COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTRMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION.

NAME: RONALD WAIRINDI MUGISHA

REG NO: 2022/HDO3/1278U

STUDENT NO: 2200701278

COURSE CODE: IRS7203

COURSE NAME: INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

PROFESSOR: PROF KASAIJA PHILIP APUULI

IRS7203 ADVANCED INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION

If the UN one day disappears or more likely just slides into neglect, it is only then that we
would fully be aware of the gaping hole it would create in what remained of the post-
world war two order. Kevin Ruud former Australian Prime Minister. Discuss this statement?

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Introduction.

Having been formed at the end of a damaging second world war in 1945, the United Nations
organization remains a subject of debate among academics and policy makers in regard to its rationale
and validity in ensuring international peace and security. At the heart of the debate has been a
consistent critique of liberal institutionalism perspective of international politics which posits that
international supra national organizations such as the United Nations have potential and capacity to
moderate state behavior within the anarchic international system. In his famous article the “false
promise of international institutions” published during the winter of 1994/95 renown Neo-realist
John Measheimer strongly exposed the inherent weaknesses of institutionalist theories particularly
liberal institutionalism noting that the approach to international politics which emphasizes
institutions as key to promoting international peace is flawed due to its minimal influence on
state behavior Nuruzzaman (2001). Measheimer (1994) was particularly concerned about the
trumpeting for the creation of institutions in Europe in total neglect of concepts such as the balance of
power as a determinant of international peace and stability. Hence according to Neo-realist perspective,
the promise of liberal institutions to promote cooperation and stability was largely un founded and a
farfetched dream. Later, scholars such as Rebecca Devitt (2011) opined that the inability of the United
Nations and the world Bank to address issues concerning Nuclear proliferation, poverty reduction and
environment effectively suggests that institutionalist theory is failing in practice. In contrast, the
proponents of the Liberal institutionalism such as Robert Keohane and Martin White stressed the
importance of institutions in the conduct of state behavior, noting that what is key is to discover how and
under what conditions institutions could initiate effective inter-state cooperation Keohane& white
(1995:40).

In the post-cold war era, distrust over the efficacy and value of liberal institutions like the United
Nations organization gained further traction following the September 11, 2001 Terror attacks in the
United states. Subsequently in 2003 the US Republican Administration under President George Walker
Bush; responded to the attacks by launching a scathing Global war on terror in which the United States
Military supported by a Coalition of willing International Forces destroyed the Sadam Hussein and
Taliban regimes in Iraqi and Afghanistan then referred to as “the axis of evil” without the approval of the
United Nations Security Council. Later in 2008, the world witnessed yet another global power; Russia
invade Georgia in what was described by peter Dickson (2021) as Europe’s first 21 st Century war,
Crimea in 2014 and Ukraine in 2022. On each of the above occasions, the United Nations proved utterly
incapable of reigning over the wills of Global powers in their unilateral quest to foster regime changes
in total violation of international law. According to Afuar Hirsch, (2010) a 551 page report of inquiry

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into the legality of the Iraq war by former Dutch supreme court Judge Willbrord Davids confirmed
that military action in the case of Iraq had no basis in international law and thus violated the UN
Charter. In spite of the above misgivings, the United Nations is still widely regarded as a pillar of
international peace and stability. Former Australian Prime Minister Kevin Ruud has rightly remarked that
if the UN disappeared or just slides into neglect, it is only then that world would recognize a gaping
hole it would create in what remains of the post-world war order.

This essay seeks to clarify common misperceptions in evaluating the role and efficacy of the
United Nations in dispensing its core obligations as a pillar of international peace and security. The
essay is structured into three parts. The first section provides an overview of the evolution of the UN, its
founding objectives and principles as enshrined in the Charter. This section concludes that the
formation of the UN was not a wholly new formulation but rather an inspiration triggered by the early
notion of “concert” in 19th century Europe and the League of Nations which was formed in 1920 to
prevent a recurrence of another catastrophic war following the end of the first world war in 1918. The
second part of the essay presents contending debates and policy positions on the efficacy and relevance
of the United Nations in fulfilling its stated objectives and principles in light of the post-world war two
developments and challenges within the international system. This section concludes that while the UN
has had low points since inception, its score card is generally a mixed one with highlights of strategic
failures and achievements in areas such as international conflict resolution and Security, Environment
and Climate. change, poverty alleviation and economic development etc. The final part of the essay
concurs with former Australian prime Minister that the disappearance or neglect of the UN system
would almost certainly create a gaping hole in the international system. In addition, it asserts that with
the increasing rate of global interconnectedness, the UN is poised to play an even more vital role as an
embodiment of global governance although it may require to undergo some reforms in order to be in
tandem with the new realities of the of international system.

