignments or term projects. Social media
also provides convenient ways of peer-to-peer exchange of
knowledge and collaboration (Akakandelwa and Walubita,
2017).
As we know, Social media has a role that could make it
easier for users to use them in daily life. Social media also can
be used to share information and make collaboration with other
users. Social media use as a technology that facilitates
interactive information, content, and collaboration. The study of
social media use behavior is dynamic and in rapid, accelerated,
and constant transformation (Corrada et al., 2019). Social media

pg. 18
such as WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram, and Telegram has
been used as a medium to spread the information and do the
collaboration to their users. Social media function and
objectives also change over time to adapt with the uses and
transformation of social media. By having these
transformations, it also will help these social media to be more
functional for the users.
Social media such as YouTube also being use as a medium to
share knowledge for the users to gain more knowledge. Many
people choose to use YouTube to share and talk about issue that
happened around the world.
Social media has many potentials to be use in real life. It
is because users can use social media to do many things such as
contact their friends, create new friends, share the information
and knowledge, doing assignments or projects and sending the
works to the employer. Social media platforms can be use
during crisis times to maintain quick and instant messages to the
public and to provide an interactive communication platform.
Social media have the potential to influence the collective
thinking and shape public opinion (Kuruç and Opiya, 2019).
Social media will make easier for the users to gain new
information that has been share by other people. For example,
WhatsApp, Facebook, and Telegram have been use to share
information about daily life, political situation, and health
condition. As we know, Covid19 has been report is fast
spreading and threatening the whole world with viruses
spreading very fast. So they use these social media to update the
latest information 
and how to treat these viruses. 
Social media has been used as a medium in a business
transaction among the seller. It is because it will make easier for
the seller to promote their product and services. Social media
also has been made the seller's product and services going more
improved. The changes in the global competitive landscape
have forced businesses to seek management approaches that
can meet the new market demands efficiently and effectively

pg. 19
across the supply chain (Cao et al., 2018). Nowadays, people
like to buy the product on online shopping apps such as
WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram, and Telegram. These apps
contain many products that people could buy without going out
of the home. Products that they buy on social media also will be
delivered to their house directly. By using these media, it
provides much efficiency and effectiveness for the users. Social
media also will increase the quality and productivity of these
sellers. For example, it will gain a new buyer to buy their
product by using social media. Undeniable not all the online
sellers can be trusted nowadays. So as users, we need to be wise
to know who is the seller and what kind of products have been
sell to avoid fraud.
  

BENEFITS OF SOCIAL MEDIA 

In this modern era, everyone uses social media. People

spend more time on social media than any other category of
sites, with an average of 121.18 min per day in 2012, which
represents an increase of 37% with respect to the previous year
(Guesalaga, 2016). As we know, social media can give more
benefits for users such as for education, society, business, and
organization. Social media can help people easily to
communicate and interact with others. We can use social media
such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Telegram, and
WhatsApp's. Some people use social media to interact with their
old friends, colleagues, and mates and to make new friends. We
also can share videos, pictures, and audio with others by using
social media. It can change the lifestyle of a society. 
Social media will helps users to easy interact with
others. Many organizations and professionals have adopted
social media tools such as Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube for
a different personal or professional purpose such as
broadcasting, education, knowledge sharing, and
communication with the customer or encouraging among team

pg. 20
members (Panahi et al., 2016). Organizations use social media
to share and transfer their information to their staff. For
example, they spread and share information by using Telegram,
WhatsApp, and Facebook. The process to spread information
also becomes more efficient and effective. The organization also
easy to interact with its staff and customer by using social
media. So, social media is the best platform that can be used by
an organization to improve its management.
Social media also can be uses in education. Students can
use social media to find the video, notes, and other information
related to their study. Some of the school also uses social media
to make the process of teaching and learning more interesting.
For example, the teacher will easy to share videos, resource
websites, and tutorials for their students. Social media has
increased the quality and rate of collaboration for students. With
the help of social media, students can easily communicate or
share information quickly with each other through various
social sites like Facebook, Orkut, and Instagram (Shabnoor and
Singh, 2016). Furthermore, students also can make online
discussions with their group members easily without needing
face to face. It means, by using social media, it can give more
benefits for students to make their work easily and quickly.
Schools and the higher institution also use social media
platforms to share the latest information about the issues,
activities, and programs for their students. By using this
technology, students did not face problems to access the
information that they need.
Social media can help to promote the business. Social
media can helps to increase the sale of the products. Many
organisation uses social media to advertise their product such as
Facebook, Instagram, and Website. Advertising also important
to make sure the sale of the product becomes increasing.
Another study carried out by Hubs pot reveals that 92% of
marketers in 2014 claimed that social media marketing was
important for their business, with 80 % indicating their efforts
increased traffic to their website, (Sajjad Husain e.t al., 2016).

pg. 21
Besides, social media also can help communication between
customers and the seller. Customers will easy to ask anything
about the product without the need to wait a long time. They can
buy and choose the product that they need. In this technology
era, people prefer to use online shopping because it can save
time and more easily. That way, social media can help to
improve the business to become more effective and efficient. 
Last but not least, employees easily and faster to find a
job. They can search for the company background that they
need quickly by using social media. The detail information
about the company will be provide. The company also easy to
find new employees such as by using Facebook, LinkedIn,
Instagram, and others. By using social media, the company will
easy to choose the employees that suitable for their
qualifications. So many benefits that we get when uses social
media in good ways.

pg. 22
 REFERENCES 
  
Akakandelwa, A and Walubita, G. (2018) Student’s Social
Media Use and its Perceived 
Impact on their Social Life: A Case Study of the
University of Zambia. The International Journal of
Multi-Disciplinary Research. 
https://www.reseachgate.net/publication/328389136

Cao, Y, . . . [et al.] (2018) Using Social Media for

Competitive Business Outcomes: An 
Empirical Study of Companies in China. Journal of
Advances in Management Research. 15 (2), 211-
235. doi: 10.1108/JAMR-05-2017-0060

  
Corrada, S.M, Flecha, A.J. and Lopez, E. (2020) The
Gratifications in the Experience of the Use of Social Media
and Its Impact on the Purchase and Repurchase of Products
and Services. European Business Review, 32 (2), 291-315.
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Guesalaga, R. (2016). The Use of Social Media in Sales:

Individual and Organizational 
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pg. 23
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Faizal Samat. (2018) A Review on Social Media Among
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Panahi, S., Watson, J., & Partridge, H. (2016). Social Media and
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Sajjad Husain., Ali Ghufran. (2016). Relevance of Social Media
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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305905309

Shabnoor Siddiqui., Singh, T. (2016). Social Media its

Impact with Positive and 
Negative  Aspects. International Journal of Computer
Applications Technology and Research, 5(2), 71-75.
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1006.pdf 

pg. 24
ETHICAL ISSUES IN ONLINE SOCIAL NETWORKING.
NUR ALIYAH BINTI ABDUL RAZIL
AND
NURUL HUSNA BINTI IDRIS

INTRODUCTION 
According to Faris et al (2017), disinformation
sometimes mixed with news reports of documented events to
enhance its aura of authenticity. However, disinformation
doesn’t need to come straightforwardly from somebody who
dis-informs about the information. Fallis. D (2008) says that
people not only can talk to somebody but they also can
misinform somebody without communicating anything directly
to them. In addition, some information can still be
disinformation even if it has been blameless spread on to
anybody by anyone. Next, to consider as disinformation, it
doesn’t need to be the quick source of the data who accepts that
the information is confusing. Also, it might not need to be the
first source who believes that the information is misleading. As
a result of disinformation, people can easily get false beliefs and
it can lead to financial harm, crucial emotional and physical.
Meanwhile, disinformation also can happen in using online
social media networking. Apart from that, American Heritage
Dictionary of the English Language, 4th Edition (2006) stated
that disinformation does not always come directly from the
organization or the individual that intends to deceive but
disinformation is often the product of a carefully planned and
technically sophisticated deceit. Lastly, it is additionally worth
underscoring that, while disinformation will commonly be
wrong, it doesn't need to be mistaken. It simply must be
deceiving. In this way, disinformation is really not a legitimate
subset of erroneous data.

pg. 25
WHAT IS ONLINE SOCIAL NETWORKING?
Online social networking additionally allows people to get the
opportunities to send messages to nearby and long-distance
friends, share pictures and recordings on the web, send real-time
instant messages, and make one’s own personal website or
profile page. According to Boyd DM, Ellison NB (2007), online
social networking has recently been characterized as the way
toward creating and engaging with virtual system of individuals
with whom one has explained an individual or expert
association inside the online environment of online social media
networking. The quantity of users of online social networking
sites overall presently remain at roughly 1.8 billion (Stats.
Facebook, 2015). However by using online social media
networking also can lead an individual to spread the
disinformation to other people. Online social networking such
as Instagram, Twitter and Facebook give chances to
associations that would somehow or another not have the
resources to lead disinformation battles with conventional broad
communication. This more extensive access to compelling
disinformation vectors means that there is a more serious hazard
that data systems will be corrupted. According to Swenson-
Lepper, T., & Kerby, A. (2019), teenagers and youthful grown-
ups invest a decent measure of energy in web-based social
networking stages every day, numerous users have watched
ethical issues identified with their own and others' conduct on
the web.

pg. 26
ETHICAL ISSUES IN ONLINE SOCIAL NETWORKING
1. Cyberbullying 
Firstly, cyberbullying is one of the methods for people to
spread the disinformation about others. Cyberbullying has
showed itself when advanced innovations have become
essential communication devices. Cyberbullying has
customarily been seen as an eye to eye issue among teenagers.
As the world turns out to be all the more innovatively situated,
so has bullying. However, cyberbullying always happens among
society especially teenagers because most of the users of the
internet and the online social media have a lack of ethical
standards. When a person doesn’t have ethics, they are tending
to do something not good. According to Guo (2016), he has
examined 77 studies of cyberbullying and established that men
were in all likelihood as the bullies and that the individuals who
were bullies in reality were menaces in online settings.
Essentially, if the individuals were the casualties of online
cyberbullying, they were additionally liable to have been bullied
online. 
Next, Hee, C. V, Jacobs G, Emmery C, Desmet B, et al.
(2018) stated that indirect cyberbullying can happen without
attention to the person in question. Sometimes cyberbullying
can lead people to do through spreading the disinformation. For
example make intentionally false or inaccurate information that
is spread deliberately such as trip or distributing private data,
spreading rumours, make false information about others and
creating a fake page on social media sites in order to spread
false information about someone. In addition, cyberbullying
also can cause physical, mental, social, emotional and scholarly
issues just same as face-to-face bullying (Aboujaoude, Savage,
Starcevic, & Salame, 2015). 

pg. 27
 2. Trolling
Secondly an ethical issue happens in online social
networking is trolling. Trolling in online social media has
become a genuine social issue. Basically, an online social media
troll is somebody who deliberately says something dubious so
as to provoke different users. According to Golf-Papez & Veer,
(2017), trolling can be defined as "intentional, misleading and
wicked endeavours to incite responses from different users. This
is also one of the ways to spread the disinformation on purpose. 
Moreover, in numerous setting of open remarking inside social
media, trolling is viewed as an antisocial behaviour that disturbs
conversations within communities. Recently, as the quantity of
social media users has developed quickly, trolling has become a
basic social issue (Statista, 2017b).  Stein (2016) says that the
examples of trolling like mocking individuals who have as of
late passed on their Facebook memorial page and harassing
women with threats of rape and abuse. This is one example of
the disinformation that happened via social media.  
Next, in spite of the fact that trolling is far reaching; it isn’t
in every case clear how it is recognized from cyberbullying.
Truth be told that a recent investigation of cyber-bullying
research lumps trolling and cyberbullying together. Recently,
trolling has become an umbrella term which covers a wide
range of negative online talk (Golf-Papez, M & Veer,
E.J.J.o.M.M 2017). Moreover, because of trolling in online
social media, designers have made medications to prevent and
oblige it. While a portion of these medications and systems are
clear by permitting users to utilize the capacities and differ the
settings, others adopt increasingly unobtrusive and shrouded
strategies in casual and specially appointed ways, with the end
goal that clients won't have to intentionally utilize the highlights
(Shaw, 2018).

pg. 28
 3. Privacy
The last ethical issues that happened in online social
networking is about privacy. Individuals that utilize online
social media consider privacy a significant problem about the
data that colleges and employees receive from online social
media sites. O'Connor, Schmidt, and Drouin (2016) presented a
study of their organizations 'latest research on employees'
understanding of the online social media access policies.
Generally, the research reviewed that the longer workers
worked for a company, the more likely they were to know what
social media policies employers had in mind. Drouin,
O'Connor, Schmidt and Miller (2015) discovered that most
young man agree that what employees post on their private
online social media networks does not impact individuals
'employment status. Hurrell, Scholarios, and Richards (2017)
found that students find some employers 'use of social media to
be immoral and a breaking of their privacy. Moreover, most
students do not want their own social media accounts or their
peers to be monitored by their college or university, and believe
that their social media posts should not be controlled.
Researchers have also found that the students are more in
favour of monitoring student athlete profiles. 
Next, determinants can track the advantages and underlying
risks affecting a user's decision to reveal certain credentials,
based on the privacy analytics perspective. This also suggests
that individuals are rarely willing to forsake any privacy for the
acceptable quantity of risk. By using Social Networking Sites,
individuals are opening up to various forms of hazards that
often impact breaking their peace or privacy. It has seen that
protection can be break in a couple of ways if individual data
isn't utilized sensibly and precisely. Furthermore, they had
indicated the breach of privacy could also occur as an optional
usage where information gathered for one design is used to
achieve similar closures, without the knowledge or consent of
the information proprietor. Nevertheless, where acceptable

pg. 29
information policies and procedures offer individuals control
over in a comparable line, the hypothesis stipulates that
disclosure is certain to solid instruments that allow users to
track the amount they find in the light of their goals, learning
and attitude on health. Use privacy settings in combination with
interpersonal online social context communication may achieve
such limit power. The disclosure and use of their own data,
privacy issues may be addressed. 

pg. 30
CONCLUSION
As a conclusion, disinformation is not a good thing in
human daily life. It can lead people to bad behaviour.
Disinformation always happens in online social networking
especially in Facebook, Instagram and Twitter. Furthermore,
this behaviour will lead them to ethical issues. There is
researcher that offers valuable insights into the ethical problems
faced by students when using social media in their own way. It
is essential to see how individuals see the moral ramifications of
what they post as the online life world is through, either
utilizing their own character or conveying namelessly. A feature
of many social networking platforms that tend to lead to cyber-
bullying, trolling and privacy related ethical issues. The
prevalence and popularity of social media is only likely to
increase, and with it the incentive to use social media as an
instrument of recruitment. Although the ethnically related
discrepancies between social media and more traditional
recruiting methods should not be overlooked, these resources
may help serve as a guide for its potentially unfamiliar aspects
and help to place social media recruiting as a valuable
recruitment tool in a proper ethical context. Last but not least,
many of the same ethical concerns are likely to arise every time
people interact online, the medium or computer being. It has
been found that privacy problems are very weak in social
networking sites, and attempts by users to make the requisite
changes to their privacy on social media are significantly lower
than other security operations. 

pg. 31
 REFERENCES
Aboujaoude, E., Savage, M., Starcevic, V., & Salame, W. (2015).
Cyberbullying: Review of an old problem gone viral. Journal of
Adolescent Health, 57, 10–18.
American Heritage dictionary of the English language 4th Edition.
(2006). Retrieved from https://www.amazon.com/American-
Heritage-Dictionary-English-Language/dp/B00CF6BVHS
Boyd DM, Ellison NB. Social network sites: Definition, history, and
scholarship. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication
2007; 13:210–230.
Drouin, M., O’Connor, K. W., Schmidt, G. B., & Miller, D. A. (2015).
Facebook fired:Legal perspectives and young adults’ opinions
on the use of social media in hiring and firing decisions.
Computers in Human Behavior, 46, 123–128.
doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.01.011
Facebook Newsroom. Company info: Stats. Facebook 2015. Retrieved
from http://newsroom.fb.com/company-info/
Fallis, D. 2008. Toward an epistemology of Wikipedia. Journal of the
American Society for Information Science and Technology 59,
1662-1674
Faris R, Roberts H, Etling B, et al. (2017) Partisanship, propaganda,
and disinformation: Online media and the 2016 U.S.
Presidential election. Berkman Klein Center (Harvard), 16
August.
Guo, S. (2016). A meta-analysis of the predictors of cyberbullying
perpetration and victimization. Psychology in the Schools,
53(4), 432–453. doi:10.1002/pits.21914
Golf-Papez, M., & Veer, E. J. J. o. M. M. (2017). Don’t feed the
trolling: rethinking how online trolling is being defined
and combated. 33(15-16), 1336-1354

pg. 32
Hee, C. V., Jacobs, G., Emmery, C., Desmet, B., Lefever, E.,
Verhoeven, B. … Hoste, V. (2018). Automatic detection of
cyberbullying in social media text. Plos One, 13(10). doi:
10.1371/journal.pone.0203794
Hurrell, S. A., Scholarios, D., & Richards, J. (2017). “The kids are
alert”: Generation Y responses to employer use and monitoring
of social networking sites. New Technology, Work &
Employment, 32(1), 64–83. doi:10.1111/ntwe.12085
O’Connor, K. W., Schmidt, G. B., & Drouin, M. (2016). Suspended
because of social media? Students’ knowledge and opinions of
university social media policies and practices. Computers in
Human Behavior, 65, 619–626. doi:10.1016/ j.chb.2016.06.001
Shaw, F. (2018). Beyond ‘report, block, ignore’: Informal responses to
trolling and harassment on social media. In The Routledge
Companion to Media and Activism (pp. 395-403): Routledge
Stein J. (2016, August 18). How trolls are ruining the internet. Time.
Retrieved from http://time.com/4457110/ internet-trolls/
Statista. (2017b). Number of social network users worldwide from
2010 to 2021 (in billions).
Swenson-Lepper, T., & Kerby, A. (2019). Cyberbullies, Trolls, and
Stalkers: Students’ Perceptions of Ethical Issues in Social
Media. Journal of Media Ethics, 34(2), 102 113.

