Collaboration Research

Mahakavi Devkota Campus

Save Environment – Checkup your Vehicles

Submitted to:

Research Department Committee

Mahakavi Devkota Campus

Submitted by:

Mr. Prakash G.C. (Assistant Campus Chief, MDC)

Mr. Bikash Rana (Research Department Head, MDC)

Mr. Prabin Sharma (Lecturer, MDC)

Miss. Shusila Bhandari (BBA – 8th Semester)

Miss. Brinda Lamichhane (BBA – 8th Semester)

Miss. Mamata Gurung (BBA – 6th Semester)

Miss. Kriti Neupane (BBA – 4th Semester)

Miss. Sujata Prajuli (BBA – 2nd Semester)

Miss. Anup Tiwari (BBA – 1st Semester)

Background
Air pollution has been reported to pose a significant threat to human health worldwide (WHO,
2006). Most evidences have shown respiratory and cardiovascular effects of short- and long-term
exposures to air pollutants (Pradhan et al., 2012; Shin et al., 2009; WHO, 2006; Wu et al., 2010).
The effects may range from subtle biochemical and physiological changes to severe illnesses and
death (WHO, 2006). WHO estimates that globally, 4 to 8 percent of pre-mature deaths are due to
exposure to particulate matter in ambient and indoor environment. Similarly, 20 to 30 percent of
all respiratory diseases appear to be caused by air pollution (WHO, 2000). Vehicular emission is
one of the major sources of air pollutants.  Pollution emitted from vehicles is the function of fuel
combustion reaction with other gases and atmospheric conditions. Vehicular emissions originate
from the interdependence of vehicle technology, fuel quality, and vehicle’s condition of use. The
quality of fuel, both gasoline and diesel, conforms to the Euro III standard in Nepal since 2010
and is imported from India and overseas in the refined form for its direct consumption. Vehicular
emissions increase dramatically as the vehicle fleet increases along with variations in vehicle
travel characteristics.

In the last century, the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by more than 30%
as a result of human activities. The effects of climate change are becoming more pronounced and
they include droughts, floods, heat waves and changes in the weather patterns. Global
temperatures have increased by almost 0.8°C over the past 150 years. Without any global action,
it is expected that temperatures will increase further by 1.8 – 4 °C by 2100 (IPCC, 1996). It is
anticipated that this rise will result in sea level increment of 15 to 95 centimeters. While the
transportation sector is crucial to a nation’s economy and personal mobility, it is also a
significant source of GHGs. Nearly 50% of global CO, HCs, and NOx emissions from fossil fuel
combustion come from internal combustion engines (ICE). The contribution of the transport
sector to total CO2 emissions in developed nations is forecast to increase from 20% in 1997 to
30% in 2020 (Ken et al, 2004). The transport sector accounts for almost all the oil demand
growth around the world (Ming et al, 2008). The world transportation oil demand has
continuously risen with increasing GDP. World forecasts show that transport oil demand in
developing nations will increase three times more than in developed nations. Increasing income
will cause a tremendous increase in car ownership in developing countries, where the vehicle
stock is expected to triple (IEA, 2006). Developing countries account for about 10% of the
global automobile population and a little over 20% of the global transport energy consumption.
In comparison, the United States alone consumes about 35% of the World’s transport energy
(Shiva, 2006).

Road vehicles are among the main consumers of world energy and they dominate global oil
utilization, consuming up to 80% of transport energy. The transport sector’s share of oil
consumption has been increasing steadily at around 0.6% per year. Current policies are not
sufficient to control road vehicle energy use. Even if governments implement all the measures
that are currently being considered, projections by the IEA show that road vehicle energy use
would still rise between now and 2030 at 1.4% per annum respectively (IEA 2007). In
developing nations, it is envisaged that with rising income and the rapidly rising mobility that
accompanies it, the increase in automobile emissions will be even greater than the developed
nations. Steady growth in vehicular populations has put environmental stress on urban centers in
various forms particularly causing poor air quality. There is growing evidence that links vehicle
pollutants to human ill health. Motor vehicles are major emission sources for several air
pollutants, including nitrogen oxides (NOX), carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matter (PM),
and hydrocarbons (HCs) (WHO, 2005). These pollutants have significant adverse effects on
human beings and the environment. Vehicle emissions cause both short and long term problems
associated with health effects. For example, HCs and NOx are the precursors of ozone gas,
which has effects ranging from short term consequences such as chest pain, decreased lung
function, and increased susceptibility to respiratory infection, to possible long-term
consequences, such as premature lung aging and chronic respiratory illnesses (WHO, 2005).