United Nations: Origins and evolution.

As the second world war was winding up, the world was in ruins with Nations now
clamoring for peace. The drafting of the of the United Nations Charter in the city of San
Francisco California could not have come at the right time. From 25 April -26 June 1945,
representatives of 50 countries proceeded to sign the UN charter hence creating a new supra
National organization the (United Nations) which it was hoped would prevent another war like
the one the world had just lived through. It is important to note that the invention of a supra
National organization with capacity to balance the state behavior and reduce chances of wars

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from occurring among empires and states was not a wholly new formulation. According to Ejnar
Munksgaard the notion of a peace organization can be traced back to unknown antiquity.
Munksgaard (1950). In the Roman empire, world peace was conceptualized as pax-romana a
peace based on the overriding power of a single state. By the 19 th century the notion of
“concert” had evolved within Europe as a mechanism of negotiation. If conflicts arose, great
powers would meet and negotiate among themselves reaching a compromise. To Kyle
Lascurettes (2017) the resort to use of force was only to the extent that the powers agreed
together and only when necessary to contain a larger disruption to the status-quo. It can be
argued that while the concert of Europe was a collection of informal arrangements and rules as
agreed upon by powers, it influenced elite statesmen of Europe to adhere to and enforce a
particular set of principles in their relations with one another on the Continent.

Later following the carnage and material damage inflicted by of the first world war, the
perspective that war must cease as an instrument of dispute resolution coalesced among the
peoples of western Europe. Hence, when delegations from victorious powers met during the
1919 Paris conference the creation of an organization dedicated to ensuring international peace
and stability was central to the discussions. By 1920, the League of Nations was adopted with its
covenant stressing the principle objective to “promote international cooperation and to achieve
international peace and security”.

From the foregoing therefore, the ideation of a supra national institution as a pillar of
international peace and security was not a wholly new formulation. The concert of Europe, the
league Nations and its subsequent shortcomings inspired the formation of the United Nations to
save succeeding generations from the scourge of war which had twice brought untold sorrow
and suffering to Humankind.

The United Nations: Objectives and principles.

The purposes of the United Nations as encapsulated in the UN Charter (1945) article is to maintain
international peace and security and to take effective collective measures to prevent any threats to
peace. Secondly the UN is enjoined to develop friendly relations among Nations based on the respect of
the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples. Thirdly, it fosters international
cooperation in solving international problems of an economic, social cultural or humanitarian character
and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and fourthly, the UN was envisaged to be

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the center for harmonizing actions of member states. Further in pursuit of the purposes mentioned in
article 1, Article 2 of the charter enumerates the guiding principles of the organization to include (1)
the principle of sovereign equality of states (2) All members to fulfil in good faith the obligations
assumed in accordance with the present charter. (3) the settlement of international disputes by peaceful
means (4) Refrain from the use or threat of use of Force against the territorial and political independence
of states. (5) All members are to give the united Nations every assistance in any action taken in
accordance with the charter and have to refrain from giving assistance to any state against which the
united Nations is taking preventative or enforcement action (6) Ensure that states which are not
members of the United Nations act in accordance with the principles laid out in the charter and
(7) lastly northing in the charter authorizes the united Nations to intervene in matters which are
essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state. The ultimate aim towards which all
activities of the organization are centered is the maintenance of international peace and security which
means that all powers conferred on different organs of the organization such as the General Assembly,
the Security Council, the economic and social council, trusteeship Council and the Secretariat are
intended to achieve global peace and security see UN charter (1945).

A Critique of the United Nations system in the post-world war order.

The expression of purposes and principles of the United Nations is not adequate to assess the
efficacy of the organization. Since its founding 77 years ago, the UN has been a subject of rigorous
debate in regard to its validity and relevance particularly in the post-world war-order which is marked by
an un precedented complexities. While scholars and policy makers have highlighted multiple challenges
and shortcomings that call into question the relevance of the organization, it has previously facilitated
actions and programs through its multiple organs and agencies which are beneficial to humanity and
international security. Stewart Patrick (2015) concurs that in spite of its challenges, the UN has held up
well remaining the world’s most important multilateral forum.

