EXPERIMENT – 1

Aim: -
To find the resistance of a given wire using a metre bridge and hence determine the specific resistance of
its materials.

Material Required: -
Metre bridge (slide wire bridge), Leclanche cell or Battery eliminator, Galvanometer, Resistance box ,
Jockey ,One way key, A resistance wire, Screw gauge, one meter scale, Connecting wires.

Theory: -

Wheatstone’s principle: - The metre bridge is operating under Wheatstone’s principle. Here, four
resistors P, Q, R, and S are connected to form the network ABCD. The terminals A and C are connected to
a battery, and the terminals C and D are connected to a galvanometer through keys K1 and K2
respectively.

In the balancing condition, there is no deflection on the galvanometer. Then,

𝑃 𝑅
𝑄
=𝑆

Metre Bridge apparatus: - The metre bridge, also known as the slide wire bridge consists of a one metre
long wire of uniform cross sectional area, fixed on a wooden block. A scale is attached to the block. Two
gaps are formed on it by using thick metal strips in order to make the Wheat stone’s bridge. The terminal
B between the gaps is used to connect galvanometer and jockey.
According to Wheatstone’s principle;
𝑅 𝐿
=
𝑋 100 − 𝐿
Now, the unknown resistance can be calculated as,
100− 𝐿
X= 𝐿 R
The specific resistance or resistivity of the material of the wire can be then calculated by using the
𝜋𝑋𝐷 2
relation, 𝜌 = 4𝐿
Where L be the length of the wire and r be its radius.

Circuit Diagram: -
Procedure: -

1. Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as given in the arrangement diagram.

2. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be measured in the right gap between C and B.

3. Connect the resistance box in the left gap between A and B.

4. Make all other connections neat, clean and tight according to the circuit diagram.

5. Take out some resistance (say 2Ω) from the resistance box, plug the key K.

6. Touch the jockey gently at left and then at right end of the bridge wire.

7. If the galvanometer shows deflection in opposite direction at both the ends then connection is
correct.

8. Move the jockey gently along the wire from left to right and get the null deflection point mention as D.

9. Note the position of point D, to know length Ad = L.

10.Take at least three sets of independent observations in same way by changing the value of R.

For Specific Resistance

11. Cut the resistance wire at points where it leaves the terminals, stretch it and find the length by metre
scale.

12. Measure the diameter of the wire at least four places in two mutually perpendicular direction using
screw guage.

13. Record your observations.

Observations:

Least count of the screw gauge (LC) =…….. cm

To find the resistance of the given wire:

S.No. Resistance, R Balancing length, AD Length, DC =(100-l) 𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝑳

X=( )𝑹
𝑳
(Ω) =l (cm) (cm)
(Ω)
1
2
3

Mean resistance, X = .................. Ω

Calculations: -

Diameter of the wire, d =………...mm

Radius of the wire, r = d/2
=……......mm
= ………..10-3 m
Length of the wire, L = ............cm
= ............10-2 m
Resistance of the wire, X = ............. Ω

Resistivity (specific resistance) of the wire,

𝜋𝑟 2 𝑋
𝜌=
𝐿
= ............Ω m
Result: -
The value of unknown resistance X =………………… Ω

The Resistivity of the wire 𝜌 = …………….. Ω m

Precautions: -
1. All the connections must be neat and clean.
2. All the plug of the resistance box must be tight.
3. The jockey should not rub with the wire of the bridge.

Sources of Errors: -
1. The instrument screw may be loose.
2. The plug may not be clean.
3. The wire may not have uniform thickness.
 EXPERIMENT – 2

Aim: -
To verify the law of combination (series) of the resistance using metre bridge.

Material Required: -
Metre bridge (slide wire bridge), Battery (Leclanche cell), Galvanometer, Resistance box, Jockey, One
way key, Two resistance coil, Metre scale, A set square, Connecting wires.

Theory: -
Wheatstone’s principle: - The metre bridge is operating under Wheatstone’s principle. Here, four
resistors P, Q, R, and S are connected to form the network ABCD. The terminals A and C are connected to
a battery, and the terminals C and D are connected to a galvanometer through keys K1 and K2
respectively. I
n the balancing condition, there is no deflection on the galvanometer. Then,

𝑃 𝑅
𝑄
=𝑆

Metre Bridge apparatus: - The metre bridge, also known as the slide wire bridge consists of a one metre
long wire of uniform cross sectional area, fixed on a wooden block. A scale is attached to the block. Two
gaps are formed on it by using thick metal strips in order to make the Wheat stone’s bridge. The terminal
B between the gaps is used to connect galvanometer and jockey.