The most affected group is the urban inhabitants especially the traffic policemen who are
exposed to the fumes for a long period of time. Steerenberg et al, (2001) compared children
attending a school located near a busy way in Utrecht, Netherlands (mean black smoke levels;
53g/m3) with children attending a school located in the middle of a green area (mean black
smoke levels; 18g/m3) in a suburban area. It was discovered that respiratory diseases were
more pronounced in the urban than suburban children. The severity of the problem increases
when traffic flow is interrupted and the delays and start-stops occur frequently. These
phenomena are regularly observed at traffic intersections, junctions and at signalized roadways.
Emission rates depend on the characteristics of traffic, vehicles and type of road intersections
(Suresh et al, 2009). The age of a vehicle and maintenance levels also contribute to the emissions
of all classes of vehicles. Further, the fuel quality has a direct effect on the vehicular exhaust
emissions (Perry and Gee, 1995).

With an annual vehicle registration growth of over 14% in 1990 to 2018 exceeding 16% after
2018 and a population growth of 2.3%, the number of automobiles continues to grow
exponentially in Nepal. It is estimated in Nepal Number of Motor Vehicles: Registered data was
reported at 20,635.000 Unit in 2020. The population in Nepal is steadily increasing resulting in
signs of environmental stress characterized by poor air quality, excessive noise, traffic
congestion, loss of green areas and degradation of historical buildings and monuments. Many
stresses, especially from transport, are increasingly leading to deterioration in the quality of life
and human health. The public at large does not understand the impact of exposure to high
concentrations of outdoor pollution as they go about their day-to-day activities. The city taxi
parks and their environs are congested with vehicles that emit great amounts of fumes whose
imminent danger has not been analyzed. A clear understanding of the looming dangers of
increased vehicle numbers on the air quality needs to be established.

Sunwal City, officially the Sunwal Municipal City, is the urbanized and the most populous

city of Parasi District with 72,621 native inhabitants living in 18,689 households in 2021 and
0.11 million people in its urban agglomeration. It is located in the Lumbini Province at an
altitude of 131 meters (430 feet). The population in the Sunwal is growing rapidly. According to
Wikipidia The population increased from 39,846 along with the household 8639 in 2011 to
72,621 along with the household 18,689 in 2021. It combines with the geographical and
meteorological conditions to aggravate air pollution in the Sunwal Municipality.  The
Municipality has 13 administrative wards and occupies an area of 173.50 square kilometers. The
number of vehicles is increasing as the population increases. Motorcycles have the highest
number of registered vehicles. The use of gasoline and diesel has increased significantly in
tandem with the growth of vehicles over the years. Air pollutants emitted from vehicles are
mainly gaseous pollutants and particle matters, which are emitted from gasoline and diesel
vehicles, respectively. Most of the studies related to air pollutants in the Nepal focused on
Particulate Matter (PM10 and PM2.5), carbon monoxide (CO) and volatile organic compounds
(VOC) were monitored inside public buses. The study provides scenario of in-vehicle air quality
in public vehicles. Little research has been conducted on the role of automobile emissions on the
air quality in Sunwal, Nawalparasi. This research aims at assessing the automobile exhaust gases
in Sunwal, Nawalparasi and the potential harm they can have on the population and environment.

Research Problem

South Asia is the global hotspot of air pollution, home of 37 of the 40 most polluted cities in the
world (World Bank, 2023). 60% of its population lives in heavily polluted areas where deadly
dust particles called PM2.5 responsible for chronic respiratory disease and more than 2 million
pre mature deaths a year in the region (World Bank, 2023).

