Composting - NC State Extension Publications

5/25/23, 7:31 PM 2.
Composting | NC State Extension Publications
2. Composting
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5/25/23, 7:31 PM 2. Composting | NC State Extension Publications
Outline
Objectives
Introduction
Slow (Cold) Composting
Fast (Hot) Composting
Composting Materials
What NOT to Compost and Common Composting Problems
Curing and Using Compost
Compost Tea
Vermicompost
Equipment and Supplies
Worm Bin
Bedding
Water
Composting Earthworms
Food Scraps
Harvesting Vermicompost
Method 1: Sideways Separation
Method 2: Light Separation
Method 3: Vertical Separation
Using Vermicompost
Summary
Frequently Asked Questions
Further Reading
Chapter Text Hyperlinks
For More Information
Contributors
Objectives
This chapter teaches people to:
Start a compost pile or worm bin.
Understand the effects different types and sizes of materials have on the rate of composting.
Recognize appropriate moisture levels for compost piles and worm bins.
Effectively manage compost and worm bins.
Utilize compost, vermicompost and their extracts (tea).
Introduction
For centuries, gardeners have made compost and used it to improve their garden soil. Today’s
gardeners also see the importance of composting as an alternative to burning or disposing of
organic materials in landfills. Food scraps and yard debris comprise 28% of the solid waste
generated in the United States (US EPA, 2011). Many people are surprised that the largest category
of waste being thrown away is food residuals—over 21% of the total. Instead of being discarded
down sink drains or in the garbage, food waste can easily turn into a valuable soil amendment for a
landscape, garden, or lawn.
Compost incorporated into the soil increases the organic matter content, improves the physical
properties of the soil, helps roots penetrate more easily, holds moisture, provides aeration to plant
roots, suppresses some diseases, and supplies some essential nutrients. Compost can also be
applied to the soil surface to conserve moisture, control weeds, reduce erosion, improve
appearance, and keep the soil from gaining or losing heat too rapidly.
Composting is a process that controls the decomposition and transformation of biodegradable

material into a humus-like substance called compost. It can be a fast (hot) or slow (cold) process,
depending on the amount of effort put into it. For fast composting, a pile needs a balance of organic
materials, moisture, and oxygen to support microorganisms that will heat the pile to 140 to 150°F. At
these temperatures, most weed seeds and pathogens will be killed. Organic materials will also break
down through slow/cold composting, but the decay will be a lot slower, and seeds and pathogens
will not be destroyed.
Many organic materials are suitable for composting. Yard wastes such as leaves, grass clippings,
straw, and plant trimmings can be composted. Branches and twigs greater than 1-inch in diameter
should be ground up in a shredder or chipper. Kitchen wastes such as vegetable scraps, coffee
grounds, and eggshells may also be added.
Slow (Cold) Composting

If hot composting will require too much time or energy, simply gather leaves into a 3 to 4 cubic foot
pile or bin, sprinkle them with water, and they will decay on their own. Food wastes may be added,
but bury them deep in the pile so they are out of reach of pests. It will take about a year for the
leaves to decompose, but eventually rich compost will be ready for landscape use. Disadvantages of
slow composting include the length of time it takes for materials to decompose, the possibility of
pests being drawn to the decaying matter, and weed seeds and pathogens not being destroyed by
high temperatures.
Fast (Hot) Composting

