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The Mystery Of The Moon And The Proton

By

Ian Beardsley

Copyright © 2023 by Ian Beardsley


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Contents

Abstract…………………………………………………………………..3

1.0 The Mystery of the Moon and the Proton……………….4

2.0 Inertia………………………………………………………..7

3.0 Continuing With The Moon And The Proton………..10

4.0 The Constant k…………………………………………………16

5.0 The Proton Radius…………………………………………….20

6.0 Discussion………………………………………………………..23

7.0 Solar Eclipsing Moon…………………………………………28

8.0 The Radius of a Proton Revisited…………………………33

9.0 The Proton Charge…………………………………………….53

10.0 The Solar Magnetic Field…………………………………..55

11.0 Honing The Value Of k………………………………………67

Appendix 1……………………………………………………………..69

Appendix 2…………………………………………………………….70

 3 of 72

Abstract

We describe reality as being based in the six-fold. I really think Nature employs 6-fold
symmetry because I think it is the most dynamic being the product of the two smallest prime
numbers 2 and 3. Those are the smallest factors down to which anything can be reduced, so that
is why I think 6-fold is the basis of Nature, that the basis has to be reduced to the smallest
factors. As such we have 2x3=6, 3x3=9, 2x9=18 and 3x6=18. The periodic table of elements is
periodic over 18 groups, which means when you count to 18 the elements start over making
groups where they have similar properties falling into the same groups. These groups are
determined by electron configurations, for instance carbon is in group 4 which means since it
wants to have noble gas electron configuration, it gains 4 electrons to be the same as the noble
gas in group 18 of the same period. 18-14=4 meaning it ionizes as C4- so it has 4 electrons to
combine with 4 hydrogen atoms that are each H+ or so we can have two H atoms that can
combine with one oxygen atom which is O2- because oxygen is in group 16 meaning 18-16=2,
and so forth making life possible.

From here we can determine a theoretical value for the radius of the proton that falls within
experimental errors. We propose defining inertia as proton-seconds, the action of subatomic
particles like the proton over time. We see this is based around biological life, hydrogen and
carbon which makes the hydrocarbons, the skeletons of organic matter. We develop a constant k
that bridges the microcosmos, like the elements and their constituents, with the macrocosmos,
like the earth-moon system. We find that though the unit of a second was developed by the way
we constructed our calendar, it actually is a Natural Unit in the SI system of units, as incredible
as that may seem. It describes both the moon’s orbit and the proton for which we find their is a
mystery which this paper mainly addresses. We find the magnetic field generated by the Sun
displays the same six-fold symmetry we are finding at the basis of reality and that is defined by
biological life. We propose the solar magnetic field may play a role in the outcome of life; we
know the DNA molecule spirals preferentially in one direction over another and scientists have
hypothesized it may be from a net circular polarization in one direction of light from the Sun
that is caused by magnetic fields in sunspot activity. Though as well this may come from cosmic
ray net circular polarizations that have been guiding the evolution of life on Earth.

To develop our constant k, we have to formulate an intermediary mass characteristic of Universe

between the proton and the stars in scale. This is done by using the Chandrasekhar limit for the
mass of of a star to not collapse into a blackhole, but to be able to counter its gravitational force
with pressure from electron degeneracy alone.We find we can also determine the proton charge
with our constant k that determines the proton-radius.


 4 of 72

1.0 The Mystery of the Moon and the Proton

We have the following two equations, one for the macrocosmos (moon, earth, sun) and the
other for the microcosmos (proton):

1 rp h 4π
Eq 1.1. ⋅ = 1secon d

6α mp Gc
K Emoon
Eq. 1.2 (Ear th Day) = 1secon d

K Eearth
Because equation 1.1 equals 1 second in the SI system of units (which is the mystery we want
to explore} it is a great basis for working with Nature, because it is composed of the
fundamental Natural Constants. We want to understand this equation, that predicts the radius
of a proton within experimental errors, by using our equation for 1 second:

RH 2 1 h
Eq 1.3 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ = 1.12secon d s

πα 2 mp2 6 NA g

Where

2 1 e
≈ ≈

6 Φ(1 + Φ) Φ

5+1
Where Φ = is the golden ratio, and e is Euler’s number equals 2.718…And RH is the
2
radius of a hydrogen atom, we get for the radius of a proton

1 hc RH
Eq. 1.4. rp = ⋅
mp 2π 3G NA

Where

Z ⋅ 6E 23pr oton s Z ⋅ gr a m s
NA = , = , NA ⋅ = 6E 23
Z ⋅ gr a m s Z ⋅ pr oton s

Where NA is a variable, the number of protons in multiplied by Avogadro’s number over Z

grams making these three equations, equations of state for the periodic table of the elements in
that for example if , the element, is set at the element carbon ℂ then

6gr a m s 6(6E 23pr oton s)

ℂ= , NA = , NAℂ = 6E 23
6pr oton s 6gr a m s
Because there are six grams of protons in carbon which has 6 protons and 6 neutrons and a
molar mass of 12. We have 12-6=6 grams of protons in the 12 grams of protons and neutrons.
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼

 5 of 72

In this sense Avogadro’s number is seen to be a natural constant not just a convenient number
used to describe a large number of atoms or compounds. But we wish to show that the
second has coincidentally come out to be a Natural Unit given we got it from dividing the Earth
day into 24 units we called hours, that into 60 units we called minutes, and that into 60 units
we called seconds. It is Natural I am saying because we have equation 1.1 and 1.2:

1 rp h 4π
⋅ = 1secon d

6α mp Gc
K Emoon
(Ear th Day) = 1secon d

K Eearth
We want to factor 1.1 into a ratio between kinetic energies times a time, as we have in 1.2 for
the moon and earth, so we can unravel the mystery of the moon and the proton. We nd the
second is Natural to the biological as well and that everything here involves a mystery of six-
fold symmetry. We have that

1 h 4π rp2
Eq 1.5. = 6pr oton ⋅ secon d s = carbon(C )
α mp
2 Gc

1 h 4π rp2
Eq 1.6. = 1pr oton ⋅ 6secon d s = hydr ogen(H )
α mp
2 Gc

From which instead of saying the left sides of these equation are seconds, we say they are
proton-seconds by not letting mp cancel with the bodies of these equation on the left, but rather
divide into them, which are in units of mass, giving us a number of protons. I say this is the
biological because as we shall see our equations are based on one second is 6 protons is carbon,
and 6 seconds is one proton is hydrogen, these making the hydrocarbons which are the
skeletons of biological life. We see this is a mystery of six-fold symmetry based around biological
life in the following computer program I wrote and its output:

1 h 4π rp2
α mp
2 Gc

Is proton-seconds. Divide by time we have a number of protons because it is a mass divided by

the mass of a proton. But these masses can be considered to cancel and leave pure number. We
make a program that looks for close to whole number solutions so we can create a table of
values for problem solving.

fi
 6 of 72

By what value would you like to increment?: 0.25

How many values would you like to calculate for t in equation 1 (no more than 100?): 100
24.1199 protons 0.250000 seconds 0.119904 decpart
12.0600 protons 0.500000 seconds 0.059952 decpart
8.0400 protons 0.750000 seconds 0.039968 decpart
6.0300 protons 1.000000 seconds 0.029976 decpart
4.0200 protons 1.500000 seconds 0.019984 decpart
3.0150 protons 2.000000 seconds 0.014988 decpart
2.1927 protons 2.750000 seconds 0.192718 decpart
2.0100 protons 3.000000 seconds 0.009992 decpart
1.2060 protons 5.000000 seconds 0.205995 decpart
1.1486 protons 5.250000 seconds 0.148567 decpart
1.0964 protons 5.500000 seconds 0.096359 decpart
1.0487 protons 5.750000 seconds 0.048691 decpart
1.0050 protons 6.000000 seconds 0.004996 decpart
0.2487 protons 24.250000 seconds 0.248659 decpart
0.2461 protons 24.500000 seconds 0.246121 decpart
0.2436 protons 24.750000 seconds 0.243635 decpart