Nepal, a country which lies in South Asia, is in 10th rank in the worst air quality in 2021 (IQ Air).
There are numerous causes of pollution across the country, many of which stem from a lack of
regulations regarding operations such as factories and construction sites, open burning as well as
the fuels used in the many vehicles found in Kathmandu and other cities. It can be seen that
many of the numerous motorbikes, cars and buses are quite aged and deteriorated, yet due to an
ingrained ingenuity to keep old things alive and running that put vast amounts of black spot and
other toxic pollutants that arise from poorly combusted fossil fuels, in particular diesel. Popular
and big cities of Nepal like Kathmandu, Pokhara, Bhaktapur, Butwal, Lalitpur, Biratnagar, are
more likely to have more air pollutions than any other places in Nepal. Kathmandu, the capital
city of Nepal came in with a PM2.5 reading of 48μg/m3 as a yearly average over 2019 placing it
into the 'unhealthy for sensitive groups' category, which requires a PM 2.5 reading of anywhere
between 35.5 to 55.4 μg/m3. This shows that Kathmandu came in on the higher end of this scale,
meaning that the city is subject to some fairly bad levels of pollution year-round, with some
months coming in considerably higher, such as January with a reading of 102.7 μg/m 3, an
extremely high number that would have placed Kathmandu into the 'unhealthy' bracket (55.5 to
150.4 μg/m3) at that point in time. Thus, pollution levels in Kathmandu are of concern to its
citizens and their health (IQ Air, 2023). There are 3.1 million motor vehicles on Nepali roads
(Poudel, 2018)Similarly, according to Kathmandu Valley Traffic Police Office, the number of
vehicles that ply the Valley roads at present is 1.75 million (The Kathmandu Post, 2022). The
motor vehicles rate is increasing every year due to expansion of road networks in rural areas also
which means there is increasing vehicular emission in the environment. Vehicles emits heavy
fumes in the atmosphere which includes various gases like Carbon monoxide, Hydrocarbons,
Nitrogen oxides, Particles, Sulfur dioxide, Lead. Exposure to high levels of air pollution can
cause a variety of adverse health outcomes. It increases the risk of respiratory infections, heart
disease and lung cancer. Both short- and long-term exposure to air pollutants have been
associated with health impacts. More severe impacts affect people who are already ill.

Recently there was conducted vehicle pollution check in Kathmandu from 2 December to 5
January the Department of Environment conducted surprise checks of 581 vehicles in
Kathmandu valley to test their emission. The results were not surprising, more than one-third of
the vans, buses, two-wheelers and cars failed the test. They were emitting smoke and toxic gases
above the safe threshold. The worst were school buses, micros, taxis, water tankers, and
government vehicles. Even more surprising is that some of them had green stickers on their
windshields to prove they had passed emissions tests.

So, emission test is going on in different big cities in Nepal but in case of our Sunwal
municipality which lies in Lumbini province is still behind reaching to the technologies and
equipment require for this kind of test. Butwal city which also lies in the same province has
tested vehicles to some extent in recent years but our municipality general people are not even
enough conscious about air pollution from vehicles which is adversely affecting them. The
problems of vehicular pollution within the Sunwal municipality are yet to be researched.

The transport sector has an important role to play in the effort to avert the dangerous effects of
climate change because it heavily depends on fossil fuels. Currently, most transport related
emissions are concentrated in urban areas which account for the largest share of on-road
transport energy consumption. An estimated more than 3.5 million residents  people in Nepal are
exposed to outdoor air emissions which exceeds maximum recommended levels world-wide
(WHO, 2005). This research focused on the emissions from automobiles in Sunwal, Nepal.
However, stationary units such as generators, construction equipment, refrigerant leakages, etc.,
also contribute significantly to the emissions levels. Many city premises operate generators as a
backup to the insufficient electricity.

 With the increasing urban population and a creation of a large class of blue collar
workers, there is an increasing demand for second hand vehicles in Sunwal necessitating
increased air pollution around the city. Most of the vehicles used in Sunwal have very
 low energy efficiencies, mainly because they are imported into the country when quite
old. The main considerations during importation are fiscal and not environmental.
 No proper assessment has been carried out to establish the level and impact of air
pollution from the automobiles. Nepal does not have an air quality management system
and the few existing data on air pollution has been obtained through measurements done
on an ad hoc basis. The general public may be at risk of suffering from dangerous
diseases in the long term but there is no researched evidence to prove this.
 Nepal, being a least developing country is very prone to the adverse effects of climate
change because of its low capacity to adopt, lack of technology and institutional and
financial capacities. Controlling pollution from the transport sector is vital to improving
the quality of the air and protecting public health.

Research objectives

The overall objective of this research is to evaluate the level of pollution from automobile
exhaust gases in Sunwal, Nawalparasi through monitoring and modeling of emissions. The
research will also assess the impact of these emissions on human health and the environment.

The main objectives of the research include;

i. To Assess the current automobile exhaust gas emission levels and characterize the
emissions from different automobile types
ii. To Study the effect of the different emission types and concentrations on public
health and environment.
iii. Finally, propose appropriate mitigation methods in the transport sector to reduce on
air pollution in the city.

Justification

Transportation comes with significant undesirable side effects, particularly in terms of air
pollution in urban areas and emissions of greenhouse gases, which can impact global climate
change. Evidence is also growing of transport’s negative impact on local populations,
particularly on the poor in developing world cities (Meena, 2003). The health consequences of
urban air pollution are high. Transport related air pollution increases the risk of death particularly
from cardiopulmonary causes, allergic illness such as asthma, cancer, etc. The long term air
pollution from cars in Austria, France and Switzerland triggered an extra 21,000 premature
deaths per year from respiratory or heart diseases, more than the total number of annual traffic
deaths in the three countries (WHO, 2005).