Gardeners who want to produce a higher quality of compost more quickly will choose this
composting method. It involves aerating the pile, checking temperatures and moisture levels, and
getting the right mixture of materials and particle sizes.
A bin is not needed to make compost. Some choose to use a bin to keep the pile neat, help retain
heat and moisture, and keep out pests, or they live in a neighborhood where a bin would be more
appropriate than an open pile. Many people make their own compost bin using concrete blocks,
wooden pallets, mesh fencing, or 55-gallon drums. A three-compartment wooden bin can be
constructed using plans from the internet (Figure 2–1).
There are a variety of manufactured composting bins available, including enclosed, spherical, or
tumblers (Figure 2–2). Although meat, fish, bones, and dairy should not be added to a compost pile
or bin, they can be placed in an in-ground digester such as the Green Cone.
Composting can be done in a pile or some type of bin, but the size is important for maintaining heat
—it should be 27 cubic feet (3 feet wide, deep, and tall). Set it up in a convenient location that is
over 6 feet away from the home or other wooden structures. To maximize food safety, the compost
should be downhill and as far away as possible from the vegetable garden. Choose a flat space that
is protected from flooding or runoff to surface waters or wells. Keep the areas in front of and above
the pile or bin clear so it can be worked without difficulty. Place it in a shaded area (to help it retain
moisture) and within reach of a garden hose.
There are two basic styles of hot composting: 1) Single Batch, where materials are added all at
once to form a pile, and 2) Continuous Pile, where organic materials are added as they become
available. Build a pile 3-feet high and at least 3-feet in diameter so it can become self-insulating to
retain heat (Figure 2–3). Add 4-to-5 inches of carbonaceous materials (browns), then two or three
inches of nitrogenous materials (greens), and keep alternating the layers. Another method is to mix
up browns and greens thoroughly before loading. Be sure to water each layer thoroughly to ensure
that moisture is evenly distributed. Toss in a handful of soil on each layer to introduce more
microorganisms. Top the pile with 4-to-5 inches of carbonaceous materials to keep out flies and
other pests and provide a filter for odors.
After the pile is created, it should heat up within a few days and stay hot for several weeks if it is
turned weekly. During this time, the pile will shrink and after about a month it may be about half of its
original volume. It will take another four to eight weeks for the pile to cure and be ready for use.
A simple compost recipe is to combine leaves, grass, food scraps, and coffee grounds at a ratio of
2-to-1 mix of “browns” and “greens." There are some additives that can help to get a compost pile
hot. Small amounts of one or more of the following in “meal” form can be dusted on top of the
“greens” in a compost pile: alfalfa, bone, hoof, soybean, canola, cottonseed, or blood. A compost
pile can also be activated by adding a mixture of water and molasses, sugar, syrups, or flat soft
drinks.
Maple leaves have a perfect carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, so with the right moisture and frequent turning,
they can break down in several weeks. Oak leaves have less nitrogen (C/N ratio of about 60 to 1)
and contain high levels of tannins which are resistant to decay, so they take a lot longer to break
down. Mixing oak leaves with high nitrogen materials will accelerate their decomposition.
Decomposition happens on the surface of materials, so the particle size and shape are very
important to the composting process. By chopping, smashing, grinding-or cutting materials into
smaller particles (less than 2-inches in diameter), more surface area is created and decomposition
happens faster. Use a chipper/grinder or a machete or place materials in a bucket and use a square-
end shovel to chop them into pieces. Do not get carried away because very fine particles will
prevent air from flowing into a compost pile. A low-cost method of reducing the size of fallen tree
leaves is to run a lawn mower over them before or after raking. The shredded leaves can be
collected directly if the lawn mower has an appropriate bag attachment. Rigid particles provide
structure and ventilation to a pile, so it is good to layer in small batches.
The decomposition process will slow down if there is too little or too much moisture. Approximately
40% to 60% moisture is needed in the pile. At this moisture level, the pile should feel like a wrung-
out sponge. The compost pile is within the right moisture range if a drop or two of water can be
squeezed from a handful of material. If no water can be squeezed out, the materials are too dry. If
the compost pile is too moist, it will slow the decomposition process and produce unpleasant odors.
If that happens, add dry leaves, paper, or sawdust to absorb the excess moisture. Most often,
compost piles are too dry, which slows down the composting process. Open piles can be covered
with a tarp to hold in moisture.
Compost piles need ventilation. Anaerobic (no air) piles smell bad, compost slowly, and produce
dense, wet, and smelly compost. Aerobic piles with oxygen throughout will produce little or no odor.
To aerate the pile, turn the organic materials with a digging fork or shovel. If turning is not possible,
poke it with an aerating device or broom handle to help air flow into the pile. Mixing the pile once a
week by moving the material from the outside to the center will hasten the composting process.
Turning also exposes seeds, insect larvae, and pathogens to lethal temperatures inside the pile. A
pile that is not mixed may take three to four times longer to produce useful compost.
During the early phase of decomposition, organic acids are produced and the compost pile becomes
more acidic. Some people advocate adding lime during this stage to increase the pH of the pile and
increase microbial activity. However, lime converts nitrogen to ammonia gas, thus removing nitrogen
from the pile. Crushed clam or oyster shells, eggshells, and bone meal tend to reduce the acidity of
composts. Over time, the pH in the pile rises so that the acidity of the composted material becomes
near neutral.
Heat will be given off as microorganisms feed on waste. Temperatures need to reach over 130°F in
the pile to kill most pathogens that are harmful to humans and pets, and over 140°F to destroy most
weed seeds. If the temperature of the pile climbs to 160˚F, it can kill decomposers and slow the
composting process (Figure 2–4). Temperatures in the center of the pile will be hottest and they will
be cooler on the outer edges. If the pile does not heat adequately, it may be too small, there may not
be enough oxygen or nitrogen, or it may be too dry or too wet (Table 2–1). Turn the pile when the
center begins to feel cool to the touch. Turning the pile introduces oxygen and undecomposed
material into the center, and helps to revive the heating process.
Table 2–1. Troubleshooting composting problems.
Symptom Problem Solution
Pile smells like Too wet or not enough Turn pile; mix in leaves, straw,
rancid butter, air or too much nitrogen sawdust or wood chips
vinegar, or rotten
eggs
Pile is not heating Pile is too small, too Make pile larger, provide insulation,
up dry, or has not enough add water while turning, add nitrogen
nitrogen sources
Pile is attracting Food scraps are not Cover food with brown leaves, wood
animals well covered or meat or chips, or finished compost; keep meat
dairy products were and dairy out of pile; enclose pile in
added 1/4-in hardware cloth
Pile is damp but Not enough nitrogen Mix in grass clippings, food scraps,
won’t heat up other sources of nitrogen
Pile is dry Not enough moisture, Water and mix well; cover loosely with
too much air flow tarp or landscape fabric to help hold in
moisture
Pile is damp and Pile is too small Add more material and moisten
warm in middle but
nowhere else
Some people ask "Should I add worms to the pile to help it compost faster?" The
answer is no, a compost pile should be too hot for worms to tolerate. During the cooler
curing phase of composting, earthworms will naturally be attracted to the pile to help
break down the remaining material. Vermicomposting, in which earthworms primarily
break down the ingredients, is a different process that is described later in the chapter.
Figure 2–1. Homemade 3-

compartment composting system.
Attribution: Lucy Bradley CC BY 2.0
Figure 2–2. Manufactured composting

bin.
Attribution: Kathleen Moore CC BY 2.0
Figure 2–4. A hot compost pile should

Figure 2–3. A large three bin compost reach 140˚ Fahrenheit to kill off
system. pathogens and weed seeds.
Attribution: Kathleen Moore CC BY 2.0 Attribution: Scot Nelson, Flickr, CC