pg. 33
 DISINFORMATION AND CYBERCRIME

FARHA KAESAH HANAN BINTI ABDUL HAMID, 

NUR MAHSYAR BINTI MUHAMMAD ZAWAWI
AND 
MUHAMMAD LUQMAN NURHAKIM BIN RODILAN

INTRODUCTION
The disinformation has a wide range of definitions
submitted by each researcher. According to the article that was
issued by Don Fallis (2015) about what is disinformation by
Luciano Floridi (2011), according to him it is more focus on
how the information was processed, created, noted and used but
he said we should also learn with what happens when the
information is inaccurate or even the information is damaged. If
the information is inaccurate and misleading, it can be very
dangerous if continuous. When one is getting the wrong and
wayward information about important topics such as
investment, medical, political, etc., it can cause serious injury to
emotion, financial, and physical person.
Disinformation and cybercrime can particularly be relating.
Cybercrime requires high expertise in its use and cybercrimes
sometimes may happen because of disinformation. This
cybercrime includes crimes that use technology in the
disseminate. According to the article released by Joseph
Aghatize in 2016, he states that the real definition of cybercrime
is that the crimes carried out using a computer that has an
Internet network become a tool to commit evil to victims.
(Joseph, 2016). In addition, cybercrimes will need to evolve
computerized technology and other people becoming prey. As a
result, the computer will be a target or a tool to harmonize with

pg. 34
the information they get. In this cybercrime requires several
types of materials:
 Computer as a tool
 -When an individual becomes a major target of
cybercrime, this computer can be said to be a
material compared to be a target. This crime
generally lacks technical expertise in every
malfunction that occurs in the real world. The
criminal drop-off has emerged as a century. This
crime involves fraud, theft and a kind of high-tech
equipment. (Joseph, 2016)
 Computer as a target
 -This cybercrime is done by a group of selected
criminals. It is not criminal to use the computer as a
tool in doing this crime. It also requires the technical
knowledge of the crime and has existed relatively
new if the computer has a clear way of it. These
crimes are also many times used in committing
crimes every day. (Joseph, 2016)

pg. 35
DISINFORMATION 
Definition
A common definition of disinformation is 'the active creating
and sharing with the public of misleading, inaccurate and/or
manipulating, harmful facts. It is very different from
"misinformation," where people exchange false information in
the mistaken belief it is real. Thus, materials generated with
malicious intent may be innocently circulated via other people's
social networks democracy (House of Commons Digital,
Committee on Arts, Media and Sport, 2019).
There is significant concern about the spread of disinformation
across social media, especially for political ends. It has been
found that "real reach" is essential for the dissemination of
misinformation on social networks. This is the process through
which social media users expand their audience for a piece of
information: engaging with it, or sharing it with its broader
networks, significantly increases the amount of people that the
content reaches. This project measured to what degree the
characteristics of the source of the message of how accurate
they were, and the receiver’s risk inclination and personality
affected the organic scope of a potentially false message. 
In simple word, "Fake news" was described as media-spreading
disinformation and then propagated through peer-to-peer
communication (Albright, 2017). In this writing, we find
disinformation spreading through social media, especially
through Facebook. A lot of recent media debates and political
attentions has centered on disinformation aimed at manipulating
democratic structures around fake news (BBC, 2018; European
Commission, 2018). It was described as a significant challenge
to democracy (House of Commons Digital, Committee on Arts,
Media and Sport, 2019).

pg. 36
Examples of Disinformation
Disinformation is often known to be a concern in a range of
other aspects of society as for an example disinformation
regarding vaccine or climate change related medical or science
misinformation. Another example that is very close to
Malaysians is for instance regarding a disinformation regarding
the Corona Virus where a random messages has been going
around viral nationally regarding the extended date until the 29th

May for the Movement Restricted Order that was announce by

the Malaysian National Security Council. But the truth is none
of this information that has been spreading are true and the
Malaysian National Security Council had denied that such
statement had never came from them and it is just a fake news.
This shows as a proof that a simple random text message and
the speed of humankind regarding spreading information
without checking its authenticity can create a big disinformation
nationally.

pg. 37
CYBERCRIME 
Rapid technological advances especially in the Industrial
Revolution 4.0 have influenced today's society. While there are
many advantages to using it, it also leads to the disadvantages
and challenges faced by society or consumers if they do not use
it without properly and acknowledging the possible effects. One
of the challenges facing its use is the emergence of cybercrime
in society. This is because cybercrime exists due to the misuse
of information from the rapid development of technology. The
rise in cybercrime cases has covered many aspects including
business, education, politics, social, economic and more. 
We are living in a digital era. Whether it be booking a
hotel room, shopping online or even booking a cab, we are
constantly using the internet and inherently constantly
generating data. This data is generally stored on the cloud which
is basically a huge data server or data center that you can access
online, also we use an array of devices to access this data so
what is this cyber security? 
 Cyber security can be known as a practice of protecting
valuable information, programs and networks from being
attacked, stolen or compromised by unauthorized access to data
centers and other computerized system. In this case, with huge
amounts of information to misuse, these hackers are making
some acceptable memories abusing vulnerabilities and making
malicious software for the equivalent and above all else cyber-
attacks are advancing constantly. Hackers are getting
progressively inventive and imaginative with their malware and
how they sidestep infection outputs firewalls despite everything
astound numerous people.
One of the identified causes is a weak cyber security
system. In this case, weaknesses of this cyber security system
can lead to information about you being accessed by
irresponsible people. Society or community must move toward

pg. 38
cybersecurity comprehensively, as they would deal with the
money related well-being of the organization. It is the aggregate
obligation of everybody in the organization to shield it from
digital attack. Society and community should play it safe to
abstain from being the following news feature.

pg. 39
CATEGORIES OF CYBERCRIME
There are various types of cybercrimes used for victims and the
most common to use are:
1. Hacking
-This is a simple way to transmit data that contains
viruses to your user's computer or victim. In this
case, a person's computer will be hacked so that
personal information, sensitive information can be
accessed, and every security can be broken. The
villains will use a variety of networks and software
to break a person's code and computer and the victim
will not realize and reveal that their computers are
damaged, otherwise the computer has been accessed
from a remote place. Often, the hackers will focus on
government websites to be hacked so that
information can be removed. They would also like to
obtain attention from the media coverage that will
focus them on their activities. (Joseph, 2016)

2. Child pornography and abuse

 One study found that 4.2 million websites
pornographic that can be used by users for free
and are available to access at any time. In
addition to using the website, pornographic can
also share files with anyone regardless of age
and gender. This system will apply the difference
to access it because it goes to the country itself if
the country is blocking the website or this
pornographic among the public will not be valid
abusers' information. Some countries allow these
materials to be used and disseminated by the
public and pornographic also happy to be
accessed through a free website if their country

pg. 40
 has that permit. In addition, manhood also finds
that many children are accessing these materials
and that will have a negative influence on the
crowd. (Prof. Dr. Marco, 2014)
 Author believes that Internet use is very high
against children who may be involved in
sexually. This is also categorized as a cybercrime
where crimes will ask or focus on people with
disabilities or less skilled persons in using this
technology material. (Bandakkanavar, 2019)


3. Piracy or theft
 This cybercrime occurs when a person has
violated copyright and downloads music,
movies, games, and software. There is also a
partnership website that has been created by this
cybercrime to encourage pirated software or
material on a website that has copyright and now
this web has become the investigatory party and
the FBI. The judicial system is currently dealing
with cybercrimes by restricting the use of a
system that misleads people. This cybercrime
focuses on producers and film directors who are
their victims. (Bandakkanavar, 2019)


4. Cyber Stalking
 This is a kind of online disorder using prey by
sending you messages and online emails
incorrectly. The other thing, stalkers knew their
victims and they were not using external links to
do evil. They will use the Internet to threaten or
stalk victims. Usually, these criminals will focus
on women. (Bandakkanavar, 2019)

pg. 41
 5. Terrorism
 This cybercrime is also known as the information
war, can be defined as the Internet Terrorism Act
it includes a deliberate and significant assault
and use of computer network disorders by
sending computer viruses or physical attacks
using the software to attack some individuals,
governments, and organizations. The goal of
doing this terror is to create a feeling of violence
in the victim's mind. Each cyber founder will
operate with the goal of damage and destruction
in the front line of their activities.
(Bandakkanavar, 2019)

6. Identify theft
 It's one of the most major and popular issues
with people using Internet services for cash
transactions and banking services. In this
cybercrime, he can access data about one's bank
account, credit card, social security, credit card
and sensitive information to link money or buy
goods online by using the name of the victim. It
can also result in major financial losses to the
victim and damage the victim's card credit.
(Bandakkanavar, 2019)
7. Spam
 One more form of Cybercrime is spam mail,
which can be said to be the most profound
product of the Internet's ability to put
unprecedented power into a single person's
hands. Spam Mail is a spread of bulk emails that
advertise products, services or investment
schemes, which may be fraudulent. The purpose
of spam mail is to deceive or con customers to
believe that they will receive genuine products or
services, usually at reduced rates. However,

pg. 42
 scammers ask for money or sensitive safety
information such as credit card numbers or other
personal information before the agreement
applies. After disclosing their safety information
customers will not hear from that advertiser.
(Jahankhani,2014)

pg. 43
CONCLUSION 
In a nutshell, disinformation and cybercrime happen due to lack
of subnet monitoring which shows a major source of weakness
such as, the lack of monitoring of outward activity that may
indicate traffic and control instructions. This commonly happen
in our society and community especially in huge organizations,
this can be a challenging endeavor, as hundreds or thousands of
systems can communicate at the same time across networks and
send outward traffic. This problem can be solved by the
authority. Authorized organization should play an important
role in concentrating on carefully controlling network access
between systems within the subnet and developing better
detection and awareness of strategies for side movement
between systems which is no business relationship with each
other. Hence, disinformation and cybercrimes cases if not
cannot be stop at least can be decrease. 
Therefore, the actions of individuals seeing misinformation will
cause the false information to spread exponentially and
sometime can be a source of cybercrime also. Indeed, Vosughi
et al. (2018) research has shown that fake content is "more
distant, quicker, deeper, and broader than the reality," spreading
on Twitter, and this is mainly due to human activity and not to
bots. The size and risks to community of this trend mean that it
is important to understand why people are sharing false data
online and why cybercrime occurs in broad daylight. Let us all
be more careful whenever we want to say something online.

pg. 44
 REFERENCE
Bandakkanavar, R., Rabby, Rachael, Nath, K, (2019, February 14).
Causes of Cybercrime and Preventive Measures. Retrieved from
https://krazytech.com/technical-papers/cyber-crime

Buchanan, T., & Benson, V. (2019). Spreading Disinformation on

Facebook: Do Trust in Message Source, Risk Propensity, or
Personality Affect the Organic Reach of “Fake News”? 
Fallis, D. (2015). What is disinformation? Project Muse, 63,
401-426.
Gercke, P. D. (2012). Understanding cybercrime: Phenomena,
challenges and. Cybercrime, p.g 30. 
Jahankhani, Hamid & Al-Nemrat, A. & Hosseinian-Far, Amin.
(2014). Cybercrime Classification and Characteristics.
10.1016/B978-0-12-800743-3.00012-8.
McAlaney, J., & Benson, V. (2020). Cybersecurity as a social
phenomenon. In Cyber Influence and Cognitive Threats (pp. 1-
8). Academic Press.
Shackleford, D. (June 28, 2019). How to fix the top 5 cybersecurity
vulnerabilities. Retrieved April 8, 2020, retrieved  from
https://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/feature/How-to-fix-the-
top-5-cybersecurity-vulnerabilities 
Shabnam, Naznin & Kamruzzaman, Md. (2016). Underlying
Causes of Cyber-Criminality and Victimization: An Empirical
Study on Students. Social Sciences. 5. 1.
10.11648/j.ss.20160501.11.

pg. 45
Taylor, K. (n.d.). 3 Common Cyber Security Threats to Worry
About. Retrieved April 8, 2020, from
https://www.hitechnectar.com/blogs/weak-cyber-security-
worst-nightmare/

Vosoughi, S., Roy, D., & Aral, S. (2018). The spread of true and
false news online. Science, 359(6380), 1146-1151.

pg. 46
DISADVANTAGE OF SOCIAL MEDIA TO SOCIETY
AHMAD ZUL FAKAR BIN MOHAMED ISA
&
SITI DAYANA BINTI AMRAN

INTRODUCTION

A social media is an online platform that society can use

to meet, communicate, share your interests, build relationships,
share expertise, activities, and hobbies, get to know the outside
world faster, share experiences, and more. Some societies are
using their laptops, tablet computer, and smartphones to check
Tweet, Facebook, Instagram, WhatsApp, and status updates
from their friends and family. Due to technological
advancement and development, society is pressured to accept
different lifestyles. According to Mahmoud Sidi Ahmed et al
said that social media is a platform to allow users to have the
conversation, create web content, and share information.
Billions of people or society around the globe use social media
to make connections and share information. It has different
forms together with blogs, microblogs, wikis, photo sharing
sites, social networking, video sharing sites, instant messaging,
widgets, podcast, and more. Social media could be a tool that is
becoming quite popular recently due to its user-friendly
features. Also, the worldwide presence of social media enables
us to get information at our fingertips easily, quickly, and
efficiently. This makes people wonder how social media can be
affected and whether it has a negative and positive effect on
users on social media. As a result, the community and
consumers on social media have their views on the Advantages
and disadvantages of Social Media.
On the positive side of social media, they have many
advantages. Most importantly social media is a great and very

pg. 47
helpful tool in education, especially for students. All the
knowledge and information you need is just one click away to
access it. Lecturers also can easily help students to find and
share the information with students because of help from social
media. Furthermore, some societies now rely on social media
for information on tablets or smartphones and no longer buy
newspapers and magazines. This is always up to date on the
latest events and news in the world. Society becomes more
aware and socially aware of world issues. Besides, it will
strengthen ties with loved ones from afar. Social media proves
that distance is no longer a barrier. For example, social media
can help societies easily communicate with their friends and
relatives abroad and within the country. With that, young artists
can be able to showcase their talents in a platform provided for
free on social media. Social media also offers advertising
centers, and this opens great opportunities for users like
companies and online sellers. These advantages help them
promote their products and brands to make more profits. Thus,
people can find job opportunities in social media. 
While there are many advantages, social media is also one of
the elements that are harmful to society, social media can have
serious consequences if its use is not monitored. It's dangerous
as it can invade the privacy of social media users. Excessive
sharing on social media has also resulted in significant
cyberbullying that may affect individuals and make children the
target of predators and hackers. Therefore, social media sharing,
especially for minors and teenagers, should be monitored. This
is due to social media addiction among youths who are
increasingly using social media. This will hinder learning
performance as they spend more time on social media than
learning. Therefore, social media is also causing public concern.
Besides, fake news is easily spread and affects its use and
poison the minds of societies that love universal peace and
prosperity. In short, social media has its advantages and
disadvantages. But it all depends on the user. Society or
consumers must establish a balance between academic

pg. 48
performance and physical activity. Excessive use of social
media is dangerous. Therefore, we must strive to measure a
satisfying life with the proper balance. However, social media
gives more benefits to society, but we should know that the
disadvantages of social media can give an impact on society.
Such as cyberbullying and mental health. These disadvantages
can give a bad impact on society. And this topic will cover
social media's disadvantages to society in detail.

pg. 49
DISCUSSION
Social media has been a source of activities in the lives of
young people, with 90% of the adolescents reporting regular
use. Many web platforms and apps give young people several
constructive ways of communicating and sharing thoughts with
other people. Social networking is now becoming a primary
forum for cyberbullying. Bullying was traditionally viewed by
young people in school as face-to-face issues. Owing to the
more technologically driven world, bullying also occurs. The
majority of young people are harassed through social media
sites online or are cyberbullying.
Teenagers' use of social media may result in their lack of
control over personal information reflected on user accounts,
and through friends sharing private or public information.
Cyberbullies will find out about users to harass them, hack
accounts to impersonate the user and submit offensive
comments, depending on the security settings of a user's profile
and the behavior of their profile friends. About the context of
cyber-calls performed, the total number of students who
received comments on a social network is 40%, online gossip
37%, prank calls 45%, a private message is published
unauthorized by 30%, and unauthorized publishing of an
inappropriate picture was published by 26%, the online forum
was excluded by 24% and 19%.
Several studies have investigated the extent of cyberbullying,
which can occur in a short period of times. Surveyed to 359
Columbian high school students (aged 13–19 years old). The
results found that 69% of students had been a victim of two
episodes of cyberbullying in the last six months before to the
study, whilst 62% of students had carried out two episodes of
cyberbullying.
Numerous media reports have been released on teen-related
cyberbullying. Amanda Todd, a 15-year-old was one of the
most recent. Amanda got to meet new people in the seventh

pg. 50
grade through video chat online. One stranger sadly persuaded
Amanda to take a picture of him. The stranger used the picture
to taunt Amanda, and the picture was sent and circulated to his
schoolmates on the Internet. The stranger sets up a Facebook
profile as a profile image with the topless video. Amanda's
social media is tormented. Amanda left schools, but she was
tormented and humiliated by her colleagues. The 2012 events
led to the death of Amanda by suicide. This case highlights how
cyberbullying can impact the victim and how hard it's to escape.
Research indicates that social media can adversely affect the
mental health of children and young people. The use of social
media can lead young people to anxiety, stress, and depression
conditions. Four out of the five most popular social media
platforms have been reported to intensify young people's
feelings of anxiety. Evidence suggests that young people
spending more than 2 hours a day at the social networking sites,
including psychological distress, are more likely to suffer
mental health problems.
Improper use of social media results in an adult who starts with
anxiety and progresses to depression. This indicates that teens
have a strong correlation between depression and their time on
Facebook. Such results have been mirrored and shown that
there have been signs of major depression among individuals
who have spent the whole of their time on online activities and
identity management on social media.
Youthful people are seriously influenced and admire celebrities.
Depression, body control, and low body trust occur if they
realize this is impossible. Young people may then start to
encounter issues like eating disorders. The topic of body image
is not a matter for women. The well-toned, muscular bodies that
young males see online are also sensitive to and affected. We
now live in an age where people get active more and more and
watch fitness workouts, toned bodies get into rigorous workout
routines, and people have become vulnerable to developing
food disorders.

pg. 51
Research has shown a substantial correlation to poor sleep
quality in the growing use of social media in young people.
Sleep is particularly important during puberty, and disturbed
sleep can lead to tiredness and an inadequate brain recovery.
The lack of quality of sleep may have numerous negative
effects, but it may also affect the performance and actions of the
school.
It can also lead to a false sense of beauty among young people
by using digital editing tools that edit their appearance on
photographs. The number of youngsters undergoing plastic
intervention is growing alarmingly, and the popularity of
"selfies" in recent years has increased to photographs reflecting
beauty and perfection. Such images may harm the body's
confidence and trust.
Particularly worrisome is the connection between using social
media, self-harm, and even suicide. It is a significant cause for
concern that young people will access distressing online content
that encourages self-harm and suicide. This material seeks to
"normalize" suicide and self-harm and can drive young people
to repeat acts.

pg. 52
CONCLUSION
In conclusion to some extent, social networks have caused
many social media problems to be misused or misused, which
may arise. On the other hand, social media can also be a useful
tool for people of all walks of life if used appropriately,
especially by students, teachers, and people at work. Social
media can be made everywhere if you have an internet
connection and make it an important part of communication as
some of the changes in people's lives come from social media
and internet connection. Today, people who use new resources
with an internet connection and social media, for example, can
sell online, teach online, and communicate with their loved ones
remotely. Blog applications or tools, microblogging
applications, social sites, and video and photo sharing sites such
as Twitter, Facebook, podcasts, YouTube, and so on are social
media tools or applications. This statement is also very
meaningful and useful for educational and learning institutions
for students and teachers as well as marketing and sales
strategies for companies, online traders, and niche marketers
who can integrate more widely into social media and benefit
more. Though this study is to identify the major disadvantages
of social media to society by the development of Internet
technology, social media also gives advantages and benefits and
positive implications. It can be said that social media is a
blessing to humanity if used properly and a weapon of mass
destruction if misunderstood.

pg. 53
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Marketing Social Media 
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Social Media: A Literature Review. 
Independent Researcher, UK.
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Black, A.D., Car, J., Pagliari, C., Anandan, C., Cresswell, K.,
Bokun, T., Mckinstry, B., Procter, 
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Mental Health. IntechOpen.
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Informatics.

pg. 55
 METHOD TO DISSEMINATE INFORMATION

NAILY HAZIRAH BINTI MUHAMAD SAHRIN 

AND
 NORSUZIJULIANA BINTI MOHD SHAROM
INTRODUCTION
The term ‘Information, is difficult to define precisely
although its properties and effects are observed in all
walks of life. The usage of information has given it
different naming. According to Oxford Dictionary, this
term are ‘Knowledge’ ‘Intelligence’ ‘a facts’ ‘data’ ‘a
message’ ‘a signal’ which is transmitted by the act or
process of communication. Information is an assemblage
of data in a comprehensible form capable of
communication. This may range from content in any
format either written or printed on paper, stored in
electronic databases, collected on the Internet or to the
personal knowledge of the staff of an organization
(Nelson, 2017). 
Current information theory implies that information can
both be described as an entropic element in which the
impact of information is inversely related to the
probability that it will occur, versus the concept that
information reflects the certainty of a message and is
directly related to its probability and  meaning. This dual
aspect of information reflects the perspectives of sender
and receiver in the transmission process
(Smedley,2018). The emergence of human information,
knowledge and understanding, in itself, can be seen as a
creative force in the physical universe, which can
influence the generation of complexity in all domains.
Consequently, information can be used as a common
language across scientific disciplines.

pg. 56
  
Social Media 
Social media is a medium that can be regarded as a
communication tool that has been widely used by the
people in different fields of work in this world. People
need interaction to fulfil their needs in getting
information in a fastest way. Digitization has made face
to face activity become reduced day by day because
most people would prefer to use social media as a tool to
get a better connection with other people or in
promoting their businesses (Okoroma,2018). Thus,
people tend to rely more on social media to keep
updated with news that happens around them.

