CHAPTER 6

Steering Dynamics

6.1 Introduction
Handling is used to describe the response of a vehicle to the driver's inputs and the ease of control. Any
mode of transportation has some means of control. For automobile, two primary control systems are at
the driver's disposal:

(1) The steering system and (2) The braking system

Steering is a system of components, linkages, and other parts that allows a driver to control the direction
of a vehicle. The mechanism used to steer or change the direction of the vehicle is called Steering
mechanism. Most vehicles in service today have front-wheel steering, although a few vehicles have been
marketed with four-wheel steering.

One of the most important factors influencing handling is the cornering behavior of a vehicle and the
first step in understanding cornering performance is to analyze the low-speed turn behavior of a car.

While turning, the front wheel of the respective side, turns with a greater angle than the wheel
of the other side. In order to avoid skids, the front wheels must turn about the same Instantaneous
Center which lies on the axis of the back axle. Instantaneous center is defined as the center where
the translation and rotation of all mechanism or links lies.

Note: The condition for correct steering is that “all the four wheels must turn about the
same instantaneous center.” A fundamental equation of the steering mechanism is derived to find
whether the applied mechanism is suitable and effective to use.

Figure 6.1: Instantaneous center (center of turning circle)

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6.2 Front Wheel Steering

6.2.1 Kinematic Steering

Consider a front-wheel-steering vehicle that is turning to the left, as shown in Figure 6.2. When the
vehicle is moving very slowly, there is a kinematic condition between the inner and outer wheels that
allows them to turn slip-free. The condition is called the Ackerman condition and is expressed by

where, δi is the steer angle of the inner wheel, and δo is the steer angle of the outer wheel. The inner and
outer wheels are defined based on the turning center O.

Figure 6.2: A front-wheel-steering vehicle and steer angles of the inner and outer wheels.

The distance between the steer axes of the steerable wheels is called the track and is shown by (w). The
distance between the front and rear axles is called the wheelbase and is shown by (l). Track and
wheelbase are considered as kinematic width and length of the vehicle.

The mass center of a steered vehicle will turn on a circle with radius R,

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Where δ is the cot-average of the inner and outer steer angles.

The angle δ is the equivalent steer angle of a bicycle having the same wheelbase and radius of rotation
R.

Proof: Figure 6.2 illustrates a vehicle turning left. So, the turning center O is on the left, and the inner
wheels are the left wheels that are closer to the center of rotation. The inner and outer steer angles δi and
δo may be calculated from the triangles ΔOAD and ΔOBC as follows:

Eliminating R1

provides the Ackerman condition, which is a direct relationship between δi and δo.

To find the vehicle’s turning radius R, we define an equivalent bicycle model, as shown in Figure 6.3.
The radius of rotation R is perpendicular to the vehicle’s velocity vector v at the mass center C.

Using the geometry shown in the bicycle model in Figure 6.3,

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and therefore, the vehicle’s turning radius R is:

The Ackerman condition is needed when the speed of the vehicle is too small, and slip angles are zero.
There is no lateral force and no centrifugal force to balance each other. The Ackerman steering condition
is also called the kinematic steering condition, because it is a static condition at zero velocity.

Figure 6.3: Equivalent bicycle model for a front-wheel-steering vehicle

Example 1: Calculate turning radius, or radius of rotation. Consider a vehicle with the following
dimensions and steer angle:

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The kinematic steering characteristics of the vehicle would be

6.2.2 Space Requirement

The kinematic steering condition can be used to calculate the space requirement of a vehicle during a
turn. Consider the front wheels of a two-axle vehicle, steered according to the Ackerman geometry as
shown in Figure 6.4. The outer point of the front of the vehicle will run on the maximum radius RMax,
whereas the inner side of the vehicle at the location of the rear axle will run on the minimum radius Rmin.
The front outer point has an overhang distance g from the front axle. The maximum radius RMax is

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 Figure 6.4: The required space for a turning two-axle vehicle
Therefore, the required space for turning is a ring with a width ΔR, which is a function of the vehicle’s
geometry.

The required space ΔR can be calculated based on the steer angle by substituting Rmin

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and getting

Example 2: Calculate the required space.

Consider a two-axle vehicle with the following dimensions.
l = 4m, w = 1.3m and g = 1.2m
Determine Rmin, RMax, and ΔR for δ = 30deg

6.3 Four Wheel Steering

Mercedes-Benz’s latest S-Class and EQS models have the most advanced rear-wheel steering system.
This system can turn the rear wheels 4.5 degrees, with the wheels moving opposite to the front axle
below 60 km/h, and in the same direction above this speed to improve stability during cornering.