BY-0 2.0
Composting Materials
The organic materials that can be composted are commonly distinguished as “browns” (high in
carbon) and “greens” (high in nitrogen). Some examples are in Table 2–2. The “browns” are sugar-
rich carbon sources that provide energy to microorganisms, absorb excess moisture, and provide
structure to the pile. “Browns” include brown autumn leaves, newspaper, straw, sawdust, napkins,
cardboard, twigs, hay, dryer lint, and bark (Figure 2–5). The “greens” provide protein-rich nitrogen
and moisture to microorganisms and include grass clippings, vegetables and fruit, coffee grounds,
tea leaves, livestock manures, and alfalfa (Figure 2–6). See Table 2–3 for a more extensive list of
raw materials that may be composted.
Food scraps may be stored in a container until they are added to the compost pile (Figure 2–7).
Some people like to place food scraps in a container in their freezer until they are taken out to the
compost pile. Others reuse a plastic container with a lid or use a purchased compost kitchen
container and keep it under their sink or on the kitchen counter. Food scraps should be buried inside
the pile to avoid attracting rodents.
Yard waste suitable for composting includes fallen tree leaves, grass clippings, straw, and non-
woody plant trimmings. Leaves are the primary organic waste in most backyard compost piles.
Although grass clippings can be composted, it is better to leave them on the lawn where they will
decay and release nutrients, reducing the need for fertilizer (See NC State Extension publication
AG-69, Carolina Lawns). When adding grass to a compost pile, mix it thoroughly with leaves so it
does not compact and restrict airflow.
Newspaper and other types of paper can be composted, but the nitrogen content is low, so it
decreases the decomposition rate. If paper is composted, it should make up no more than 10% of
the total weight of the material in the compost pile. It is better to recycle paper curbside or take it to a
community collection site.
Table 2–2. Carbon–to–nitrogen ratios of commonly composted materials.
Materials High in Carbon (Browns) C:N
Autumn leaves 30 – 80:1
Straw 40 – 100:1
Wood chips, sawdust 100 – 500:1
Mixed paper 150 – 200:1
Newspaper, cardboard 560:1
Materials High in Nitrogen (Greens) C:N
Vegetable scraps 15 – 20:1
Coffee grounds 20:1
Grass clippings 15 – 25:1
Livestock animal manure 5 – 25:1
Source: Composting to Reduce the Waste Stream: A Guide to Small-Scale Food and Yard Waste
Composting. Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service, Cooperative Extension, #43.
1993.
Figure 2–5. Dead leaves “browns” in

the compost pile.
Attribution: Kathleen Moore CC BY 2.0 Figure 2–6. Kitchen scraps “greens”
ready for the compost pile.
Attribution: Chris Alberti CC BY 2.0
Figure 2–7. Kitchen scraps can be

stored in a container (this one is
under the sink) until full and ready to
be brought out to the compost pile.
Attribution: Chris Alberti CC BY 2.0
What NOT to Compost and Common

Composting Problems
Some materials may pose a health hazard or create a nuisance and therefore should not be used to
make compost. Types of organic materials that should NOT go into compost piles include the
following:
Dog or cat feces and litter, and dirty diapers (may contain parasites and pathogens)
Meat, fish, bones, fats, grease, lard, oils, eggs, or dairy products such as butter, milk, yogurt,
and sour cream (may create odors, attract rodents and flies)
Yard trimmings treated with chemical pesticides (might kill beneficial composting organisms or
not break down in the composting process and affect plants where compost is placed)
Diseased or insect-infested plants (diseases and insects may survive and be transferred to
other plants)
Black walnut tree leaves or twigs (release substances that might harm plants)
Weeds that have gone to seed
Weeds with invasive roots, such as Dock weed, Alligator weed, or Bermuda grass
Used facial or toilet tissue (may contain pathogens)
Charcoal ash or coal (resistant to decay and may contain substances harmful to plants)
Pressure-treated lumber, pressed wood, plywood (contain toxic chemicals)
Heavily-coated paper (magazines, catalogs, wrapping paper, greeting cards with metallic inks,
photographs)
Wood ash (a handful or two may be added, but more may harm microbes, slow the composting
process, cause smelly ammonia gas releases, and leave compost with less nitrogen)
Pine needles (waxy coating is resistant to decay)
Contents of swollen cans (could contain botulism)
Rose thorns and other stickers (take longer to compost and can be painful to handle)
Herbicides may persist during the composting process and harm plants grown in compost-amended
soils. Hot composting piles can accelerate the breakdown of most herbicides, and they can also be
deactivated by binding with organic matter. The source of herbicides in most home composting piles
is usually lawn clippings. However, animal manure may contain composting-resistant herbicides.
See NC State Extension publication Herbicide Carryover in Hay, Manure, Compost & Grass
Clippings: Caution to Hay Producers, Livestock Owners, Farmers & Home Gardeners.
Some people ask “Should I add worms to the pile to help it compost faster?” The answer is no, a
compost pile should be too hot for worms to tolerate. During the cooler curing phase of composting,
earthworms will naturally be attracted to the pile to help break down the remaining material.
Vermicomposting, in which earthworms primarily break down the ingredients, is a different
process that is described below.
Curing and Using Compost