Critics of the UN system on the other hand argue that the organization has never been able to
carry out its tasks as stated in the Charter under Article 1. Maurice Bertrand is particularly concerned that
the UN has not been able to either maintain international peace and security or to achieve international
cooperation in solving problems of economic, social cultural and Humanitarian character. Bertrand
(1995). To him, the number of people doubting the revitalization of the UN has been diminishing amid
public anxiety and frustration regarding catastrophic humanitarians situations, failure of peace keeping
missions and the spread of global un employment. Accordingly, the UN as is, stands incapable of
proposing any tangible solution to global problems. For Bertrand, some people already speak of the
“UN’s death” Bertrand (1995).

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 Building on Bertrands view point, Ahmed Medhat has gone as far as enumerating the
failures UN in resolving international contemporary conflicts among them the Arab Israel conflicts
(1967-1973) , the peace Negotiations between Israel and Palestine, the failure of peace keeping
operations in Somalia, Rwanda and Bosnia in the 1990s also described as a pessimistic phase and
termed by Koffi Anan as the greatest failure of the UN system. More recent failures include the
inability of UN to resolve political crises in Yemen, Libya since 2013 and Somalia (1980-2023) the
civil war in Sirilanka (1983-2009) and the Russian Ukraine Conflict (2009-2023) and the failure to
solve border and maritime conflicts like the Kashmir question (1947-2023). The issue of the South
Chinese sea between the ASEAN Countries and China and the Mediterranean geopolitical Conflict
between Greece, Cyprus and Egypt on one side and Turkey on the other side see Mehdat (2020). In
Africa, the most notable concern, has been the ineffectiveness of UN peacekeeping missions in
addressing the challenge of armed conflict with notable lackluster performance recorded in DRC and the
Central African Republic.

Other authors have moved beyond mere mention of failures of the organization to identifying
deficiencies within the UN charter that are seen as inhibiting the proper functioning of UN system. For
instance, Inkasi and Inyang have taken issue with Article 39 which ushers in collective security
mechanism provided for under chapter VII of the Charter. They observe that while the provision
empowers the Security Council to determine what amounts to the “threat to peace”, “breach of peace” and
“acts of aggression” and hence forth recommend appropriate measures to be applied under articles 41, 42,
the Charter is silent on specific terms under which such appropriate measures may be undertaken. This
therefore leaves the Security Council with discretionary powers which is unhealthy to the attainment of
the general object of the UN considering the political and ideological variances of the five permanent
members Inkasi & Inyang (2018). Moreover, the power of veto vested in the permanent member states
makes each state a sole determinant factor of the decisions of the Security Council. Therefore, in cases
like the ongoing Ukraine conflict where the Council has to take firm decisions, the situation may be
left to degenerate due to power plays and selfish interests of the permanent members. In a nutshell, the
power of veto formula renders the security council hopelessly impotent in exercising its functions
even in the face of real threats to international peace and security. Secondly, the power of veto
being vested in the five permanent members also runs counter to the principle of “sovereign
equality” among Nations under Article 2 of the Charter which is supposed to mean that all Nations
have the same position with equal rights whereas not.

Related to the above is the concern about the lack of representation for other Member states.
Pursuant to Article 23 of the UN Charter, the Security Council comprises 15 Members of which (5) i.e.

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France, USA, UK, China and Russia which enjoy a permanent status and special voting rights with veto
power while (10) Members states are non-permanent and distributed as follows; Afro-Asia (5) Eastern
Europe (1) Latin America (1) Caribbean (2) Western Europe (2). Thus given the leading role of the UN
organization with currently (193) Member states, representation in the Security Council which is a key
decision making organ should have been more reflective of the membership of the organization and
its global outlook with desired continental and geographical equity which is not the case.

Finally, critics of liberal institutionalism and the Idea of the UN system, such Robert Kegan
have suggested that the UN offers naively “a Kantian aura”, an inadequate response to a Hobbesian
world that calls for the leviathan and not a weak kneed, peace organization like the UN Sharoor (2004).
Even more puzzling for liberal institutionalism, they argue is the fact that liberal democracies such as
USA and UK have been on the back foot and desperate to down grade International institutions such as
UN that demand so much while non –liberal Countries like china are willing not only to stay but take on
more leadership responsibilities. In his relentless attack on liberal institutionalism, renown neo-realist
John Measheimer has concluded that institutions such as the UN generally have minimal influence on
state behavior and thus hold little promise for promoting stability in the post –cold war world
Measheimer (1995).