A very interesting thing here is looking at the values generated by the program, the smallest
integer value 1 second produces 6 protons (carbon) and the largest integer value 6 seconds
produces one proton (hydrogen). Beyond six seconds you have fractional protons, and the rest
of the elements heavier than carbon are formed by fractional seconds. These are the
hydrocarbons the backbones of biological chemistry. Here is the code for the program:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(int argc, const char * argv[]) {

int n;
float value=0, increment,t=0, p=1.67262E-27, h=6.62607E-34,G=6.67408E-11,
c=299792459,protons[100],r=0.833E-15;

do
{
printf("By what value would you like to increment?: ");
scanf("%f", &increment);
printf("How many values would you like to calculate for t in equation 1 (no more than
100?): ");
scanf("%i", &n);
}
while (n>=101);
{

for (int i=0; i<n;i++)

{
protons[i]=((137*137)/(t*p))*sqrt(h*4*(3.14159)*(r*r)/(G*c));

int intpart=(int)protons[i];
float decpart=protons[i]-intpart;
t=t+increment;
if (decpart<0.25)
{ printf("%.4f protons %f seconds %f decpart \n", protons[i], t-increment, decpart);
}}}}

 7 of 72

2.0 Inertia As Proton-Seconds

We now need to show that the fundamental particles that build reality are based on sixfold
symmetry for their mass, size, and charge and we want to do it in terms of gravity on the
macroscale, thus it has to use G the universal constant of gravitation and Planck’s constant h,
that quantizes energy on the microscale. I find I can do this as such:

The natural constants measure the properties of space and time. We can list some of them here:

mP : 1.67262 × 10−27 kg (Proton Mass)

h : 6.62607 × 10−34 J ⋅ s (Planck Constant)
rp : 0.833 × 10−15m (Proton Radius)
−11 m2
G: 6.67408 × 10 N 2 (Gravitational Constant)
kg
c : 299,792, 459m /s (light speed)
α : 1/137 (Fine Structure Constant)
qp = qe = 1.6022E − 19coulom bs
Nm 2
ke = 8.988E 9 2
C
Gravity is a property of space measured by the universal constant of gravity, G:

m2 m3
Equation 2.1 G = 6.674E − 11N 2 = 6.674E − 11 2
s s ⋅ kg
Matter, or inertia, which measures matter’s ability to resist a force is for each particle (protons
and neutrons) we will suggest given by:

h kg ⋅ s
Equation 2.2 =
Gc m
Which describes mass per meter over time, which is:

kg ⋅ s
Equation 2.3 1.82E − 16
m
1
It must be adjusted by the fine structure constant α. It is my guess the factor should be which
α2
is 18,769.:

Equation 2.4

(1.82E − 16kg ⋅ s /m)(18,769) = 3.416E − 12kg ⋅ s /m

Because the fine structure constant squared is the ratio of the potential energy of an electron in
the first circular orbit to the energy given by the mass of an electron in the Bohr model times the
speed of light squared, that is it represents the ground state. It is

 8 of 72

Ue
Equation 2.5 α2 =
mec 2
Here we are suggesting that the proton and neutron are the 3-dimensional cross-sections of a
hypersphere. Thus we consider the surface area of a proton, Sp:

Equation 2.6 Sp = 4π rp2 = 8.72E − 30m 2

We take the square root to get meters:

Equation 2.7 Sp = 2.953E − 15m

We multiply that with the value we have in equation 2.4:

kg ⋅ s
Equation 2.8 (2.953E − 15m)(3.416E − 12 ) = 1.009E − 26kg ⋅ s
m
We find that the mass of a proton mp realizes if we divide this by six seconds:

1E − 26
Equation 2.9 mh = = 1.67E − 27kg
6secon d s
That is hydrogen. We see that the element carbon manifests if we divide instead by 1 second:

1E − 26kg ⋅ s
Equation 2.10 mc = = 1E − 26kg = 6pr oton s = 6mp
1secon d
Carbon (C) is the core element of life chemistry and it combines with hydrogen (H) to make the
skeletons of organic matter, the so-called hydrocarbons:

1E − 26kg ⋅ s
Equation 2.11 mp =
6secon d s
1E − 26kg ⋅ s
Equation 2.12 mc =
1secon d
It seems the duration of a second is natural. If it is, since it was formed by a calendar based on
reconciling the periods of the moon and the sun in the earth sky, it should be in the Earth-moon
orbital mechanics. I find it is, that (See Appendix 1):

K Emoon
Equation 2.13 (Ear th Da y) ≈ 1secon d
K Eearth
That is, the earth day (86,400 seconds) times the kinetic energy of the moon to the kinetic
energy of the earth is about 1 second (about 1.2 seconds). The earth day changes very little, by
very small amounts over millions of years. The solar system has evolved towards this since the
explosion of life called the Cambrian, and will slowly decay away from it. But we need to derive
the second in terms of something else. For now we have the mass of a proton as:

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Fig. 1

3rp 4πh
Equation 2.14 mp =
18α 2 Gc

This way of looking at things is to say matter is that which has inertia. This means it resists
change in position with a force applied to it. The more of it, the more it resists a force. We
understand this from experience, but what is matter that it has inertia? In this analogy we are
suggesting a proton is a three dimensional bubble embedded in a two dimensional plane. As
such there has to be a normal vector holding the higher dimensional sphere in a lower
dimensional space. (See Fig. 1) Thus if we apply a force to to the cross-section of the sphere in
the plane there should be a force countering it proportional to the normal holding it in a lower
dimensional universe. It is actually a 4-dimensional hypersphere whose cross-section is a
sphere. This counter force would be experienced as inertia. We are defining inertia as proton-
seconds, the action of subatomic particles over time. Our reasoning above in one equation is:

Equation 2.15

1 h 4π rp2
= 6pr oton ⋅ secon d s = carbon(C )
α 2 mp Gc

That is 1 second gives carbon. We find six seconds gives 1 proton is hydrogen:

Equation 2.16

1 h 4π rp2
= 1pr oton ⋅ 6secon d s = hydr ogen(H )
α 2 mp Gc

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3.0 Continuing With The Moon And The Proton

Now onto exploring the mystery of the moon and the proton. We wish to show that the second
has coincidentally come out to be a Natural Unit given we got it from dividing the Earth day into
24 units we called hours, that into 60 units we called minutes, and that into 60 units we called
seconds. It is Natural I am saying because we have equation 1.1 and 1.2 of section 1.0:

1 rp h 4π
Eq. 1.1. ⋅ = 1secon d

6α mp Gc
K Emoon
Eq. 1.2. (Ear th Day) = 1secon d

K Eearth
We want to factor 1.1 into a ratio between kinetic energies times a time, as we have in 1.2 for
the moon and earth, so we can unravel the mystery of the moon and the proton. We write 1.1
inverted:

mp Gc 1
6α 2 ⋅ =

rp 4πh 1secon d

mp2 Gc mp
2
6α ⋅ =

rp 4πh 1secon d

We write it by moving mp2 = mp4 into the radical:

6α 2 mp4 ⋅ Gc mp
=

rp 4πh 1secon d

mp3Gc
We then notice = K E

h
m2 m m2 m3 1
G =N = kg ⋅ = ⋅

kg 2 s 2 kg 2 s 2 kg

m m2
h = J ⋅ s = kg 2 ⋅ m ⋅ s = kg

s s
m
c=

( s 2 kg ) ( s ) ( kg ⋅ m 2 )
mp3Gc m3 1 m s m2
= (kg ) 3
⋅ = kg ⋅ 2 = J

h s
 11 of 72

mp ⋅ K E rp mp
6α 2 =

4π 1secon d

mp ⋅ K E rp2 mp2
4
36α ⋅ =

4π 1secon d
2
4π rp mp
Eq. 3.1 K E = ⋅ 2

36α 4 t1
Where

1 h 4π rp2
Eq. 3.2. t1 =

6α 2 mp Gc

Where we have solved Eq 1.1 for time t. It is t1 = 1.005secon d s is close to one second even.
We see that kinetic energy KE is

4π (0.833E − 15)2
⋅ ⋅ (1.67262E − 27) = 1.413E − 49Joules

36α 2 t12
We write

mp mp3Gc rP mp
2
6α ⋅ =

4π h 1secon d
Which gives our kinetic energy again is

mp3 ⋅ Gc
Eq 3.3. KE =

( s 2 kg )
m2 1 m2
=(kg ) ⋅3
= kg 2 = Joules

(6/67408E − 11)(299,792,459)
=(1.67262E − 27)3 ⋅

6.62607E − 34)