When heating ceases, cover the pile with a fabric weed barrier and let it cure for 6 to 12 weeks.
During that time, mist the compost to keep it slightly damp and poke it occasionally to let in air. As
the compost cures, particles will shrink, organic acids will dissipate, and pH will stabilize and move
closer to neutral. Compost is basically “done” when the original materials are unrecognizable, the
pile temperature is less than 10 degrees warmer than ambient, and it is dark brown or black and
smells earthy (not like ammonia or rotten eggs). To make sure the compost is fully mature and
stable, test it on radish seeds to make sure it does not prevent germination or damage the plants. A
sample can be sent to the NC Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services to determine the
levels of nutrients, carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, pH, and soluble salts.
For smaller particles of compost, a simple screen can be made with half-inch mesh hardware cloth
and a wood frame (Figure 2–8). The screen may be placed on top of a wheelbarrow or inclined at an
angle on the ground. Load the screen with compost and use a gloved hand or a square-end shovel
to scrape the compost against the screen. Remove the screen to reveal sifted compost. Organic
materials too large to pass through the screen may be added back into the compost pile.
Potted plants, garden and field crops, lawns, shrubs, and trees can benefit from compost. In clay
soils, compost improves aeration and drainage and makes it easier to work with hand tools. In sandy
soils, compost increases water-holding capacity and increases soil aggregation. Compost may
suppress some plant diseases and pests, and it encourages healthy root systems. Although
compost contains macro- and micronutrients, it is often not enough to supply all of plants’ needs.
Thus, lawn and garden soils should be tested and fertilized accordingly. Local Cooperative
Extension centers have soil test boxes and instructions.
Table 2–3. Organic materials that can be composted.
Nitrogen (Green) Carbon (Brown)
Grass clippings Leaves, twigs, yard trimmings
Houseplant leaves Natural fiber yarn, thread, string,

rope
Hair, fur, nail clippings, feathers Paper rolls (towel, toilet, gift
wrap)
Vegetables, fruits Nut shells (not walnut)
Coffee grounds, filters Cotton balls, swabs
Tea bags, leaves Dryer lint from natural fabrics
Egg and crustacean shells (rinsed) Cotton, wool, silk, felt, hemp,
linen, burlap
Old herbs, spices Vacuum contents, floor

sweepings
Flowers, dead blossoms Straw, hay, corn cobs
Beer, winemaking leftovers Newspaper, nonglossy paper
Juice, beer, wine, dregs Brewery hops
Freezer-burned vegetables, fruits Loofahs
Aquarium water, algae, plants Paper napkins and bags
Seaweed Sawdust, wood bark and chips
Herbivorous animal manure (rabbits, cows, sheep, Bamboo skewers, toothpicks

chickens, horses)
Pizza and cereal boxes, paper
egg cartons
Pencil shavings
Paper baking cups
Grains, cereal, crackers
Figure 2–8. Using a screen to remove

larger particles of compost. These
large particles can be thrown back in
the compost pile.
Attribution: Nadine Ford CC BY 2.0
Compost Tea
There is an increasing interest in using compost tea as a drench or foliar spray, as it has similar
effects on plant growth, health, and disease resistance as compost. Compost tea brewers may be
purchased or made out of a clean 5-gallon bucket, fine mesh fabric, and two sticks. Add 1 part
compost to 10 parts water. For example, for 1 gallon of water (128 ounces), use 13 ounces of
compost (about 11⁄2 cups).
If the water has chlorine in it, first let the chlorine evaporate out by filling the bucket with water and
letting it sit for at least 24 hours. Measure the compost to the desired solid-to-water ratio. Place
compost inside the mesh fabric so that it can easily be removed later. Place a stick across the top of
the bucket and tie the fabric bag into a knot. Submerge the mesh bag in the water in the bucket and
tie the fabric bag to the stick (Figure 2–9).
Place the bucket out of direct sunlight in an area where the temperatures will remain 60 to 80°F (16
to 27°C). Do not allow leaves or other debris to fall into the bucket (it is best to keep the bucket
indoors). Write down the date and time that the brewing begins. Stir the bucket 12 times over the
next 48 hours or run an aquarium pump during that time.
After 48 hours of brewing, remove the bag containing the compost. Pour the yellow-brown “tea” into
a watering can or sprayer. Use the tea immediately or within 4 hours after brewing. The tea can be
poured into the soil around the base of a plant or sprayed onto the leaves. Do not use the tea on any
edible portions of a plant. Spray weekly or every two weeks. To prevent microbe loss from ultraviolet
rays, spray early in the morning on a cloudy day before it gets hot, or after irrigation or rain.
Figure 2–9. Make compost tea in a

bucket using one part compost and 10
parts water. Suspend compost in a
fine mesh fabric and brew for 48
hours, stirring 12 times.
Vermicompost
Vermicomposting (earthworm composting) turns many types of kitchen food scraps into nutritious
soil amendments or growth media for plants (Figure 2–10). When vermicompost is added to soil, it
boosts the nutrients available to plants and enhances soil structure and drainage. Vermicompost
helps plants grow bigger, produce higher yields, and it can reduce the impact of some pests and
diseases.
Using earthworms to decompose food residuals offers several advantages:
Produces less odor and attracts fewer pests than putting food scraps into a garbage container.
Saves the water and electricity that kitchen sink garbage disposal units consume.
Reduces garbage disposal costs.
Produces a free, high-quality soil amendment (vermicompost).
Requires little space, labor, or maintenance.
Spawns free earthworms for fishing.
Equipment and Supplies