Optionally the system can turn the rear wheels to a maximum of 10 degrees. This ensures the large S-
Class has a turning circle of just 10.8m, similar to the A-Class, the smallest car in the Mercedes range,
at lower speeds (in short-wheelbase form).

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Figure 6.5 illustrates a positive four-wheel steering vehicle, and in a positive 4W S situation the front
and rear wheels steer in the same direction.

Figure 6.5: A positive four-wheel steering vehicle

Figure 6.6 illustrates a negative 4W S vehicle, and in a negative 4W S situation the front and rear wheels
steer opposite to each other.

Figure 6.6: A negative four-wheel steering vehicle.

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The kinematic condition between the steer angles of a 4W S vehicle is:

where, wf and wr are the front and rear tracks, δif and δof are the steer angles of the front inner and outer
wheels, δir and δor are the steer angles of the rear inner and outer wheels, and l is the wheelbase of the
vehicle.

Proof: The slip-free condition for wheels of a 4W S in a turn requires that the normal lines to the center
of each tire-plane intersect at a common point. This is the kinematic steering condition.

Figure 6.7 illustrates a positive 4W S vehicle in a left turn. The turning center O is on the left, and the
inner wheels are the left wheels that are closer to the turning center. The longitudinal distance between
point O and the axles of the car are indicated by C1, and C2 measured in the body coordinate frame.

Figure 6.7: Illustration of a negative four-wheel steering vehicle in a left turn.

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The front inner and outer steer angles δif, δof may be calculated from the triangles ΔOAE and ΔOBF,
while the rear inner and outer steer angles δir, δor may be calculated from the triangles ΔODG and ΔOCH
as follows.

Eliminating R1 provides the kinematic condition between the front steering angles δif and δof.

Similarly, eliminate R1 to provide the kinematic condition between the rear steering angles δir and δor

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Use the following constraint to find the kinematic condition between the steer angles of the front and
rear wheels for a positive 4W S vehicle.

Th equation can express the kinematic condition for both, positive and negative 4W S systems. Similarly,
the following equations can uniquely determine C1 and C2 regardless of the positive or negative 4W S
system.

Four-wheel steering or all wheel steering may be applied on vehicles to improve steering response,
increase the stability at high speeds maneuvering, or decrease turning radius at low speeds. A negative
4W S has shorter turning radius R than a front-wheel steering vehicle.

Turning radius

To find the vehicle’s turning radius R, we may define equivalent bicycle models as shown in Figure 6.8

Figure 6.8: Bicycle model for a positive 4W S vehicle

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Let’s examine the positive 4W S situation in Figure 6.8. Using the geometry shown in the bicycle model,
we have;

and therefore

The turning radius of a negative 4W S vehicle can be determined from the same equation.

Example 3: Steering angles relationship.

Consider a car with the following dimensions.

Assume one of the angles is:

To find the other steer angles, we need to know the position of the turning center O. The position of the
turning center can be determined if we have one of the three parameters C1, C2, R1. In this example, let’s
assume:

Therefore;

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Because C1 > l and δif > 0 the vehicle is in a positive 4W S configuration and the turning center is behind
the car.

Now, the other steer angles are;

6.4 Gyroscope
A gyroscope may be defined as a spinning mass or wheel universally mounted so that only one point, its
center of gravity, is in a fixed position and the wheel is free to turn in any direction around this point.

Figure 6.9: Gyroscope

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6.4.1 Characteristics of Gyroscope

When the rotor is, spined the gyroscope exhibits the following two important characteristics

It requires a high degree of rigidity and its axle keeps pointing in the same direction no matter
how much the base is turned about. This is gyroscopic inertia
The second characteristic is “precession” (If the gyro is spinning about the lateral axis and if
you apply a force to the gyro about the horizontal axis, instead of turning about its horizontal
axis, turns or “prcesses” about its vertical axis in the direction indicated by the arrow P).

This effect is called the Gyroscopic action and the velocity about the third axis is called the Velocity of
Precession ωp.

Hence it follows that:

Axis of Spin is the axis about which the body revolves.
Axis of Couple is the axis perpendicular to the axis of spin about which the torque is applied.
Axis of Precession is that axis about which the body revolves and is perpendicular to axis of
spin and axis of couple.
Precession means the rotation about the third axis. The velocity about this axis is called the
velocity of precession, ωp.

