GROUP 2 – PETROLOGY

PETROLOGY
• Petrology is the study of rocks and their properties, including their composition, texture,
and formation.
• It plays a crucial role in understanding the Earth's geological history and the processes
that shape its surface.

ROCK
• is a naturally occurring aggregate of minerals, and certain non-mineral materials such as
fossils and glass.

Just as minerals are the building blocks of rocks, rocks in turn are the natural building
blocks of the Earth's LITHOSPHERE (crust and mantle down to a depth of about 100
km), ASTHENOSPHERE (although this layer, in the depth range from about 100 to 250
km, is partially molten), MESOSPHERE (mantle in the depth range from about 250 to
2900 km), and even part of the CORE (while the outer core is molten, the inner core is
solid). Most rocks now exposed at the surface of the Earth formed in or on continental
or oceanic crust. Many such rocks, formed beneath the surface and now exposed at the
surface, were delivered to the surface from great depths in the crust and in rare cases
from the underlying mantle.

There are two general ways that rocks come to be exposed at the surface:
• Formation at the surface (e.g., crystallization of lava, precipitation of calcite or dolomite
from sea water)
• Formation below the surface, followed by tectonic uplift and removal of the overlying
material by erosion

There are three kinds of rock:

- Igneous
- Sedimentary
- Metamorphic
-
Igneous rocks
• form when molten rock (magma or lava) cools and solidifies.
Sedimentary rocks
• originate when particles settle out of water or air, or by precipitation of minerals from
water. They accumulate in layers.
Metamorphic rocks
• result when existing rocks are changed by heat, pressure, or reactive fluids, such as
hot, mineral-laden water. Most rocks are made of minerals containing silicon and
oxygen, the most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust.

Distinctions
➢ Igneous rock
 ➢ Formation of igneous rocks is by the cooling and solidifying of magma.
➢ Magma is the molten material inside volcanoes that are expelled when it erupts and turns
into lava.
➢ As these substances slowly cool down mineralization takes place, and the molten rock
crystallizes and solidifies.
➢ Sedimentary rocks
➢ Sediments are rocks that have been broken down by weathering and erosion that
results in loose particles that eventually settle and form sedimentary rocks.
➢ Metamorphic rocks
➢ Metamorphic rocks are formed by the alteration of pre-existing rocks due to high
temperature and pressure conditions, and are classified based on their texture and the
degree of metamorphism they have undergone.

Distinctions between sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks:

Generally rocks are divided into three major type according to the process of their formation

Sedimentary rocks
➢ Sediments are rocks that have been broken down by weathering and erosion that results
in loose particles that eventually settle and form sedimentary rocks.
➢
➢ The two key processes in forming sedimentary rocks are
• Compaction: where loose particles are compressed together; and
• Cementation: where the compressed particles start sticking together with the aid of
minerals that are deposited into the spaces between the particles ang act as glue. *this
is done with the assistance of running water, wind, ice, or living organisms

➢ Basically, sedimentary rocks are made up of dust and dirt from other rocks and are
generally stratified/ have layering. Layers can be differentiated by the variations in color,
particle size, type of cement, or internal arrangement.

➢ Sedimentary rock sizes vary from about the size of clay to boulder-like sizes.
➢ Fossils are generally found in sedimentary rocks because metamorphic and igneous rocks
are subjected to intense heat and pressure that removes traces of fossils.

Metamorphic rocks

• The process of its formation starts with the transformation of other rocks.
• The rocks are subjected to extreme pressure and heat deep into the earth that alters their
original shape and form to become metamorphic rocks. (process is referred to as
metamorphism)
• The rocks are commonly formed by the partial melting of minerals (not entirely melted
since that would be leading to an igneous state) and its recrystallization.
• When rock is metamorphosed, it is soft and pliable like dough.
• Metamorphism often produces apparent layering or banding in rocks due to the
segregation of minerals during metamorphism.
• Metamorphic processes can happen on the earth’s surface due to meteorite impacts and
pyrometamorphism happening near coal beds that are ignited by lightning strikes.
Igneous rock

• Formation of igneous rocks is by the cooling and solidifying of magma.