In Nepalese’s case, health risk assessment for air pollution in Nepalese cities is hampered by data
gaps for both ambient air pollution and this study aims at filling such gaps. The study will be a
starting point for the sensitization of the public and policy makers about the imminent dangers of
air pollution in Sunwal, Nawalparasi using the key findings. Results from this study will be used
by researchers, the public, city planners and local authorities to understand transport energy
usage and emissions levels in the city. The study will further avail well researched data with
critical analysis.

Literature review

The transport sector is one of the fastest growing and most recognized sources of deteriorating
air quality (Guo et al., 2016). According to Singh et al. (2017), the number of motor vehicles has
been doubled in every decade in Asia. Of total carbon dioxide emissions, 23% (Ribeiro et al.,
2007) to 26% (Chapman, 2007) emissions are from the transport sector globally. The rise in air
pollution from this sector is due to the rapid growth of motor vehicles, insufficient public
transport and improper management, chaotic urban development, road congestion, low-grade
engines, poor quality of fuel (Badami, 2005; Pucher et al., 2007), and lack of timely repair and
maintenance (Mool et al., 2020). In the coming decades, a larger proportion of air pollution is
likely to result from the transport sector (Franco et al., 2013). Transport sector emits greenhouse
gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxides (N2O), methane (CH4) as well as harmful
pollutants like carbon monoxide (CO), particulate matters (PM2.5), black carbon (BC), hydro
carbon (HC), oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) (Garga et al., 2006; Kathuria,
2004; Neeft et al., 1996; Raux, 2004; Ribeiro et al., 2007; Sadavarte et al., 2019; Singh et al.,
2017; Wang et al., 2011; Wu et al., 2017). Though heavy-duty diesel vehicles (HDDV)
proportion is lower, their emissions contribute significantly to air pollution problems (Grigoratos
et al., 2019; Kirchstetter et al., 1999). According to Shrestha (2018), road vehicle emissions
contribute in acid deposition, stratospheric ozone depletion and climate change. Severe air
pollution can also results allergies, respiratory disease, cardiovascular disease, and premature
deaths (Das et al., 2018a; Das et al., 2020).
The transport sector is increasingly being recognized as one of the important leading sources of
air pollution for the Kathmandu Valley and Nepal. Despite the emerging recognition of vehicular
emissions, it is very difficult to estimate emission inventory because of large uncertainties
especially due to emission factors (EFs) (which largely depends on vehicle category, fuel quality,
vehicle inspection and maintenance conditions) and other factors like total distance travelled,
fuel consumed, mileage, driving conditions, climatic factors, load factors, age of the vehicles
(Bellasio et al., 2007; Clark et al., 2002; D'Angiola et al., 2010; Jamriska et al., 2004; Jing et al.,
2016; Mool et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2008), and road-grade (Cui et al., 2017). Although few
literatures were reported for the Kathmandu Valley and Nepal, there were no studies that
considered country-specific EFs for estimation of emission inventory from diesel vehicles

Literature was obtained in three main ways that included reading documentation from different
sources, conducting interviews with relevant officers and review of videos on climate change.
The literature review involved reviewing information on the status of the automobile industry in
Sunwal and previous work done on vehicular emissions. Several gaps exist with no past work on
vehicular emissions. Information was obtained from the Ministry of Works and Transport,
Department of Transport Management, Nepalese Bureau of Statistics and National
Environmental Management Authority (NEMA). Annual reports for the different organizations
were reviewed. Several interviews were held with officers in the different organizations.
Previous thesis reports were reviewed to compare findings by different researchers. The
literature review involved understanding the role of transport emissions on the on-going climate
change challenge, factors affecting emission levels, comparison of local and international
emission standards, impact of vehicular emissions on human health and environment and
vehicular emission mitigation measures.

Methodology

The Methodology included 1) Study design, 2) Study area 3) Method of investigation 4)

Equipment set up and measurement, 5) Data analysis.

1. Study design

The study design involved the identification of the study area, method of analysis, appropriate
equipment and simulation packages.
 2. Study area

Kampala is the capital city of Uganda occupying about 173.50 sq. Km of land and is located in
the western part of the country. Sunwal City, officially the Sunwal Municipal City, is the
urbanized and the most populous city of Parasi District with 72,621 native inhabitants living in
18,689 households in 2021 and 0.11 million people in its urban agglomeration. It is located in
the Lumbini Province at an altitude of 131 meters (430 feet). The city features a tropical wet and
dry climate. Sunwal was selected for this investigation because of its growing vehicle numbers
causing traffic congestion and pollution.

