METHODS

1. a questionnaire phase to gather information about workers’ MSD symptoms and perceptions of
work tasks
2. A video phase to assess exposures resulting from common beef cattle production
tasks.

Definition of Musculoskeletal Disorder

So what is a musculoskeletal disorder?

It’s simple.

Musculoskeletal Disorders or MSDs are injuries and disorders that affect the human
body’s movement or musculoskeletal system (i.e. muscles, tendons, ligaments, nerves, discs,
blood vessels, etc.).

Common musculoskeletal disorders include:

 Carpal Tunnel Syndrome

 Tendonitis
 Muscle / Tendon strain
 Ligament Sprain
 Tension Neck Syndrome
 Thoracic Outlet Compression
 Rotator Cuff Tendonitis
 Epicondylitis
 Radial Tunnel Syndrome
 Digital Neuritis
 Trigger Finger / Thumb
 DeQuervain’s Syndrome
 Mechanical Back Syndrome
 Degenerative Disc Disease
 Ruptured / Herniated Disc,
 and many more.

We use the term “musculoskeletal disorder” because it accurately describes the problem.
Other common names for MSDs are “repetitive motion injury”, “repetitive stress injury”,
“overuse injury” and many more. The problem with using that kind of terminology is that it
implicates a singular cause for damage to the musculoskeletal system – repetition and stress.
This is limiting because more and more research is pointing to multiple causative risk factors
leading to MSDs.

MSD PREVENTION 101

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The Cause of Musculoskeletal Disorders – Exposure to Risk Factors

When a worker is exposed to MSD risk factors, they begin to fatigue. When fatigue outruns their
body’s recovery system, they develop a musculoskeletal imbalance. Over time, as fatigue
continues to outrun recovery and the musculoskeletal imbalance persists, a musculoskeletal
disorder develops.

These risk factors can be broken up into two categories: work-related (ergonomic) risk factors
and individual-related risk factors.
So the root cause of MSDs is exposure to MSD risk factors – both work-related risk factors and
individual-related risk factors. Work-related Risk Factors

Workplace design plays a crucial role in the development of an MSD.

When a worker is asked to do work that is outside his body’s capabilities and limitations, he is
being asked to put his musculoskeletal system at risk. In these situations, an objective evaluation
of the workstation design tells us the worker’s recovery system will not be able to keep up with
the fatigue that will be caused by performing the job. The evaluation will tell us that ergonomic
risk factors are present, the worker is at risk of developing a musculoskeletal imbalance and a
musculoskeletal disorder is an imminent reality.

There are three primary ergonomic risk factors.

 High task repetition. Many work tasks and cycles are repetitive in nature, and are
frequently controlled by hourly or daily production targets and work processes. High task
repetition, when combined with other risks factors such high force and/or awkward
postures, can contribute to the formation of MSD. A job is considered highly repetitive if
the cycle time is 30 seconds or less.
 Forceful exertions. Many work tasks require high force loads on the human body.
Muscle effort increases in response to high force requirements, increasing associated
fatigue which can lead to MSD.
 Repetitive or sustained awkward postures. Awkward postures place excessive force on
joints and overload the muscles and tendons around the effected joint. Joints of the body
are most efficient when they operate closest to the mid-range motion of the joint. Risk of
MSD is increased when joints are worked outside of this mid-range repetitively or for
sustained periods of time without adequate recovery time.

Exposure to these workplace risk factors puts workers at a higher level of MSD risk. It’s
common sense: high task repetition, forceful exertions and repetitive/sustained awkward postures
fatigue the worker’s body beyond their ability to recover, leading to a musculoskeletal imbalance
and eventually an MSD.

Individual-related Risk Factors

Human beings are multi-dimensional. Limiting ourselves to a singular cause of MSDs will limit
our ability to create a prevention strategy that addresses the multi-dimensional worker.

We need to address both workplace risk factors and individual risk factors.

Individual risk factors include:

 Poor work practices. Workers who use poor work practices, body mechanics and lifting
techniques are introducing unnecessary risk factors that can contribute to MSDs. These
poor practices create unnecessary stress on their bodies that increases fatigue and
decreases their body’s ability to properly recover.
 Poor overall health habits. Workers who smoke, drink excessively, are obese, or exhibit
numerous other poor health habits are putting themselves at risk for not only
musculoskeletal disorders, but also for other chronic diseases that will shorten their life
and health span.
  Poor rest and recovery. MSDs develop when fatigue outruns the workers recovery
system, causing a musculoskeletal imbalance. Workers who do not get adequate rest and
recovery put themselves at higher risk.
 Poor nutrition, fitness and hydration. For a country as developed as the United States,
an alarming number of people are malnourished, dehydrated and at such a poor level of
physical fitness that climbing one flight of stairs puts many people out of breath. Workers
who do not take care of their bodies are putting themselves at a higher risk of developing
musculoskeletal and chronic health problems.