• High temperatures inside the earth’s crust melts rock thus turning it into a substance called
magma.
• Magma is the molten material inside volcanoes that are expelled when it erupts and turns
into lava.
• As these substances slowly cool down mineralization takes place, and the molten rock
crystallizes and solidifies.
• igneous rocks are divided into two categories:
• intrusive/plutonic rocks form inside the earth from magma
• Extrusive rocks cool and solidify on the surface

MAIN ROCKS:

IGNEOUS ROCKS
• Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling and solidification of molten rock material,
known as magma or lava. Igneous rocks can be classified based on their texture, mineral
composition, and mode of occurrence.
• Igneous rocks play an important role in the Earth's geology and are often used as building
materials and in various industrial applications.

There are two main types of igneous rocks based on their formation:
• Intrusive igneous rocks: These are formed when magma cools and solidifies within the
Earth's crust. Intrusive rocks cool slowly over time, allowing for the formation of larger mineral
crystals. Examples of intrusive igneous rocks include granite, diorite, and gabbro.
• Extrusive igneous rocks: These are formed when magma erupts onto the Earth's surface
as lava and then cools and solidifies quickly. Extrusive rocks cool rapidly, which results in the
formation of smaller mineral crystals or a glassy texture. Examples of extrusive igneous rocks
include basalt, andesite, and rhyolite.

There are also subtypes of igneous rocks based on their mineral composition:
• Felsic igneous rocks: These are rich in feldspar and silica and are light in color. Felsic
rocks are typically found in continental crust and are associated with explosive volcanic
activity. Examples of felsic rocks include granite and rhyolite
• Mafic igneous rocks: These are rich in iron and magnesium and are dark in color. Mafic
rocks are typically found in oceanic crust and are associated with non-explosive volcanic
activity. Examples of mafic rocks include basalt and gabbro.
• Intermediate igneous rocks: These have a mineral composition between felsic and mafic
rocks. They are typically associated with subduction zones where oceanic crust is being
consumed beneath continental crust. Examples of intermediate rocks include andesite
and diorite.
Igneous rocks occur in two ways, either as extrusive (on the surface) rocks or as intrusive (below
the surface) bodies. Intrusive rocks are also called "plutonic" and extrusive rocks are "volcanic".
Notes: The terms intrusive and extrusive only refer to the place where the rock solidified. Extrusive
rocks cool rapidly because they have erupted on the Earth's surface, but intrusive rocks cool more
slowly within an insulating blanket or surrounding rocks into which they have been emplaced.
PROPERTIES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
 • Strength and Durability: Igneous rocks are typically hard and durable, making them ideal
for use in construction projects that require strong and long-lasting materials, such as
roads, bridges, and buildings.
• Low Porosity: Igneous rocks have low porosity, which means they are less likely to
absorb water and other fluids. This makes them useful in applications where moisture
resistance is important, such as in foundation walls or tunnels.
• High Density: Igneous rocks are generally high in density, which makes them useful as
an aggregate in concrete and asphalt mixtures. They can also be used as rip-rap for
erosion control in waterways.
• Resistance to Weathering: Igneous rocks are resistant to weathering and erosion,
making them useful for landscaping and decorative purposes.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• Sedimentary rocks are formed from pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living organisms.
They form from deposits that accumulate on the Earth's surface.
• Sedimentary rocks are one of three main types of rocks, along with igneous and
metamorphic. They are formed on or near the Earth’s surface from the compression of
ocean sediments or other processes.
In contrast to metamorphic and igneous rocks, which are generated deep beneath the Earth,
sedimentary rocks are formed on or around the surface of the planet.

The major geological processes that result in the formation of sedimentary rocks are
• erosion,
• weathering,
• dissolution,
• precipitation,
• lithification.

Erosion and weathering are the results of wind and rain, which gradually reduce large rocks to
smaller ones. Boulders and even mountains become sediments, such as sand or mud, as a result
of erosion and weathering. Chemical weathering, or dissolution, is one type of weathering.
This method uses slightly acidic water to gradually wear away stone.