=1.4130E − 49Joules

 12 of 72

From

mp ⋅ K E rp2 mp2
4
36α ⋅ =
4π 1secon d
mp3 ⋅ Gc
KE =
h
We have

mp3 ⋅ Gc 2
π rp mp
Eq 3.3 = ⋅ 2

h 9α 4 t1
And we write:

π rp2 mp
Eq 3.4 ⋅ = K E ⋅ secon d s

9α 4 1secon d
Which has units of Joule-seconds, or of Planck’s constant h. If we use 1 second equal to t1 in
equation 3.2 in equation 3.4

1 h 4π rp2
t1 =

6α 2 mp Gc

We have

rp mp2 Gc
Equation 3.5. π = J ⋅ s

3α 2 h
And we since we have equation

mp3Gc
Equation 3.6. = J

h
We have our equation for the protons in terms of the second in the same form as our equation
for the moon in terms of the second:

K Emoon
(Ear th Day) = 1secon d

K Eearth
rp m p2 Gc
π h K E1
3α 2
= (1secon d ) = (1secon d )

m p3Gc K E2
h
 13 of 72

That is, given

rp m p2 Gc
π h K E1
3α 2
= (1secon d )

m p3Gc K E2
h

What is KE1 and KE2? We see

rp m p2 Gc
π h
3α 2

m p3Gc
h

Implies that

1 h rp2 K E1
Eq. 3.7 π ⋅ 2 == (t im e) = secon d s

3α 2 Gc mp K E2

The problem is the expression on the left cannot be factored into KE1 and KE2, that KE1 must
be coupled with the factor (time) on the right, just as in quantum mechanics we have J ⋅ s is h
using J ⋅ s together as one thing not factored into two separate expressions in terms of the
constants. That is the constants make KE1 and KE2 times seconds but KE1 through the
constants is always coupled with the time. Whereas in

K Emoon
(Ear th Day) = 1secon d

K Eearth

K Emoon can be expressed in a way factored out from (EarthDay) they don’t have to be taken as
an expression that represents them together.

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 15 of 72

One of the things we can do that is obvious is to create kinetic energies in terms of the
protons and constants that factor out from the product with time, and they are very
simple:

mp2 (1.67262E − 27)2

Gc = (6.67408E − 11)(299,792,459) = 6.7988E − 41J
rp 0.833E − 15)

h c3 (6.62607E − 34) (299,792459)3

⋅ = ⋅ = 1.599298E 29J
G mp 6.67408E − 11) (1.67262E − 27)

We see the former is on the order of Equation 3.3

mp3 ⋅ Gc
= 1.4130E − 49Joules
h
And, the latter is on the order of the kinetic energy of the moon:

1
K Emoon = (7.347673E 22kg)(966m /s)2 = 3.428E 28J
2
1
K Eearth = (5.972E 24kg)(30,290m /s)2 = 2.7396E 33J
2
And we have

h c3
G
⋅ mp
= 4.66540
K Emoon
h c3
G
⋅ mp
= 0.000058377
K Eearth

 16 of 72

4.0 The Constant k

Warren Giordano wrote in his paper The Fine Structure Constant And The Gravitational
Constant: Keys To The Substance Of The Fabric Of Space, March 21, 2019:

In 1980, the author had compiled a series of notes analyzing Einstein’s geometric to kinematic
equations, along with an observation that multiplying Planck’s constant ‘h’ by ‘1 + α’, where
‘α’ is the Fine Structure Constant, and multiplying by 10 23 yielded Newton’s gravitational
constant numerically, but neglecting any units.

I found I could eliminate the 10 23 and at the same time get the six of the six-fold symmetry with
which I was working by considering Avogadro’s number 6.02E 23atom s.

I suggested there exists some k that serves as a constant that describes both the microcosmos
and macrocosmos from the proton, to the atoms, to planetary orbits. It is such that the square
root of it times the earth orbital velocity is 6, because we are guessing we are dealing with six-
fold symmetry as the basis of Nature. That is

Eq. 4.1 k ve = 6

We have that k is

4 8π 3G
Eq. 4.2 k = mp (1 + α) ⋅ NA
3 c 3h

This follows from what Warren Giordano noticed that

Eq. 4.3 h(1 + α) ⋅ 10 23 = G

Without the right units. I noticed since Avogadro’s number is 6.02 × 10 23 ≈ 6 × 10 23 that I
could introduce an equation of state for the periodic table of the elements:
gr a m
Eq. 4.4 ℍ=1
atom
(1 + α) kg 2 ⋅ s
Eq 4.5 h NA H = 6.0003
G m
Let us say we were to consider Any Element say carbon ℂ. Then in general

(1 + α) s
h ⋅ NA = 6.0003kg 2 ⋅
G m
We have

6gr a m s 6(6E 23pr oton s)

ℂ= and NA =
6pr oton s 6gr a m s
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼

 17 of 72

Because there are six grams of protons in carbon which has 6 protons and 6 neutrons and a
molar mass of 12. We have

12-6=6 grams of protons in the 12 grams of protons and neutrons. Thus

NAℂ = 6E 23
And it follows that

(1 + α) s
h ⋅ NAℂ = 6.0003kg 2 ⋅
G m
We see in general since the atomic number Z is the number of protons in an atom that in general
this holds for all elements because

Z ⋅ 6E 23pr oton s
NA =
Z ⋅ gr a m s
And

Z ⋅ gr a m s
=
Z ⋅ pr oton s
Therefore we always have:

NA ⋅ = 6E 23

NA is a variable, the number of protons in multiplied by Avogadro’s number.

Put in the Earth mean orbital velocity which is 29.79km/s (Zombeck, Martin V. 1982). We get:

(1 + α)
Equation. 4.6 h ⋅ NA ⋅ ve = 422.787kg
G
While we have masses characteristic of the microcosmos like protons, and masses characteristic
of the macrocosmos, like the upper limit for a star to become a white dwarf after she novas (The
Chandrasekhar limit) which is 1.44 solar masses — More mass than that and she will collapse —
we do not have a characteristic mass of the intermediary world where we exist, a truck weighs
several tons and tennis ball maybe around a hundred grams. To find that mass let us take the
geometric mean between the mass of a proton and the mass of 1.44 solar masses. We could take
the average, or the harmonic mean, but the geometric mean is the squaring of the proportions, it
is the side of a square with the area equal to the area of the rectangle with these proportions as
its sides. We have:

Equation. 4.7 M⊙ = 1.98847E 30kg

We multiply this by 1.44 to get 2.8634E30kg. The mass of a proton is mp = 1.67262E − 27kg.
We have the intermediary mass is:

Equation 4.8 mi = (2.8634E 30)(1.67262E − 27) = 69.205kg

𝔼
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼

 18 of 72

All we really need to do now is divide equation 4.6 by equation 4.8 and we get an even number
that is the six of our six-fold symmetry.

1 (1 + α)
Equation. 4.9 h ⋅ NA ⋅ ve = 6.1092 ≈ 6
mi G
The six of our six-fold symmetry.

We have something very interesting here. We have

1 s
6kg 2 ve = 6
69.205kg m

This is:

Eq. 4.10 k ve = 6

Where k is a constant, given

1 s
Eq. 4.11 k =
773.5 m
It was the Indian physicist Chandrasekhar who found the limit in mass for which a white dwarf
will not have its gravity overcome the electron degeneracy pressure and collapse. The non-
relativistic equation is:

c 3ℏ3
M ≤ 0.77 = 1.41 ⊙
GN3 mp4

Let us approximate 0.77 with 3/4. Since we have our constant

1 1+α
Eq 4.12 k = h ⋅ NA
mi2 G

Eq. 4.13 mi = Mmp

Then
1/2
3 c 3 ℏ3
Eq. 4.14 mi =
2 G 3mp2

Since ℏ = h /2π our constant k in terms the Chandrasekhar limit is

4 8π 3G
Eq. 4.15 k = m (1 + α) ⋅ NA
3 p c 3h
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼

 19 of 72

The fine structure constant squared is the ratio of the potential energy of an electron in the first
circular orbit to the energy given by the mass of an electron in the Bohr model times the speed of
light squared, that is it represents the ground state. It is

Ue
α2 =
mec 2
Since

k ve = 6

We are suggesting the earth orbit is the ground state for our planetary system. We suggest it
holds for any planetary system because k as we will see is a natural constant that solves many
physical problems on many levels, not just planetary systems but atomic systems and the
particles that make them up.