3. Method of investigation

The vehicle parc numbers were obtained from the state-level Transport Management Office, a
government agency under the Department of Transport Management. A questionnaire which was
aimed at determining the age of vehicles, mileage and peoples’ perceptions on the impact of
vehicle emissions was prepared and administered to 29 automobile operators. The interviewee
sample size was selected based on the availability and co-operation of automobile operators to
respond to the study. The study focused on minibuses, personal vehicles which comprise about
80% of the vehicle parc. The Vehicles were randomly selected based on the age, type and model.
The area of coverage for the study is Sunwal Municipality. The encircled area represents the
busiest places in terms of traffic in the city. Garages around Sunwal Municipality were also
covered during the study. Vehicles located in such places were easier to access compared to
those in the taxi parks. The sample size tested comprised of personal vehicles, minibuses.

Equipment set up and measurement

A gas analyzer was used for the experimental work. The instrument weighed 1kg and could run
for up to 4 hours on its internal re-chargeable battery. The gas analyzer comprises of a 6-gas
analyzer meter, an exhaust probe and a printer as shown in the Figure 1.
Figure 1: The KANE gas analyzer for automotive emissions and the printer set

The meter is fitted with water, a filter and a protective rubber sleeve. The equipment measures
the volume percentage of CO, CO2, O2, NO, HC and NOx in the exhaust gas. The CO, CO2,
O2, NO and NOx emissions are measured in %s whereas HC is measured in ppm. The
equipment records the oil temperature and the fuel/air ratio (Lambda). The instrument can be
used for testing petrol, diesel, Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) and Liquid Natural Gas (LNG)
exhaust gases.

At the start of each experiment, the gas analyzer was first purged and then a leak test carried out
to ensure there was no air trapped that could affect the results. The filter was regularly checked
to ensure that it was clean and not clogged with particles. When clogged, the gas analyzer does
not pass the leak test. The startup time before testing was about three minutes. When ready for
use, the analyzer probe was fitted in to the exhaust pipe and clamped to keep it firmly held. The
vehicle operator was required to run the engine in idle mode for five minutes and then
measurements were done. The typical time for testing one vehicle was five minutes.

In the case of motorcycles, the operators were required to ride the motorbike through a distance
of 1 km distance and then measurement of the emissions was done. The experimental work was
subject to both controllable and uncontrollable factors. The controllable factors included the
scheduling of the experiment in terms of time of day, the choice of vehicle and the location. The
uncontrollable factors were operator behavior and the prevailing ambient conditions. Access to a
vehicle, experiment timing and the actual site of experimentation depended on the vehicle
operator’s willingness to participate in the test.
 4. Data analysis

The emission data for CO and CO2 was retrieved from the gas analyzer in percentages. The data
for HC, NOx and NO was in ppm. The data retrieved was entered into an MS Excel sheet for
further processing. The data was standardized by converting it from % and ppm to mg/m3 using
the formula below.

Where:

- 22.4 (in liters) is the molar volume at Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)
- M is the molecular mass

Quality assurance was done for the collected data. The main aim was to create a database that
contained valid data. The data was analyzed to identify any errors that existed. Such errors were
corrected where possible or invalid data eliminated if they could not be corrected. Where
measurements were taken inaccurately, the experiment was repeated and better values taken or in
other cases an average value derived. The performance of the instrument also had an effect on
the kind of data. For example, a clean filter at the start of the experiment would yield better
results than at the end of the day after carrying out several tests. Filters had to be changed from
time to time to ensure accurate data collection.

Scope and limitation of the study

 In order to properly assess the contribution of automobile fuels to emissions, a full life
cycle analysis is required. However in this study, the analysis focused on tail pipe
emissions without much consideration of emissions that occur during fuel supply. The
emissions in automobiles are as a result of both combusted fuels and evaporative
(fugitive) fuels. This study assesses the level of emissions from combustion only. The
emissions assessed include Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), hydro carbons (HC), carbon dioxide
(CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO). Particulate matter has a great impact on human health
however this was not analyzed in this study due to the limited gas types analyzed by the
instrument used.
 The transport fleet in Sunwal comprises of a range of vehicle types including private
motor vehicles, public mini buses, buses, trucks, pickups, motor cycles and others.
Private motor vehicles and mini buses are the most dominant. In assessing emissions, this
study focused on the mini buses and long-route buses which travel out of the city were
considered in this study, but are increasingly growing in number.
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