1.) Distributing advertising media 

In this era globalisation, it is very important for people
to use social media to communicate with their friends,
clients or other people or even to keep up to date with
the latest news such as in Facebook, Twitter, Instagram
and other applications (Derani & Naidu, 2016). These
applications have made businesses run much easier and
smoothly as they can post any advertisement on their
account publicly. This also helps the information to
disseminate faster to other people as for example they
can use WhatsApp to forward information to other
people by a click anywhere and anytime. Thus, it will be
much easier if people use social media as a
communication tool so that they can have a better
relationship with other parties and dissemination of
information will be much faster. 

pg. 57
 2.)      Communicate with people from
different places and time zone
Other than that, social media has been used to
communicate with people from different places and time
zones. This helps people to have better communication
with people around them as they can easily mingle
around with their friends. For example, the use of
WhatsApp and Telegram in our daily life will make it
easier for us to update any stories with our friends. As a
result we will gain more information and news within a
second. The existence of social media can make us
comfortably communicate with our friends and clients
from different time zones (Wiechetek, 2018). They can
update you anything that they want at anytime and
anywhere that they desire. Thus, social media gives a lot
of benefits to people in daily communications.

Video
Video is a recording that involves both images and
audio. Video can also be defined as an alternative to
capture important news or events. The advancement of
technology has made video conferencing as a tool to
communicate and for dissemination of information
(Idubor, 2015). Moreover, the content of the video
published on global video-sharing websites can be a
good source of valuable information and can be used to
increase effectiveness of learning processes in university
or even in the business field (Vashistha, Kumar, Mishra,
& Anderson, 2016). Thus, video conferencing is one of
the important tools that has been used for interpersonal
communication with one another.

pg. 58
 1.) Saving time for travel
As we all know, when we want to meet our friends or
client, we need to make time to travel from one place to
another just to discuss certain things. The existence of
video conferencing has helped us to save our time or
even our cost for us to travel. Although we cannot meet
people face to face, we can still see their faces, hear their
voices and see their gesture from video calling (Nelson,
2017). These make us feel close with them and we will
be more focused on the things that need to be discussed
because of their existence in the video. Other than that,
in the business field, it is also much easier to do video
conferencing as they can give opinion to others without
needing to travel to the office if any emergency happens
at the moment. Thus, it is proven that video can make
our life easier and more systematic for certain
situations. 

2.) Increase in productivity

The existence of video has made communication among
people become much easier as nowadays people always
with their gadget every single day anywhere they go.
This results in a decrease in the number of face to face
communication because people are more comfortable to
use video as a tool to make interaction with people
(Chatterjee, 2017). For example, the use of video
conferencing in the business field makes the staff and
client more active in giving ideas to improve
productivity. Besides that, students also can use video
conferencing such as Zoom, Google Classroom and
Meet to communicate with their lecturers and friends in
order to discuss assignments. Thus, the existence of
video has made people especially in the business field

pg. 59
 and also students to increase the productivity of their
work.

Blog
Blog (weblog) is one of the Web 2.0 technologies and
it becomes more popular as the one of networking
tools. What is blog? Blog is an online writing method
that help the users to get in touch in any other situation
of their own online writing in the blog. According to 
(Hidayah, Khosmas & Achmadi, 2016) stated that in
the literature, blog can be defined as an apps or weblog
that involved writing works and author can share the
information and ideas in a web page. 

1.) Global sharing information

Nowadays, blog is one of the famous method that easily
get influence by the young user and newbies writers to
create and share their writing skills. In fact, blog itself
provides a better mechanism and easy way for the
writers to publish and share their information or
materials that they willing to. According to (Kapitan &
Silvera, 2015), they assumed that bloggers have a strong
influence on their reading audience. In fact, peoples all
around the world can get the same input of information
through the blog. This is because, blog can be used all
around the world and each of them can get involves
using and create blog to share the information and ideas.
For example, through blogging can allows the users to
exchange opinion and share their experiences.
Moreover, a blog that have a current issues and valuable
information can attract the society to visit the blog itself.

pg. 60
pg. 61
 2.) Educational Platform
Blogging is one of the platform that have been used
widely in educational. Due to the development of
technologies, this educational platform using a blog was
increased by year to year. Based on (Shana &
Abulibdehb, 2015), the used of blogs in higher
education have been increased to facilitate student
learning. This digital tools help most all the teachers in
sharing and disseminate the information. According to
(Kuo, 2017), the features in blogs offers students and
teacher to communicate at anytime and anywhere which
allows extensive flexibility in learning processes. The
contribution of using this blog can help and ease the
communication between the teachers and students about
the news and the task. (Mayer & Alexander, 2016)
stated that each students have the ability to use
information actively when engaged with learning tasks.  

pg. 62
 Traditional Media
Traditional media have been used for many decades
ago and it is still been used until now. Traditional
media can be defined as non-digital media that
involves such as newspaper, magazines, television and
radio. This kind of media have their own roles on
disseminating the information before the new media
have been introduced. According to (Peters, 1994),
traditional media is very important in certain country
that not have a good technologies and lack of
experiences in social networking. 
1.) Up to date Information
Nowadays, the world have facing with many
economical, politician and ideological conflicts. Media
have playing the important roles with the information
and the news to be disseminate. Traditional media is one
of the reliable media that can be trust because of the
sources is based on the accurate information. Newspaper
has been produced every single day with different
current issues. Same goes with the television and radio,
the information that has been informed is very updated
and valid from the reliable sources. For example
(Ugboajah, 2017) stated that, in Africa, traditional media
have been used widely to promote and advertise their
nation-hood. Moreover, in some observation that have
been made in Africa, the king or chief will be represent
to share and communicate directly with the citizen using
traditional media  about the information. 

pg. 63
 2.) Flexibility in Production
Traditional media comes in different categories such as
newspaper, television, magazine and radio. These kind
of media was very flexible in their production. This is
because, the production of these media used small
amount of money than the production of new media. For
example (Rugh, 2004) stated, in Arab, traditional media
brings an important roles on transmitting the message
and the information to the public. This is because,
traditional media was very easy to access and peoples
also looking for the printed information because the
uniqueness of physical itself. Besides that, many
organization assume that handling traditional media was
better than handling the new media. For example,
traditional media can be produce the information
directly by printed or can be aired on the television and
radio. 

pg. 64
CONCLUSION
In the nutshell, dissemination of information can be
done with different types of tools such as social media,
video, blog and traditional media. It is important for
people to always keep updated with the news and latest
information so that they will not be outdated. As we all
know, information is actually the vital thing that we
need to keep living in this era of globalization as it will
improve our life towards better and make our life more
meaningful and systematic. Digitization has made
people choose to use applications in their cell phones
rather than meeting people to make any interaction
either in the working environment or in university life.
Thus, people would gain the fastest information from
any kind of method mentioned above.

pg. 65
REFERENCES 
Chatterjee, A. (2017). Selective Dissemination of Information.
Elements of Information Organization and Dissemination,
117-123

Derani, N. E. S., & Naidu, P. (2016). The Impact of Utilizing

Social Media as a Communication Platform during a
Crisis within the Oil Industry. Procedia Economics and
Finance, 35, 650–658. 

Federal Trade Commission. (2015). Native advertising: A guide

for businesses. Washington DC: Author.
Hidayah, K., Khosmas, F. Y., & Achmadi. (2016). Effective use
of instructional media a blog about learning independence in
economic subjects class X vocationalhigh school. Journal of
Education and Equatorial Learning. 5(8),1-17.

Idubor, I. (2015). Investigating Social Media Usage and

Addiction Levels among Undergraduates in University of
Ibadan, Nigeria. British Journal of Education, Society &
Behavioural Science, 7(4), 291–301. 

Kuo, Y.-C., Belland, B. R., & Kuo, Y.-T. (2017). Learning

through blogging:students’ perspectives in collaborative
blog-enhanced learning communities. Journal of
Educational Technology & Society, 20(2), 37–50.

pg. 66
Mayer, R. E., & Alexander, P. A. (2016). Handbook of
research on learning and instruction. Taylor & Francis.

Nelson, E. (2017). Information literacy needs of community

college students in  transition: a literature
review. Reference Services Review, 45(2), 278–285. 

Okoroma, F. (2018). The impact of social media on library and

information studies students at the University of Ibadan,
Nigeria. African Educational Research Journal, 6(3), 114–119.
 
Oxford University Press. (1992). The Oxford dictionary. The
Oxford dictionary. Oxford.

Peters, H. P. (1994). Mass media as an information channel and

public arena. Risk, 5, 241.

Rugh, W. A. (2004). Arab mass media: Newspapers, radio, and

television in Arabpolitics. Greenwood  publishing group.

Shana, Z. A., & Abulibdehb, E. S. (2015). Engaging students

through blogs: Using blogs to boost a course experience.
International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning,
10(1), 30-38.

pg. 67
Smedley, J. (2018). Enhancing information impact: how do we
make the most of our information senses? Information and
Learning Science, 119(3/4), 142-144. 

Thellefsen, M. M., Thellefsen, T., & Sørensen, B. (2018).

Information as signs. Journal of Documentation, 74(2), 372–
382. 

Thorkildsen, T. A., & Xing, K. (2016). Facebook as a Tool for

Enhancing Communication and Self-
Expression. Emotions, Technology, and Social
Media, 117–138. 

Ugboajah, F. (2017). " Oramedia" or Traditional Media as

Effective Communication Options for Rural Development in
Africa. ComSoc Communicatio Socialis, 15(3), 211-221.

Vashistha, A., Kumar, N., Mishra, A., & Anderson, R. (2016).

Mobile Video Dissemination for
Community Health. Proceedings of the Eighth International
Conference on Information and Communication
Technologies and Development - ICTD 16. 

Wiechetek, Ł. (2018). Improving Knowledge And Skills With

Video Sharing Websites. Framework Of E-Learning Video
Course For Students Of
Logistics. INTED2018 Proceedings.

pg. 68
 WHAT IS DISINFORMATION

NORSHAFIQQA BINTI SHAFIE

AND
FAUZANA BINTI ALI

INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, the growth of the Internet and online social
networks has transformed the reach and size of people who
connect, consume, and communicate knowledge in the digital
world. Innovations nowadays have democtrated access to
information, and malicious actors have also been able to
weaken our democratic principles and processes.
Disinformation is refer to deliberate attempts to manipulate
people through delivering dishonest information to them. This
is often combined with parallel and intersecting
communications strategies and a suite of other tactics like
hacking. Misinformation is generally used to refer to misleading
information created without manipulative or malicious intent.
Both are problems for society, but disinformation is particularly
dangerous because it is frequently organised, well resourced,
and reinforced by automated technology. 
Many  democratic nations  are experiencing  increased
levels  of false  information circulating through social media
and political websites that mimic journalism formats. In many
cases, this disinformation is associated  with the efforts of 
movements and parties on the  radical right to mobilize
supporters against  centre parties  and the  mainstream  press
that carries  their messages. Disinformation can be traced to
increasing issues of legitimacy in many democracies. Reducing
the trust of people in institutions decreases the credibility of
official news reports. These sources also include

pg. 69
both nationalists either radical right and international efforts to
weaken political authority and destabilize center parties,
governments, and elections.
 

pg. 70
States responses in countering disinformation
 
Disinformation is an issue that occurs in all social media
and instant messaging platforms, and varies in how they are
delivered. In open networks, such as Facebook and Twitter, it
could be observed that people rely on public perception to avoid
social isolation. In this situation, there are at least 35 countries
where their governments take measures against disinformation
and misinformation, directly or indirectly (Funke, 2018). For
example,  global disinformation programs, interference with
politics, hate speech, political trolls, deep fakes and ads, and
media literacy.
 
Generally, the government is now tackling a variety of
online risks, such as disinformation. Disinformation is not a
new phenomenon but the online environment has contributed to
a drastic increase in the size, reach and speed of transmission.
Through the Digital platform, the government wants to make
sure that the internet works for everyone particularly for
individuals, businesses and society as a whole.
 
Malaysia has introduced many policies, such as a new
law, a fact-checking platform and digital literacy campaigns,
with the Malaysian Communications and Multimedia
Commision (MCMC) being one of the main agencies. MCMC
is also responsible for developing and maintaining a fact-
checking website called Sebenarnya.my, where it works with
the ministries, departments and agencies needed to either verify
or debunk any news involving them.
 
In other ways, MCMC has also implemented digital
literacy programmes to raise awareness level among
Malaysians. The programmes were estimated to have reached
about 1.5 million Malaysians in 2017 (Ahmad, Yi, Shah, Tan,
& Chung, 2018). Besides the fact-checking website and digital
literacy enhancement programmes, Malaysia has also passed the

pg. 71
controversial Anti-Fake News Act, a law dealing with "fake
news" and related issues.
 
This law was introduced before the May 2018 election
by former Prime Minister Najib Razak as a tool to stifle free
expression. The law described the fake news as any news, facts,
data and reports that is wholly or partly false, whether in the
form of images, visuals or audio recordings or in any other form
that might imply words or ideas. Offenses include the
production, selling, publication or financing of fake news
processes and failure to remove fake content. Under the anti
"fake news" law of Malaysia, those convicted of distributing
false information may be imprisoned for six years or fined up to
RM500,000, or both continue the crime punishable by RM
3,000 per day.
Moreover, throughout this era, the government is
introducing a variety of regulatory and non-regulatory actions to
improve accountability and transparency. In the United
Kingdom (UK), for example, they are committed to maintaining
online security and increasing the freedom of speech in their
country.The government will continue to work in collaboration
with industry, media and civil society organizations to get this
job done. Next, the government has also taken action to
introduce new rules on age verification to prevent children from
accessing pornographic material online, since inappropriate
online content now puts society at risk.
In addition, the United States (U.S.) government has
introduced the Combating Misinformation and International
Propaganda Act of 2016 to lay the foundations for a
comprehensive program to combat disinformation.  Senators
Rob Portman and Chris Murphy introduced the Countering
Foreign Propaganda and Disinformation Act, and in the U.S.
House of Representatives, Adam Kinzinger (R, IL) and Ted
Lieu (D, CA). The bill's contents contain many components for
countering disinformation.  The bill created a strategy to

pg. 72
counter disinformation has been proposed by the U.S. Congress,
and a framework was developed to analyze disinformation
using fact based narratives to counter information warfare.
However, the 2016 Countering Foreign Propaganda Act
facilitates the sharing of information between government
agencies and a coordinated strategy for countering
disinformation campaigns (Countering Foreign Propaganda Act
2016, 2016).
Next, in Indonesia, the solution includes multi-pronged
approaches. It has recently created a government agency called
the National Cyber and Encryption Agency that actively
implements web monitoring by blocking and deleting fake
content and using software to monitor and report fake content
sites automatically (Batu, 2018a, 2018b; Kapoor, 2018b).
Recently, the communications ministry also announced plans to
hold weekly meetings on "fake news" to raise public awareness
and educate them on the topic (Lamb, 2018b).
For example, in Indonesia, there is now actively
arresting suspected criminals of the Muslim Cyber Army
(Lamb, 2018c). In contrast, ground-up independent efforts in
Indonesia have also met with great success, for example,
through its civil society organization Masyarakat Anti Fitnah
Indonesia (Mafindo) through its fact-checking Facebook page,
offline public outreach, comprehensive digital literacy and a
number of collaborations with journalists, which is actively
engaged in countering false information online (Chua, 2018).
While consisting of only seven full-time volunteers, the
organization has successfully gained public support and reached
hundreds of volunteers in 17 Indonesian cities.
 
Moreover, Cambodia also implemented a new law
regulating media coverage which threatens national security.
Under the law, anyone found guilty of spreading false
information could face up to two years in jail and penalties up

pg. 73
to $1,000 (Lamb, 2018a). In this situation, it was assigned three
ministries to track media reports for potential violations.
 