Let us now recall equations 1.15 and 1.16

1 h 4π rp2
= 6pr oton ⋅ secon d s = carbon(C )
α 2 mp Gc

1 h 4π rp2
= 1pr oton ⋅ 6secon d s = hydr ogen(H )
α 2 mp Gc

While we have considered them to be proton-seconds because they are a mass divided by the
mass of a proton, we can consider these two masses to cancel and say they are equal to 1 second
and six seconds respectively. We have that carbon, which is to evaluate them at one second, is
the radius of a proton:

Eq. 4.16

1 h 4π rp2
= 6secon d s
α 2 mp Gc

This gives the radius of a proton is:

Eq 4.17.

18 2 Gc
rp = α mp t1 = 8.288587 × 10−16 = 0.829f m
3 4πh

Where t1 = 1secon d. The experimental value of the proton radius is 0.833fm+/-0.014fm!

 20 of 72

5.0 The Proton Radius

Thus we have the radius of a proton is given by carbon by evaluating at one second:

18 2 Gc
rp = α mp = 8.288587 × 10−16 m = 0.829f m
3 4πh
But to get that we have to multiply by one second and we need one second in terms of the atom
for a theory of the proton. I find we can do that…

1 h 4π rp2
t6 = 2
α mp Gc

rp h 4π
t6 =
α 2 mp Gc

Substitute RH /2 for rp to get

RH h 4π
t =
2α 2 mp Gc

We have now introduced the radius of a hydrogen atom RH = 1.2E − 10m. It seems we have to
divide RH by two which I think is because we are looking at packing of atoms. This radius of the
hydrogen atom is the Van Der Waals radius, which is the closest distance between two hydrogen
atoms noncovalently bound. It is 120 pm. Divide that by ck where 1/k is our constant

1 3 1 c 3h 1 1 1 3 1 c 3h 1
= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ≈ = ⋅ ⋅
k 4 mp 8π G 1 + α NA
3 k 4 mp 8π G NA
3

And we find

t 3 2 6.626E − 34 18769 1.2E − 10 1

= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ = 1.12secon d s
ck 16 6.674E − 11 (1.6726E − 27) 2 6.02E 23 π

3 2 h 1 R
⋅ ⋅ 2 2 ⋅ H = 1.12secon d s
16 G π α mp NA

We have our equation for the radius of a proton

18 2 Gc
rp = α mp = 8.288587 × 10−16 m = 0.829f m
3 4πh

We only need to multiply it by t /ck = 1secon d to have the right units, and we get!
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼

 21 of 72

9 1 hc RH
Equation 5.1. rp = 2⋅ ⋅
8 mp 4π 3G NA

Then suggest we picked up 9/8 in approximations which is close to one anyway so we write

1 hc R
Equation 5.2. rp = ⋅ H
mp 2π G NA
3

rp = 8.26935E − 16m ≈ 0.827f m

( s )( s )( m ) NAℍ
1 m2 m s2 RH 1
rp = kg kg 3 = (kg)m
kg kg

We form constants:

hc
k = = 6.93E − 9kg
2π 3G
RH
= 1.99E − 34m
NA
And we have the Equation:

RH
Equation 5.3 rp mp = k
NA
We can say that Avogadro’s number is not an arbitrary number because it is such that there are
twelve grams of carbon and carbon is 6 neutrons plus 6 protons equals 12. We now want to add
to this section the equation of the mass of a proton.

1 hc R
mp = ⋅ H
rp 2π G NA
3

If our equation is right and we put it into natural units then the product rp mp should be close to
one:

Let us start with the units with which we are working:

m3
G=
kg ⋅ s 2

m2
h = kg ⋅
s
c = m /s
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼

 22 of 72

And convert these to proton-masses and proton-radii:

m3
G = 6.67408E − 11 ⋅ 1.67262E − 27kg(0.833E − 15m)3 ⋅ s = 193,131, 756
kg ⋅ s 2
m2 s
h = 6.62607E − 34kg ⋅ ⋅ = 5.71E 23
s (0.833E − 15)2(1.67262E − 27kg)
(299,792, 459m /s)(1sec)
c= = 3.6E 23
(0.833E − 15m)
1.2E − 10m
RH = = 144,058
0.833E − 15m
Now we find k in these units:

hc
k = = 6.93E − 9kg
2π 3G

(5.71E 23)(3.6E 23)

k = = 4E18pr oton − m a sses
2π 3(193131756)

Thus we have:

RH
rp mp = k
NA
(4E18)(144058) 5.76E 23
rp mp = = = 0.96 ≈ 1

(6E 23) (6E 23)
𝔼

 23 of 72

6.0 Discussion

The crux is that

1 h 4π rp2
= 1.004996352secon d s
6α 2 mp Gc
K Emoon
(Ear th Da y) = 1.08secon d s
K Eearth
K Emoon
K Eearth

Is calculated with perihelion ve = 30,290m /s and at aphelion vm = 966m /s giving a near perfect
result for one second. And, Si x Da ys = 6(24)(60)(60) = 518400s. And, 6mp = carbon. We
have

18 2 Gc
rp = α mp t1 = 8.288587 × 10−16 = 0.829f m
3 4πh
If multiplied by one second, which gives

1 hc R
rp = ⋅ H
mp 2π G NA
3

Where t is

RH h 4π
t =
2α 2 mp Gc

Giving

rp = 8.26935E − 16m ≈ 0.827f m

Using

t 3 2 6.626E − 34 18769 1.2E − 10 1

= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ = 1.12secon d s
ck 16 6.674E − 11 (1.6726E − 27)2 6.02E 23 π
Where ck is m/s cancels with s/m, and k is

1 3 1 c 3h 1 1 1 3 1 c 3h 1
= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ≈ = ⋅ ⋅
k 4 mp 8π 3G 1 + α NA k 4 mp 8π 3G NA

But as well we can get our one second from

𝔼
𝔼
𝔼

 24 of 72

K Emoon
(Ear th Da y) = 1.08secon d s
K Eearth
We notice this is centered around the structure at the basis of life, the hydrocarbons

1 h 4π rp2
= 6pr oton ⋅ secon d s = carbon(C )
α 2 mp Gc

1 h 4π rp2
= 1pr oton ⋅ 6secon d s = hydr ogen(H )
α 2 mp Gc

The k is derived from the coupling NA :

(1 + α) s
h ⋅ NA = 6.0003kg 2 ⋅
G m
Which holds for any element:

6gr a m s
ℂ=
6pr oton s
6(6E 23pr oton s)
NA =
6gr a m s
Because there are six grams of protons in carbon which has 6 protons and 6 neutrons and a
molar mass of 12. We have

12-6=6 grams of protons in the 12 grams of protons and neutrons. Thus

NAℂ = 6E 23
And it follows that

(1 + α) s
h ⋅ NAℂ = 6.0003kg 2 ⋅
G m
We see in general since the atomic number Z is the number of protons in an atom that in general
this holds for all elements because

Z ⋅ 6E 23pr oton s
NA =
Z ⋅ gr a m s
And

Z ⋅ gr a m s
=
Z ⋅ pr oton s
Therefore we always have:
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼

 25 of 72

NA ⋅ = 6E 23

NA is a variable, the number of protons inmultiplied by Avogadro’s number. By using the

Chandrasekhar limit we define an intermediate mass from the mass of the Sun

M⊙ = 1.98847E 30kg

We multiply this by 1.44 (1..44 solar masses is the Chandrasekhar limit) to get 2.8634E30kg.
The mass of a proton is mp = 1.67262E − 27kg. We have the intermediary mass is:

mi = (2.8634E 30)(1.67262E − 27) = 69.205kg

More explicitly using the Chandrasekhar limit:

c 3ℏ3
M ≤ 0.77 = 1.41 ⊙
GN3 mp4

Intermediary mass:
1/2
3 c 3 ℏ3
mi =
2 G 3mp2

The constant k given explicitly:

4 8π 3G
k = mp (1 + α) ⋅ NA
3 c 3h

The k is such that

k ve = 6

And k using the approximation (1 + α) ≈ 1

4 8π 3G
k = mp ⋅ NA
3 c 3h

We show the equation for one second in terms of the Natural constants on the next
page…!
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼

 26 of 72

!
 27 of 72

We discuss what interests me most on the next page, the two different equations for one
second that connect the macrocosmos (the Earth, Moon, and Sun) to the microcosmos,
the constants of the elements.!
 28 of 72

7.0 Solar Eclipsing Moon

Essentially that the Moon perfectly eclipses the Sun as seen from the Earth means while
it is 400 times smaller than the Sun it is 400 times further from the Sun than it is from
the Earth. This determines its orbital velocity and mass, as well as that of the Earth and
the mass of the Sun. The orbital velocities of the Moon and the Earth are given by:

GM⊙ GMe
Equation 7.1. ve = and vm =
re rm

ve M⊙ rm
Equation 7.2. = ⋅
vm Me re

M⊙ rm 1.989E 30kg 1.74E6m

⋅ = ⋅ = 28.86
Me re 5.972E 24 6.957E8m

The Moon perfectly eclipses the Sun because

re R⊙
Equation 7.3. ≈
rm Rm

Where re is the Earth orbital radius, rm is the lunar orbital radius, R⊙ is the solar radius,
and Rm is the lunar radius. This gives:

ve M⊙ Rm
Equation 7.4. = ⋅ = 28.6
vm Me R⊙

We have more explicitly:

ve R M⊙ re
Equation 7.5. = m ⋅
vm R⊙ Me rm

Rm M⊙ re 1.74E6m 1.989E 30kg 1.496E11m

⋅ = ⋅ = 28.46
R⊙ Me rm 6.957E8 5.972E 24kg 3.84748E8m

The rotational period of the moon is Tm = 27.3d ays = 2,358, 720secon ds and the
orbital period of the Earth is Γe = 24hours = 86,400secon ds is 27.3 which gives

 29 of 72

Tm R M⊙ re
Equation 7.6. = m ⋅
Γe R⊙ Me rm

Thus while second is given by:

K Emoon
(Ear th Day) = 1.08secon ds
K Eearth

The Lunar month is given by

Rm M⊙ re
Equation 7.7. Tm = ⋅ ⋅ Γe
R⊙ Me rm

We also found in terms of the proton, the second is given by

1 h 4π rp2
= 1.004996352secon ds
6α 2 mp Gc

Which gives the radius of the proton as

18 2 Gc
rp = α mp t1 = 8.288587 × 10−16 = 0.829f m
3 4πh

Where t1 is one second approximated by

RH 3 2 h
⋅ ⋅ = 1.12secon d s
16π α 2 mp2 NA G

Which gives the radius of a proton is

9 1 hc R
rp = 2⋅ ⋅ H
8 mp 4π G NA
3

Which we derived using our constant k:

4 8π 3G
k = mp ⋅ NA
3 c 3h
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼

 30 of 72

The Earth day is then:

R⊙ Me rm
Equation 7.8. Γe = ⋅ ⋅ Tm
Rm M⊙ re

But since we also have

K Emoon
(Ear th Day) = 1.08secon ds
K Eearth

Then we have:

Equation 7.9

K Emoon R ⊙ Me rm
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ Tm = 1.08s
K Eearth Rm M⊙ re

Where

1 h 4π rp2
= 1.004996352secon ds
6α 2 mp Gc

RH 3 2 h
⋅ ⋅ = 1.12secon d s
16π α 2 mp2 NA G

Which gives

Equation 7.10

K Emoon R ⊙ Me rm 1 h 4π rp2
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ Tm =
K Eearth Rm M⊙ re 6α 2 mP Gc

Equation 7.11

KEmoon R ⊙ Me rm RH 3 2 h
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ Tm = ⋅ ⋅ !
KEearth Rm M⊙ re 16πα 2 mp2 NA G
𝔼
𝔼

 31 of 72

From equation 7.8 for the Earth day

R⊙ Me rm
Γe = ⋅ ⋅ Tm
Rm M⊙ re

Checking our work we see from equation 5.7 for the Earth month

Rm M⊙ re
Tm = ⋅ ⋅ Γe
R⊙ Me rm

R⊙ Me rm Rm M⊙ re
Γe = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ Γe
Rm M⊙ re R⊙ Me rm

1=1

One of the things that we have not done yet is equate the expression on the right of 7.10
with that on 7.11

1 h 4π rp2 RH 3 2 h
= ⋅ ⋅
6α 2 mP Gc 16πα 2 mp2 NA G

Which is Avogadro’s number in terms of the size of a hydrogen atom, the mass of a
proton, the radius of a proton, and h and G:

9 2RH hc
Equation 7.12 NA =
8π rp mp 4π G

Let see just what kind of prediction 5.10 brings

K Emoon R ⊙ Me rm
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ Tm = 1.08s
K Eearth Rm M⊙ re

K Emoon R ⊙ Me rm 1 h 4π rp2
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ Tm =
K Eearth Rm M⊙ re 6α 2 mP Gc

1 h 4π rp2 K Eearth Rm M⊙ re
Tm = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
6α 2 mP Gc K Emoon R⊙ Me rm
𝔼
𝔼

 32 of 72

K Eearth (5.972E 24kg)(30,290)2

= = 79,912 . 5
K Emoon (7.34767E 22kg)(966m /s)2

1 h 4π rp2
= 1.004996352secon ds
6α 2 mp Gc

Rm M⊙ re 1.74E6m 1.989E 30m 1.496E11m

⋅ = ⋅
R⊙ Me rm 6.957E8 5.972E 24m 3.84748E8m

=28.46

=Tm = (1.005s)(79,912 . 5)(28.46) = 2.28568E6secon ds

We convert that to days,

2.28568E6/{(60s)(60m)(24d)}=31.74556 days

The lunar month with respect to the Sun (sidereal month) is 27.3 days. And with respect
to the Earth (synodic month) is 29.53059 days. So we are in the right area. We have
suggested the second is a Natural unit, but we might say the month is as well. In a sense
we already knew this because we have always known the Moon perfectly eclipses the
Sun, and here we have shown that is determined by the mass of the Earth, the radius of
the Sun, its mass, and these determine the Moon’s orbital distance, size, and mass, as
well the Earth’s mass. The Moon also has a function; it allows for life on Earth because
its orbit holds the Earth’s inclination to its orbit which allows for the seasons.



 33 of 72

8.0 The Radius of a Proton Revisited

We noted to determine the radius of a proton we needed an equation for the unit of one
second in terms of the Natural constants. We found the radius of a proton was

18 2 Gc
rp = α mp = 8.288587 × 10−16 m = 0.829f m
3 4πh
If we multiplied through by one second. We are guessing one second is a natural unit because we
found it is in the orbital mechanics of the Earth and Moon and indeed we measure time by the
periods of their motions. We found

K Emoon
(Ear th Da y) = 1.08secon d s
K Eearth

If it is calculated with orbital velocities at perihelion ve = 30,290m /s and at aphelion

vm = 966m /s which gives a near perfect result for one second and still close in the average
orbital velocities, which have little variation because the orbits of these bodies are nearly circular
(have low eccentricities).

Our value for one second in terms of the Natural constants uses the radius of a hydrogen atom
as given by the Van der Waals radius, the hydrogen atom being the simplest element with just
one proton which is the basic building block of the periodic table of the elements. It makes sense
in our theory here to use the Van der Waals Radius, because our theory is holistic; it determines
its parts from the whole, and the whole from the parts. So the proton is a part of the hydrogen
atom, the most fundamental part, and indeed we can call a hydrogen atom a proton, which we
actually do in chemistry, we call it a positive hydrogen ion, because stripped of its electron the
hydrogen ion is simply a proton.

Our theory is that the microcosmos is related to the macrocosmos and is a function of it as much
as the macrocosmos is a function of the microcosmos. But there are many levels that constitute a
cosmos; the proton theory is nuclear chemistry or atomic physics, but the Van der Waals radius
is chemistry, chemistry; the elements made from the atomic particles. So these are two levels.
Another level up from the elements are the compounds, and from there we go to the planets,
which takes us to the stars, and from the stars we go to galaxies, from there to clusters of
galaxies, from here we can go to the universe and from there to the multiverse.