The materials needed to start a vermicomposting system are simple and inexpensive: a worm bin,
bedding, water, composting earthworms, and food scraps. (Figure 2–11)
Worm Bin
A suitable bin can be constructed of non-aromatic wood or a plastic container can be purchased.
Wooden worm bin construction plans may be found at a number of sites on the internet.
Manufactured worm bins can be purchased online or at some garden centers. Or one can be made
by buying an 18-gallon storage bin with a tight-fitting lid. Make sure the bin is a dark color because
earthworms are highly sensitive to light. If a plastic container is used, it should be thoroughly
washed and rinsed to remove manufacturing residues before earthworms and bedding are added.
Do not use a container that was used to store toxic chemicals. The bin size depends on the amount
of food waste produced by a household. The general rule of thumb is one square foot of surface
area for each pound of garbage generated per week. So, if a household creates two pounds of food
scraps weekly, it will need a 2-foot by 1-foot worm bin.
Homemade worm bins will need holes drilled for aeration and drainage. To provide enough oxygen
for earthworms, drill holes on the upper sides of the bin near the lid. Do not drill holes in the lid, as
they would let in light and dry out the bedding. There are three options for drilling holes in the sides
of the bin: 1) using a 3-inch hole saw, drill one hole on each upper, narrow end of the bin and insert
a 3-inch screened soffit vent (available at hardware stores in the gutter section), OR 2) drill four ½-
inch holes on the long sides of the bin and either leave the holes open or glue hardware cloth/screen
over them, OR 3) drill a number of tiny holes all the way around the upper sides of the bin. For
drainage, drill six ¼-inch holes, equally dispersed, in the bottom of the bin, and place a moisture
collection tray under the bin.
There are several suitable locations for a worm bin, such as a garage or carport, porch or deck,
kitchen, basement, bathroom, closet, or apartment balcony. Make sure there is room for air to
circulate around the bin. If a worm bin is properly maintained, it should not emit odors or attract
pests. If the bin is kept outdoors, place it in a location that is always shady. A worm bin should never
be placed in the direct sun because it can cause the system to overheat and kill the earthworms.
Wherever it is located, the temperature inside the bin should be maintained between 59° and 77°F
(15° to 25°C). There are several ways to maintain the bin above the minimum temperature, such as
gluing blueboard insulation to the outer walls of the bin or surrounding it with straw or other
insulating materials. Alternatively, cut a plastic gallon jug in half, fill it with water, insert an aquarium
heater and place it inside the bin. If it is hot and the worm bin needs to be cooled down, mix in some
dry bedding or place ice in a container and place it in the bin.
Bedding
To provide a suitable environment for the earthworms to live and to cover food scraps, bedding will
need to be added to the worm bin. Bedding should be a nontoxic fluffy material that holds moisture
and allows air to circulate. Suitable materials include shredded paper (such as black-and-white
newspapers, paper bags, office paper, or cardboard), decaying leaves, or coconut pith fiber (coir).
Do not use glossy paper or magazines. For newspapers, fold a section in half and tear off long, half-
inch wide strips (go with the grain of the paper and it will tear neatly and easily). Soak any bedding
for 5 to 10 minutes in a bucket of water and then wring it out so it is a little wetter than a moist
sponge. Aim for the bedding to be very damp, but not soaking wet (only two to three drops of water
should come out when squeezed). Fluff up the bedding as it is added to the bin, filling it no more
than half way. Mix in a handful of soil from a healthy garden to introduce beneficial microorganisms
and aid the earthworms’ digestive process. The earthworms will eat the bedding along with the food
discards, so more will need to be added within a couple of months. Use a plant mister to spritz some
water on the bedding to keep it moist. Never pour water directly into a worm bin as it can drown the
worms.
Also, do not agitate, turn, or stir the contents of the worm bin. It does not need to be aerated like a
compost pile, and earthworms can be killed if handled roughly. Earthworm castings should be left
undisturbed on the bottom of the worm bin.
Water
Earthworms breathe through their skin, which must remain moist for the gas exchange to take place.
Their bedding needs to be at about an 80 percent moisture level. If a worm bin has adequate
aeration and it is not over-watered, excess liquid should not puddle or leak out of the bottom of the
bin. Excess moisture can be created from wet feedstocks, so limit the amount of coffee grounds and
cooked or canned foods that are fed to earthworms.
There is a misconception that the runoff from worm bins (what leaks out of the bottom) can be used
to grow plants. It is actually leachate—liquid that has passed through unprocessed organic
material. Leachate may contain pathogens, phytotoxins, and anaerobic microorganisms that could
be harmful to plants. Never use leachate on food crops, houseplants, or sensitive plants. Leachate
should be poured on weeds or down a toilet. Use only finished vermicompost to make vermicompost
tea.
Composting Earthworms
It is important to use the type of earthworms that will thrive in a worm bin. There are more than
6,000 species of earthworms, but only seven species have been identified as suitable for
vermicomposting. Of those, only one species of earthworm is used for vermicomposting by most
people worldwide: Eisenia fetida (common name: red wiggler). Start with at least one pound (about
1,000) of red wigglers to one square foot of surface area of the worm bin to have a chance of
developing a sustainable system. Do not get the earthworms from a bait shop (that would require 33
to 83 bait cups!) or a yard (there is no way to tell if the species is Eisenia fetida). Instead, buy them
from a worm grower. Be sure to check around, as prices for earthworms vary significantly. When the
red wigglers arrive, gently place them on top of the bedding in the worm bin. The earthworms will
immediately move underneath the bedding to avoid the light, but they need a few days to acclimate
to their new home. If the red wigglers try to leave the bin, keep the bin in a bright area around the
clock for a few days, while the earthworms are getting used to their new environment.
After a while, other organisms will appear in the worm bin—they come to eat and help break down
the organic materials. Most of the organisms will be too small to see, but pot worms, springtails, pill
bugs, molds, and mites may be spotted. None of these is harmful to the worms, nor are they an
indication there is a problem with your worm bin.
Optimal Conditions for Raising Red Wiggler Earthworms