RECOMMENDATION
 
Disinformation should be addressed in government
perception by concurrent initiatives at regional and international
forums to share experiences and collaborate in mutually
acceptable areas. Disinformation may also be resolved by
simultaneous attempts to share experiences and collaborate at
regional and international public forums in mutually relevant
areas. For example, in September 2017 the ASEAN Ministers
Responsible for Information (AMRI) roundtable laid the
foundation for regional cooperation for ASEAN Member States
(AMS). As Chair of ASEAN 2018, Singapore will be well
placed to promote concerted efforts to foster joint research into
the fake news phenomenon in order to establish effective
countermeasures that take into consideration the post, delivery,
author, style, and context.
The next recommendation is the United States and The
EU (Europian Union) can establish a public group or private
group that can bring togther on the regular basis like-minded
national government and non-governmental stakeholders
including social media companies, traditional media, ISP firms
and civil society. The Counter-Disinformation will develop,
share and recommend, in non-binding fashion, best practices for
confronting disinformation originating from non-democratic
countries, now and in the future, consistent with democratic
norms. This will offer tools, information, civic education
programs and other knowledge to developing countries, which
are frequently the target of domestic and international
disinformation campaigns. (Polyakova, 2018)
A counter-disinformation code of conduct could be like
outlines responsibilities form media and social-media
companies to deal with abuse of their platforms by trolls, bots,

pg. 74
cyborgs, and other threats from outside, non-democratic actors
such as Rusia. This can also set standards for disclosing ads and
issue ads being pushed by propaganda arms of non-democratic
governments. Developing best practices to increase social
resilience in the face of disinformation also can be included.
(Polyakova, 2018)

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the spread of false information is not a
new phenomenon in the Digital world. Social media especially
encourages the dissemination of false facts, and influences how
communities perceive the world. False information's influence
is troubling, and is a global concern. All states, especially
Malaysia's, have made numerous efforts to tackle the online
falsehood issue, including a set of laws to encourage a secure
cyber climate, the newly implemented Anti-Fake News Act,
education programs and a fact-checking website to debunk false
information.

pg. 75
REFERENCES
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pg. 76
 THE PHASES, ELEMENT OF INFORMATION
DISORDER AND TYPE OF DISINFORMATION

NURUL NABIHA BINTI SULIMAN

&
NORHANISAH BINTI SABLI

Types of Disinformation
The term disinformation is said to be derived from a
Russian word, dezinformatsiya, with some accounts holding
that Joseph Stalin coined it. It is generally accepted that the
Soviet Union pioneered the deliberate use of false information
as a weapon of influence in the 1920s. The word remained
relatively obscure for decades and was used mainly by military
or intelligence professionals, not the general public, until the
1950s. Disinformation is a false information that is being
deliberately and often being covertly spread among the society.
 The false information is usually being spread by
planting rumors here and there in order to influence the general
public opinion and obscure the truth and reality about certain
issues and situations. Disinformation can be detected from
everywhere within the public community. This type of
misleading information could be very lethal and dangerous if it
is not being apprehended properly. Emotional, financial and
physical states of the affected individual will be jeopardized and
harmed thanks to the misleading advertisements, government
propaganda, fake pictures, forged documents, internet fraud and
so on. Therefore, there are several types of disinformation that
could be identified such as following:
One of the attempted hoaxes of the French election
campaign was the creation of a sophisticated duplicate version
of the Belgian newspaper Le Soir56 with a false article claiming

pg. 77
that the presidential candidate Emmanuel Macron was being
funded by Saudi Arabia. Another example was the circulation
of documents online claiming falsely that he had opened an
offshore bank account in the Bahamas. Finally, disinformation
circulated via ‘Twitter raids’ in which loosely connected
networks of individuals simultaneously took to Twitter with
identical hashtags and messages to spread rumours about the
candidate’s personal life.
1. Satire and parody
 Satire or parody are one of the
types of disinformation. Satire is a form
of sarcasm and parody used to expose
and criticize society’s stupidity or
negative behavior especially in
contemporary politics and other issues.
Satire information can be identified and
found through illustration and cartoon
that criticize political, slavery, nature,
religion and other issues within the
newspaper, literature book, television 

2. False Connection
False connections are also known
as clickbait titles that are not aligned with
the original content of the information.
Usually clickbait can be detected in the
form of videos and pictures. This type of
disinformation is frequently used to
attract, compel and influence users to
click the links and read, view, listen and
watch the deceiving content. shows or
online forum. The reason why people
tend to do false connections or clickbait

pg. 78
 is to gain more brand awareness,
popularity and increase views on their
videos and pictures.
3. Misleading Content
Misleading content is incorrect
usage of information in order to frame a
certain situation and individual. Those
who are being framed will feel unsafe
and their safety being threatened due to
the deceptive, false and harmful content.
The mastermind behind the misleading
content usually conducts the activities by
cropping photos and fabricating the news
about the actual situation. Therefore, it is
important to always check the fact and
dateline of the article rather than jump to
the conclusion without knowing the
actual truth. According to Entman, R.,
and Pellicano, L. (2019), 

4. False content
False content also contributed to
the types of information. This is because
the main content or the original context
or the information has been manipulated
and it is useless and leads to confusion
regarding the authenticity of the
information. For instance, according to
Pham, N. (2018), the picture that has
been captured in Vietnam in 2007 has
been distributed and spread after seven
years, and it was disguised as the Nepal’s
earthquake that happened during 2015.  

pg. 79
5. Imposter content
Meanwhile for imposter content
can be defined as the genuine sources are
being impersonated, the journalist or
someone has forged or edited the existing
video or images and spread the videos to
others. Sometimes they photo-shop the
images and the video with the logos that
are well known, to gain another people's
trust. Then they distributed the video
using any platform that can reach the user
easily such as WhatsApp, Facebook and
etc. This incident occurred during
Kenyan elections in 2017, fake CNN and
BBC news reports promulgate on
WhatsApp. To surpass those situations,
BBC Africa had to make a video and
posted on every social media platform to
get a grip, so that people would be
alarmed and not be fooled by the
fabricated video even though there are
BBC’s logo and strap line  because it was
photo-shopped. 
6.Manipulated content
A collection of related techniques
in which partisans create a picture or
argument that favors their precise
interests. One of strategies used to create
manipulative content material are such as
the suppression of records or points of
view with the aid of crowding them out,
by means of inducing other humans or
companies of humans to forestall paying
attention to certain arguments, or by
genuinely diverting attention elsewhere.

pg. 80
 There are plenty of tips on how to avoid
being deceived by manipulated content
such as identify the propaganda, read on
diverse subjects, increase your critical
thinking skills and don’t take sides too
quickly without knowing the stories from
both sides.
7. Fabricated content 
Fabricated content is the act of
someone that tries to make up a tale or
piece of information so one can make
someone consider something that isn't
always true. This type of disinformation
can have criteria’s such as false content
and the explanatory of the article are fake
and incorrect. Also, the credibility of the
author has to be investigated as well in
order to classify the news as true or not.
Besides, the date of the article also need
to be specified so the authenticity of the
new is correct or incorrect.

pg. 81
The Phases and Elements of Information Disorder

Disinformation also known as information disorder. The job of

the predominant press as agents in enhancing (deliberately or
not) manufactured or deluding content is pivotal to
understanding data issue. Measurable check skills and the
capability to recognize fabricated news websites and bots is a
highly important nowadays. Following are the phases and
element of information disorder

Elements of Information Disorder 

Agents

This person was involved in the creation, production and

distribution of that information. From phase to phase, the
characteristics of the agents will be different. This is due to their
main motivation and the audience that they are targeting.
Financial, political, social and psychological are the potential
motivators factors that contribute to the spread of fake
information. For example, in the financial sector, they can gain
a lot of profit by advertising the information disorder. Different
agents have different audiences that they are going to reach.
This is because the audiences might be their customers,
consumers, youth or the whole society. The agent might be or
not intentionally to mislead and harm the audience. Besides, the
agents’ ability to automate the creation and distribute fake
information are easier. For example, the accounts that are
known as cyborgs.

pg. 82
Message

The agents in person can distribute messages by giving

speeches and gossiping, using text such as pamphlets, brochure,
flyers, and newspaper articles or in audio or visual material,
which is memes, edited audio-clip, videos, and images that are
related. Some of the messages are designed for a long term so
that it can impact the society, meanwhile there are also some of
the messages designed for the current situation that occur. For
example, there are many messages designed during an election,
to gain support and trust from the people. It is also important for
us to examine the information whether it is accurate or
otherwise. Some of the message might be true and it can be
used against them, for example their confidential life and
religion. The message might use the official branding such as
well-known company logos and they also might be disguised by
using the other name or image to appear as a trusted source.
This might lead to confusion among the interpreters especially.
Different content of the message is used to influence different
audiences. Their target or candidate can be a political leader, an
agency or a social group that came from different backgrounds,
races, the elite or the entire society.

pg. 83
Interpreter

Audiences are very rarely passive beneficiaries of

information. An ‘audience’ comprises of numerous people, each
of them going to decipher information with regards to their own
socio-cultural status, political positions and private encounters.
Acknowledging information demands our feeling of self might
be jolting. Regardless of how influential a message may appear
to a neutral observer, it's far less muddled to overlook or oppose
records that restrict our own special perspective. Therefore, in
an era of social media, where most are a potential publisher, the
mediator can turn into the accompanying ‘agent,’ choosing an
approach to share and edge the message for their own systems. 

pg. 84
Phases of Information Disorder
Creation
In this phase, the message or information are being
created. The creation of the message may be different since the
creator are different unidentified individuals. The purpose of
disinformation can be varied, either for political purpose,
ideology, business or simply out of hatred toward someone. But
the most popular reason of creating disinformation to get easy
money.

Production
The production phase is where message and information
being turned into a media product. The agents of the false
information will used mainstream media to ensure the audience
being influenced by the false information. The false information
is the crude material out of which proof is made. In any case,
you must process it in proper manners.

Distribution 
In this phase, the information will be made public and
being distributed. The job of the predominant press as operators
in intensifying misleading content is significant to
understanding disinformation. Fact-checking is important
strategies utilized by hoaxers and those endeavoring to spread
false information have never been this modern. Furthermore,
when a message has been disseminated, it very well may be
imitated and redistributed interminably, by a wide range of
irresponsible individual, all with various inspirations.

pg. 85
REFERENCES 

Abu-Fadil, M. & Grizzle, A. (2016). Opportunities for Media

and Information Literacy in 
the Middle East and North Africa. Retrieved from:
https://milunesco.unaoc.org/wp-
content/uploads/MIL-Mena-2016-english.pdf

A lexicon for the digital age. (2017). The Unesco Courier, (July
- September 
2017). Retrieved from:
https://en.unesco.org/courier/2017-july- september/lexicon-
digitalage

Alaphillippe, A. (2018). Facebook’s Newsfeed Changes Are

Probably Going to be Great for Fake News, The Next
Web. Retrieved from:

https://thenextweb.com/contributors/2018/01/2018/facebooks-
news-feed- changes- probably-going-great-fake-news/. 

BBC (2017). Kenya election: Fake CNN and BBC news reports
circulate. [Online] Retrieved from
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/worldafrica-40762796. 

Busby, M. I. Khan & E. Watling (2017) Types of

Misinformation During the UK Election, 
First Draft News. Retrieved from
:https://firstdraftnews.com/misinfo-types-uk-
election/

pg. 86
Cadwalladr, C. (2018). I made Steve Bannon’s Psychological
Warfare Tool: Meet the data war whistleblower.
Retrieved from:

https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/mar/2017/data-
war-whistleblower- christopher-wylie-
faceook-nix-bannon-trump

Freedom House (2017). Freedom of the Net 2017:

Manipulating Social Media to Undermine
Democracy Freedom House. Retrieved from:
https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-
net/freedom-net-2017

Haffajee, F. (2017). Ferial Haffajee: The Gupta fake news

factory and me. HuffPost South Africa. Retrieved from:
https://www. huffingtonpost.co.za/2017/06/05/ferial-
haffajee-the-gupta-fake-news-factory-and-
me_a_22126282/. 

Mitchell, A., Holcomb, J. & Weisel, R. (2016). State of the

News Media Pew Research 
Centre. Retrieved from :
http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-
content/uploads/sites/13/2016/06/30143308/state-of-the-
news-media-report- 2016- final.pdf

RISJ (2018). Digital News Report 2018 (University of Oxford).

Retrieved from: http://media.digitalnewsreport.org/wp-
content/uploads/2018/06/digital-news- report- 2018.pdf?
x89475 

pg. 87
UNESCO (2017). States and journalists can take steps to
counter ‘fake news’. Retrieved from
:https://en.unesco.org/news/states-and-journalists-can-take-
steps-counter-fake- new 

pg. 88
CAUSES AND HOW TO PREVENT DISINFORMATION

NUR LIYANA MARYAM BINTI RAMLI 

& 
NURUL IZZATI BINTI HASAN

INTTRODUCTION
Nowadays, our country is growing more and more in
line with the sophisticated technology created today. There are
various types of technologies available, including television,
smartphones and laptops. Due to the existence of the
technology, there is a wealth of information available at our
fingertips. We can also access that information anywhere
regardless of time. Most of those who have access to this
information are students, faculty and researchers. The
information they access is important to them as it is used as a
reference material for their assignment or case study. But with
the increasingly sophisticated world, there are some who try to
take advantage of the wrong information. The wrong
information is called disinformation. According to Luciano
Floridi (1996), Disinformation is caused by some form of
mishandling of information it belongs to the third group and is
endogenous to any information management system (IMS).
The word disinformation is widely used and used by
librarians. But many who are still unfamiliar with
disinformation, are more familiar with the word misinformation.
Misinformation is different from disinformation.
Misinformation is where the information has been
misinterpreted by middlemen or some readers. They have no
intention of providing the wrong information. However,
disinformation is a misinformation made by some parties. They
do indeed have the intention of making false information.
Disinformation is increasingly becoming our country. Much of

pg. 89
the incorrect information has been passed on to the public
without any backlash. The most common disinformation is
through the transmission of messages that are better known as
linked messages. Connected messages have been around for a
long time, and they have gained a lot of public attention. The
public will get the message by telling them to give it to others to
disseminate information faster. Information not previously
reviewed has been passed on to contacts as well as to others.
Finally, the misinformation has been widely disseminated and
has caused some public to believe the information.
Disinformation is now difficult to control because there
is a lot of false information being created in various media
especially the Internet. The information is difficult to erase
because of the large number of users who use it. Disinformation
is created in many ways and from many parties. This article will
discuss the causes of disinformation that have occurred in our
country.

pg. 90
CAUSES OF DISINFORMATION
Nowadays, internet has been the main place that people
want to sear information as it is so easy for us to access and to
find something that we don’t know or we want to search for
new thing. But the true problem here is, how far is the truthiness
in internet that we can put our trust on? So, it is better for to do
a fact check before we trust anything that has been put in the
internet. These include the role of social media dynamics, the
lack of internet controllers, competition in news and media,
mishandling at third party and issues in processing the
information.
So, here we would like to tell a few of the causes that cause
disinformation in the internet. The first one is, lacking of
internet gatekeepers. As we all know, Because of the
decentralized nature and structure of the Internet, writers can
easily publish content without being required to subject it
to peer review, prove their qualifications, or provide backup
documentation. Whereas a book found in a library generally has
been reviewed and edited by a second person, Internet sources
cannot be assumed to be vetted by anyone other than their
authors. They may be produced and posted as soon as the
writing is finished.  In addition, the presence of trolls and bots
]

used to spread wilful misinformation has been a problem for

social media platforms. As many as 60 million trolls could be
actively spreading misinformation on Facebook.
 
Furthermore is, competition in news and media. As we
all knows, lots of news and medias have been competed with
each other every single day to attract subscribers and readers.
Some of the good quality of them do doing their job goodly by
doing fact check, the sensitivity of the issues, and also asking
the right person to write the articles. But, many of them have
fail to do so, and consequences are pretty worse as people love
to trust anything that they read in internet. So, as people who
has the power in spreading things such as news and medias,

pg. 91
they should know better how to spread the news so that only
legit and true article can be spread in the internet. Even it will
attract less viewer, but it is for the best to the people also. 
Thirdly, mishandling third-party. Mishandling is also
one of the causes of disinformation. Mishandling is often
performed by a third party in filling out information or
information. As a result, the third party made a mistake in
providing the information to the public. Most of the repeated
mishandling is like ignoring a word or symbol. For example, the
third-party library that controls or creates a record is a
cataloguer. Cataloguer is the person responsible for making
records for every book in the library, which is to create a
catalog card. Sometimes the cataloger will make a misspelling
or even a mark on the record. Without realizing the mistake, the
cataloger had already prepared and stored the incorrect
information in the catalog card. As a result, the error has led to
disinformation and library users are not aware of such
misinformation. In the end, the wrong information was used by
the public. Mishandling by third parties is also one of the causes
of disinformation in communicating the right information to
users or the public.
Fourthly, issues in processing the information. Issues in
processing information are also one of the causes of
disinformation. In the dissemination of information there must
be some process to be followed in order to prevent the spread of
false information. Many of the problems that occur in
processing this information are to verify the information. Each
agency will have an information management section that will
verify the information before distributing it. But due to the lack
of knowledge and technologies, they are unable to verify the
records. For example, the library will have a department that
will handle the process for verifying the information. There are
several ways they do this, such as acquired, classified,
controlled and evaluation. They will use the process to
determine the authenticity of the information received before it

pg. 92
is passed to the public. Sometimes libraries have knowledge
issues to identify the right or wrong information. They also lack
the technology to check the validity of the records. Accordingly,
non-disclosure of information will be attributed to the user
without the knowledge of the contents of the record being true
or false. Issues in processing can also be one of the causes of
disinformation due to its inaccuracy due to the lack of
knowledge in Information Management as well as the lack of
sophisticated technologies to validate the records.
 In conclusion, all of the above mentioned causes are
often mentioned in the media or articles related to
disinformation. In order to keep our country moving forward,
solutions to disinformation problems need to be taken promptly.
Particulars related to Information Management are taking steps
to eliminate false news to users by training employees to be
more skilled in managing existing records. Apart from the
superiors, media users or the public must also cooperate in
eradicating this disinformation from happening. Users or the
public can help by stopping making false news and ensuring
that the news obtained is from a reliable and credible source. If
this disinformation is resolved, our country will be at the
forefront of good information management.

pg. 93
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, disinformation can lead to a bad issue
because people might believe and what make it worse is, if
he/she is spreading the news without doing a fact check. This is
the common things in our life because we literally everyday
going to have a conversation with people or even hearing
people talking without our intention. If this might happen to us,
it is advised if we ask people first or doing a fact check by
looking for the right source so that we can have the right
information and we can spread information without feeling
worried. In the news, people should be highlighted the
disadvantages of disinformation so that people know and think
it is a serious matter so that it can be serve as a source for belief
and attitude formation.   
Last but not least, we would like to stress that, let’s be a
good person by spreading only legit and authentic news. This is
to make sure that every single people in our country only spread
and receive current news. By doing so, people can state their
belief and opinions with confidence without feeling skeptical.
When information is presented as vague, ambiguous, sarcastic,
or partial, receivers are forced to piece the information together
and assume what is correct.
 

pg. 94
 REFERENCES
“A Short Guide to the History of ‘fake News’ and Disinformation -
Wikisource, the Free Online Library.” Wikisource.Org, 2018,
en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_short_guide_to_the_history_of_
%27fake_news%27_and_disinformation. Accessed 30 Nov.
2019.

Born, Kelly. “Six Reasons There’s More Fake News

Today.” MarketWatch, www.marketwatch.com/story/six-
features-of-the-age-of-fake-news-2017-10-24.

Ecker, Ullrich. “Where Does Misinformation Come from, and What

Does It Do?” The Conversation, theconversation.com/where-
does-misinformation-come-from-and-what-does-it-do-9885.
Accessed 5 Apr. 2020.

“How ‘Fake News’ and Disinformation Can Affect Your Cause – And
How to Counter It.” The Communications Network,
www.comnetwork.org/resources/how-fake-news-and-
disinformation-can-affect-your-cause-and-how-to-counter-it/.

Rubin, Victoria L. “Disinformation and Misinformation

Triangle.” Journal of Documentation, vol. 75, no. 5, 9 Sept.
2019, pp. 1013–1034, 10.1108/jd-12-2018-0209. Accessed 5
Apr. 2020.

“The Current Flood of Disinformation Has Many Causes, All of Which

Must Be Tackled.” D+C, www.dandc.eu/en/article/current-
flood-disinformation-has-many-causes-all-which-must-be-
tackled. Accessed 5 Apr. 2020.

Walsh, John. “Librarians and Controlling Disinformation: Is Multi‐

literacy Instruction the Answer?” Library Review, vol. 59, no. 7,
17 Aug. 2010, pp. 498–511, 10.1108/00242531011065091.
Accessed 5 Apr. 2020.

pg. 95
Wikipedia Contributors. “Misinformation.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia
Foundation, 27 Mar. 2019,
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misinformation. Accessed 5 Apr. 2019.

Wolverton, Colleen, and David Stevens. “The Impact of Personality in

Recognizing Disinformation.” Online Information Review, vol.
44, no. 1, 19 Dec. 2019, pp. 181–191, 10.1108/oir-04-2019-
0115. Accessed 5 Apr. 2020.