And indeed we are bridging the different layers of the cosmos, we are doing it with our constant
k. We have earth at the ground state for sixfold symmetry:

k ve = 6

Where k is

4 8π 3G
k = mp (1 + α) ⋅ NA
3 c 3h

And k determines the time of one second in

𝔼

 34 of 72

RH h 4π
t =
2α 2 mp Gc

t 3 2 6.626E − 34 18769 1.2E − 10 1

= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ = 1.12secon d s
ck 16 6.674E − 11 (1.6726E − 27)2 6.02E 23 π
Which we use to determine the radius of a proton

1 hc RH
rp = ⋅
mp 2π 3G NA

And is used to determine the charge of a proton

2
h 4π rp2
ke ( 6 k )
c α2 1
⋅ = q2
Gc

q 9.1435E − 19C
=⋅ = 5.71pr oton s ≈ 6pr oton s
qp 1.602E − 19C

If we look at how we found that Avogadro’s number describes not just atoms, elements, and
compounds, for which it was devised in chemistry, we see it may describe all the levels of
cosmos, as we found in equations 4.5 and 4.6:

RH h K Eearth 1
NA = ⋅ 3 2 ⋅ ⋅
16π α 2 mp2 G K Emoon Ear th Da y
RH h K Eearth 1
6.02E 23 = ⋅ 3 2 ⋅ ⋅
16π α 2 mp2 G K Emoon Ear th Da y

We see we can refine our equation for the radius of a proton by looking at the factors in these
equations. We can write them

K Emoon RH h 1
Equation 8.1. = ⋅3 2⋅ ⋅
K Eearth 16π α mp
2 2 GNA Ear th Da y
RH m
= 2.67875E19
16π α 2 mp kg

kg
=3.7331E − 20
m
atom
=2.225E 7
cm
𝔼
𝔼

 35 of 72

3 3

(
atom
)
atom s g kg
2.225E 7 = 1.10E 22 = 0.018 3 = 18 3
cm cm 3 cm m

Where we have considered meters/kg to be the atoms in a straight line approximated very thin
then cubed to get grams per volume as a good estimate for a density of atoms in space that can
be used to study the amount of atoms in the interstellar medium to the same in a nebula to the
same in a star or planet per unit volume. We write out h and G:

m· kg ⋅ m 2
h = J ⋅ s = kg 2 ⋅ m ⋅ s =
s s
m2 m m2 m3
G = N ⋅ 2 = kg ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 = 2
kg s kg s ⋅ kg
atom s
NA = 6.02E 23
m ole
h m 2 s 2 kg s
= kg ⋅ 3 = kg 2
G s m m
h 6.62607E − 34 s
= = 9.928E − 24kg 2
G 6.67408E − 11 m
h 9.928E − 24 s
= = 5935.6kg
G mp 1.67262E − 27 m

We have

RH m
= 2.67875E19
16π α mp
2 kg

h 9.928E − 24 s
= = 5935.6kg
G mp 1.67262E − 27 m

16π α 2 mp G mp ( kg ) ( m)
RH h m s
⋅ = 2.67875E19 5935.6kg ⋅

=1.5899885E 23secon d s ≈ 1.6E 23secon d s

atom s
NA = 6.02E 23
m ole
16π α 2 mp G mp 6.02E 23atom s atom s
NA ⋅ = = 3.7625
RH h 1.6E 23secon d secon d

3 2 = 4.24264

 36 of 72

atom s
(3.7525)(4.24264) = 15.962933 ≈ 16 ≈ 16s −1
secon d
EarthDay=(24)(60)(60)=86400 seconds

(86400s)(16s −1) = 1,382,400atom s

We have

3 2π α 2 mp G mp atom
Equation 8.2. NA ⋅ ⋅ =1
RH h sec
That is

3.7625
⋅ (4.24264) = 0.9976833 ≈ 1
16
RH h
Equation 8.3. = 1secon d
3 2π α 2 mp2GNA

RH h
Equation 8.4. NA = = 6E 23
3 2π α 2 mp2Gt1

t1 = 1secon d
Now if we compare 8.3 with our old equation for a second we have

RH 3 2 h
⋅ ⋅ = 1.12secon d s
16π α 2 mp2 NA G

We see we eliminate the 16 and move 3 2 into the denominator. We see that

3 2
= 0.265165
16
1
= 0.23570
3 2

The two are close to the same and this brings up the question; do we want the time unit be the
one closest to an actual second. The second comes from the Earth rotation dividing it into 60
units we call minutes and that into 60 units we call seconds. Certainly we see the second is
Natural, but do we want to change it a little as our fundamental unit. In terms of what we are
doing here, that depends on the exact value of the radius of a proton, and experimentally it is the
least accurate measurement we have been able to do in the laboratory to date among all our
constants used here. It depends on exactly what that is, and scientists believe they are really
𝔼

 37 of 72

honing in on it. It wavers a little depending on the method we use to measure it. But I think it is
closest to the one using just 3 2 because

1 2
=
3 2 6

Thus equation 8.3 can be written

2 RH h
Equation 8.5. = 1secon d
6 π α 2 mp2GNA

Which fits in best with our theory of sixfold symmetry because 2 is the diagonal of a unit
square and we then have that divided up into six equal parts.

We have said our theory is holistic and that we are describing the proton radius in terms of the
whole of which it is a part, namely, the radius of a hydrogen atom, more specifically the Van der
Waals radius, which is determined by hydrogen gas, or H2. It is done like this:

 38 of 72

Johannes Diderik van der Waals (1873) described more than just Ideal gases, which are gases
that behave according to kinetic-molecular theory, he described real gases which don’t. His
equation then, The Van der Waals equation, is a modification of the Ideal Gas Law which is:

PV = n RT
Which is quite obvious. If you increase the temperature T, then the volume of the gas is going to
increase, and if it doesn’t then the pressure will, which is inversely proportional to volume.
However for a Real Gas, he assumed the particles are hard spheres, cannot be compressed
beyond a limit, and at close proximity to one another they interact and have a volume around
them that excludes one another, that is they have walls. He said

VR = VI − b

That is the volume of the real gas (VR) is equal to the volume of the ideal gas (VI) minus a
correction factor b. The volume of the particles is the number of particles (n) times the volume
of one particle:

4
n π r3
3
Thus there exists a sphere of radius 2r formed by two particles in contact where no other
particles can enter. It gives the correction factor

4
b = (4) π r 3
3
And the volume correction for n particles is

4 3
n b = 4n × πr
3
This is the volume correction to the Ideal Gas Law. The pressure correction says real gases
exhibit less pressure because their particles interact which is a net pulling by the bulk of
particles away from the container walls.
n2
The reduction in pressure is proportional to by a factor a. We have for reduction of pressure
v2
that
n2
PI = PR + a 2
V
We substitute this into the Ideal Gas Law:

( V )
n2
P + a 2 (V − n b) = n RT

This can be written as a cubic

 39 of 72

( P )
RT a ab
V3 − b + V2 + V − =0
p P

( φ )
3 P V T
π+ (3φ − 1) = 8τ : π = , φ = , τ =
2 Pc Vc Tc
Which allows one to compute the critical conditions of liquefaction and to derive an expression
of the principle corresponding states. In the cubic form we have as the solution three volumes
which can be used for computing the volume at and below critical temperatures.