The United Nations: achievements and rationale in post-world war order.

The above shortcomings notwithstanding however, the United Nations system has
registered significant successes making its score card a mixed one with both low and high
points in areas such as international conflict resolution and security, governance and
democratization, environment and climate change, poverty alleviation and economic
development among others. In his assessment of the UN organization, Shashi Tharoor, Former
undersecretary General United Nations has rightly indicated that is some cases reports of the
UN’s demise might simply be an over exaggeration Tharoor (2004). Thus to avoid over
indulging in wholesale condemnation of UN efforts, Charles Ariye has suggested that it is
prudent to take into account the conditions and factors which the UN has been able to contend
with in the post-world war order Ariye (2014).

For instance after the second war, the international system under went serious
revolution with Europe losing her dominance in global power hierarchy. As a result,
the USA positioned its self to fill the emergent power vacuum thereby leading to bipolar
system and the cold war between the soviet block and the western world led by USA.

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This would later climax into a Nuclear age and decolonization period which increased the
number of sovereign states particularly from Eastern Europe and Africa. Equally, the conduct of
International relations also shifted from emphasis on power politics to democracy and new
desire for peace and interdependences among states. In summary, the pre-war international
system came to be different from the post war international system in many aspects. According
to Muzaffer Ercan, the end of the cold war in the late 1980s ushered in yet another key
development-a unipolar system characterized by USA dominance among other changes that
shaped the international system within which the UN operated, Ercan (2008).

The maintenance of Peace and international security.

Therefore, in view of the above post war developments, it is prudent to recognize that the
United Nations has indeed played an outstanding role in ensuring its cardinal role of maintaining
international peace and security in spite of the rapid changes that have occurred within the
international system since its inception in 1945-46. Joshua Lincoln has stated strongly that
whereas the UN did not completely eradicate all the conflicts on the Global scale, it has saved
three generations from the scourge of world wars that manifested twice since the first half of
the 20th century Lincoln (2022). Indeed, compared to its forerunner organization the League
of Nations which lasted only 20 years (1920-39) before collapsing, the UN has withered on for
over 78 years providing a rules based system for Global collective security even though
conflicts such as Iraq-Gulf war (2003) Syria (2011-2023), Ukraine (2022-2023) and Tigray-
Ethiopia (2022) and others may indeed present some of the difficulties it has faced
within the sphere of international peace and security in 21st century.

A classic case, where collective security was achieved under the UN charter was during
the gulf crisis of 1991 when Iraq invaded Kuwait. Luca (1991). The collective response to
the crisis under the UN stirred a lot hope. For the first time since the Korean war of 1950, the
UN had succeeded in mobilizing international consensus and universal action to stop the
aggression of one state against the other which was willfully carried by coalition Forces forcing
President Sadam Hussein to unceremoniously withdraw his Forces from Kuwait.

The UN and Decolonization.

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 In line with the principle of sovereign equality of states and self-determination i.e.
the concept that a country can determine its own statehood and for a government the UN
General assembly passed several resolutions regarding the granting of independence
to colonial Countries. The special committee on decolonization helped to push for
decolonization of non –self-governing territories after the second world war freeing about 750
Million people from the york of colonialism Katlyn Balakir (2021). For Ana Lovelace, the
United Nations Charter provided a key launch pad for facilitating the transition of former
colonies into self-governing entities see; Lovelace (n.d). Thus, as the cold war was underway
the UN through its decolonization committee of (24) innately supported liberation and anti-
colonial movements stressing the need for an international system based on cooperation
rather than exploitation Ulam (1971: 450 ). Not surprisingly, this practice is to date one of the
guiding principles of modern interstate relations which is based on respect of territorial
sovereignty of each state and mutual cooperation.

Conflict and international dispute resolution.

Over decades, the United Nations has helped end various conflicts and resolution of
international disputes through the security council. When the UNSC receives a complaint, it
first recommends that parties resolve such conflict through peaceful means in line with
Article 2 of the UN Charter which calls for resolution of conflicts and disputes among
members states by peaceful means. In some cases, the Council can investigate and mediate in
such conflicts and disputes or recommend that UN secretary General appoints a special
representative of the UN secretary General to conduct preventative diplomacy and
disarmament.