Temperature: 59 – 77°F (15°– 25°C) (limits 32° – 95°F, 0°– 35°C)
Moisture: 80% (limits 60 – 90%)
Oxygen requirement: Aerobicity
pH: > 5 and < 9
Ammonia content of waste: Low; < 0.5mg/g
Salt content of waste: Low; < 0.5%
Food Scraps
Once the earthworms have settled into their new home (after a couple of days), add a small amount
of food scraps two inches below the surface of the bedding. The amount of food should not exceed
1-inch high. This will prevent the food scraps from building up heat. Feed earthworms any non-meat
organics such as vegetables, fruits, crushed eggshells, tea bags, coffee grounds, shredded paper,
coffee filters, and shredded garden debris. Red wigglers especially like cantaloupe, watermelon, and
pumpkin. Do not add citrus fruits or peels to the bin, as they can cause it to become too acidic. Chop
or grind food scraps into small pieces so they break down more easily. Never add meat scraps or
bones, fish, greasy or oily food, onions, garlic, fat, tobacco, sugary foods, citrus, salty foods, or pet
or human manure. Once the earthworms have been fed, use a three-prong garden tool to cover the
food scraps completely with 2 inches of bedding. This will prevent fruit flies from finding the food.
Food scraps can be stored for several days before adding them to the worm bin. Many people store
food residuals in a container with a lid next to or under their kitchen sink. Others store their food
scraps in a container or bag in the freezer.
One pound of red wigglers will eat up to two pounds of food scraps a week. If more food is added
than the earthworms can consume, it will start to rot and become smelly. Ideally, do not add more
food until the worms have consumed the last feeding. If more food scraps are produced than one bin
can handle, buy more earthworms and start another worm bin. It’s a good idea to have a backyard
composting bin in addition to a worm bin, because it can accommodate excess food scraps, along
with citrus, onions, and garlic.
The worms may be fed any time of the day. Do not worry about taking a vacation, as the earthworms
can be fed as seldom as every three weeks. If extended periods away from the bin are expected,
apply ½-inch layer of food scraps across the top of the bin and cover it with two inches of moistened,
shredded paper. See Table 2–4. for worm bin troubleshooting.
Table 2–4. Worm bin troubleshooting.
Problem Possible Causes Solutions
Bin smells bad Over feeding Stop feeding for two weeks
Noncompostables Remove noncompostables

present
Food scraps exposed Cover with 2 inches of bedding
Bin too wet Mix in dry bedding; leave lid off with strong
light overhead
Not enough air Drill holes in bin
Bin attracts Food scraps exposed Bury food completely

flies
Too much food Add food after most is eaten
Worms are Bin too wet Mix in dry bedding; leave lid off
dying
Bin too dry Thoroughly dampen bedding
Extreme temperatures Move bin where temperature is 55 – 77°F
Not enough air Fluff bedding; drill holes in bin
Not enough food Add more bedding and food scraps
Worms Bin conditions not right See solutions above

crawling away
Leave lid off with light shining into bin
(worms will burrow back into bedding)
Bedding is Too much ventilation Mist bedding; keep lid on

drying out
Liquid Poor ventilation Mix in dry bedding; leave lid off with strong
collecting in light overhead
bottom
Feeding too much Cut back on coffee grounds and food
watery scraps scraps with high water content; mix with
bedding material before feeding
Some people ask "Should I add worms to the pile to help it compost faster?" The
answer is no, a compost pile should be too hot for worms to tolerate. During the cooler
curing phase of composting, earthworms will naturally be attracted to the pile to help
break down the remaining material. Vermicomposting, in which earthworms primarily
break down the ingredients, is a different process that is described later in the chapter.
Figure 2–10. Vermicomposting.
Attribution: Oregon State University,

Flickr CC BY-SA 2.0
Figure 2–11. Worm bin
Harvesting Vermicompost
After a few weeks, vermicompost will appear on the bottom of the bin. Vermicompost is a soil-like
material containing a mixture of earthworm castings (feces) and partially decomposed bedding and
food scraps. In four to six months, it will be time to harvest the vermicompost. It may be harvested
by one of three methods:
Method 1: Sideways Separation. Feed the earthworms on only one side of the worm bin for
several weeks, and most of the worms will migrate to that side of the bin. Then the vermicompost
can be harvested from the other side of the bin where no food scraps have been added. Fresh
bedding should be added where vermicompost was harvested. Repeat this process on the other
side of the bin. After both sides are harvested, food scraps can be added to both sides of the bin
again.
Method 2: Light Separation. Empty the contents of a worm bin onto a plastic sheet or used shower
curtain where there is strong sunlight or artificial light. Wait five minutes, and then scrape off the top
layer of vermicompost. The earthworms will keep moving away from the light, vermicompost can be
scraped off every five minutes or so. After several scrapings, the worms will be in clusters; just pick
up the worms and gently return them to the bin in fresh bedding (with the old bedding mixed in).
Method 3: Vertical Separation. Before starting vermicomposting, either buy a manufactured