Thus the Van Der Waals radius is estimated

4 3 b
π rw =
3 NA
3 b
rw3 = ⋅
4π NA

cm 3
For hydrogen b = 26.61 experimentally. Therefore with NA = 6.02E 23
m ol
rw = 1.0967E − 8cm = 1.0967E − 10m

We have described the derivation of radius of a hydrogen atom from the Van Der Waals
equations that we use to get

2 RH h
= 1secon d
6 π α 2 mp2GNA

Where the Van Der Waals equations are

( V )
n2
P + a 2 (V − n b) = n RT

( P )
RT a ab
V3 − b + V2 + V − =0
p P
4 3 b
π rw =
3 NA

So we can compute the radius of a proton from

18 2 Gc
rp = α mp = 8.288587 × 10−16 m = 0.829f m
3 4πh
Which needs to be multiplied through by one second to get

 40 of 72

1 hc RH
rp = ⋅
mp 2π 3G NA

But in determining the radius of a proton from

18 2 Gc
rp = α mp t1 = 8.288587 × 10−16 = 0.829f m
3 4πh

RH h 4π
t =
2α 2 mp Gc

t 3 2 6.626E − 34 18769 1.2E − 10 1

= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ = 1.12secon d s
ck 16 6.674E − 11 (1.6726E − 27) 2 6.02E 23 π

1 3 1 c 3h 1 1 1 3 1 c 3h 1
= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ≈ = ⋅ ⋅
k 4 mp 8π G 1 + α NA
3 k 4 mp 8π G NA
3

We need to determine k in terms of the Chandrasekhar limit where k is

1 1+α
k = h ⋅ NA
mi2 G

Where

mi = (2.8634E 30)(1.67262E − 27) = 69.205kg

M⊙ = 1.98847E 30kg

Where we multiply M⊙ by 1.44, the Chandrasekhar limit to get 2.8634E30kg giving us our
intermediate mass mi using the Chandrasekhar limit as the upper limit for a mass, and

mp = 1.67262E − 27kg

The mass of a proton for the lower limit. To have our equation k

4 8π 3G
k = mp (1 + α) ⋅ NA
3 c 3h

We needed to use the Chandrasekhar limit

c 3ℏ3
M ≤ 0.77 = 1.41 ⊙
GN3 mp4

So we address now how that limit is derived…

𝔼
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼

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The pressure Pgravit y of the outer shell of star balances with the outward pressure in the core of
F
the star (thermal pressure). Pressure is force per unit surface area P = thus…
A
F = m a = PA
ma
P=
A
Mshell Mcore
ma = G
rcore
2

Mcore is the mass of the core pulling in the mass of the shell Mshell and rcore is the radius of the
2
core. The surface area of the star is that of a sphere, A = 4π rcore. We have

Mshell Mcore
Pgravit y = G
4π rcore
4

The thermal pressure countering the gravity is given by the ideal gas law PV=nRT (pressure
times volume of a gas such as hydrogen , which is all protons mp, is proportional to temperature.
Mcore
The number of protons in the core Np is . We have
mp
Mcore 1 3
Pthermal = ⋅ 4 π rcore kBTcore
mp
3

Where kB is the Boltzmann constant (1.380649E − 23J ⋅ K −1). Since we must have
Pgravit y = Pthermal if the star is not to implode or explode

1 GMshell mp
kBTcore =
3 rcore
And we have the estimate for the temperature of the core of a star.

Fusion would not occur at the low temperature of a star like the Sun in that there would not be
enough energy for collisions, unless the potential Coulomb barrier can be overcome by quantum
mechanical tunneling. The collisions are given by the kinetic energy of the particles

1 2
mp v. We have
2
e2 1
= mp v 2
4π ϵ0rmin 2
The velocity v yields the minimum distance between protons as the De Broglie wavelength

 42 of 72

h
λ=
mp2 v

Since the velocity is the root mean square velocity of the protons…

3kBT
vrms =
mp
We have the temperature of the star is
2
mp
( 4π ϵ0 ) 3π 2 h 2 kB
e2
Tmin =

This is another estimate. Since the mass of a star is its volume times its density

4 2
m= πr ρ
3
But for a star density varies with radius
r

∫0
4π r 2 ρ(r)dr

If we take the derivative of both sides of the equation we have one of the equations of stellar
structure:

dm(r)
1. = 4π r 2 ρ(r)
dr
The so-called conservation of mass equation. The force on the shell of the star is given by the
mass of the shell

m(r)4π r 2 ρ(r)
Fg = − G dr
r2
Again for there to be balance gravitation pressure equals thermal pressure:

dρ(r) m(r)ρ(r)
2. =−G
dr r2
Another equation of the equations of stellar structure. The so-called equation of hydrostatic
equilibrium. This can be written

dr ( ρ(r) dr )
d r 2 dP(r)
= − 4π Gr 2 ρr

If the star is an ideal gas the density of the star varies as PV γ = con sta nt where γ = 5/3 for a
monatomic gas and then

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1γ
P∝ ∝ ρ 5/3
V
In stellar dynamics we write

N ρ
=
V μmp

So that
ρ
Pgas = kBT
μmp

The abundance of hydrogen and helium in the universe are approximately 75% and 24%,
respectively. Thus for every 4He2+ there are 12H+ and 2+12 free electrons. We have

4 + 12
= 0.59
1 + 12 + 14
Ionized hydrogen and helium have μ = 0.59 and for the Sun μ = 0.62 because of high metal
content. Finally stars can be approximated as blackbody radiators (purely radiate) and as such
pressure is given in terms of temperature (Temperature is proportional to radiation energy):

4 σ 4
Prad = ⋅ T
3 c
There are three kinds of pressures that can be generated by a star: gas pressure, radiation
pressure, or degeneracy pressure.

A type of star that is stable, that is prevented from collapse by degeneracy pressure, is a so-called
white dwarf star. They are the remnant of giant stars that have depleted the their fusion fuel and
thereby collapsed under gravity but are kept from collapsing into black holes by thermal
pressure due to motion of the particles alone. Interestingly, they still shine almost as bright as a
star on the main sequence even though they are not doing fusion. It was the Indian physicist
Chandrasekhar who found the limit in mass for which a white dwarf will not have its gravity
overcome the degeneracy pressure and collapse. The non-relativistic equation is:

c 3h 3
M ≤ 0.77 = 1.41 ⊙
GN3 mp4

There are many resources available that derive this and you can find it in any textbook on
astrophysics in the chapters dealing with stellar physics, and I will leave the treatment of the
derivation to those works.

Returning to our equation for one second in terms of the Earth and Moon orbital kinetic
energies:

K Emoon
(Ear th Da y) = 1.08secon d s
K Eearth

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We notice it would be exactly one second if the Earth day were shorter. And, indeed it was a long
time ago.

For our equation Earth day needs to be shorter. A long time ago it was; the Earth loses energy to
the moon. The days become longer by 0.0067 hours per million years. Our Equation

K Emoon
(Ear th Da y) ≈ 1secon d
K Eearth
Is actually 1.2 seconds for KE of moon and KE or earth calculated with their average orbital
velocities. We will compute how long ago the Earth day was what it was needed to turn that 1.2
seconds into one second, and then how long ago the Earth day was what it was needed to turn
the 1.08 seconds into one second.

We have

24h ours
= 20h ours
1.2
24-20=0.0067t

t=597 million years

This was when the earth went through a dramatic change and there was a big explosion of life
(The Cambrian). This is when the Moon predicted the second as exactly 1. The dinosaurs went
extinct 65 million years ago giving small mammals a chance to evolve paving the way for
humans.

24-x=0.0067t

x=23.5645 hours

We say 20 hours + 3 hours is 0 hours + 3 hours since 20 hours is the zero of our cosmic
calendar:

2
3cos(0∘) + cos(30∘) = din osaur − ex t in ct ion =
3
What is the next term?

3 2
20hrs + 3hrs + hrs + =
3 3
20+3+0.57735+0.4714=24hours

Which bring us to today. Now the calculation for the 1.08 seconds that works with KE of moon
and KE earth calculated using aphelions and perihelions.

24h ours
= 22.222h ours
1.08

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24-22.222=0.0067t

t=265.373 million years

This is the Permian period which was from 299 to 251 million years ago, it was at the end of the
Paleozoic Era which was followed by the Mesozoic Era. The distinction between the Paleozoic
and the Mesozoic is made at the end of the Permian to mark the largest mass extinction
recorded in Earth’s history.

Thus, to conclude, we write

2 RH h
= 1secon d
6 π α 2 mp2GNA

2
And focus for a bit on . It takes the square which has diagonal to side is 2 and divides that
6
up with regular hexagon which is six radii and six sides equal one another reconciling Euler’s
number e with golden ratio Φ characteristic of five-fold symmetry, the regular pentagon. That is

2 1 e
Equation 8.6. = =
6 Φ(1 + Φ) Φ
Now we show what this is geometrically and explore how we arrived at it in the following
pages…



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!
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9.0 The Proton Charge

I construct the electric field as such (Fig. 2): x is one component of ℝ3(x, y, z). Events in
ℝ3(x, y, z) are through time with components ct1 and ct2 where c is the speed of light. The
electrons and the protons qe and qp in the presence of one another cross ct1 into ct2 giving
themselves acceleration in the x and −x directions.