West, Darrell M. “How to Combat Fake News and

Disinformation.” Brookings, Brookings, 18 Dec. 2017,
www.brookings.edu/research/how-to-combat-fake-news-and-
disinformation/.

pg. 96
 WAYS TO SPOT DISINFORMATION ON SOCIAL
MEDIA

NUR KHUSNINA BINTI ABDUL RAHMAN

& 
WAN NUR SHAHIDATUL KHADIJAH BINTI WAN MANAN

          Disinformation is fake information or in other words is

false information that cannot be trusted easily because it is
information were content and messages that are fabricated or
intentionally manipulated and constructed, including intentional
conspiracy theories or rumors. This false information is
deliberately and maliciously created to harm a person, social
group, organization, or country. Now, disinformation can easily
appear in all websites such as Twitter, Facebook, Google, and
others. But, how do you spot these fake information when it
appears in your social media? So, here are ways to spot
disinformation on your social media feed. 
          Firstly, search online for the information or claim. If the
claim is not widely reported by the media, there is a high
likelihood that journalists will not be able to confirm it. Before
you trust the latest information, you must search especially if
you read from social media because it is so much fake news.
When you search you can find out that information you hear is
true or not. Therefore, you should verify that information is
correct by looking more closely at trusted media or from
legitimate accounts. Alternatively, you can also ask the
trustworthy person and never transmit the unauthorized
information by posting on social media to prevent
misunderstanding from others.

pg. 97
          Secondly, see who posted this content. Check the profile
of the poster, how long their account is active, and see the
history posted. 
Do they demonstrate bot-like behaviour? 
This way is also very important. You can check by your own
self whether the account is fake or not. You should see how
long the account has been active. Is it new or old account? For
the most part, accounts that spread fake news on social sites are
relatively new account that they are created simply to spread
disinformation at all. You also look at the account owner’s
information whether it’s logical or not. For example look up
your place of residence, date of birth, name and some other
information.
         Check the profile picture of the account. Do a reverse
imagine search of the photo. A stock photo or image of
celebrity indicates a less-reliable source because it’s a
anonymous. To determine if the account is valid, a profile
picture check is also important. This is because, the pictures
used symbolize a person’s personality. When a profile picture is
not person’s face, the percentage of fake accounts is very high.
If the picture used is a logo, you need to check that the logo is
recognized in any search.
The image used is someone’s face? 
It’s really easy. It can be said that only less than 5% of accounts
spread fake news using their own profile picture. If you see a
picture used is someone’s picture, you need to search for that
image. Whether the person know or not. Because most of fake
accounts will feature celebrity pictures or influential people as
profile picture. Alternatively, you can also see the list of
pictures on the gallery account whether the previously uploaded
image is reliable or not.

pg. 98
          Search for other social media accounts for the person. In
this way, it is very helpful in answering the puzzle of the status
of who is spreading the rumour for you to believe it. Do they
have a political or religious affiliations that might give them a
reason for spreading this point of view? For example, if
someone spreads a bits of news that makes you curious to
believe it on Facebook, you can find the owner of those account
on other websites like Instagram and Twitter by looking for the
same name used on their Facebook account to determine if that
person’s status can believe it or not. Therefore, you need to be
aware when reviewing the name and picture of the account
owner and reviewing the name by first checking on Google
Search.
          Next inspect the content the account posted. Does it look
too good to be true? Try a reverse image search to find out if an
image is from a different story. Each content posted reflects a
person’s personal attitude. If the post is positive, then the person
is positive or otherwise. If the last post is just a regular post,
then the percentage to state that the statement was issued is
disinformation is high.
In the other hand, a better understanding of what
disinformation may actually help the society from being fooled
by it. Since this disinformation is very similar to lying, much of
the comprehensive work on lie detection can theoretically be
extended to detecting disinformation. People also argue that
disinformation is everywhere but this is mainly based on
anecdotal evidence. Empirical studies (e.g., [42]) have looked
there was so many inaccurate information in the Internet but
study did not looked specifically on how much inaccurate
information through the Internet.
According to M.Yankoski, Weninger.T, Scheirer. W
(2012), to combat this disinformation effectively, we must not
just aware with the social media landscape but also our own
responsibility when involving ourselves when participating

pg. 99
online. Social media user become more knowledgeable when
they search for information in the Internet but then, they did not
realize that some of the information was a disinformation. They
should aware about the current news so that whatever
information that were spread were truth and reliable. 
According to Innes, Dobreva (2019), the performance of
spoofed digital identities is frequently accompanied by two
other techniques of disinformation: “truth thing” and “social
proofing.” You can spot the disinformation through someone
profile. Several of the techniques of disinformation outlined
above have used visual images to try and persuade their
audiences about the ultimate “truth” of their knowledge claims.
They will influence people mind or perception towards country
or somebody so that they join the community in doing
demonstration. User can spot whether the information was fake
or not because usually fake information have an error in term of
writing the fake news and creating a website. The website also
have a lot of curious sticker and irrelevant ads.
Other than that, it is easier to spot this disinformation
through the language that they are currently used. People who
spreading disinformation tend to use highly emotional language.
This may take the form of misleading headlines, personal
attacks on people the author disagrees with, or exaggerated
reactions of anger or disgust. People should be more aware
especially when it comes to someone disgrace or some sensitive
issue for example, about someone religion. 
Disinformation on social media often spread by bots or
computer programs that automate social media post. Bots may
pretend to be human or keyboard warrior. People can spot the
disinformation clearly by tracking this bots because bots can be
easily detected. People can check bots by using botcheck.com
or bolometer. According to Proceedings of the 25th
International Conference Companion on the World Wide Web,
(April 2016), while most online social media accounts are

pg. 100
operated by humans, these sites often host automated agents
called social bots or Sybil accounts. People also can detect this
bots using fake bananas. Developers at Swarthmore College
created Fake Bananas, which is a machine learning model that
can identify false claims with 82 percent accuracy using stance
detection. This kind of system can help the user to detect bots
that lead to disinformation. 
Last but not least, according to Jonathan Albright, an
assistant professor of media analytics at Elon University, “what
bots are doing is really getting this thing trending on Twitter.
These bots are providing the online crowds that are providing
legitimacy.” With the digital content, the more post that user
shared and spread, the more fake information or fake news. For
example, as graphic content spreads, often with inflammatory
comments will attached, it can go viral and be seen as credible
information by people far from the original post. From this
statement, people tend to spread the information via social
media because basically when they got a lot of follower, they
can gain money from the social media. They can generate
income because social media provide fund to the active user
that have many follower through their social media account.
As a conclusion, disinformation is very serious matter
when it comes to spreading information to people. Information
that they are spreading was ambiguous and can lead to
argument. People tend to spread disinformation through social
media such as Twitter, Facebook and other social media. Not
just that, disinformation is a silent violence to user because
wrong information can disgrace people silently. It can lead to
cyber bully because we do not know how much false
information that user spread in the social media. In their study
of political mobilization, Margetts, John, Hale, and Yassera
(2016) evidenced how the number of followers and likes
attached to particular messages and accounts, influences how
others interact with those materials. Citizen should not spread
disinformation just because they want to generate income but

pg. 101
they should generate income by spreading awareness and
kindness.

pg. 102
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Bushra. The Persuasion Revolution. Retrieved on April 13,

2020. https://www.thepersuasionrevolution.com / 380  -  high-
emotion-   persuasive- words/

Colleen Wolverton and David Stevens. The impact of

personality in recognizing disinformation. Retrieved
April 18, 2020.  www.emeraldinsight.com/0022-
0418.htm

Coral Featherstone, "South African bot behaviour post the July

2018 Twitter account cull",  Advances in Big Data
Computing and Data Communication Systems (icABCD) 2019
International Conference on, pp. 1-6, 2019. Retrieved
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Davis et al.(2016). Proceedings of the 25th International

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Erin Calabrese. 5 Ways to spot disinformation on your social

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social-  media feeds/story?id=67784438 

Innes M.(2020 January 31). Techniques of disinformation:

Constructing and communicating “soft facts” after

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4446.12735

RedState.R. (2019). 3 Easy Ways To Protect Yourself From

Media Disinformation. Retrieved April 19,2020.
https://crooksandliars.com/2019/12/3-easy-ways-
protect- yourself-media

Stoycheff E.(2010-2020). 4 ways to protect Yourself From

Disinformation. Retrieved April 10, 2020.
https://theconversation.com/4-ways-to-protect-yourself-
from- disinformation-130767

Sweeney, H. Micheal. Twenty-five ways to suppress truth: the

rules of disinformation. Retrieved April 6, 2020. 25-
Ways-To-Suppress-Truth-The-Rules-of-Disinformation-
Michael-Sweeney-(1997).pdf 

Sille Obelitz Soe. Algorithmic detection of misinformation and

disinformation: Gricean perspectives. Retrieved April 18,
2020. www.emeraldinsight.com/0022-0418.htm 

Lindsay Nadrich. How to spot disinformation in election

season. Retrieved April 18, 2020.
https://www.kgw.com/article/news/politics/how-to-spot-
disinformation/28384e6c733- 73e5-4d86- b6bc-
4880b7244f83 

Katherine Hanz and Emily Sarah Kingslaand. Fake or for real?

A fake news workshop. Retrieved April 18, 2020. 
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pg. 104
Konsyse Staff.   Misinformation   vs   disinformation     vs      
malinformation.  Retrieved April    18, 2020.

https://www.konsyse.com/articles/misinformation-vs-
disinformation- vs- malinformation/

Victoria L.Rubin. Disinformation and misinformation triangle:

a    conceptual model for   “ fake news ” epidemic,
causal factors and interventions. Retrieved April 18, 2020.
www.emeraldinsight.com/0022-0418.htm 

Yongtian Yu, Guang Yu, Tong Li, Qingli Man, Qiuping Chen,
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pg. 105
 IMPACTS OF DISINFORMATION

HANNIS SURAYA BINTI ISHAK 

AND
  SYAHIRAH NURFATINI BT AHMAD FAUZI

INTRODUCTION 
In the era of information technology, social media has
been filled with too much kinds of content, covers from the
personal to the political. There are many circumstances
produced when the content of the information had been
deliberately and often covertly spread. In the middle of this,
people in the field of academic, researchers can hardly find the
material for their studies purposes. As stated by Winseck, D
said now, the hazard is the development of an ‘arms race’ of
national and international disinformation distributed through
partisan ‘news’ organizations and social media channels,
polluting the information environment for all sides in a method
that can come back to haunt the initiators themselves.
Disinformation is a truly global spread complication, broaden
beyond the scope of information including climate change,
entertainment, etc.

pg. 106
Social Media
The dissemination of false knowledge may have far-
reaching implications. Several research results also assessed the
effect of social network misinformation on measurements of the
user platform, such as the number of messages, reshares, and
time of pre-removal for hoaxes. Laskowski, A said we should
also take much from the lengthy tradition of people getting
swept up in the stories of 'April Fool'-even the odd journalist.
They consider a tiny fraction of false knowledge reports
extremely impactful because they are enjoyed, posted and
reported about further, generating larger cascades of reshares
than real pieces of information, lasting for a long period and
spreading across. In the modern world, it has been seen that
inaccurate knowledge has a huge effect on the financial market,
hampering natural disaster reaction and terrorist violence. The
effect on web and social media is calculated as the engagement
it creates through its readers. Kumar et al measured the impact
of hoax articles on Wikipedia, and Silverman scrutinized the
engagement of fake election news articles on Facebook. False
information spreads far and wide on social media as there is an
average 12-hour delay between the start of the spread of false
information and that of its debunking information. During its
start-up phase, false information spreads rapidly, with an
unverified and not yet debunked rumor having high potential to
become viral. Consequently, rumors regarding the likelihood of
a real start would propagate, often even through credible news
organizations.

pg. 107
Political World
The epidemic of false news not only presents significant
challenges to journalism's reputation but also has generated
chaos in the political system. According to Wardle C. and
Derakhshan H., Scholars also concluded that the word 'false
news' is credulously insufficient to define the dynamic
phenomenon of propaganda and disinformation. The worst
impact on the real world is that fake news appears to create real-
life fears. 
In political or matters regarding public interest, the intended
strategic effect is among disinformation and propaganda and the
examples of no evidence of intended strategic effect such as
rumor like flat-Earth and vaccination theories which is harmful
to society. For disinformation and propaganda, if the source is a
non-state actor for example like political party or unidentified
person. If the targeted is at domestic population, unethical
political campaign, misleads society if the political party is
successful in the elections. There is some condition where
source of disinformation is a form of state (governmental) actor.
According to Howard, P., Social network sites are also central
to civic and democratic dialogue. This has put governments and
free communities in an 'economic deficit.'

pg. 108
Human Rights
The impact of disinformation and propaganda on human
rights is categorized into two major categories that concern data
security, anonymity, human integrity and liberty, and
infringement of the right to freedom of speech, as well as the
right to search and get information. Impact upon data protection
and privacy. Personal data is the medium of exchange and fuel
that tends to keep business moving and innovation. Data-driven
market strategies aim to build more on the data supply
generated by the giant technology systems that are playing with
the implementation of AI and machine intelligence focused on
the gigantic personal datasets that they manage. The impact on
human rights also disturbing to the equality of speech and the
right to get details. One of the fundamental aspects of
democracy is an accessible democratic dialogue, as this is how
people will address their specific concerns, shape political
views, and eventually make a political judgment (e.g.,
participating in elections). Some writers use it interchangeably,
like Losee and Fox, although Zhou and Zhang find one a variant
of the other. Equally important to allow a vibrant and fair
dialogue, independence of the media, citizen independence of
speech and the permission to access information. (Karlova, N.
and Lee, J., 2012).

pg. 109
Business
As being mentioned, there are some effect of
disinformation in different categories such as to business.
Disinformation can give bad impact to the business field as it
has a huge impact on a business or organization that can
damage the brand and lose customers. A business is based on
the consumer's trust in a product or service. It would be unfair
to put all the problems news has on social media. Trust is
closely related to reporting capability – and in certain parts of
the world there is also a correlation of diminishing confidence
in governments, companies and institutions (Edelman, 2017).
This will lead to the reputation and brand of a company. Today,
all business-related information wants to be easily accessible
and may even be misleading to some. Users prefer to trust
existing information rather than seek authenticity. All
businesses have used social media platforms to promote their
products. With this platform, it is sometimes helpful and
sometimes able to bring down the business itself. Users can
provide comments or suggestions to dealers. However,
sometimes they tend to judge others through the comment,
feedback or false information about the product itself.

pg. 110
Individuals
Furthermore, disinformation gave a bad effect to the
individuals itself. Most of us usually assumed towards the
information differently. This is because the way we understand
and analyses information whether it is true or false is different
from our own. We do not respect information only to the
authorities but the way we process the truth about it also plays a
role in the individual. As a human, we tend to be influenced by
other people who are close to us or have a relationship such as
parents, siblings or family. Sometimes, we trust them even more
when information can be misinterpreted by someone. For
instance, a picture from Vietnam recorded in 2007, recycled
back seven years later, was disguised as being a picture from
Nepal as the consequence of the 2015 earthquake (Pham, N.,
2018). Any information you wish to convey may be in error due
to a misunderstanding of the information. When the false
information been shared or spread to others without knowing
the authenticity of the information, it can cause harm to others
also not only to the individuals who shared the information.
This makes the other person distrust the individual because he
or she is the first person to disseminate the information.

pg. 111
Audience / user
Disinformation will give bad impact to the user or
citizen. Disinformation also can be disseminated by the
audience not to individuals and business field only. Nowadays,
users or the public are attached to their smartphone.
Smartphones have had a bad impact on the delivery of
information on something. A major generational difference can
be observed, according to a recent study: people over 65 post
seven times more false news spread than young users do.
(Andrew, G. et al, 2019). Due to the advancement of
smartphones, they spend more on social media rather than
knowing the actual information by themselves. For an example,
the media reports news about something. People or users only
read the headings without reading the information carefully or
clearly and instead trust the heading. The dissemination of
information especially on social media has a huge impact on
consumers.  

CONCLUSION
To conclude that, disinformation has a lot of adverse
effects on businesses, individuals and consumers alike. As
consumers in this growing global age, we must be wise in
accepting or understanding the information we receive so that it
does not harm us. We should not take that information for
granted without knowing the validity of it. According to Posetti,
J and Matthews, A, journalists, media teachers and learners
(along with their students) are encouraged to research
misinformation, deception, hoaxes and humor as common
features of communication in order to ensure a complex
broadcasting of this crisis environmentalism. Everyone will be
held responsible if the information is invalid or true.

pg. 112
 REFERENCES
Andrew Guess, Jonathan Nagler and Joshua Tucker: Less than you
think: Prevalence and predictors of fake news dissemination on
Facebook. Sci Adv 5 (1), eaau4586. DOI:
10.1126/sciadv.aau4586
Edelman. (2017) op cit
Howard, P. (2017) Ibid
Karlova, N. and Lee, J., Notes from the underground city of
disinformation: A conceptual investigation. Proceedings of the
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48(1), 2012, p. 1.
Kumar, S., West, R., & Leskovec, J. (2016, April). Disinformation on
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hoaxes. In Proceedings of the 25th international conference on
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Laskowski, A. (2009). How a BU Prof April-Fooled the Country:
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Pham, N. (2018). Haunting ‘Nepal quake victims photo’ from Vietnam.
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pg. 113
Silverman, C. (2016). This analysis shows how viral fake election news
stories outperformed real news on Facebook. BuzzFeed news,
16.
Wardle C. and Derakhshan H., Information disorder: definitions in
“Understanding and addressing the disinformation ecosystem”,
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War on Terrorism. International Communication Gazette 70 (6),
419-441

pg. 114
 TARGETTED GROUP OF DISINFORMATION

SYAFIQAH SUHAILAH AND AIMAN SYAKIRAH

INTRODUCTION

         In this digital era, people often use social media as a

platform and tool to spread or share information. This somehow
has helped many people to receive and send messages all across
the globe without difficulties. Although people might see this as
a medium that provides relevant and valid sources, it also can
be one of the sources that disseminate fake or false information.
According to Moonyati Mohd Yazid (2019), The term that we
called “Fake news” has been gaining attention from societies all
over the world since the end of 2016. However, it has been
causing a spike in the usage of this term by the leaders around
the world in which it was believed to be poorly defined against
the journalist and news organization. Although it has been
widely used, it is only a fraction of a larger phenomenon called
Disinformation and Misinformation, which these two are related
to the term of “Information Disorder”. Misinformation is
described as false information but with the intention of causing
harm, while Disinformation is information that is clearly false
and deliberately created to harm a person, social group, and
organization or country. But thoroughly the main point of the
issues here is that disinformation is what causes people to
expose dangerous issues in the technology world. 

pg. 115
         According to Don Fallis (2015), nowadays, people tend
to mislead about important topics such as investment
opportunities, medical treatment or political candidates which
cause an emotional outbreak, financial problems and even
physical harm. Other efforts of an institution such as libraries
and other information services have led up to numerous efforts
to provide access to more valid and qualified information. The
result from an honest mistake, negligence, unconscious bias,
intentional deception, inaccurate information can be misleading
to people. Though, an act of violence tends to be more
concerning than disinformation.  Other than directly causing
damage, disinformation also can harm people indirectly by
eroding trust and thereby prohibiting the ability to share an
access of information to one another. 

         Thus, identifying the correct strategies for dealing with

the issues is particularly best pressing. One thing that people
need to know is that disinformation is nothing new; in fact, it
has become an issue since the development of technology. The
standard example disinformation such as Operation Bodyguard
that has been used during World war II in which the soldier
tried to hide the intended location of the invasion location. This
is where the enemy plotted a fake transmission for the Germans
telling them that there will be a massive force of army in East
Anglia ready to attack the Calais. Through this situation, we can
conclude that disinformation can be pressing a far more threat
to the quality of information. In addition to the issues that have
been involved in the present world, newer information is
making it easier for people to access and disseminate the data
that they intended to take advantage. Such examples that can be
seen in the current issues today are the impersonators. This
impersonator usually impersonates the website of reputable
sources of information. Though, this can make people believe
and apparently can cause a lot of trouble.

pg. 116
Who is the targeted group? 