According to Wheatstone’s principle;

𝑅 𝐿
=
𝑋 100 − 𝐿

When resistance R1 and R2 are connected in series, then their combined resistance

Rs= R1 + R2

Circuit Diagram: -
Procedure: -

1. Mark the two resistance coils as R1 and R2.

2. Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as given in the arrangement diagram.

3. Connect the resistance wire R1 in the right gap between C and B.

4. Connect the resistance box in the left gap between A and B.

5. Make all other connections neat, clean and tight according to the circuit diagram.

6. Take out some resistance (say 2 Ω) from the resistance box, plug the key K.

7. Touch the jockey gently at left and then at right end of the bridge wire.

8. If the galvanometer shows deflection in opposite direction at both the ends then connection is
correct.

9. Move the jockey gently along the wire from left to right and get the null deflection point mention as D.

10. Note the position of point D, to know length AD = L.

11. Take at least three sets of independent observations in same way by changing the value of R.

12. Repeat the process for resistance R2 and for series combination of R1 and R2.

13. Record your observations.

Observation Table: -

Resistance S.No. Resistance from Length AD Length DC Resistance Mean

coil the resistance box = L (cm) = 100 – L X= resistance
R (Ω) (cm) 100−𝐿 (Ω)
( )R
𝐿
R1 only 1
2
R2 only 1
2
R1 and R2 in 1
series 1

Calculations: -

Experimental value of Rs =………………(Ω)

Theoretical value of Rs= R1 + R2 = ……………..(Ω)

Result: - Within the limits of the experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of R s are same.
Hence law of resistance in series is verified.

Precautions: -

1. The connections should be clean and tight.

2. All the plug in the resistance box should be tight.
3. The jockey should not rub with the wire of the bridge.

Sources of Errors: -

4. The instrument screw may be loose.

5. The plug may not be clean.
6. The wire may not have uniform thickness.
 EXPERIMENT – 3

Aim: -
To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and to find its figure of merit.

Material required: -
A Weston type galvanometer, A battery or battery eliminator, two resistance boxes, two one-way keys, a
rheostat, an ammeter of given range, a voltmeter, Connecting wires.

Theory: -

Galvanometer
A galvanometer is a device used to detect feeble electric currents in a circuit. It consists of a coil
suspended between the poles of a powerful magnet. As current passes through the coil, it deflects. It can
be detected from the deflection on galvanometer needle. The deflection is proportional to the current
passed through it.

The resistance of the galvanometer as found by the half deflection method

𝑅.𝑆
G = 𝑅−𝑆
Where R is the resistance connected in series with galvanometer and S is the shunt resistance.
𝐸
The figure of merit, k = (𝑅+𝐺)𝜃

Where E is the e.m.f. of the cell and 𝜃 is the deflection produced with resistance R.

The maximum current that can pass through the galvanometer, Ig = nk

Where n is the total number of divisions on the galvanometer scale on the either side of zero.

Circuit Diagram: -
 Procedure:-

(a) Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method.

1. Make the connection accordingly as shown in circuit diagram.

2. Tight the plugs of resistance box.

3. Take out the high resistance (say 2000Ω) from high resistance box R and insert the key K1 only.

4. Adjust the value of R so that the deflection is maximum, even in number and within the scale. Note
the deflection. Let it be𝜃.

5. Insert the key K2 and without changing the value of R, adjust the value of S such that the deflection
𝜃
becomes half i.e. . Note the value of S.
2

6. Repeat the process 4 and 5 three times for different values of R.

(b) Figure of merit.

9. Measure the value of e.m.f (E) of cell using voltmeter.

10. Make the connections as in the circuit diagram.

11. Adjust the values of R to obtains a certain deflection 𝜃 (say 30 divisions) when circuit s closed.

12. note the value of R and 𝜃.

13. Repeat the steps 9 to 12 with different voltages like 2,4,6,8….

14. find the figure of merit k using the formula.

Observation Table:-

E.M.F. of cell, E = ………… V

Resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method.