stacking bin or make one by purchasing two identical storage bins and drilling extra holes in the
bottoms. Set one bin aside and vermicompost in the other bin for a few months. Periodically try to
stack the second bin inside the first one. When the bedding in the first bin is high enough to fit
snugly against the bottom of the second bin, add bedding material to the top bin and begin feeding
in that bin only for the next several months. Most of the earthworms will move up into the upper bin
to eat, and eventually the lower bin will just contain vermicompost.
Be on the lookout for earthworm egg capsules--they are lemon-shaped, about the size of a match
head, shiny, and light-brown. A capsule contains two to seven baby earthworms (three on average).
Place the egg capsules back inside a worm bin so they can hatch and thrive.
If it appears that there is an overabundance of earthworms in a bin, remove some and start a new
worm bin. Or gift earthworms to others who would like to begin vermicomposting, such as school or
church teachers, Cooperative Extension agents, scout clubs, 4-H clubs, etc.
Using Vermicompost
Vermicompost is a fully stabilized organic soil amendment that is much more microbially-active than
the original organic material that was consumed. It has a fine particulate structure and good
moisture-holding capacity. Vermicompost contains nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, calcium, and magnesium in forms readily taken up by plants. It also has plant growth
hormones and humic acids, which act as plant growth regulators.
Vermicompost can be used immediately or stored for later use. To store vermicompost, dry it to a
moisture level of about 35% and place it in a bag or container pricked with a pin to make holes that
will allow oxygen in, yet hold in moisture. Store it in a warm, dark place.
The material can be mixed into the soil in a garden and around landscape plants. It can also be
used as a top dressing on container plants or sprinkled on a lawn as a conditioner (Figure 2–12). It
is best to protect the vermicompost from direct sunlight by incorporating it in soil or covering it with
mulch.
Figure 2–12. Top dressing with

vermicompost on a lawn.
Attribution: Diana House CC BY 2.0
Summary
Backyard composting and vermicomposting are easy ways to keep food scraps and yard wastes out
of landfills or burn piles and convert them into valuable soil amendments. There are many
similarities and some differences between the two types of composting. Both compost and
vermicompost can enrich soils and increase plant productivity (Table 2–5).
Table 2–5. Differences and similarities between composting and vermicomposting.
Attribute Composting Vermicomposting
Uses vegetable scraps Yes Yes
Uses brown materials, paper, dried leaves Yes Yes
Microbes break down materials Yes Yes
If managed properly can work quickly Yes Yes
Worms break down material No Yes
No turning necessary No Yes
Hot enough to kill weed seeds Yes No
Heat can kill beneficial microbes Yes No
Limited by cold weather No Yes
Bin can be indoors No Yes
Frequently Asked Questions

1. I have bugs in my compost. Will they hurt my plants?
Insects can be an important component in the breakdown of organic material in a compost pile. Very
few of these insects are plant pests. If you are trying a “hot compost” method, your pile might not be
hot enough; try turning it over and adding more green material. If your pile reaches the correct
temperature, insects will stay away. The presence of ants could indicate your pile is too dry and
needs to be watered. If your compost is nearing completion and you are noticing insects like sow
bugs or earwigs, spread your compost out and let it dry in the sun for a few days before using it in
your garden.
2. I want to compost but I have close neighbors and I am worried my pile will
smell.
A properly managed compost pile will have a pleasant “earthy” smell when you open the lid to turn it.
Your neighbors should not be able to smell it. Your pile will need adequate air incorporated by
frequent turning and equal proportions of both green and brown material. A foul odor can come from
too much wet green material breaking down in the absence of oxygen. This anaerobic
decomposition can produce a strong odor of rancid butter or rotten eggs. To alleviate this, turn the
pile over and add straw, wood shavings, or dried leaves.
3. Can I put weeds in my compost pile?

A properly managed hot compost pile will reach 140°F and will easily kill most weed seeds. Unless
you are sure your pile is reaching these temperatures, it is best to put only weeds that have not yet
gone to seed in your pile.
Further Reading
1. Appelhof, Mary. Worms Eat My Garbage: How to Set up and Maintain a Worm Composting
System. 2nd ed. 1997. Kalamazoo, Michigan: Flower Press, 2003. Print.
2. Bass, Larry, T. E. Bilderback, and M. A. Powell. Composting: A Guide to Managing Organic Yard
Wastes. Raleigh, North Carolina: NC State Extension, 1992. PDF file. AG-467.
3. Cogger, Craig, Dan M. Sullivan, and Jim Kropf. Master Gardener Manual. Pullman, Washington:
Washington State University Extension, 2010. Chapter 22: Composting, pages 22-1 to 22-16. CD
file.
4. Dickson, Nancy, Thomas Richard, and Robert Kozlowski. Composting to Reduce the Waste
Stream: A Guide to Small-Scale Food and Yard Waste Composting. Ithaca, New York: Northeast
Regional Agricultural Engineering Service, 1993. PDF file.
5. Sherman, Rhonda L. Backyard Composting of Yard, Garden and Food Discards. Raleigh, North
Carolina: NC State Extension, 2014. PDF file. AG-791.
6. Sherman, Rhonda L. Worms Can Recycle Your Garbage. Raleigh, North Carolina: NC State
Extension, 2012. PDF file. AG-473-18 (Revised).
7. Composting to Reduce the Waste Stream: A Guide to Small-Scale Food and Yard Waste
Composting. Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service, Cooperative Extension, #43.
1993.
Chapter Text Hyperlinks