Therefore, when the topic about disinformation arises

many people believe that it will lead to cybercrimes on the
internet. This disinformation often occurs when people are
doing too much assumption rather than finding the truth. Often
this act has led many people to be fooled by unrecognized
stories which lead the spreading of fake news. Recent studies
have shown that frequent users of this media platform are often
associated with the younger generations (Eugene Loos,
Loredonna Ivan, Donald Leu, 2018) . Children in fact are no
exception through this disinformation. Though, nowadays
generations are more skilled in the use of information. Parents
allowed their children to explore the online medium to let them
develop themselves with the current issues of today's modern
society.

I. Children 

 Although it may lead to positive traits, this may also

conduct a concerning threat to children. Children are too naive
to believe in things because  they are still developing on their
growth but because of the information that has been spread
through the media, they may be the ones that are quick to
believe and gauge on the reliability of the information, thus
creating the spread of fake news among them. The reliability of
the information online may cause certain mental illnesses such
as low self-esteem. As this why the people around them needed
to set rules and education on using this media platform the
correct way as possible preventing any damage to the children.  

pg. 117
II. Parents

Another group that is targeted in disinformation issues is

the parent. Some parents are concerned about their children's
health and take every information regarding the issue into
account. This behavior is very noble and respectable in showing
a good model in parenting. However, some of the information
taken may not be factual. According to Stephan Lewandowsky,
et al. (2017), many parents in the U.K. chose not to immunize
their children due to the disinformation regarding childhood
vaccination and autism. Thus, creating a result from these
misinformation-driven choices, there were shown increases in
vaccine-preventable disease, and substantial expenditure was
essential to overcome this public health crisis. (Larson, Cooper,
Eskola, Katz, & Ratzan, 2011: Poland & Spier, 2010; Ratzan,
2010)

Moreover, Johnathan Bowes (2016), said the children in

the United States were required to get several vaccinations;
Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR) vaccines. There were
debates where one side supports vaccines as instructed like
public goods and rejects some non-medical that are not
considered obligations, while the other side claims where
vaccinations on children, parents have the right to oppose as a
means of protecting their children from any harm. The parents
argued that non-medical exemptions based on personal beliefs
help them to fulfil their responsibilities as parents. The personal
beliefs may be made-up information which is considered
misinformation.

Furthermore, there are some cases in which it is the

opposite of the victims regarding parents. Linda L. Yevoo et al.
(2018), stated the mother misinformed the healthcare providers’
regarding her reproductive and medical history practices. The
father informed the healthcare provider about her wife’s seventh
delivery. The healthcare provider was enraged with the parents’

pg. 118
behavior and said that she could have treated the wife better
with proper information. Women in southern Ghana shared that
they believe telling a complete history might cause providers to
verbally abuse them and they would be regarded in the negative
light. They take this strategy to conceal the actual number of
children who can escape public humiliation. Thus, concealing
the actual number of children had affected the traits of decision-
making, care processes and effects. This happened because the
healthcare providers were uninformed of the woman’s risk
profile. 

The cases that involved had led to many assumptions

and arguments about the usage of vaccines. The disinformation
that parents assume as the right way of protecting their children
has caused many problems regarding their health problems
which without the use of vaccines these children are exposed to
many diseases such as polio and measles. Because of these
problems, these children have trouble dealing with their growth
development other than that they can't lead a normal life
because of their deteriorating health. Because of these
assumptions often these children will lead themselves to be
unsuccessful in their school year thus making them feel
uninteresting to do things and are depressed over their life
achievements. The causes of disinformation is what leads the
innocent generation to believe such unrecognized facts that they
are often to be the target. 

pg. 119
III. Adolescent 

There is one more category that falls under disinformation’s

targeted groups, which is adolescents. Adolescents are
individuals that age range from 10 – 24 years old. This age is
where adolescents, or in other word, teenagers or youths want to
experience their life, involving in lots of activities and being
self-dependent. According to Lia, K. et al. (2020), adolescents
are more involved in believing people’s rumour than adulthood.
Students, which are also included in adolescence age range, are
likely to be exposed to fake news (Leeder, C., 2019).  The
young adults are the regular users in social media.

Atodiresei, C. S. et al. (2018) conducted a research on

identifying fake users and news in social network (Twitter) and
showed an example study related by Shellenbarger S. (2018),
stating that middle-schoolers (82%) cannot differentiate the fake
news and real story on website. There is also research (Gottfried
& Barthel,2015) saying that some adolescents (61%) are relying
more strongly on Facebook than any other sources. There are
also students that give cooperation in spreading misinformation,
in other words they are participating in sharing fake news. Some
of these youngsters are sharing fake news not knowingly. This
is because they did not recheck the information sources and
trusted the informant. The full confidence in believing the
informant may be due to families and close friends.  The current
structural environment of the Internet and social media make it
difficult for students to accurately evaluate the quality of online
information and make it easy to spread misinformation.

pg. 120
CONCLUSION

In conclusion, disinformation can be best described as a

hoax or a fraud of certain information that has the intention to
do harm for people especially to their mental behaviour. As
technology has reached its peak of development, there will be
high chances of the increase of these issues among the users of
this medium. Therefore, to avoid the increase of these issues
certain measures should be acquired to the users for prevention.
In which improve the education system by educating children
and adolescents of using social media more efficiently by
teaching them how to detect fake news and authentic
information. Moreover, teach them the value of sharing good
information and avoid cyberbullying that could cause harm to
others. This way they can learn to be more expert on handling
issues of disinformation in the future. Other than that, the
government should take more action regarding the hoax of the
professional field, which increases the policy of sharing
information regarding serious topics. If more people are
involved the less fake news is available out there thus saves a
lot of innocent people. 

pg. 121
REFERENCE 

Atodiresei, C. S. et al. (2018). Identifying Fake News

and Fake Users on Twitter. ProcediaComputer Science 126
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Bowes, J. (2016). Measles, misinformation, and risk:

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Gottfried,J, & Barthel,M.(2015).How millennials'

political news habits differ from those of Gen X and Baby
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pg. 122
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Truth_Era.

Loos, E., Ivan, L., & Leu, D. (2018). “Save the Pacific
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2018-0031

Shellenbarger S. (2018). Most Students Don’t Know When

News Is Fake, Stanford Study Finds. The Wall Street Journal,
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1479752576

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pg. 123
 THE IMPACT OF DISINFORMATION IN
RELATIONSHIP AMOUNG COUNTRIES.

NUR MUHAMAD FIKRI BIN MAT NAZRI

AND
AHMAD HASIF BIN ATAN

INTRODUCTION
Since the early history of humanity, information and
warfare have been linked. Each conflict between countries,
groups, people, or even animals can be understood in terms of
information. The decisions and actions of any subject entering
the interaction are based on information. Controls the flow of
information and their characters may represent power in
establishing relationships or influencing the attitude of the
subject. In other words, information can be used as a weapon to
help pursue a particular interest or even domination.
Disinformation to be considered as one of the elements
of information warfare. It is just a war of democratic
information resilient societies can prevent political, economic,
and potentially military damage. It is can be understood using
an organic approach that offers perspective on interventions to
create a more resilience society and undermine the environment
in which propaganda flourishes.
Disinformation might be recognized only in the context
of truth. However, the definition of truth and that the
manifestation is problematic in itself. Anyway, the relation
between truth, knowledge, and belief is always problematic. 

pg. 124
TOWARDS A DISINFORMATION RESILIENT
SOCIETY? THE EXPERIENCE OF THE CZECH
REPUBLIC
The Czech Republic has become the 'Laboratory of
Russian Hybrid Warfare'. The Czech intelligence service
warned in its annual report that the country was the target of
Russia's information war and that Russia was conducting
influential operations, especially through its pro-Russian
disinformation website. However, these webs are covered by ʻa
smokescreen’ as ʻthe vast majority of disinformation webs are
in the Czech language and are operated by Czechs, who are
ideologically motivated and persuaded about the harmfulness
of NATO, EU, USA, liberal democracy or citizens, who are not
supporting Russian interests. These citizens use their laws and
freedoms to spread what they believe is the truth ... their web
projects are used and misused by Russia to spread propaganda
and disinformation in support for other components of the
hybrid strategy’ (Business Information Systems Workshops: BIS
2017 International Workshops, 2017).

Due to the Czech language and web operations are

informed by Czech citizens who disseminate information and
propaganda based on ideology, propaganda, and disinformation
are tailored to Czech political, economic and social contexts. In
this sense, the Czech Republic is no exception.
There are other topics related to the fight against the spread of
disinformation and misinformation :

pg. 125
 1) The Creation of Disinformation and
Misinformation
Disinformation and misinformation exist in every
society, but its importance varies. Most civilized countries have
adopted laws governing disinformation and misinformation to
protect victims and punish offenders. Finding the right balance
in a liberal democracy is not easy because one side has the
freedom of speech and freedom of speech and the protection of
personal rights on the other. Filtering is unacceptable in a liberal
democracy, but on the other hand, there are laws aimed at
protecting individuals.

2) The Issue of Vectors

Disinformation creation and misinformation are closely
related to its vector. In some cases, the author may act as a
vector. From this perspective, we can distinguish between
primary vectors, including origin information, and secondary
ones, and only share the information previously passed to them.
However, similar to virus vectors, there may be some types,
some types more dangerous than others. As with the spread of
disease, the most important factor for its effectiveness is the role
of vectors and their reach in society.

pg. 126
 3) Fostering Immunity
As with vaccination, citizen immunity can be nurtured
by the development of media education, critical thinking, or the
promotion of civic interest (see Pinto, Portelli 2009). Civic
education involving education in fields such as human rights,
however, has almost disappeared in the Czech Republic. Media
education is just a 'cross topic' in Czech education and in high
school, it is taught only four hours a year. Instead, this gap is
slowly being filled by NGOs and individuals providing
textbooks (often commercially), and materials and information
on how to teach media education.

4) Exposition
The long term exposure to a virus without being
immune increases the probability of being infected or becoming
a carrier. Similarly, being exposed long term to disinformation
may cause changes in perception. Some exposed people who
have fallen victim to disinformation and propaganda are hard to
cure. As noted by Petra Vejvodová, a Czech political scientist,
the debate in the Czech Republic on disinformation started in
relation to Russia after the annexation of the Crimea and the
war in Ukraine and disinformation and propaganda linked to
Russia leave the doors closed to the target group (which may
have a positive attitude to Russia). 

pg. 127
DISINFORMATION IN NEWS REPORTING IN THE
CURRENT CRISIS OF SYRIA
INTRODUCTION
The information revolution in the world today is
information warfare through the dissemination of information
through electronic information sources which is considered to
be a major provider of crisis and war management. Among the
most important results of this information, revolution are the
main changes in the media industry and the exchange in the
industry and the use of this information. This has led to the
emergence of new media based on the flow of information via
the Internet and mobile phones.
No country in the world tries to influence the influence
of information and the objectivity of the media can be
considered a dream that remains difficult to realize. Therefore,
the news and opinions on manipulation are not only political.
Therefore, the effects of the loopholes which are the
result of daily monitoring appear in the Arab and Western
media public and private  and have involved global crises in
general and Syrian events in particular. Then, media coverage
was assessed by people and they concluded that some media are
tools that serve their interests and objectives of the owners of
media institutions and those who support them.
The Syrian crisis is characterized by the absence of
precise and documented information and by the accusation of
all the local regional and international parties in the tensions of
the atmosphere like the war between the world powers which
takes place on the lands Arabs. Not only this humanity and the
economic crisis which affects the daily life of the Syrians.
Despite the panic that the Syrian people face on a daily basis
and at high risk of losing a child or brother or sister or relative
or friend due to bombs or rockets, we are still looking for
Syrians trying to overcome the news reality they are facing and

pg. 128
trying to live your daily life like always. Syrian citizens
continue to pray to God to protect him and his family in order to
save what remains for the destruction of Syria.

THE START OF THE SYRIAN CRISIS

On February 5 2011, a call to "A Day of Syrian Anger"
was posted on the online social media website Facebook, as a
team player with the January 25 revolution in Egypt. Demand
has changed to go to the Alhariqah district of Damascus for a
demonstration, but the number of taxpayers now does not
exceed the range of weapons in one hand.
Unknown Syrian activists have called for a "Syrian day
of anger" on FB, which is the main spark of opportunity in the
Syrian crisis, which actually started in mid-March 2011. A
moderate number of protests were held in many parts of Syria
and called for the freedom and release of political prisoners
from prison and the abolition of the state of emergency in the
United States. The demand ceiling was gradually raised at the
request of the overthrow of the Syrian regime.

pg. 129
DISINFORMATION AND INCITEMENT OF MEDIA
Regime media websites say there are lies, campaign
media to incite against Syria and the plot to protect Syria by
igniting public opinion, hatred, and conflict between residents
of a country. This hatred is created through various media and
the Arab international who work to raise all kinds of problems
until trying to reveal the intervention in the open air as a
humanitarian task.
The bogus movies that were filmed from cell phones and
processed are then posted on YouTube as the most important
evidence. There are many cases where photos were taken of
Hamidiyah market rallies in Damascus, then mixed with
snapshots of the Palestinian uprising or activities in Libya,
Egypt, and Yemen to make a film that would shape protests in
Syria. Competition sites take into account that the films of
competition activists (example: Rami Aljarah, one of the
founders of a corporate website "Ana Press" and radio director
"Voice of Damascus" who played a leading role in the ISIS
theme and discovered its practices.)

CONCLUSION
Disinformation clearly can destroy relationships among
countries because it involves the impact on democracy, modern
technologies, human rights impacts, and much more. The
disinformation challenge is about more than authoritarian
propaganda or PR strategies. Longstanding vulnerabilities in
human cognition and blended with new and rising technology’s
effect on the information surroundings allow for horrific actors
around the world to pursue political gains at the fee of
democratic political discourse. The look for solutions should
start by using spotting that the undertaking is worldwide and
structural.

pg. 130
REFERENCES

.
Business Information Systems Workshops: BIS 2017
International Workshops,(2017). Poznan,Poland: Springer
Dean Jackson, (2018). How Disinformation Impacts Politics
and Publics. National Endowment For Democracy. Retrieved
from URL (https://www.ned.org/issue-brief-how-
disinformation-impacts-politics-and-publics/.)  
Dr. Sherif Darweesh Al Labban, Ahmed Ali Ibrahim ,(2015). 
Role of media in crisis management  the Syrian Crisis as model.
Arab Center for research & Studies. 
Finkel, J. et al. (2017). Fake news and disinformation: The roles
of the nation's digital newsstands, Facebook, Google, Twitter
and Reddit. Stanford Law School. Retrieved from URL
(https://www-cdn.law.stanford.edu/wpcontent/uploads/2017/10/
Fake-News-Misinformation-FINAL-PDF.pdf.)
Pinto, L. E. & Portelli, J. P. (2009). The role and impact of
critical thinking in democratic education: Challenges and
possibilities,in Sobocan, J., Groarke, L., Johnson, R. H. &
Ellett, F. (eds), Critical Thinking Education and Assessment:
Can Higher Order Thinking be Tested? Althouse Press, London.
pp. 299-320.
The International Federation of Library Associations and
Institutions (IFLA), (2015) Retrieved from URL
( www.ifla.org/node/7606 www.ifla.org/risk-register.)

pg. 131
 MEDIA MANIPULATION ON DISINFORMATION
ONLINE AND THE VULNERABILITY OF SOCIAL
MEDIA.

ANIS ISZATY BINTI AMIR

AND

NURUL AIN BINTI AHMAD POAD

INTRODUCTION

Media manipulation is all about how the media exploit issues to

their benefit by manipulating news stories, setting goals, and
propagating myths about the current media climate. A study has
been produced that strategic intelligence operations, and in
particular disinformation, are seeking to destroy the credibility
of information space and the development of human interaction
by undermining our capacity to make use of the truth (Kate
Starbird, Ahmer Arif & Tom Wilson, 2019). We would have
tremendous impact issues that we care about. The topic of who
is involved and why they are doing this will be discussed and
answered in this chapter (Alice Marwick and Rebecca Lewis,
2017). This will also be very closely linked to social media
vulnerability. The problem of who is interested and why they
are doing this will be posed, and this aspect will be discussed.
This will also be very closely linked to social media weakness.
In this new era, a study has been produced that social media,
ratings and rankings, sensationalism, creativity of news and
clickbait cause us to be vulnerable to these networking
violations due to media attention (Julie Posetti et al, 2018). 

KEYWORDS: Social Media, Disinformation, Media

Manipulation, Media Group

pg. 132
Types of People Involved in Media Manipulation

1. Internet Trolls

 A study has been produced that aside from internet

trolls can be quite humorous, it may even take the
shape of negative behaviours. Trolling may involve
"mischievous behaviour where the goal is not to
cause anxiety " or it may aim to kill the credibility of
entities and organisations and expose misleading or
sensitive information (Ben Kirman, Conor Lineham,
& Shaun Trolling, 2012).
 Trolls will take advantage of the opinions of users in
the forums by highlighting the two types of troll
manipulation: those charged to run and those called
as such by other users (Savvas Zannettou et al,
2019).

 A concern has been noted that a highly disruptive

type of perpetrator is the troll, whose deceptive acts
are relatively apparent and thus difficult to detect
and monitor – especially in automated systems
(Mattia Samory & Enoch Peserico, 2017).

 Trolling has two primary key triggers: an

individual's mood and the conversation environment
(e.g., exposure to prior trolling behaviour) (Justin
Cheng et al, 2017).

2. Gamergates

 An internet initiative that utilized participatory

development tools and strategies to target male

pg. 133
 media critics and game developers.

 A concern has been noted that the accuracy of

gaming reporting and the security of the identity of
the "gamer" (Ibid & Andrea Braithwaite, 2016).

 Gamergate has shown the complexity of a number of

physical bullying techniques — including doxing
(publication of private information online), porn
retaliation (dissemination of private images outside
their expected recipients), media harassment and
coercion. 

3. Hate Groups and Ideologues

 The Alt-Right

-    Re-branding from "white nationalism" or "white

supremacy" to "alt-right "
- Richard Spencer invented the word "alt-right" to
define right-wing political beliefs in contrast to the
mainstream establishment (Matthew N. Lyons,
2017).
- This enabled an idea that had long been considered
unacceptable to traditional media to become part of
public discourse (Matthew Goerzen, 2017).

- Today, this describes an unhealthy culture of

violence in which liberalism and conservatism
distrust the government, foster cynicism and

pg. 134
 mockery, and use aggressive language to incite
hostility, among others.

4. The Manosphere

 Manosphère is a sprawl of journals, groups and

pages dedicated to the masculinity discussion. The
two most prominent subcultures are the Men's Rights
Advocates (MRAs) and Pick-up Artists (PUAs), but
they also involve anti-feminists, father-rights groups,
"incels" (involuntary celibates), androphiles (same-
sex attracted non-homosexuals), paleo masculinists
(who say masculine supremacy is natural) and
several more enigmatic fringe societies (Lise Gotell
and Emily Dutton, 2016).

 Other study states that Manosphere is a group of

loosely connected blogs and social networking
channels that directly address people's opinions,
expectations, fears, complaints and desires. Women
and xenophobia are commonly aggressive objectives
(Tracie Farrell et al, 2019).

5. Conspiracy Theorists

 Refers to a hypothesis or definition that portrays a

scheme as a central element of a network of agents.