S.No. Resistance Deflection in the Shunt Half Galvanometer Figure of

R (ohm) Galvanometer resistance deflection resistance merit
S (ohm) 𝑅.𝑆 𝐸
G = 𝑅−𝑆 (ohm) K = (𝑅+𝐺)𝜃
𝜃
2 (A/div)
1
2
3

Calculation: -

𝑅1 .𝑆1
G1 = = …………………... Ω
𝑅1 −𝑆2
 𝑅2 .𝑆2
G2 = = …………………... Ω
𝑅2 −𝑆2

𝑅 .𝑆
G3 = 𝑅 3−𝑆3 = …………………... Ω
3 3

The mean value of G = …………… Ω

𝐸
K1 = = ……………..A/div
(𝑅1 +𝐺1 )𝜃1

𝐸
K2 = = ……………..A/div
(𝑅2 +𝐺2 )𝜃2

𝐸
K3 = = ……………..A/div
(𝑅3 +𝐺3 )𝜃3

The mean value of k = ……………..A/div

Result: -

Resistance of the galvanometer G = ……………. Ω

Figure of merit of the galvanometer k = …………..A/div.

Precautions: -

1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in the resistance boxes should be tight.
3. The e.m.f. of the cell or battery should be constant.

Sources of errors: -

1. The screw of the instruments may be loose.

2. The plugs of the resistance boxes may not be clean.
3. The e.m.f. of the cell or battery may not be constant.
 EXPERIMENT – 4

Aim: -
To convert the given galvanometer into a voltmeter of desired range and to verify the same.

Material Required: -

A Weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter of 0 – 3 volts range, a battery of two cells or battery
eliminator, two (10,000 Ω and 200 Ω) resistance box, two one way key, a rheostat, connecting wires.

Theory: -

A galvanometer is a device used to detect feeble electric currents in a circuit. It has a coil pivoted (or
suspended) between concave pole faces of a strong laminated horse shoe magnet. When an electric
current passes through the coil, it deflects. The deflection is proportional to the current passed. The
galvanometer coil has a moderate resistance (about 100 ohms) and the galvanometer itself has a small
current carrying capacity (1 mA).

To convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter we connect high resistance in series with the galvanometer.
𝑉
The resistance required for conversion, R = 𝐼 − 𝐺
𝑔

Where V is the range of conversion.

Circuit Diagram: -

Procedure: -

1. Calculate the value of resistance R to be connected in series with galvanometer for the given range
(say 3 volts).

2. Connect a resistance box in series with galvanometer and take out the plugs of resistance value R.

3. Insert the key K and adjust the rheostat so that the deflection in galvanometer becomes maximum.

4. Note the readings of voltmeter and galvanometer. Convert galvanometer readings into volts.
5. find the difference if any between the readings of voltmeter and galvanometer.

6. Move the variable contact of rheostat and take at least three observations covering the whole range
of voltmeter.

7. Records your observations.

Calculations: -

Resistance of the given galvanometer, G = ………………….Ω

Figure of merit, k = …………………..A/div.

Number of divisions in the galvanometer scale, n = 30

Current for full scale deflection, Ig = nk =…………………..A

Range of conversion, V=0–3V

Resistance connected in series, R =…………………..Ω

Verification:-
𝑉 3
Least count of the galvanometer converted into voltmeter = 𝑛 = 30 = 0.1 𝑉

S.No. Reading for converted galvanometer into a Standard voltmeter Difference

voltmeter reading V2 (V) V 2∽ V 1
Deflection 𝜃 P.D. in volts
V1 = 𝜃 x L.C. (V)
1
2
3

Result: -

As the difference in the actual and the measured value of potential difference is very small, the
conversion is perfect.

Precautions: -

1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in the resistance boxes should be tight.
3. The resistance box should be a high resistance one.

Sources of errors: -

1. The screw of the instruments may be loose.

2. The plugs of the resistance boxes may not be clean.
3. The resistance box may be of low resistance value.
 EXPERIMENT – 5

Aim: -
1 1
To find the focal length of the convex lens by plotting the graphs between U and V or between and .
𝑈 𝑉

Material Required: -

An optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens with the lens holder, two optical needles, a knitting
needle and half meter scale.

Theory: -

The relation between u and v for the convex lens is

1 1 1
= −
𝐹 𝑉 𝑈
𝑈𝑉
or 𝐹 = 𝑈−𝑉

Where F = focal length of the convex lens

U = distance of the object needle from the center of the lens.

V = distance of the image needle from the center of the lens.