When Great Britain granted India and Pakistan independence in 1948, the UN played
a key role in the Military and diplomatic spheres by attempting to settle the issue of disputed
territories of Jamu and Kashmir between the two newly independent sovereign states. By
invoking Article 35 of the UN Charter which empowers members states to bring to the
attention of the Security Council any matter deemed to endanger international peace and
security, India in 1948 brought to the attention of the security Council the matter of
Pakistan’s involved in fanning violence and conflict within the disputed territories that had
acceded to India. The record of the security council clearly indicates that the council

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limited its self to offering good offices, mediation and conciliation under the pacific
settlement provisions of the charter see; Mahmud Faksh (1967). Later on, the UN equally
played a key role in resolving conflicts in El Salvador, Liberia, sierra-leone, and Timo Lester.
UN global issues report (2023).

Conflict prevention.

Although less publicized, the UN is also involved in conflict prevention. Its General
Assembly and security council resolutions adopted in 2016 (A/70/262 and S/2282, respectively)
on “sustaining peace” encompass a series of activities aimed at
preventing the outbreak, escalation and continuation or recurrence of conflict. UN report on
conflict prevention (2006). By focusing on various levels of the conflict cycle and
addressing underlying issues that pose long term risks to peace and stability, engaging with
parties to conflicts etc. the UN has been able to achieve reconciliation and build
resiliencies in conflict prone societies. A key feature of conflict prevention has been the
deployment of peace keeping Forces under multi-dimensional mandates to conduct peace
support operations and political missions there by salvaging failing states or those at the
brink of total collapse.

The United Nations and the Human Rights Norms.

Perhaps one of the greatest contribution and milestone of the UN system was the
adoption of fundamental laws on Human Rights. Whereas the League of Nation covenant had
been silent on the matter of human rights, by 1945 and 1948 the UN charter and the
declaration of rights explicitly called out for the respect of human rights and fundamental
freedoms respectively. Since then, a wide range covenants have been adopted to regulate
and address phenomena such as genocides and crimes against humanity, war crimes , rights
of children and women etc. The founding of the 1966 covenants on civil and political rights can
be traced to Articles 1 and 2 of the Declaration of Rights which note that “All human beings
are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and
should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood” and secondly that “everyone is entitled
to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such

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as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin or
birth or other status”. see, Universal Declaration of Human rights (1948).

The United Nations and development.

Whereas many scholars tend to focus on the role of UN system in ensuring international
peace and security, not much attention has been dedicated to understanding the role of the
UN in economic development. Yet from the Charter, the UN was intended to play a proactive
role in the field of economic development. During the aftermath of the second world war, the
agenda was focused on rebuilding industrialized Nations devastated by war. However, after the
decolonization period, focus shifted to helping newly independent states mainly from Africa to
integrate with the international system Lona Gold et.al (2006).This undertaking became
institutionalized with the formation of UN agencies such as Food and Agriculture
organization (FAO) in 1945, the World Food Program (WFP) in the 1960s, the United
Nations conference on trade and development (UNCATD) in 1964 and the United Nations
development program (UNDP) in 1966 to spearhead the UN global development agenda.
In addition, through the UN, Developing Nations have been able to access funding for
development and reconstruction projects through the International Bank of Reconstruction
and Development (World Bank). A related UN agency the International Monetary Fund
(IMF) promotes international Cooperation on monitory issues and encouragement of stable
foreign exchange rates among Nations. Therefore, while these and other interventions are not
without challenges, they have made a significant impact on Global development and reduction of
global poverty levels without which the situation would have been worse.

The UN and Climate change.

Whereas the UN security council mandate under article 34 does not neatly fit the
understanding of security from climate and environment perspective, the UN has since
the 1970s assumed a much more proactive role in climate and environment related
matters. Having been established in 1972 the United Nations Environment program has worked
very closely with 193 Member states and other stake holders to galvanize commitments and
coordinate and address the global environmental pressing issues. Under the auspices of UNEP,
the intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) which brings together about 2000 leading
climate change scientists has been at the fore front of analyzing the potential risks of human

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induced climate change. In addition, the UN framework Convention on climate change which
brings together UN members states to negotiate agreements and reduce emissions provides a
good platform for helping countries to adapt to effects of climate change. Finally, the UN has
put in place a global environmental facility which entails 10 agencies with capacity to fund
climate and environment related projects in developing countries.