 This ideology as they are motivated by the

conviction of a strong community of individuals who
have achieved in disguising their role in an accident

pg. 135
 or situation (Cass R. Sunstein & Adrian Vermeule,
2009). 

 In this manner, some theories characterize the

conspiracy Hypothesis in terms of three elements:
the conspiratorial agent, the acts or machinations of
the individual, and the purpose of the project — that
is, the aim, the result, or the suspect of the supposed
scheme (Mattia Samory & Mitra, 2018).

 To tackle the nuances of conspiratorial language,

they are classified into two groups.
- First, there is a series of top-down methods focused
around one principle that categorizes conspiracy
theories, typically the features of hidden operatives
or the scale of secrets.
- Bottom-up approaches analyse reactions to
conspiratorial findings in order to classify forms of
conspiratorial thoughts.
6. Influencers

 It ties to a variety of prominent online trolls, hackers,

ideologists, and conspiratorial theorists exercise
power among other players and play a distinct role in
efforts to control reporting (Mattathias Schwartz,
2008).

 Often recognized as an individual capable of

manipulating future purchasers of a product or
service by encouraging or supporting social
networking products.

pg. 136
pg. 137
7. Hyper-Partisan News Outlets

 It is not fake news per se—incidents are not

engineered, even though they are frequently
sensationalized and viewed by a single prism
(Caroline Jack ,2017).

 The author stated that hyper-partisan bias which only

does reporting of certain media is inherently divisive,
ideologically skewed or hyper-partisan, and
sometimes the news review includes firmly opposing
views. Promotes beliefs that are abusive (Caio
Machado et al, 2019).

 Through focussing on Facebook's most frequently

circulated URLs — shows that (i.) hyper-partisan
news posts received more coverage after the 2016
election than traditional news stories on Facebook,
(ii.) hyper-partisan and fake news pages have a clear
political bias towards Hillary Clinton (Ceren Budak,
2019).

 Various study efforts show that during the 2016

elections the hyper-partisan news and the
dissemination of misleading information was widely
disseminated. For example, a report by Buzzfeed
News found that the top hyper-partisan news articles
gained more coverage than the top traditional
Facebook news articles in the top Facebook election
season.

pg. 138
8. Politicians
 They are defined as a member of a government or
law-making organization.

 The goal is to influence the voting decisions of the

electorate (or to abstain from the elections). This
issue has been exacerbated by the distance, pace and
low cost of disseminating disinformation through
social media (Maggie Haberman, 2016).

 Although political disinformation cannot convert

someone to an opposing view, it can have a powerful
effect on whether someone actually votes. 

 "Infecting" real news: reputable news media may be

induced to give too much credence to a plausible yet
unproven story by bias – their own or the
expectation of their viewers.

pg. 139
VULNERABILITY OF SOCIAL MEDIA

The Internet as a whole is an area of concern where the most

desirable role is the one most likely to draw interest, especially
in the social media platform, which is leading to a large degree
to this issue. Although it is good in some way, social media will
always be open to others because of their overall openness and
without control, anyone can share and access information
posted on social media. A study has been produced that due to a
number of dynamics, mainstream media have been susceptible
to violations by the far-right press, bringing a consequence to
diverse outlets that are being dominated by hegemonic media
brands (Massimo Flore, Alexandra Balahur, Aldo Podavini, &
Marco Verile, 2018).

As soon as 2019, social technology is now swept up in a series

of big global controversies involving data exploitation and
misuse. Even troubling is the fact that social networking has
grown as a fertile ground for the dissemination of anti-social
conduct, and is a significant source of disinformation,
manipulation, misinformation and abuse (Anatoliy Gruzd et al,
2019).

It is better known because the news is quickly spread and

interpreted by social media. The best way to ensure that the
information that is being exchanged is that it comes from the
right place without some tampering. Even so, there is still a
great deal of opportunity for another individual among the 8
types of persons mentioned above to exploit the details to their
advantage, thereby generating disinformation (Melissa Zimdars,
2016).

pg. 140
In social media, spread news shows a number of forms, such as
e-mail, photograph and social meaning. Automatic fact-
checking is a step to gather and aggregate details from
multimodal information (Meeyoung Cha et al, 2020). That there
are two main reasons that ultimately render users susceptible to
fake news: (i) Naive Realism: Consumers prefer to assume that
their interpretation of the truth is the only real view, whereas
those that disagree are branded uninformed, unreasonable or
biased; and (ii) Confirmation Bias: Consumers continue to seek
evidence that confirms their current assumptions (Kai Shu et al,
2017).

Data leakage, depending on the industry, is the most alarming

and therefore more easily prevented danger to social
networking. The client of the social media site is not secured by
these servers, nor can the protection of the servers be
guaranteed. While most likely implicit in the document, the
social media consumer can be confident that the social media
site itself has been removed from any responsibility whatsoever.

Data often could leak whenever a social networking platform

updates or otherwise alters the site or policy configuration. A
study has been produced that Facebook and other social media
platforms are changing exponentially and, as such, are
susceptible to potential data leakage if they change their
existing structure. Typically, the key information is the name,
date of birth and address (Molok, Nurul & Chang, Shanton &
Ahmad, Atif, 2011).

pg. 141
CONCLUSION

Social networking has shifted on the way we conduct business.

It is a very powerful tools that can be used not only to boost the
credibility of an individual or a corporation but can also serve to
protect their integrity irrespective of the false reality being
shared. As such, social media is not something we can cut out
of professional life. Society as a whole need to change and
mitigate the risks posed by social media if we are to take
advantage of all the positive social media it brings to the table
(Gajura Constantin, 2019). At the end of the day, the media will
go for the coverage, but the people will always look for the
truth. Social media will always develop into more mature
systems, and the opportunity for manipulation will still be there
if the individual exploiting the content does not take any
accountability for it. Unless sufficient regulation that will
penalize any members in this misinformation category who will
misuse the information to their benefit or to some collective
benefit, such problems would remain compounded and would
become worse every day. As an author, I humbly hope that
disinformation not only in social media, but in any platform that
can be utilised to share false news to be reduced significantly
and go towards zero disinformation period.

pg. 142
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Braithwaite, A. (2016). It’s About Ethics in Games Journalism?

Gamergaters and Geek Masculinity. Social Media + Society .

Budak, C. (2019). What happened? The Spread of Fake News

Publisher Content During the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election.
The World Wide Web Conference (pp. 139-150). New York:
Association for Computing Machinery.

Constantin, G. (2019, May 7). What is the Future of Social

Media Marketing?               Retrieved from Thrive Global:
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media-marketing/

Cheng, J., Bernstein, M., Danescu-Niculescu-Mizil, C., &

Leskovec, J. (2017, February 3). Anyone Can Become a Troll:
Causes of Trolling Behavior in Online Discussions. CSCW '17:
Proceedings of the 2017 ACM Conference on Computer
Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing. New
York: Association for Computing Machinery.

Farrell, T., Fernandez, M., Novotny, J., & Alani, H. (2019).

Exploring Misogyny across the Manosphere in Reddit. WebSci
'19: 11th ACM Conference on Web Science (pp. 87-96). New
York: Association for Computing Machinery.

Flore, M., Balahur, A., Podavini, A., & Verile, M. (2018).

Understanding Citizens' Vulnerabilities to.

Gotell, L., & Dutton, E. (2016). Sexual Violence in the

‘Manosphere: Antifeminist Men’s Rights Discourses on Rape.

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Goerzen, M. (2017). The Memes of Production. Memetic
Warfare, Tactical Trolling, and Cognitive Hacking in a Post-
Truth Polis.

Gruzd, A., Hodson, J., Mai, P., Kumar, P., Jacobson, J.,
Recuero, R., Sloan, L. (2019). Introduction to the 2019
International Conference on Social Media & Society.
Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Social
Media and Society (pp. 1-4). New York: Association for
Computing Machinery.

Haberman, M. (2016, May 3). Donald Trump Accuses Ted

Cruz’s Father of Associating with Kennedy Assassin. Retrieved
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Jack, C. (2017, January 6). What’s Propaganda Got To Do

With It? Retrieved from Go to data & society: Points:
https://points.datasociety.net/whats-propaganda-got-to-do-with-
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Kirman, B., Lawson, S., & Lineham, C. (2012). Exploring

mischief and mayhem in social computing or: how we learned
to stop worrying and love thetrolls.

Lyons, M. N. (2017). Ctrl-Alt-Delete. The origins              and

ideology of the Alternative Right.

Machado, C., Kira, B., Narayanan, V., Kollanyi, B., & Howard,
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Marwick, A., & Lewis, R. (2017). Media Manipulation and

Disinformation Online.

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Meeyoung, C., Wei, G., & Cheng-Te, L. (2020, March).
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Spies Using Our Webcams': The Language of Conspiracy
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Human-Computer Interaction.

Samory, M., & Peserico, E. (2017). Sizing Up the Troll: A

Quantitative Characterization of Moderator-Identified Trolling
in an Online Forum. CHI '17: CHI Conference on Human
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Schwartz, M. (2008, August 3). Malwebolence: The World of

Web Trolling. Retrieved from The New York Times Magazine:
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pg. 146
 DISINFORMATION VS MISINFORMATION

MOHAMAD AIDIL BIN MOHAMAD @ ALIAS & MOHD

ZULHUSNI BIN MAT RANI
Introduction
Humans are often confused by the words disinformation
and misinformation. These two words can mislead people by
their names because disinformation and misinformation are two
different meanings. Misinformation and Disinformation are not
the same thing. Let’s go to their meaning which is the meaning
of the Disinformation is false information which the person
spreading it knows to be false. False information that is shared
with the intention to deceive. Its mean that Someone simply
falsifies the information provided to the public to interest the
public in the information provided for their benefit and the
information provided is 100% false and not have any valid
reference. To more understand is like a privative, negative, or
reversing force. Its call Disinformation while the meaning of the
Misinformation is incorrect or misleading information
inadvertently sent in order to influence public opinion or
obscure the truth. It is mean that False information that is not
identified as false by the reader and is treated or  spread as truth.
The most common form of misinformation is when social media
users share fake news articles without knowing that the article is
fake. This normally happens when a user shares an article on
the basis of an appeal to emotion and forgoes checking the
veracity of the article. The article is true but there will be some
unintentional errors in the information and this will cause the
public to get the wrong information. Both disinformation and
misinformation contribute to fake news, and both pose a risk to
brands and their audiences but it still different meaning. Yes it
similar, but not same.

pg. 147
Criteria of Disinformation and Misinformation
To more understand, there have a few criteria of both of
this information to see what is the different between
Disinformation and Misinformation
Authority
First of all is Authority. Disinformation is the real author
of the web site is unknown and there is no contact address. It is
not clear who the actual author is. There is no contact address
and as a rule, there is no actual reference to the information
source, no date when it is written or updated, nor a description
of its author. This means that the information provided by
someone cannot be proven by the right source. There are no
proven and address that can correct that information as a right
information. The authority of Misinformation is  It is not clear
who the sponsor of the web site is, who owns it or who the
author is but if we search for that information, it is available and
the information we are looking for is found. We just don't know
who the main source is in the dissemination of that information.
Misinformation bring confusion and disorder because they are
misrepresented, opposite to the previous information or
modified in the communicational process. 

pg. 148
Intent to Deceive
The second criteria is inent to deceive. For
disinformation of course very high. This is because they want to
mislead people into believing everything they give. For
example, like a scammer selling something. They will provide
all the positive information to make the community fool
themselves. The verses used can also blind the eyes of the
people so that they are deceived. wherever if we search the
information on the internet or in books, it will not be there. This
is because they do so for their own benefit. For Misinformation,
the inent to deceive is low. This can happen when someone
misspells or provides false information without intent. so they
have no intention of cheating. For example is politician. They
maybe mistaken in giving facts when speaking to convince the
public of something that is being said. After that the article
came out about what was being said and the public began to
share the article without checking that the article was
misinformed. So many people will get the wrong information.
However, they still can access to the information but cannot get
the information that what they want. This shows that the
politician does not want to cheat but only given the mistaken
information which causes the information to be false. 

pg. 149
Accuracy
After that is Accuracy. For the Disinformation the
accuracy is Information does not contain actual, approved facts
of information comprises false and inaccurate data. Its mean
that the information available is not conclusive, which means
that no other information can support that information. The
information provided is 100% false and unreliable. The
information you are looking for is not available on the internet
or in the article also in book. For the example is you get
information from someone and you hesitate, so you look for that
information on the internet and in books, but the information is
not have. Then the information provided earlier is false because
the information don’t have evidence to prove it. For
Misinformation, the accuracy is Information does not contain
particular evidence about the represented data or data cannot be
checked. Its mean that the information received is that there is
no specific evidence that can justify that information. The
information is still misleading but the information is not false.
Simply cannot be confirmed because there is no other evidence.

Type of Disinformation and Misinformation 

Next, both disinformation and misinformation also have
their own type which are, satire or parody, false connection,
misleading content, false context, imposter content, manipulated
content, and fabricated content. We also can find a way to spot
them.

pg. 150
Satire  and Parody
First type of disinformation and misinformation is satire
and parody. Satire is the use of humor, irony, exaggeration, or
ridicule to expose and criticize people’s stupidity or vices,
particularly in the context of contemporary politics and other
topical issues. Meanwhile, parody is an imitation of the style of
a particular writer, artist, or genre with deliberate exaggeration
for comic effect. Which mean that, it is not harm but it is has
potential to fool people out there. As an example for satire,
nowadays a lot of people like to post something in social media
to make someone feel embarrassed with their action. Another
example is  for parody, when a people kind of to imitate people
actions that effect people out there. So, this kind of action is not
to bring a harm to people but it is has potential to fool people.
But sometimes, it can also make people to harm themselves
because of  action that people do nowadays make others shame.
Next, how to spot satire or parody?. We can spot it by
investigate the source, read beyond the headline or ask experts.
It can help us to become more carefully in searching any
informations.
False Connection
Second type of disinformation and misinformation is
false connection. Which is when headlines, visuals or captions
don’t support the content. As for the research nowadays, most
of the people when they want to search or find any informations
in the internet or in the other medias, they just read the title or
headline and they are too irresponsible and lazy to read the full
content. When they get their informations, they just read a title
or headline without read any further contents. Users usually just
want find any articles that have related to their findings. Then,
how to spot false connection?, we can prevent it by read beyond
the headline (if it is a video, watch the entirety of it) or check
our biases.

pg. 151
pg. 152
Misleading Content
Next, the third type of disinformation and
misinformation is misleading content. Which mean that
misleading of information to frame an issue or individual. As
for an example, seller A trying to sell something to buyer B.
Then, seller A want person B buying his stuff by doing a free
offer or price promising. Next, we can spot the misleading
content look for similar stories or read beyond the headline.
False Context
Other than that, false context which is when genuine
content is shared with false contextual information. As an
example, like a news when people out there share something
news. For an example, people who go out or go to any
restaurants to eat during the MCO periods because of covid-19
diseases will be shot by the police and armies. Other than that,
is when all shops only open at limited times, but the news are
actually fake. This fake news also can be dangerous to people.
So, we can check the date, check our biases or ask experts to 
prevent false context.
Imposter Content
Fifth of the type of disinformation and misinformation 
is imposter content. This is when genuine sources are
impersonated. Like an example, when someone create a fake
account of a social media for their idols or their favorite
celebrities. Which is people call it an identity theft. For an
example, when this theft doing a business under the name of the
celebrities, people around will want to buy it from him or her
because people think that he or she is the celebrity
himself/herself. This kind of imposter quite dangerous because
it also can make the real owner of the social media become a
victims. So, as users, we must become more careful and be
more sensitive. So, how can we spot the imposter content? We
can check the URL, investigate the source or check the author.

pg. 153
Manipulating Content
Next, the manipulating content, which is when genuine
information or imagery is manipulated to deceived. As an
example, somebody posting a fake news. So, for example, Ali
shares  an image about the death of celebrity A in his social
media and the image of the celebrity is taken by him from his
friends without they do not sure about the news yet. That is
what we call it a manipulating content. So, to prevent it, we
must investigate the source carefully.
Fabricated Content
Last but not least, the last of the type of disinformation
and misinformation is fabricated content, which mean that new
content in 100% false, designed to deceive and do harm. This
type of dis- and misinformation usually happened to all people
out there. For an example, they got a news about a bad girl on
the social media, the people will insult her without checking the
news is 100% true or not. Though, the news is made up by her
enemy because she hate her. So, this will become serious issue
and the slandered girl will become more depressed and stress.
This kind of condition can be harm that girl. So, we as people
must think before act. To prevent it, we must look for similar
stories, read beyond the headline or check the biases.

pg. 154
CONCLUSION
In the conclusion, there are a few criteria of
disinformation and misinformation as listed. Also, listed a few
type of disinformation and misinformation that listed and how
to spot them. So that people out there can more understand
about the disinformation and misinformation. Also, people can
differentiate and should not be confused by the words
Disinformation and Misinformation as the two words are very
different. These two words may seem simple but they have
different criteria and type. Also than that, Disinformation and
Misinformation have their own type to make sure that this
words is different and absolutely not same. 

pg. 155
REFERENCE
Hamid Keshavarz, How Credible is Information on the Web: 
Reflections on Misinformation and
Disinformation,Retrieved April  15, 2020.
file:///C:/Users/AcerPC/Downloads/How%20Credible%20is
%20Information%20on%20t he%20Web.pdf 

J. Shankar, J. Martin and E. McKay. Bias, Misinformation and

Disinformation:  Mental Health, Employment and 
Human Computer Interaction. Retrieved April 20, 2020.
file:///C:/Users/AcerPC/Downloads/Bias_Misinformation_and_Disinf
ormation_Mental_ Heal.pdf

Marks, Vincent. Information, Misinformation and

Disinformation in Human Nutrition. Retrieved April 12,
2020.file:///C:/Users/Acer-PC/Desktop/ARTICLE%20IML601/10-
1108_EUM0000000000985.pdf 

Natascha A. Karlova and Karen E. Fishe. “Plz RT”: A Social

Diffusion Model of Misinformation and Disinformation for
Understanding Human Information Behaviour. Retrieved
April  18, 2020. file:///C:/Users/Acer- PC/Desktop/ARTICLE
%20IML601/ccfb693e2a1e440390f9721562e310199903.pdf 

Roger Bernhardt. Broker's Agency Disclosure Law:

Misinformation or Disinformation?. Retrieved April 18 , 2020.
file:///C:/Users/Acer- PC/Downloads/Brokers%20Agency
%20Disclosure%20Law_%20Misinformation%20or %20Disi
nformation_.pdf

Søe , Sille Obelitz. Algorithmic detection of misinformation and

disinformation: Gricean perspectives. Retrieved April 21,
2020.file:///C:/Users/AcerPC/Desktop/ARTICLE%20IML601/article
%20disinformation.pdf 

pg. 156
Stahl, Bernd Carsten . On the Difference or Equality of 
Information, Misinformation, and Disinformation:  A
Critical Research Perspective. Retrieved April  18, 2020.
file:///C:/Users/Acer-PC/Desktop/ARTICLE%20IML601/v9p083
096Stahl65%20(1).pdf

Tudjman, Miroslav and Mikelic ,Nives. Information Science:

Science about Information,  Misinformation and
Disinformation. Retrieved April 12, 2020. file:///C:/Users/Acer-
PC/Desktop/ARTICLE%20IML601/Article%20iml601.pdf

Victoria L. Rubin. Disinformation and misinformation triangle:

A conceptual model for “fake news” epidemic, causal
factors and interventions. Retrieved April 16, 2020.
file:///C:/Users/Acer-PC/Desktop/ARTICLE%20IML601/10-
1108_JD-12-2018- 0209.pdf 