Ray Diagram: -

Procedure: -

To determine the rough focal length

1. Mount the convex lens in holder and face the lens towards a distant tree or building.
2. Obtain the image on white painted wall and move the lens to get a sharp image on the wall.
3. Measure the distance between the wall and the lens. It will give the rough focal length of the
lens.
 To set the convex lens

4. Clamp the holder with lens and keep the upright at 50 cm mark.
5. Keep the upright fix in this position throughout.

To set object needle

6. Take the thin optical needle as object needle O. Mount it on upright near zero end.
7. Adjust height of the object needle to make its tip lie on the horizontal lie through the optical
centre of lens.
8. Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object needle upright.

To set the image needle

9. With left eye closed, see with the right eye from the other end of the bench. An inverted and
enlarged image of the object needle will be seen.
10. Mount the thick optical needle in the fourth upright near the other end of optical bench.
11. Adjust the height of the image needle so that its tip is seen in line with the image.
12. Move the eye towards right, the tips get separated. The image tip and the image needle have
parallax.
13. Remove the parallax tip to tip.
14. Note the position of the image needle. Record the observations in the observation table.
15. Repeat the experiment for different positions of object needle.

Observations: -

Rough focal length of the convex lens, F = …………..cm

Actual length of the knitting needle, x = …………..cm

𝑈𝑉
S.No. Position of Observed distance F = 𝑈−𝑉
Object Lens (cm) Image OA = U (cm) OC = V (cm)
needle A O needle C (cm)
(cm) (cm)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Calculations: -

(1) From the graph: -

AB = AC = 2F or OC = OB = 2F
𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝐶
So F =
2
and F = = ………… cm
2
 𝑈𝑉
(ii) From the relation F =
𝑈−𝑉

The mean value of F =………cm.

Result: -

Focal length from the graph F = ……………cm

Focal length from the lens equation F = …………….cm

Precautions: -

1. Tips of the object and the image needle lie at the same height.
2. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip.
3. Index correction for U and V should be applied.

Sources of Errors: -

1. The uprights may not be vertical.

2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
 EXPERIMENT – 6

Aim: -

To find the focal length of the convex mirror, using a convex lens.

Material Required: -

An optical bench with four uprights, a convex lens with the lens holder, a convex mirror with the mirror
holder, two optical needles, a knitting needle and half meter scale.

Theory: -A convex mirror always forms the virtual image; its focal length cannot be found directly as for a
concave mirror. For this purpose, indirect method is used.

An auxiliary convex lens L is introduced between the convex mirror M and object needle O as shown in
ray diagram. The position of the convex mirror behind the convex lens is so adjusted that the real and
inverted image of object is formed at O itself. In such case the light rays are incident normally over the
convex mirror. In the absence of convex mirror, these rays would have meet at the Centre of curvature
of convex mirror. The distance PC gives the radius of curvature R of the mirror.

PC = PI = R
𝑅
Focal length of the convex mirror f= 2

Ray Diagram: -

Procedure: -

To determine the rough focal length

1. Mount the convex lens in holder and face the lens towards a distant tree or building.
2. Obtain the image on white painted wall and move the lens to get a sharp image on the wall.
3. Measure the distance between the wall and the lens. It will give the rough focal length of the
lens.
To set the convex lens

4. Clamp the holder with lens and keep the upright at 50 cm mark.
5. Keep the upright fix in this position throughout.

To set object needle

6. Take the thin optical needle as object needle O. Mount it on upright nearly 1.5 times the
obtained rough focal length towards zero end.
7. Adjust height of the object needle to make its tip lie on the horizontal lie through the optical
centre of lens.
8. Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object needle upright.

To set convex mirror

9. Fix the convex mirror on the second upright near the lens, keeping reflecting surface of the mirror
towards the lens.
10. Adjust the height of the mirror to make its pole lie on the principal axis of the lens.
11. Move toward the zero end of the bench.
12. Closing left eye, from the right eye see the inverted image of the object needle.
13. Adjust the height of the needle so that the two tips are seen in one line.
14. Move the eye toward right. The tip gets separated. The tips have parallax.
15. Move the object needle back and forth till the parallax is removed.
16. Note the position of the convex mirror upright.
17. To set the image needle
18. To set the image needle