Conclusion.

In spite of its shortcomings enumerated in this paper, the work of the United Nations
has greatly impacted the World through issues of peace and security, Development,
Humanitarian assistance and conflict resolution, peace keeping, promotion of gender
equality, Education, the rule of law and the fight against transnational crime and terrorism and
climate change. Quit glaringly, the neglect or abandoning the UN system would almost
certainly create a gaping hole within the international system. Given the increasing rate of global
interconnectedness, the UN is poised to play an even more vital role as an embodiment of
global governance although it may require to undergo some reforms in order to be in tandem
with the new realities of the of international system.

Accordingly, UN organs such as the security council, General Assembly and the
Economic and Social council not only need to be reformed but also reinvigorated to play a more
proactive role and fully tackle the breadth of global spectrum of threats including pandemics,
climate change and the threat posed by armed groups. The above realities have been explicitly
cited in the new landmark 2021 UN report which represents a strategic shift from the old post-
world war consensus. Key areas among which the report makes reference to is the parlous state
of the world which is facing enormous stress amid potential for serious instability and
climate chaos. The report also calls for the reform of the UN by way of reconfiguring to
allow more participatory and consultative approach, gender parity more investment for
peacebuilding, support for regional conflict prevention and a reduction of strategic risks such as
nuclear weapons proliferation , cyberwarfare and a dialogue on outer space.

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References:

Adam B. Ulam, The Rivals: America and Russia since World War II. New York: The Viking
Press, 1971, pp. 405When the United Nations was founded in 1945, over 750 people lived
under the York of colonialism.

Afuar Hirsch, (2010) Iraq invasion violated international law

Ana Lovelace (n.d) when global governance wins , the role of the UN in decolonization
file:///C:/Users/DSN/Downloads/qt07g886jq_noSplash_8f8335d72026fa2cd1a5af97f4b0f99a.pd

Bryant, Nick (2015), “UN: Seventy years of changing the world”, BBC,
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-34310354.

Colebourne, Joshua (2013), “What are the Prospects for the United Nations?”, E-IR, 30 Jan
2013, https://www.e- ir.info/pdf/32906

David M. Malone (2004) The UN Security Council: From the Cold War
to the 21st Century

Ellen Connolly (2006) Development and the United Nations achievements of the Future and
challenges.

John Measheimer (1994-95) the false promise of liberal international institutions

https://www.google.com/search?client=firefox d&q=
%E2%80%9Cthe+false+promise+of+International+institutions%E2%80%9

Joshua Lincoln (2022) Achievements and failures of the United Nations.

https://globalgovernanceforum.org/achievements-failures-un-charter/

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Katlyn Balakir (2021) failures and successes of the UN
https://ace-usa.org/blog/research/research-foreignpolicy/failures-and-successes-of-the-un

Kyle Lascurettes (2017) International Order in Theory and Practice

https://lclark.academia.edu/KyleLascurettes

Lorna Gold, Trocaire, Eileen Connolly (2006) Development and the United Nations:
Achievements and Challenges for the Future

Mohamad Nuruzman (2001) liberal institutionalism and international cooperation after sep 11
2001.

Muhamud Ahmed Fukse (1967) the Kashmir Question the UN handling of an

international dispute.

Muzaffer Ercan (2008) The new world order An Outline of the Post-Cold War order.

Rebecca Devitt (2001)

Robert Keohane and Martin white (1995:40) A tale of two realisms expanding the
institutions debate

Rosalyn Higgin (n.d) Peace and security achievements and failures.

file:///C:/Users/DSN/Downloads/1306.pdf

Stephen M. De Luca (1991) the Gulf crisis and collective security under the United Nations
Charter.

Stewart Patrick,(2015) Multilateralism à la Carte: The New World of Global Governance

Sydeney dell (1998) The Bertrand critique of the role of the United Nations in the economic and
social fields
The Future of the UN (2021) Time to think big.
https://www.un.org/africarenewal/news/future-un-time-think-big-urges-guterres

UN report (2006)T he core of international human rights treaties

UN Charter (1945)

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UN global issues report (2023) accessed on 6 May 2023
https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/peace-and-security

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