When a body moves along a curved path with a uniform linear velocity, a force in the direction of
centripetal acceleration (known as centripetal force) has to be applied externally over the body, so that
it moves along the required curved path. This external force applied is known as active force.

When a body, itself, is moving with uniform linear velocity along a circular path, it is subjected to the
centrifugal force radially outwards. This centrifugal force is called reactive force. The action of the
reactive or centrifugal force is to tilt or move the body along radially outward direction.

Note: Whenever the effect of any force or couple over a moving or rotating body is to be considered, it
should be with respect to the reactive force or couple and not with respect to active force or couple.

Factors that affect stability of the vehicle during turning

❑ Weight of vehicle
❑ Gyroscopic couple
❑ Centrifugal couple
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6.4.2 Stability of an automobile in a curve

Gyroscope is a spinning object like a wheel or a propeller. Since wheels of a vehicle and a flywheel are
spinning objects, they have the same effect as gyroscope during turning. Therefore, in order to maintain
stability of a vehicle during turning their effect has to be considered.

Factors that affect stability of the vehicle during turning

❑ Weight of vehicle
❑ Gyroscopic couple
❑ Centrifugal couple

Consider the four-wheel A, B, C and D of an automobile locomotive taking a turn towards left as shown
in Figure 6.10. the wheels A and C are inner wheels, whereas B and D are outer wheels. The center of
gravity (C.G) of the vehicle lies vertically above the road surface.

Let m = mass of the vehicle (kg), W = weight of the vehicle (N), rw = effective radius of wheel
(m), R = radius of curvature of the road (m), h = center of gravity height (m), x = track width
(m), Iw = mass moment of inertia of one wheel (kgm2), ωw = angular velocity of wheels (rad/sec),
IE = mass moment of inertia of engine (kgm2), ωE = angular velocity of engine (rad/sec), G =
gear ratio, V = linear velocity of the vehicle (m/s)

Figure 6.10: Four-wheel drive moving in a curved path (reaction forces considered)
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(1) Weight of Vehicle

Unless the center of mass is given the weight is assumed to be equally divided on all wheels, there is a
force W/4 acting vertically upwards on each wheel being the reaction of the road due to the weight.

(2) Effect of the gyroscopic couple

Since the vehicle takes a turn due to the precession and other rotating parts a gyroscopic couple will act.

The velocity of precession,

Therefore gyroscpoic couple due to the four wheels,

And gyroscopic couple due to the rotating parts of the engine,

Therefore, net gyroscopic couple,

The positive sign is used when the wheels and rotating parts of the engine rotate in the same direction.
If the rotating parts of the engine revolves in opposite direction, then negative sign is used.

Due to the gyroscopic couple, vertical reaction on the road surface will be produced. The reaction will
be vertically upwards on the outer wheels and vertically downwards on the inner wheels. Let the
magnitude of this reaction at the two outer and inner wheels be P newtons. Then,

Therefore, vertical reaction at each of the outer or inner wheels,

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(3) Effect of centrifugal couple

Since the vehicle moves along a curved path, therefore centrifugal force will act outwardly at the centre
of gravity of the vehicle. The effect of this centrifugal force is to overturn the vehicle. We know that
centrifugal force,

Therefore, the couple tending to overturn the vehicle or overturning couple,

This overturning couple is balanced by vertical reactions, which are vertically upwards on the outer
wheel and vertically downwards on the inner wheels. Let the magnitude of this reaction at the two
outer or inner wheels be Q. Then:

Therefore, vertical reaction at each of the outer or inner wheels,

Therefore, total vertical reaction at each of the outer wheel,

Therefore, total vertical reaction at each of the inner wheel,

A little consideration will show that when the vehicle is running at high speeds, P1 may be zero or even
negative. This will cause the inner wheels to leave the ground thus tending to overturn the automobile.
In order to have the contact between the inner wheels and the ground, the sum of P/2 and Q/2 must be
less than W/4.

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Example 4: A vehicle is travelling along a track of 100m mean radius. Each of the four wheel has MOI
of 2kgm2 and an effective diameter of 0.6m. The rotating parts of engine has MOI of 1.25kgm2. The gear
ratio of engine is 3:1. the mass of the vehicle is 1500kg and its CG is 0.5 above the road level. The track
width of the vehicle is 1.5m. Determine the critical speed of the vehicle while taking a left turn.

(a) If the engine is rotating in the same direction as the wheel

(b) If the engine is rotating in opposite direction and the wheel base is 2m

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