To set the image needle

19. Remove the convex mirror.

20. With left eye closed, see with the right eye from the other end of the bench. An inverted and
enlarged image of the object needle will be seen.
21. Mount the thick optical needle in the fourth upright near the other end of optical bench.
22. Adjust the height of the image needle so that its tip is seen in line with the image.
23. Move the eye towards right, the tips gets separated. The image tip and the image needle have
parallax.
24. Remove the parallax tip to tip.
25. Note the position of the image needle. Record the observations in the observation table.
26. Repeat the experiment for different positions of object needle.
Observations: -

Rough focal length of the convex lens, F = …………..cm

Actual length of the knitting needle, x = …………..cm

S.No. Position of Radius of curvature (R) = Focal length

𝑅
Convex mirror Image needle PI (cm) F= (cm)
2
P (cm) I (cm)
1
2
3

Calculations: -
𝐹1 +𝐹2 +𝐹3
Mean of values of 𝐹 =
3
= …..…. cm

Result: - The focal length of the given convex mirror = …………. cm.

Precautions: -

1. Tips of the object and the image needle lie at the same height.
2. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip.
3. Index correction for U and V should be applied.

Sources of Errors: -

1. The uprights may not be vertical.

2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
3. Focal length of lens may not be small.
 EXPERIMENT – 7

Aim: -

To find the refractive index of the liquid by using convex lens and the plane mirror.

Material Required: -

A convex lens, a plane mirror, clean transparent liquid in beaker, an optical needle, an iron stand with
base and clamp arrangement, plane glass slab, a spherometer, half meter scale.

Theory: -

If f1 and f2 be the focal length of glass convex lens and liquid lens and F be the focal length of their
combination then,
1 1 1 1 1 1
𝐹
= 𝑓1
+ 𝑓2
or 𝑓2
=𝐹 −𝑓
1

Liquid lens formed is a planoconcave lens with R1 = R (radius of curvature of the convex lens), R2= ∞,
from the lens maker’s formula

1 1 1
= (𝜇 − 1) [ − ]
𝑓2 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 (𝜇−1) 𝑅
We have,𝑓 = 𝑅
or 𝜇 = 1+ 𝑓2
2

𝐿2 ℎ
Radius of curvature of convex surface is given by the relation, 𝑅 = 6ℎ + 2

Putting the value of f2 and R, 𝜇 can be calculated.

Diagram: -
Procedure: -

For focal length of convex lens

1. Take a convex lens and find its rough focal length.

2. Take a plane mirror and place the convex lens on it.
3. Screw tight the optical needle in the clamp of the stand and hold it horizontally above the lens at
a distance equal to its rough focal length.
4. Brig the needle at the vertical principal axis of the lens.
5. Move the needle up and down and remove the parallax between the tips of needle and its image.
6. Measure the distance of the tip from the surface of the lens and mirror.

For focal length of combination

7. Take a few drops of the transparent liquid on the plane mirror and put the convex lens over it.
8. Repeat the step 5 and 6.
9. Record your observations as give below.

Observations: -

Rough focal length of convex lens= ………..cm

Calculation for Radius of curvature

S.No. Circular scale reading Number of No. of disc scale Total reading
On convex On plane complete division in complete h = n x p +X x
surface (a) mirror (b) rotation (n) rotation L.C.
x=a–b (mm)
1
Radius of curvature R =…….. cm

Arrangement Distance of needle tip Focal length X

𝑋 +𝑋
From lens From plane Mean X = 1 2 2 (cm)
surface mirror (cm)
X1 (cm) X2 (cm)
Without liquid f1 =
With liquid F =

Calculations: -

𝐿2 ℎ
Calculation for 𝑅 = 6ℎ + 2 =

1 1 1
𝑓2
= 𝐹 −𝑓 =
1

𝑅
𝜇 = 1+ =
𝑓2
Result: -

The refractive index of the liquid 𝜇 = ………………

Precautions: -

1. The liquid taken should be transparent.

2. Only few drops of liquid should be taken so that its layer is not thick.
3. The parallax should be removed tip to tip.

Sources of Errors: -

1. The liquid may not be transparent.

2. The parallax may not be fully removed.
 EXPERIMENT – 8

Aim: -

To draw the I – V characteristics curve of a p – n junction in forward – bias and reverse – bias.

Material required: -

A p – n junction (semi – conductor) diode, a 1 volt battery, a 10 volt battery, a high resistance rheostat,
one 0 – 1 volt voltmeter, one 0 – 10 volt voltmeter, one 0 – 20 mA ammeter, one 0 – 200 𝜇A ammeter,
one way key, connecting wires.