Building Your Own Composting Bin, Designs for Your Community, CalRecyle
Carolina Lawns, A Guide to Maintaining Quality Turf in the Landscape, AG-69
Herbicide Carryover in Hay, Manure, Compost, and Grass Clippings, AG-727
North Carolina Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services: Agronomic Services —

Waste/Compost Analysis
For More Information

NC State Resources
Backyard Composting of Yard, Garden and Food Discards, AG-791
Composting Portal
Herbicide Carryover in Hay, Manure, Compost, and Grass Clippings, AG-727
Soil Test Forms & Information, by NCDA&CS
Vermicomposting in North Carolina
Waste/Compost Analysis, NCDA&CS
More NC State Resources
Contributors
Author:
Rhonda Sherman, Extension Solid Waste Specialist, Department of Horticultural Science
Contributions by Extension Agents:
Pam Jones, Paige Patterson, Peg Godwin, Tim Mathews
Contributions by Extension Master Gardener Volunteers:

Lee Kapleau, Kim Curlee, Jackie Weedon, Karen Damari, Connie Schultz
Content Editors:
Lucy Bradley, Associate Professor and Extension Specialist, Urban Horticulture, NC State
University; Director, NC State Extension Master Gardener program
Kathleen Moore, Urban Horticulturist
Copy Editor: Barbara Scott
How to cite this chapter:

Sherman, R. 2022. Composting, Chapter 2. In: K.A. Moore, and. L.K. Bradley (eds). North Carolina
Extension Gardener Handbook, 2nd ed. NC State Extension, Raleigh, NC.
<http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/2-composting>
Author
Rhonda Sherman
Extension Solid Waste Specialist Biological & Agricultural Engineering
Publication date: Feb. 1, 2022
AG-831
Other Publications in North Carolina

Extension Gardener Handbook
1. Soils & Plant Nutrients
2. Composting
3. Botany
4. Insects
5. Diseases and Disorders
6. Weeds
7. Diagnostics
8. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
9. Lawns
10. Herbaceous Ornamentals
11. Woody Ornamentals
12. Native Plants
13. Propagation
14. Small Fruits
15. Tree Fruit and Nuts
16. Vegetable Gardening
17. Organic Gardening
18. Plants Grown in Containers
19. Landscape Design
20. Wildlife
21. Youth, Community, and Therapeutic Gardening
Appendix A. Garden Journaling
Appendix B. Pesticides and Pesticide Safety
Appendix C. Diagnostic Tables
Appendix D. Garden Tools
Appendix E. Season Extenders and Greenhouses
Appendix F. History of Landscape Design
Appendix G. Permaculture Design
Appendix H. Community Gardening Resources
Appendix I. More NC State Resources
Glossary
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability,
family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including
pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
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Composting | NC State Extension Publications

Slow (Cold) Composting

Fast (Hot) Composting

What NOT to Compost and Common Composting Problems

Curing and Using Compost

Method 2: Light Separation

Method 3: Vertical Separation

Frequently Asked Questions

Chapter Text Hyperlinks

For More Information

Effectively manage compost and worm bins.

Utilize compost, vermicompost and their extracts (tea).

Composting is a process that controls the decomposition and transformation of biodegradable

Slow (Cold) Composting

Fast (Hot) Composting

Table 2–1. Troubleshooting composting problems.

Symptom Problem Solution

Figure 2–1. Homemade 3-

Attribution: Lucy Bradley CC BY 2.0

Figure 2–2. Manufactured composting

Attribution: Kathleen Moore CC BY 2.0

Figure 2–4. A hot compost pile should

Attribution: Kathleen Moore CC BY 2.0 Attribution: Scot Nelson, Flickr, CC

Table 2–2. Carbon–to–nitrogen ratios of commonly composted materials.

Materials High in Carbon (Browns) C:N

Autumn leaves 30 – 80:1

Wood chips, sawdust 100 – 500:1

Mixed paper 150 – 200:1

Newspaper, cardboard 560:1

Materials High in Nitrogen (Greens) C:N

Vegetable scraps 15 – 20:1

Coffee grounds 20:1

Grass clippings 15 – 25:1

Livestock animal manure 5 – 25:1

Figure 2–5. Dead leaves “browns” in

Attribution: Chris Alberti CC BY 2.0

Figure 2–7. Kitchen scraps can be

Attribution: Chris Alberti CC BY 2.0

What NOT to Compost and Common

Weeds that have gone to seed

Used facial or toilet tissue (may contain pathogens)

Pressure-treated lumber, pressed wood, plywood (contain toxic chemicals)

Pine needles (waxy coating is resistant to decay)

Contents of swollen cans (could contain botulism)

Curing and Using Compost

Table 2–3. Organic materials that can be composted.

Nitrogen (Green) Carbon (Brown)

Grass clippings Leaves, twigs, yard trimmings

Houseplant leaves Natural fiber yarn, thread, string,

Vegetables, fruits Nut shells (not walnut)

Coffee grounds, filters Cotton balls, swabs

Tea bags, leaves Dryer lint from natural fabrics

Old herbs, spices Vacuum contents, floor

Flowers, dead blossoms Straw, hay, corn cobs

Beer, winemaking leftovers Newspaper, nonglossy paper

Juice, beer, wine, dregs Brewery hops

Freezer-burned vegetables, fruits Loofahs

Aquarium water, algae, plants Paper napkins and bags

Seaweed Sawdust, wood bark and chips

Herbivorous animal manure (rabbits, cows, sheep, Bamboo skewers, toothpicks

Paper baking cups