Wardle, Claire  and Derakhshan, Hossein . Thinking about

‘information disorder’: formats of  misinformation,
disinformation, and mal-information. Retrieved April 15,
2020. file:///C:/Users/Acer- PC/Desktop/ARTICLE
%20IML601/f._jfnd_handbook_module_2.pdf 

pg. 157
 WHY DISINFORMATION

MAS ALIFFAH BT AZHAR & SITI NUR ‘AUNIE BT

MOHAMED ASRI

INTRODUCTION 
In today’s technological advancement, there are varieties
of reference sources existed that we can get the information
whether it is legit or not to prevent us from getting false
information. The first one is even though there are various kind
of information available on the Internet, we users still have to
filter it because there are too many non-related information
come out upon our searching and also there are many wrong
facts and information in it. Because it is easier nowadays to
upload anything on the Internet, it is essential to internet users
to filter the information needed and is able to distinguish
between true fact and information or not. Other than that, user
needs to ensure that the sources is authorized, verified and
trusted and either it is current of not, following the standard
wanted of not, and many more. Also, because of the information
overload, people must have certain skills to use to be able to get
the right data and information needed. Therefore, that is why
the information is still needed to use as a reference because
firstly it is already right, and is not alterable unlike sources
available on the Internet.    
Besides we also need to know about the disinformation.
The purpose to know what is the disinformation is something
that someone do in creating a message. It is also distributed
with some intention whether good or bad to other people. The
situation is alarming as news is aimed at creating hatred and
provocation among multiracial communities. This situation is
very dangerous. Disinformation also said as false information or
fake news which is intended to mislead, misunderstood in
society especially propaganda issued. This somehow can

pg. 158
increase because of the social media number are staggering such
as Facebook, twitter, google exposed to a rival power or the
media. It is nothing new in this era, this clearly can be seen
because everyone can share fake news overload through the
social media such as forged documents, doctored photographs,
deceptive advertising, deliberately falsified maps, and
government propaganda have been around for years.  
  However, disinformation has recently become a much
more pressing threat to information quality. According to Rafael
Capurro, Information science, conceived as a hermeneutic-
rhetorical discipline, studies the con-textual pragmatic
dimensions within which knowledge is shared positively as
information and negatively as misinformation particularly
through technical forms of communication” (Cappuro, 2000).
This is one of the inferences from his analyses that is based on
the attitudes that the information is in its essence connected
with the insight structure of human beings. Message forwarded
from someone that we do not really know about his background
is hard to trust 100%. Someone can spread misinformation
innocently. For example, a social media should be used to
socialize and not to spread a news that commit an act of
misinformation. The solution to disinformation will require an
intricate balance of external and internal regulation. Some of the
greatest challenges concern how the technology crazily can
influence the society in this era. For example, social networking
sites become addictive and this can make the communities
cannot stop surfing to them and lead to misinformation and
many more. This “oversharing” becomes accepted practice
within certain groups. 

pg. 159
DISCUSSION
First and foremost, propaganda in the digital era is
somehow rudimentary different from that which has gone
before. The fact that citizens no longer accepted to the news but
somehow there were the only who actively in spread that some
information. Propaganda in the past century reminds us that
there so many failures to understand how information was
spread among the citizen. But the truth is, digital propaganda is
seen to be solely just another technological adaptation to age-
old principles. On the other perspective, we already know that
propaganda has exploded with the rise of social media such as
Facebook, twitter, google exposed to a rival power or the media.
For example, according to the congressional testimony of
Facebook, Google and Twitter representatives, more than 150
million people were likely exposed. While, there are so many
disruptive effects on how digital propaganda has affected the
communities, it is important to us to promoting the campaigns
and efforts that seek to disinformation. 
Defensive counter-strategies are important for
communities in spreading the patterns of digital propaganda,
knowing nodes of influence in the disinformation network and
improving media literacy about how the propaganda works
Perhaps the single most defining failure of modern
misinformation, disinformation, “fakes information” and
foreign influence research has been the a thing that is accepted
as true or as certain to happen, without proof that the web has
somehow fundamentally altered the conduct and impact of
propaganda. Researchers today one said that it has become most
of these projections are sentimental-sentiments, and they spread
the false news that those sentiments are trying to make. It is
described as an 'alternative fact', but on reality it is a lie and a
game of sentiment.
Besides, as a consumer we need to spend a bit of time on
how the propaganda literature of last century works in the

pg. 160
community to social life. It has become all too common for
adults to let their infants be transfixed on a digital gadget even
at times when families are supposed to allow to use the gadget
in a right way. churches, schools, neighborhood organizations,
and any number of other social organizations brought
communities to formed a complex network that emphasized
both the local community and the national sense of belonging.
These networks fulfilled how many information or
disinformation can be precisely spread in the social media.
Propaganda spread in that era much as it does today world and
the communities had influencers day by day. It is actually the
public may check whether it is true or the information cannot be
ascertained.
In fact, as expected the changing technological
landscape ensures that digital propaganda is here to stay.
Foreign ministries might not be able to eliminate it completely,
but they should be able to reduce its corrosive consequences by
better understanding how it works effectively educate the public
to investigate a viral news before sharing it. At the same time, it
also solves the problem of the false news spread that is the
frenzy of today's social media community.
  Then, why information is not going to happen is because
of a strategic political approach. Incorrect information also
occurs when certain people make their own strategies to make
others believe their words. In politics, the unscrupulous party
has taken the opportunity to issue a word or pledge to the
people of the country to elect them to govern. This often
happens, in order to attract the people who is vote for them, but
they forget that deceiving the people with their manifesto has
had a devastating impact on the political and public sphere. This
is because some people who do not care about the impact of the
information or the man power they give to those people have
had a very bad impact on the country as well. Such as the allies
encouraging the Soviet Union to act to pay the disinformation
price to be their pride in politics. Based on article about the

pg. 161
deception and disinformation looked has many ways that they
use to manipulated or do their manifesto and send all the user to
believe that information will be correctly.
Last but not least, why disinformation also happened
because of having the faking news at the social media. It is also
going on when the information was lied spread faster on other
platform than truth does. Has a lot of faults that people do to
attract other people believe it, then they will post anything on
social media to get other trust. Many people and traders are
willing to lie about their money just for the sake of profit. They
are also capable of deceiving the public about the disadvantages
and impacts of the ingredients in their product sales such as
hazardous materials when used or used. Because of their
important nature, other people also have adverse effects
especially in the aspects of healthcare related to drug use.

pg. 162
CONCLUSION
In the nutshell, as we know, the good information also
can get with doing the good accessing and will be more with the
best monitoring of user. But if user don’t do that wisely it also
can make an information be a wrong information. then, it also
can make why disinformation will be happened. Why
disinformation also because of the fake news, propaganda,
manifesto and so many. If it is non control now, this results in
the authenticity and privilege of information that will never be
used again. This is due to misuse of information as well as the
misunderstanding of information that often results in increased
fraud symptoms in our country.

pg. 163
REFERENCE
Andrew S. Ross. 2018. Discursive Deflection: Accusation of
“Fake News” and the Spread of Mis- and Disinformation in the
Tweets of President Trump. Social Media + Society April-June
2018: 1–12 
A.Karlova, Natascha. 2013. A social diffusion model of
misinformation and disinformation for understanding human
information behavior. The Information School, University
of Washington, Seattle, W.A 91895. 
http://informationr.net/ir/18-1/paper573.html#.XqOi_mgzbIU

Capurro, R. (1978). Information: Ein Beitrag zur

etymologischen undideengeschichtlichen    Begrundungendes
Informationsbegriffs. 
Capurro, R. Foundations of Information Science: Review and
Perspectives. Retrieved May 20,  2002 from
thehttp://www.capurro.de/tampere91.htm
Lasswell, H. D. (1927). The theory of political
propaganda.American Political Science Review.Stahl, B.C.
2006. On the difference or equality ofinformation,
misinformation, and disinformation: A criticalresearch
perspective. Informing Science
Gackowski, Z.J. 2006. Quality of informing: Bias
anddisinformation, Philosophical background and roots.
Issuesin Informing Science and Information Technology
Fletcher Schoen.2012. strategic perspective: Deception,
Disinformation, and Strategic 
Communications: How One Interagency Group Made a Major
Difference, Institute for National Strategic Perspectives, No. 11.
Series Editor: Nicholas Rostow

pg. 164
Julie Posetti. 2018. A Learning Module for Journalists and
Journalism Educators: A short guide to the history of ’fake
news’ and disinformation. International center for Journalist. 
Miroslav Tudjman. 2003. Information Science: Science about
Information, Misinformation and Disinformation, University of
Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia. 

pg. 165
 HOW TO PREVENT DISINFORMATION

NURADILA BINTI MOHD NOOR

AND
QURRATULL AINI BINTI MOHD MALIKI

INTRODUCTION 

In the modern age of the internet, the dissemination and sharing

of information is easy and fast. Content and information found
on websites and social media have made it easy for people to
get information easily and quickly. The existence of
sophisticated digital platforms, especially innovative social
media such as Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Twitter and
others, has shaped new ways of communicating and reaching
global reach. However, in the sophistication of the modern
communication system, we are experiencing serious new
problems, such as inaccurate dissemination of information and
the spread of fake news. 

Today, most social media users can easily share and

disseminate information because the share button is one of the
main features of all social media. The group of experts are
focused on the problems associated with a clearer term. They
defined the disinformation as “false, inaccurate, or misleading
information designed, presented and promoted to intentionally
cause public harm or for profit”. This is so prevalent and
difficult to control that most social media users tend to spread
information and news that they find interesting without
considering the consequences. As a result, inaccurate
information transmission and fake news are seen as serious
issues that threaten global and national security. Concerned,
there have been studies that have found worldwide declines in
public confidence in traditional journalism and news. This
means that people rely on information shared on a digital

pg. 166
platform. This in turn results in a very high probability of
uncovering false information. Therefore, a number of steps need
to be identified in order to prevent the spread of false
information and fake news from spreading and out of control.

Improvements of Information Conveyance to the Community

Improvements in the delivery of information are

important and need to be made by the responsible parties. It is
very important to prevent the spread of false information or fake
news in the country quickly. Improvements in this way as the
local news industry is not only competing with local agency
partners, but also overseas news agencies. News and
information from abroad can be easily achieved due to the rapid
rise of global internet technology. Among the fastest spreading
news across the state or region are popular and current news
such as flood news for example in the state of Kelantan,
epidemic outbreaks such as COVID-19 have occurred
worldwide. This adds to the turmoil that causes people to act
out of self-control just like doing panic buying for their daily
needs without thinking of others in need. This should be
avoided on a regular basis so as not to cause a stir in the
community. 

As a social media user such as Facebook, Instagram,

Whatsapp, etc., one should be more responsible for the
information received.  According to Bargaoanu, A., & Radu, L.
(2018), almost 44% of the respondents declared that they use
Facebook for reading news, with some slight differences
between the undergraduates (i.e. 42% declared that they use
Facebook for reading news) and the graduates (i.e. 49% use
Facebook for reading news). By taking the initiative to validate
the information read by doing a simple search on Google or it
can also be reviewed on the actual website.my developed by the
Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission
(MCMC) to ensure that the authenticity of the information is
continuously misunderstood by others. Indirectly, this can

pg. 167
reduce the number of cases of dissemination of false
information that may be harmful to others such as agencies or
others. After taking the initiative in verifying the information
received by reviewing it, and then if it is found to be incorrect
or incorrect, one should take the next step by telling it to friends
and relatives not to trust it and to share it with others. According
to a study by the University of Ohio, by simply doing a simple
search on the internet to verify readability, it has proven to be
helpful in stopping the spread of misinformation from spreading
throughout the state or region.

Media Literacy Campaigns

In addition, media literacy campaigns need to be carried

out by those responsible. This is because it reduces the spread
of fake news among the public. According to Fallis, D (2015),
just like lying, disinformation is not a “success term.”. In our
country, during the last general election, there has been a
noticeable use of digital military machinery known as cyber
troopers by some political parties. The act was criticized by
observers as unethical in the dissemination of information.
Political warfare by political parties by paying some parties to
run strategic communications campaigns, including
dissemination of misinformation about opponents is prudent
and tarnishes the democratic system. The question arises on
how to address this issue without denying the benefits of digital
media to the public. In keeping the democratic system open, it is
important for the government, the people and all parties to work
together to resolve this issue rather than continue to occur
among the people of this country. This is to prevent any kind of
commotion from happening to each other.

Therefore, the Government should take steps to promote

media literacy among the people and help improve the quality
of professional journalism in our country. The government
should not be stubborn in preparing special budgets for media
literacy campaigns and improving government-owned media

pg. 168
agencies, so that people's confidence in professional journalism
can be improved. Strategic communications campaigns with the
use of cyber troopers should also be restricted to control the
spread of extreme propaganda by some who wish to benefit
themselves. This has been prevented from continuing to happen
in our country. In addition, the news industry should improve
the quality of work to build public confidence and think of ways
to take responsive and fast action to correct fake information on
social media such as Facebook, Whatsapp, Instagram, and
more. According to Joshua A. Tucker (2018), he said that on the
one hand, social media has clearly become a tool for traditional
media reporting; one need only think of the number of times a
@realDonaldTrump tweet accompanies a news story about the
president.  

 Strengthening Punishment and Laws

Another way to solve the problem of spreading fake

news is to tighten penalties and laws in a country. It is well
known that the spread of fake news has had a devastating
impact not only on the society, but also on the economic,
political, and social well-being of the country. If this problem
becomes widespread, other countries will look down on our
country. This is because some fake news will influence some
people's beliefs to believe it and will consider the news to be
true even if it is designed for their own sake. According to
Fallis, D (2015), just like lying, disinformation is not a “success
term.”. Therefore, the government should enforce the law by
imposing penalties on offenders who have spread the false
news. For example, the government must sue the person for
RM500 or be jailed for up to six months under a court-ordered
act that is commensurate with their actions. Authorities like the
police, and so on must also be honest and trustworthy and not
be biased in imposing fines imposed by the court. This way, no
matter how poor or rich, they will all be afraid to do such a
thing. Indirectly this problem can be prevented before it can

pg. 169
continue to have a negative impact on the country, society, and
other innocent people.

pg. 170
Increase Level of Self Awareness

Efforts to deal with fake news can only come from the
authorities. This is because most of the problem comes from
individuals who do not feel guilty when doing such slanderous
things. Therefore, we as a user ourselves should play a very
important role in this regard. The best course of action can be
taken to increase the level of awareness of the impact of fake
news on individuals, society and the country. It will have a bad
effect if the problem persists. The first step that every person
should take is if the information or message received is
questionable, then one should first check with legitimate
sources for certainty. It is only after the confirmation has been
made that the person decides whether to continue sharing on the
social site or otherwise. Additionally, users should also be
aware that not all of the information they receive and that is
available on the Internet is completely correct. There are certain
parties out there who are trying to make up false stories to
spread rumors and false information. One person did this to
create a sense of community.

pg. 171
Conclusion

In conclusion, misinformation and fake news spread

with the intention of misleading and manipulating can give bad
effects on individuals and the public. According to Bargaoanu,
A., & Radu, L. (2018), most Romanians use the Internet for
reading news and/or for accessing their Facebook account. This
can show that nowadays, people are more likely to get the
information and news from the internet or social media. In this
regard, it is important for the Malaysian Commission (MCMC)
to find the best mechanism and for monitoring fake news so that
the outbreak does not spread and continues to affect the public.
In addition, an individual must also be concerned and take
responsibility for ensuring the spread of fake news and false
information can be stopped. But in order to overcome this
critical threat to information quality, we must first understand
exactly what is incorrect information. After reviewing the
various analyzes that have been proposed, it can be concluded
that the misinformation is misleading information that has the
potential to be misleading. Existing official information and
sources of information need to be used to evaluate and verify
news or information before being spread to the others.

pg. 172
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Asmolov, G. (2018). The Disconnective Power Of Disinformation

Campaigns. Journal of International Affairs, 71(1.5), 69-76.
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Bargaoanu, A., & Radu, L. (2018). Fake News or Disinformation 2.0-

Some Insights into Romanians' Digital Behaviour. Romanian J.
Eur. Aff., 18, 24.

European Commission. (2018). A multi-dimensional approach to

disinformation. Report of the independent High-Level Group on
fake news and online disinformation. Luxembourg: Publications
Office of the European Union.

Fallis, D. (2015). What Is Disinformation? Library Trends 63(3), 401-

426. doi:10.1353/lib.2015.0014.  

Faris, R., Roberts, H., Etling, B., Bourassa, N., Zuckerman, E., &
Benkler, Y. (2017). Partisanship, propaganda, and
disinformation: Online media and the 2016 US presidential
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Freelon, D., & Wells, C. (2020). Disinformation as Political

Communication. Political Communication, 37(2), 145-156.
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Froehlich, T. J. (2017). A Not-So-Brief Account of Current Information

Ethics: The Ethics of Ignorance, Missing Information,
Misinformation, Disinformation and Other Forms of Deception
or Incompetence. BiD, (39).

Giannetti, W. (2017, Fall). A Duty to Warn: How to Help America

Fight Back Against Russian Disinformation. Air & Space
Power Journal, 31(3), 95+.

pg. 173
 Marwick, A., & Lewis, R. (2017). Media manipulation and
disinformation online. New York: Data & Society Research
Institute.

Tucker, J., Guess, A., Barbera, P., Vaccari, C., Siegel, A., Sanovich,
S., . . . Nyhan, B. (2018). Social Media, Political Polarization,
and Political Disinformation: A Review of the Scientific
Literature. SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3144139.

INDEX take action to reduce or

prevent, 65, 89, 92
A cybercrime
apprehended criminal activities carried
understand or perceive., out by means of
70 computers or the
authenticity Internet., 27, 28, 30,
the quality of being 33, 34, 35, 36, 37
authentic, 18
D
C deliberately
combat

pg. 174
 in a careful and unhurried the action of limiting or
way, 20, 21, 70, 75, 90, undermining
99, 107, 149 something, 101
democratic
relating to or supporting M
democracy or its malfunction
principles., 29, 62, 67, a failure to function
69, 101, 116, 123, 124, normally, 28
158 manhood
disseminated the state or period of
spread, 32, 78, 83, 103, being a man rather than
130 a child., 32
mimic
F imitate (someone or their
fabricated actions or words), 62
invent (something) in misuse
order to deceive, 73, the wrong or improper
75, 90, 142, 144 use of something., 30,
31, 132, 134, 153
H
N
hoaxes
trick or deceive, 71, 99, nurtured
104, 105 the action or process of
nurturing someone or
I something, 118
impersonate
P
pretend to be (another
person) for polluting
entertainment or fraud, defile or corrupt., 99
42
infringement S
social media

pg. 175
 platform to connect with sophisticated
people, 1, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, (of a machine, system, or
10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, technique) developed
18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, to a high degree of
24, 25, 26, 29, 39, 40, complexity, 18, 71, 82,
41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 50, 85, 156
51, 57, 59, 62, 63, 66, subnet
73, 77, 83, 84, 90, 91, subnetwork, 35
92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 99, substantial
100, 102, 103, 107, of considerable
111, 112, 113, 121, importance, size, or
125, 131, 132, 133, worth, 44, 110
134, 139, 142, 143,
144, 148, 149, 150, T
151, 152, 156, 157, taunt
159, 161 provoke someone, 43
platform to connect with Trolling
peoplw, 1 insult, 20

pg. 176
pg. 177