Theory: -

Diode: - Diode is a semiconductor device in which there is unidirectional flow of current.

Forward Bias: - When p – region of the diode is connected with the positive terminal of the battery and n
– region with the negative terminal of the battery then the junction is said to in the forward bias. With
increase in the bias voltage the forward current increases slowly in the beginning and then rapidly after
the knee voltage. The knee voltage is about 0.7 volt for Si diode and 0.3 volt for Ge diode.

Reverse Bias: - When p – region of the diode is connected with the negative terminal of the battery and n
– region with the positive terminal of the battery then the junction is said to in the reverse bias. With
increase in the bias voltage the reverse current is very small which remains almost constant. But when
reverse voltage is increased to sufficiently high value the reverse current suddenly increases to large
value. This voltage is known as break down voltage.

Circuit Diagram: -
Procedure: -

For forward – bias

1. Make the circuit connections as show in diagram.

2. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and the milli – ammeter (mA).
3. Increase the forward voltage up to 0.3 V for Ge diode. Current almost remains zero.
4. Increase the forward voltage to 0.4 V a small current is observed.
5. Increase the forward voltage in steps of 0.2 V and note the corresponding current.
6. Current increases first slowly and the rapidly till voltage becomes 0.7 V.
7. Record your observations as give ahead.

For reverse – bias

8. Make the circuit connections as show in diagram.

9. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and the micro – ammeter (𝜇A).
10. Move the contact of potential divider towards negative end to apply a reverse voltage of 0.5 V, a
feebly reverse current starts flowing.
11. Increase the reverse voltage in steps of 0.2 V current increases first slowly and then rapidly. Note
the current.
12. At higher voltage current increases suddenly. This represents reverse break down stage.
13. Record your observations as give ahead.

Observations Table: -

(1) Forward Bias: -

Range of voltmeter =……………………… V

Range of milli – ammeter =……………………… mA

Least count of voltmeter =……………………….V

Least count of milli – ammeter =……………………….mA

S.No. Forward bias Voltage (V) Forward Current (mA)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
 (2) Reverse Bias:-

Range of voltmeter =……………………… V

Range of milli – ammeter =………………………𝑚A

Least count of voltmeter =……………………….V

Least count of milli – ammeter =………………………. 𝑚A

S.No. Reverse bias Voltage (V) Reverse Current (mA)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Result: - The obtained V – I characteristic curve resemble with the ideal curve.

Precautions: -

1. All the connections should be tight.

2. Key should be used in the circuit and opened when the circuit is not being used.
3. Forward bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.

Sources of Error: -

1. Junction diode supply may be faulty.

2. Connection is not proper.
 ACTIVITY – 1

Aim: - To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three (on/off) switches, a fuse and a power source.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: - No apparatus required in assembling a circuit.

Material: - Three bulbs (6 V, 1W) each, fuse of 0.6 A, main switch a power supply (battery eliminator), three
(on/off) switches flexible connecting wire with red and black plastic covering, a fuse wire.

Supplementary: - Main electric board with a two-pin socket and main switch.

Theory: - Electricity supplied to us for domestic purposes is 220 V A.C. and 50 Hz. The household circuit, all
appliances are connected in “parallel” with mains. The switches are connected in series with each appliance in live
wire. 5 A switches are required for normal appliances like, bulbs, fluorescent tubes fans etc. 15 A sockets and
switches are required for heavy load appliances ‘like, refrigerator, air conditioner, geyser, hot plates etc. All
appliances must have three wires called live, neutral and the earth. Total power consumption ‘P’ at a time
P = P1 + P2 + P3 +………..
Where P1, P2, P3 are the powers drawn by appliances.
To protect the appliances from damage when unduly high currents are drawn fuse of little higher rating, 10 to
20% higher than the current normally drawn by all appliances. For further safety, a suitable value MAINS FUSE like
rating 32 A is connected in series with supply source.

Diagram: -

Procedure: -

1. Connect the bulbs B1, B2 and B3 in series with switches S1, S2 and S3 respectively and connect each
set of B-S in parallel with each other.
2. Connect main supply to a step-down transformer (battery eliminator) to get required voltage from
0 to 10 V (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 V).
3. Connect the mains fuse M.S. in series with the power supply (battery eliminator).
4. Connect an A.C. ammeter in series with the B-S set.
5. Connect one end of power supply to one end of B-S set.
6. Check the circuit one again to ensure that household circuit is complete.
7. Gradually increase the current to 0.75 A, the fuse must bum off at about 0.6 A.
 ACTIVITY – 2
Aim: - To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.