Sedimentary rocks can be divided into two groups:

• Detrital rock: created by the accumulation of sediment or rock fragments. Detritus can be
either organic or inorganic.
o Organic detrital rocks are formed by decayed parts of plants and animals that leave
behind biological material that becomes rock. Example: Coal, formed over millions of
years from compressed plants.
o Inorganic detrital rocks are formed from broken-up pieces of other rocks.
• Chemical rock: created by the precipitation of minerals that dissolve
o Example: Clastic sedimentary rocks, such as sandstone, formed from layers of sandy
sediment that is compacted and lithified.
o Chemical sedimentary rocks can be found in various environments, including oceans,
deserts, and caves. Example: Limestone, which forms at the bottom of the ocean from
the precipitation of calcium carbonate and the remains of marine animals with shells.
Cave formations such as stalagmites and stalactites are also chemical sedimentary rocks that are
produced differently.
• Stalagmites form on the cave floor when water evaporates and leaves behind calcium
carbonate.
• Stalactites form on the cave ceiling when water passes through bedrock and picks up
calcium and carbonate ions before evaporating.

PROPERTIES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

• Porosity: The degree of porosity in sedimentary rocks affects its ability to hold water and
other fluids, making it important in applications such as construction of dams and
reservoirs, as well as in oil and gas exploration.
• Permeability: The permeability of sedimentary rocks is also important in oil and gas
exploration, as it affects the movement of fluids through the rock.
• Strength: The strength of sedimentary rocks is important in construction applications,
such as building foundations and roads.
• Durability: The durability of sedimentary rocks is important in outdoor construction
applications, such as building facades and retaining walls.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS

• the transformation of other rocks by extreme pressure and heat deep into the earth that
alters their original shape and form to become metamorphic rocks.
• Metamorphic rocks are formed from existing rocks that undergo changes due to heat,
pressure, and time.
• Metamorphism is a broad term that means a change from one thing to another.
• Metamorphic rocks can form from sedimentary, igneous, or other metamorphic rocks.

• In order to form metamorphic rocks, the existing rock must be: exposed to high heat,
pressure, or a hot, mineral-rich fluid, and must remain solid.

• Metamorphic rocks typically form deep in the Earth's crust or at plate boundaries where
tectonic plates collide.
• Metamorphic rocks can be exposed on the Earth's surface due to geologic uplift and
erosion.
• Exposed metamorphic rocks can break down into sediment, which can then be
compressed to form sedimentary rocks, starting the cycle anew.
Notes:
Metamorphic rocks are formed through the process of metamorphism, which involves changing
the texture, mineral composition, and/or chemical composition of the original rock.
There are different types of metamorphism, including contact metamorphism, regional
metamorphism, and dynamic metamorphism, which occur under different conditions.

Metamorphic rocks can be used to study the geological history of the Earth, as they provide
information about the temperature, pressure, and deformation that rocks have undergone.
Examples of metamorphic rocks include marble, slate, and gneiss.
The conditions required to form a metamorphic rock are very specific. The existing rock must be:
• exposed to high heat,
 • exposed to high pressure, or
• exposed to a hot, mineral-rich fluid.

Usually, all three of these circumstances are met. These conditions are most often found either
deep in Earth’s crust or at plate boundaries where tectonic plates collide. In order to create
metamorphic rock, it is vital that the existing rock remain solid and not melt. If there is too much
heat or pressure, the rock will melt and become magma. This will result in the formation of an
igneous rock, not a metamorphic rock.

TYPES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Foliated metamorphic rock - These rocks have a layered or banded appearance, and the
minerals within them are arranged in a parallel or elongated fashion. Examples are slate, schist,
and gneiss.
Non-foliated metamorphic rocks - These rocks lack a layered or banded appearance, and their
minerals are arranged in a more random fashion. Examples are marble, quartzite, and hornfels.

PROPERTIES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

• Hardness and durability: Metamorphic rocks are often harder and more durable than the
original rock from which they were formed. This makes them suitable for use as building
materials, road aggregate, and decorative stones.
• Foliation: Foliation in metamorphic rocks results in the alignment of minerals in the rock.
This alignment can give the rock increased strength and durability, making it useful in
construction projects such as bridges and tunnels.
• Resistance to weathering: Metamorphic rocks are less susceptible to weathering than
other types of rocks. This makes them useful for construction projects in areas with harsh
weather conditions.