Exposure to these individual risk factors puts workers at a higher level of MSD risk. Just like
workplace risk factors, individual risk factors are common sense:  when a worker uses poor work
practice, has bad health habits, doesn’t get adequate rest and recovery and doesn’t take care of
their bodies with a good nutrition and fitness regimen, they are at greater risk for fatigue to
outrun their recovery system. Having a poor overall health profile puts them at greater risk of
developing a musculoskeletal imbalance and eventually an MSD.

Beef Cattle Industry Terminology

Following are definitions of some common terms used in the cattle industry.

Artificial Insemination (A.I.) - The procedure for impregnating cows by manually placing
semen in the reproductive tract of the female.

Average Daily Gain (ADG) - Calculation of post-weaning gain, figured by dividing the weight
gain by the days on feed.

Backgrounder – Cattle that have been weaned and are growing and maturing until they meet the
requirements for feedlot finishing.

Bred - Applies to the female definitely safe in calf, or pregnant; also used to refer to the mating
process.

Bull - Uncastrated male cattle of any age.

Calf or calves - Young cattle of either sex less than one year of age.

Calving - Giving birth, also called “dropping a calf” or parturition.

Castrate - to remove the testes of male cattle.

Crossbred - An animal that has purebred parents or grade parents of different breeds.

Cow - Female cattle that have had one or more calves.

Feeder calf – A steer or heifer that is mature enough for backgrounding or to enter the finishing
stage.

Finish - The degree of fatness

Finishing – The stage where cattle are fed and prepared for harvest. 

Freemartin - The female member of unlike twins in cattle, showing many male characteristics
and incapable of production.

Heat - The recurrent period of sexual receptiveness in mature cows, when the cow will stand for
the bull to breed her; estrus.

Heifer - Female cattle that have not had a calf.

Open - Refers to the non-pregnant female.

Polled - Cattle that are born without horns.

Purebred - A beef animal whose parents are of the same breed and are recorded with the
registry association.

Service - The act or ability to breed.

Steer - Male cattle that were castrated at an early age before any sex characteristics developed.

Stocker – Weaned cattle between six to nine months old and weighing between 400 and 700
pounds.

Supplement - Nutritional additive intended to remedy deficiencies of the diet, such as salt,
minerals, protein.

Weanling – Cattle that have just weaned from their mother’s milk.

The OWAS was developed by a Finnish steel company of Ovako Oy (Karhu et al., 1977). The
method was based on ratings of working postures taken in several divisions of the steel factory
performed by 32 experienced steel workers and international ergonomists. The OWAS identifies
four work postures for the back, three for the arms, seven for the lower limbs, and three
categories for the weight of load handled or amount of force used. The technique classifies
combinations of these four categories by the degree of their impact on the musculoskeletal
system for all posture combinations. The degrees of the assessed harmfulness of these posture–
load combinations are grouped into four action categories, which indicate the urgency for the
required workplace interventions: action category 1, normal postures which do not need any
special attention, except in some special cases; action category 2, postures must be considered
during the next regular check of working methods; action category 3, postures need
consideration in the near future; and action category 4: postures need immediate consideration.

The RULA was proposed to provide a quick assessment of the loading on the musculoskeletal
system due to the postures of the neck, trunk and upper limbs, muscle function, and external
loads exerted. Based on the grand score of its coding system, four action levels, which indicate
the level of intervention required to reduce the risks of injury due to physical loading on the
worker, were suggested (McAtamney and Corlett, 1993): action level 1, posture is acceptable if
it is not maintained or repeated for long periods; action level 2, further investigation is needed
and changes may be needed; action level 3, investigation and changes are required soon; and
action level 4, investigation and changes are required immediately.

The REBA is a postural analysis tool designed to be sensitive to the type of unpredictable
working postures found in health care and other service industries. The posture classification
system, which included the upper arms, lower arms, wrist, trunk, neck, and legs, was based on
the body part diagrams from the RULA. The method reflected the extent of the external
load/forces exerted, muscle activity caused by static, dynamic, rapid changing or unstable
postures, and coupling effect. Unlike the OWAS and RULA, this technique provided five action
levels for evaluating the level of corrective actions (Hignett and McAtamney, 2000): action level
0, corrective action including further assessment is not necessary; action level 1, corrective
action including further assessment may be necessary; action level 2, corrective action including
further assessment is necessary; action level 3, corrective action including further assessment is
necessary soon; and action level 4, corrective action including further assessment is necessary
now.