Apparatus and material: -

Apparatus: - A voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range, a battery, a rheostat, one way key.
Material: An unknown resistance or resistance coil, connecting wires, a piece of sand paper.

Diagram: -

Procedure: -

1. Connect the components (Resistors, inductors etc.) in series with each other as shown in diagram
and then in series with the battery.
2. Connect the ammeter in series with the circuit, to measure the current.
3. Connect the voltmeter in parallel to the resistor, to measure the potential difference.
4. Connect the switch in series with the battery.
5. Assembly of the electrical components in electric circuit is complete.

Utility: - It is used for measuring an unknown resistance.

 ACTIVITY – 3

Aim: - To draw the diagram of a given open circuit comprising at least a battery, resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter
and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in proper order and correct the circuit and also the
circuit diagram.

Apparatus and material: -

A battery eliminator or a battery (0 to 6 V), rheostat, resistance box (0 to 100 Ω), two- or one-way key. D.C.
ammeter (0-3) A and a D.C. voltmeter (0-3) V.

Theory: - An open circuit is the combination of primary components of electric circuit in a such a manner that on
closing the circuit no current is drawn from the battery.

Diagram: -

Procedure: -
Ammeter: It should be connected in series, with the battery eliminator.
Voltmeter: It should be connected in parallel to the resistor.
Rheostat: It should be connected in series (in place of resistance coil) with the battery eliminator.
Resistance coil: It should be connected in parallel (in place of rheostat).
One way key: It should be connected in series to the battery eliminator.
Correct circuit diagram: (Components connected in proper order)
 ACTIVITY – 4
Aim: - To identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such
items.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: - Multimeter.
Material: - Above mixed collection of items.

Theory
For identification, appearance and working of each item will have to be considered.

1. A diode is a two-terminal device. It conducts when forward biased and does not conduct when reverse
biased. It does not emit light while conducting. Hence, it does not glow.
2. A LED (light emitting diode) is also a two-terminal device. It also conducts when forward biased and does
not conduct when reverse biased. It emits light while conducting. Hence, it glows.
3. A resistor is a two-terminal device. It conducts when either forward biased or reverse biased. (Infect there
is no forward or reverse bias for a resistor). It conducts even when operated with A.C. voltage.
4. A capacitor is also a two-terminal device. It does not conduct when either forward biased or reverse
biased. When a capacitor is connected to a D.C. source, then multimeter shows full scale current initially
but it decays to zero quickly. It is because that initially a capacitor draws a charge.

Diagram: -

Procedure: - If the item has two terminals, it may be diode, a LED, a resistor or a capacitor.
In order to differentiate proceed as ahead:

Connect the battery eliminator, reversing key, the items to be identified and the multimeter. Switch on the circuit
and carefully observe the movement of the pointer of the multimeter.

1. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when reversed and there is
no light emission, the item is a diode.
2. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when re-versed and there
is light emission, the item is a LED.
3. If pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and also when reversed, the item is a resistor.
4. If pointer does not move when voltage is applied in one way and also when reversed, the item is a
capacitor.
Observations: -

No. of obs. Number of Name of device No. of obs. Possible current Name of
legs flow device
1 Two Capacitor, 2 Unidirectional, Diode
Diode, LED or emits no light
resistor
3 Unidirectional, LED
emits light
4 Both directions Resistor
(steady)
5 Initially high but Capacitor
decay to zero
 ACTIVITY – 5

Aim: - To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a glass slab.

Apparatus: - Glass slab, drawing board, white paper sheet, drawing pins, office pins, protractor.

Theory: - When a ray of light (PQ) incident on the face AB of glass slab, then it bends towards the normal since
refraction takes place from rarer to denser medium. The refracted ray (QR) travel along straight line and incident
on face DC of slab and bends away from the normal since refraction takes place from denser to rarer medium. The
ray (RS) out through face DC is called emergent ray.
From the following diagram.

1. The incident ray is parallel to the emergent ray i.e. i = e.

2. The perpendicular distance between the incident ray and the emergent ray is called lateral deviation. For
given angle of incidence and a pair of media, the lateral deviation is proportional to the thickness of the
glass slab. As d = t sec r sin (i – r).

Diagram: -

Procedure: -
(1) Fix a white paper sheet by drawing pins on a drawing board.
(2) Take a glass slab and put it symmetrically in the middle of the paper and mark its boundary ABCD.
(3) Draw a normal at point Q on face AB and draw a line PQ making an angle i with the normal. PQ will represent
an incident ray.
(4) Fix two pins at points 1 and 2 on the line PQ at distances51 cm or more between themselves.
(5) See images of these pins through face DC and fix two more pins at points 3 and 4 (5 cm or more apart) such
that these two pins cover the images of first two pins, all being along a straight line.
(6) Remove the glass slab. Draw straight line RS through points 3 and 4 to represent emergent ray. Join QR to
represent refracted ray.
(7) Draw normal at point R on face DC and measure angle e. It comes to be equal to angle i. Produce PQ forward to
cut DC at T. Draw TU perpendicular to RS. TU measures lateral displacement d.
(8) Now take another set for different angle of incident and measure the lateral displacement.

Observations: -
Least count of protractor = 1 degree
Least count of metre scale = 1 mm = 0.1 cm

S.No. Thickness of glass Angle of incidence ∠i Angle of emergence ∠𝑒 Lateral deviation d

slab t (cm) (degree) (degree) (cm)
1 5.2 cm 30o
2 5.2 cm 45o
3 7.5 cm 45o
Conclusions: -

1. Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of emergence (e).

2. The lateral displacement increases with the increase in the thickness of the slab.
3. The lateral displacement increases with the angle of incidence (i).

Precautions: -

1. The pins should be fixed vertically.

2. The glass should be clean and of uniform thickness.
3. Use sharp pencils for making lines.

Sources of Errors: -

1. Measurement of angles may not be accurate.

2. Glass slab may not have uniform thickness.
3. The pins may not have been inserted on lines.
 ACTIVITY – 6
Aim: - To obtain a lens combination with the specified focal length by using two lenses from the given set of
lenses.

Material Required: - A set of thin convex lenses of known focal length, optical bench with two uprights, stand and
a collimator (for parallel beam of light).

Theory: -

1. Power of lens: - The ability of lens to converge or diverge the rays passing through it is called power of lens.
The power of lens is reciprocal of focal length of lens and is given by the equation.

1
𝑃=𝑓

The unit of power of lens is dioptre (D).

2. With a convex lens, the real image of a distant object is formed at a distance equal to its focal length.
3. If f1 and f2 be the focal lengths of the two lenses and F be the focal length of the combination, then we have

1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2

The power of combination is given by

𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃1

Diagram: -

Procedure: -

1. Set up the optical bench on a horizontal table.

2. Place the two uprights on the optical bench and also fix the lens on these uprights.
3. Adjust the collimator to direct a parallel beam of light along the optical bench.
4. The two lenses on the uprights should be so adjusted that they touch each other.
5. Now measure the distance between the lens and the screen to get the focal length of the combination.
6. Verify the focal length of the combination by finding the values of individual lenses.

Observation and Calculations: -

(i) Specified focal length of lens combination, 𝑓 = 10 𝑐𝑚 = 0.1 𝑚

1 1
Power of combination lens, 𝑃 = 𝑓 = 0.1 = 10 𝐷

(ii) Focal length of given convex lens, 𝑓1 = 20 𝑐𝑚 = 0.2 𝑚

1 1
Power of given convex lens, 𝑃1 = 𝑓 = 0.2 = 5 𝐷
1
 (iii) Power of unknown lens, 𝑃2 = 𝑃 − 𝑃1 = 10 − 5 = 5 𝐷
1 1
Focal length of unknown lens, 𝑓2 = = = 0.2 𝑚 = 20 𝑐𝑚
𝑃1 5

S. No. Distance of lens L1 from the Distance of lens L2 from the Mean distance,
screen, d1 (cm) screen, d2 (cm) 𝑑1 + 𝑑2
𝑑= = 𝑓 (𝑐𝑚)
2
′
1 𝑓1 =
2 𝑓2′ =

𝑓1′ +𝑓2′
Mean focal length, 𝑓 = = 𝑐𝑚
2

Result: - focal length of combination of lenses, 𝑓 = 𝑐𝑚

Precautions: -

1. Thin lenses should be taken.

2. Lenses should have same aperture.

Sources of error: -

1. Lenses may not be thin.

2. Lens apertures may not be same.