Biomechanical Assessment Methods

Biomechanical assessment methods are used to monitor strain exerted on the
musculoskeletal system during a task performance in an assessment environment.
Various postural assessment methods are available to evaluate exposure WRMSD
risk factors. These methods may be categorised into self-reporting, observational
methods, direct methods, and indirect methods (David, 2005, Li and Buckle, 1999b)

5 Types of Research Design – Elements,

Needs and Characteristics
Before conducting any research, you must devise a plan to collect and evaluate data, tackle the
challenges and reach a conclusion.

A detailed plan will give your research direction, sharpen your research methods and set
your study up for success. This detailed plan is referred to as research design in the
professional Research design is a blueprint of a scientific study. It includes research
methodologies, tools, and techniques to conduct the research. It helps to identify and
address the problem that may rise during the process of research and analysisrealm.
What is a Research Design?
A researcher usually chooses the research methodologies and techniques at the start of the
research. The document that contains information about the technique, methods and essential
details of a project is called a research design.

Experts define research design as the glue that holds the research project together.

It (research design) helps provide a structure and direction to the research, yielding favourable
results.

Here are some principles of a sound research design:

 Identifies the problems

 Reviews literature around the problem statement
 Specifies hypothesis
 Describes sources of data
 Defines how data will be interpreted

What are the characteristics of Research Desig•

Validity

There are many ways to measure the results of research. A good research design helps select the
right measuring tools to gauge results according to the research objective.

Generalised

A good research design draws an outcome that can be applied to a large set of people and is not
limited to sample size or the research group.

Neutrality

At the start of every research, a researcher needs to make some assumptions that will be tested
during the research.
A proper research design ensures that the assumptions are free of bias and neutral. It also
provides that the data collected throughout the research is based on the assumptions made at the
beginning of the research.

What are the Main Elements of a Research Design?

Reliability

Research design, when done right, can generate similar results every time it is performed.
However, yielding similar results is only possible if your research design is reliable.

Here are some of the elements of a good research design:

 Purpose statement
 Data collection methods
 Techniques of data analysis
 Types of research methodologies
 Challenges of the research
 Prerequisites required for study
 Duration of the research study
 Measurement of analysis

What is the need for Research Design?

 Reduces inaccuracy
 Increases efficiency and reliability
 Eliminates bias and errors
 Minimises wastage of time
 Helpful in testing the hypothesis
 Provides a direction to the research

Important concepts of Research Design

Variable

Variable is a concept that can take on various quantitative values. For instance, weight, height,
etc.

Dependent Variable

A dependent variable is a variable that is tested in an experiment. It is dependent, in some way

on the variation of an independent variable.

Independent Variable
An independent variable in an experiment is considered to stand on its own. For instance, if the
test scores of a class are an outcome of their efforts; efforts are an independent variable, and the
score is a dependent variable.

Hypothesis

It is defined as the hypothesis that needs to be tested in an experiment.

What Are the Different Types of Research Design?

A researcher must be well-versed in different types of research design. Moreover, a clear
understanding of different research designs helps choose the proper technique for the research.

Research design is broadly divided into quantitative and qualitative research design. We’ll walk
you through them in detail below.

Quantitative research design

Quantitative research design aims at finding answers to who, what, where, how, and when
through the course of research. Moreover, the outcome of the quantitative analysis is easy to
represent in the form of statistics, graphs, charts, and numbers.

Qualitative research design

Qualitative research design focuses on finding answers to how and why. It uses open-ended
questions and helps the subjects express their views clearly.
Qualitative research is ideal for businesses that aim to understand customers’ behaviour and
requirements.
You can further break the types of research designs into five categories.

Experimental design

This type of research design looks at a problem scientifically by establishing a clear cause and
effect of every event. It also tries to understand the impact of the independent variable on the
dependable variable.
Often social sciences use it to observe human behaviours and understand the social psychology
of human being better.

Correlational design

Correlation research design establishes a relationship between two related variables. The
researcher observes the variables over time and then draws conclusions based on them. This type
of research design requires two different groups.
A correlation coefficient determines the relationship between two variables. The value of the
correlation coefficient ranges between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is +1, it indicates a
positive relationship between the two variables, and -1 means a negative relationship.

Descriptive design

Descriptive design is a theory-based research method describing the research’s primary subject
matter. This type of research design uses data collection techniques like natural observation, case
studies, and surveys to derive results.
This type of research design provides insight into the why and how of research.

Diagnostic design

In diagnostic research, the design strives to explore the reason behind an issue and find solutions
to solve it. This type of research design tries to solve the problems in a structured form divided
into three phases- the issue’s inception, diagnosis of the issue, and solution for the issue.

Explanatory design

In this research design, the researcher explores concepts and ideas on a subject to explore more
theories. The main aim of the research is to explore the subjects’ undiscovered aspects and
answer questions like what, how, and why.

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There are four common types of research design — descriptive, correlational, experimental, and
diagnostic designs. Let’s take a look at each in more detail.

The Four Types of Research Design

Researchers use different designs to accomplish different research objectives. Here, we'll discuss
how to choose the right type, the benefits of each, and use cases.

Research can also be classified as quantitative or qualitative at a higher level. Some experimentse
Experimental

An experimental design is used when the researcher wants to examine how variables interact
with each other. The researcher manipulates one variable (the independent variable) and
observes the effect on another variable (the dependent variable).

In other words, the researcher wants to test a causal relationship between two or more variables.

In marketing, an example of experimental research would be comparing the effects of a

television commercial versus an online advertisement conducted in a controlled environment
(e.g. a lab). The objective of the research is to test which advertisement gets more attention
among people of different age groups, gender, etc.

xhibit both qualitative and quantitative characteristics. Another example is a study of the effect
of music on productivity. A researcher assigns participants to one of two groups — those who
listen to music while working and those who don't — and measure their productivity.

The main benefit of an experimental design is that it allows the researcher to draw causal
relationships between variables.

Descriptive

Descriptive research refers to a systematic process of observing and describing what a subject
does without influencing them.

Methods include surveys, interviews, case studies, and observations. Descriptive research aims
to gather an in-depth understanding of a phenomenon and answers when/what/where.

SaaS companies use descriptive design to understand how customers interact with specific
features. Findings can be used to spot patterns and roadblocks. For instance, product managers
can use screen recordings by Hotjar to observe in-app user behavior. This way, the team can
precisely understand what is happening at a certain stage of the user journey and act accordingly.

Brand24, a social listening tool, tripled its sign-up conversion rate from 2.56% to 7.42%, thanks
to locating friction points in the sign-up form through screen recordings.

Best for: Gathering unbiased data that reveals behaviors or recurring phenomena.

Diagnostic
Diagnostic research determines the root cause of a problem and finds the most effective solution. It’s
often used in marketing to identify areas of improvement or potential opportunities for growth.

The diagnostic research design consists of three steps:

 Inception, which includes data collection and problem definition.

 Diagnostics, which comprises data analysis, hypothesis testing, and setting objectives.
  Solutions, which define the best possible solution.

In product teams, a diagnostic design would involve analyzing customer feedback and reviews to
identify areas where a company can improve. This would help identify where a product offering
needs to change — pricing, missing features, customer service, etc.

Diagnostic research provides an accurate diagnosis of a problem and identifies areas of

improvement.

Best for: Understanding the underlying causes of a problem and how to address it.

One limitation: This research requires a great deal of control over the environment and
participants, making it difficult to replicate in the real world. In addition, it’s quite costly.

Best for: Testing a cause-and-effect relationship (i.e., the effect of an independent variable on a
dependent variable).

Correlational

A correlational design examines the relationship between two or more variables without
intervening in the process.

Correlational design allows the analyst to observe natural relationships between variables. This
results in data being more reflective of real-world situations.

For example, marketers can use correlational design to examine the relationship between brand
loyalty and customer satisfaction. In particular, the researcher would look for patterns or trends
in the data to see if there is a relationship between these two entities.

Similarly, you can study the relationship between physical activity and mental health. The
analyst here would ask participants to complete surveys about their physical activity levels and
mental health status. Data would show how the two variables are related.

Best for: Understanding the extent to which two or more variables are associated with each other
in the real world.
How to Determine Sample Size for a
Research Study
Sample size is a research term used for defining the number of individuals included in a research
study to represent a population. The sample size references the total number of respondents
included in a study, and the number is often broken down into sub-groups by demographics such
as age, gender, and location so that the total sample achieves represents the entire population.
Determining the appropriate sample size is one of the most important factors in statistical
analysis. If the sample size is too small, it will not yield valid results or adequately represent the
realities of the population being studied. On the other hand, while larger sample sizes yield
smaller margins of error and are more representative, a sample size that is too large may
significantly increase the cost and time taken to conduct the research.

This article will discuss considerations to put in place when determining your sample size and
how to calculate the sample size.

Confidence Interval and Confidence Level

As we have noted before, when selecting a sample there are multiple factors that can impact the
reliability and validity of results, including sampling and non-sampling errors. When thinking
about sample size, the two measures of error that are almost always synonymous with sample
sizes are the confidence interval and the confidence level.