Fig. 2

We have

⃗ ⃗ ⃗
i j k ⃗
0 ct1 0 = (ct1 − ct2 ) i
0 0 ct2

We suggest

·· ⃗
Equation 9.1 x ∝ (ct1 − ct2 ) i

The position of x changes in the space of ℝ3(x, y, z) and has travelled to t (0,ct1, ct2 ) a place in
·· ⃗ m
time, as well. Since ct=meters there is a g such that x = g(ct1 − ct2 ) i . Thus since g ⋅ m =
s2

 54 of 72

1 1 1 m m
and g = = 2 that is 2 ⋅ ⋅ s = 2 . Thus g is frequency squared (f 2) and we suggest it is
s 2 t s s s
derived from the separation between the charges qe and qp. That there is some velocity v such

(x)
v
that f = . We call upon our equation for 1 second:

rp h 4π
= 1secon d
mp Gc

(x)
2 rp
v h 4π ke q 2
(c) = ⋅
mp Gc m x2

rp h 4π q2
v 2(c) = ke
mp Gc m

α2 1
Letting v= ⋅ from our equation for k
6 k

4 8π 3G 1 s
k = m (1 + α) ⋅ NA =
3 p c h
3 773.5 m

1 m
= 773.5
k s
And m = mp we have

2
h 4π rp2
ke ( 6 k )
c α2 1
Equation 9.2 ⋅ = q2
Gc

h 4π rp2 (6.626E − 34)(4π)(0.833E − 15)2

= = 5.37E − 31
Gc (6.674E − 11)(299,792, 459)

We get

1
q= (0.033) 773.52(5.37E − 31) = 9.1435E − 19C
36(18769 )
2

q 9.1435E − 19C
Equation 9.3 =⋅ = 5.71proton s ≈ 6proton s!
qp 1.602E − 19C
𝔼

 55 of 72

10.0 The Solar Magnetic Field

We model the formation of the solar system from a slowly rotating gas cloud, a nebula of
gaseous molecules, that collapses into a flat disc with a protostar at its center. The star turns on
and blows lighter elements far away, like hydrogen and helium, from which form the gas giants,
like Jupiter and Saturn, and the heavier elements stay closer in, like iron and silicates, from
which form the terrestrial planets like Venus, Earth, and Mars form. There are basically three
factors that determine its structure, the inward gravity, the pressure gradient outward which
balances with the inward gravity, and the outward inertial forces from the planets’ orbits. The
flattened rotating disc is broken up into rings each that has a mass spread out over it from which
the planets form. We estimate the ring associated with the Earth, had in its lower limit 230 earth
masses spread over it for the Earth to form. We further estimate that the Venus ring had a mass
spread over it of 230 Venus masses for Venus to form, and the Mars ring similarly had 230 Mars
masses spread out over it for Mars to form. The asteroid belt had about 200 of it masses, and the
Jovian planets 5, 8, 15, and 20 masses of each respectively. For Mercury it requires a factor of
about 350 because it is mostly iron condensations with incomplete silicon condensations.
Plotting these logarithmically we get the exponent of r, the distance of a planet from the sun is
-1.5 so that the density distribution of the protoplanetary disc is:

σ (r) = σ0r −3/2

σ0 = 3300

Giving a mass
2π rh

∫0 ∫r
M= σ (r)r dr d θ
s

With pressure gradients playing the key role in the formation of solar system, less attention is
payed to the magnetic field of the Sun. However, in the older literature, one of the pioneer’s of
this aspect found something very interesting concerning it. He was Alfven (1942). At the time
people were suggesting instead of the solar system forming from a rotating nebula, rather the
sun came into existence not at the same time at the center of the disc, but rather passed through
clouds and captured material after already existing. He figured for the captured material its
inward component v, and density ρ, at a distance r from the sun, had to conserve mass, which
required:

dM
= 4π r 2 ρv
dt
He figured as the velocities of the atoms got closer to the sun, were moving then faster, collisions
would increase, and so temperature would go up, ionizing the atoms and therefore ionized, the
magnetic field becomes important. He considered for simplicity the solar magnetic field was
generated by a dipole moment μ, a vector quantity, and that a particle moving in the plane of
that vector with mass m and charge q, would have all of both the gravitational and magnetic
forces in that plane, so the problem becomes two-dimensional and required only the θ and r, of
polar coordinates. The differential equations of its motion would be:

 56 of 72

·
·· GM⊙ m qμ θ ·2
Equation 9.1 mr = − + 2 + mr θ
r2 r
And,
· ·
m d(r 2 θ ) qμ r
Equation 9.2 =− 3
r dt r
We can integrate equation 7.2 with the boundary condition that the angular momentum of the
particle is zero at large distances from the sun to get:
· qμ dr qμ
∫ r2
Equation 9.3 mr 2 θ = − =
r
·
And substitute it into equation equation 9.1 for θ to get

·· GM⊙ 2q 2 μ 2
Equation 9.4 mr = − +
r2 m 2r 5
Which we can write
·
· dr GM⊙ 2q 2 μ 2
Equation 9.5 r =− 2 + 2 5
dr r m r
·
We then integrate this with respect to r with the boundary condition that r = 0 at large r and get

·2 2GM⊙ q2 μ2
Equation 9.6 r = − 2 4
r m r
·
He then notices there is another value for which r = 0. It is
1/3

( 2GM⊙ m 2 )
q2 μ2
Equation 9.7 rc =

This is interesting because it means the particle can never approach the Sun closer than this
value, and it depends only on the value q/m, the charge to mass ratio of a particle. He took this
as hydrogen because ionized it is a proton, for which q/m is well defined. He estimated what the
magnetic field of the Sun could have been in this earlier stage of its life, and adjusted for the fact
that hydrogen doesn’t ionize until it reaches a velocity of 5E4 m/s and found that rc was the
region occupied by the major planets which are Jupiter and Saturn mostly made of hydrogen
and helium.

Certainly today we don’t see the planets as having formed from material gathered by the Sun in
its journey, but rather think the Sun and planets formed at the same time from a cloud that
collapsed into a rotating flat disc. And indeed, there may be stars in the galaxy that pass through
clouds and gather material, and indeed Alfven’s equations would hold preventing ionizing
clouds from falling into their star. But we can also apply his equation to our Sun today, for which
we know a great deal about its magnetic field, which also happens to be an important thing to
study and for which we have satellites in the Lagrange points, where the Earth’s gravity cancels

 57 of 72

with that of the Sun, where the orbits are very stable, so we can understand the solar magnetic
field. It is a complex field, that interacts with the Earth’s magnetosphere, and we need to predict
solar maximums, so we have warning as to whether there will be a magnetic storm that will
knock out our electrical grid and internet, ahead of time.

During solar minimum the solar magnetic field has closed lines, that flow out one pole and into
the other. The dipole field of the sun is about 50 Gauss. There are 10,000 Gauss in a Tesla, so
that is 5E-3 Tesla. That is the magnetic field strength where the field goes into the poles. The
total magnetic field of the Sun at the Earth, Bt is all the components taken together, which are
Bx, By, and Bz. The important component is Bz, because it runs north-south, so it is
perpendicular to the ecliptic, the path traced out by the sun due to the earth’s orbit. It is the
component that interacts with the Earth magnetosphere, and when it points southward, it will
connect with the Earth’s magnetosphere which points northward so the solar poles flow into the
Earth poles and the Earth field then gets disrupted allowing particles from the solar wind to rain
down along Earth magnetic field lines causing the Aurora. The solar magnetic field doesn’t
always stay around the Sun itself, but the solar wind carries it through the solar system until it
collides with the interstellar medium reaching the heliopause. Thus the Sun creates the
Interplanetary Magnetic Field (IMF) which has a spiral shape because the Sun rotates once
about every 25 days. But the upshot is that at Earth we have

Moderate Magnetic Field: 10 nT

Strong Magnetic Field: 20 nT
Very Strong Magnetic Field: 30 nT

For our purposes we want to return to equation 55:

 58 of 72

1/3

( 2GM⊙ m 2 )
q2 μ2
rc =

And ask just what is μ, because in the time that Alfven was working we worked with magnetic
fields differently, aside from his equation uses a trick, which we still use today, and that is to
consider the magnetic field a dipole. To consider it like this is to say there are two monopoles
opposite in polarity. According to Maxwell’s equation we cannot have magnetic monopoles,
though they are predicted by some modern theories, they have never been found. The trick is in
that by treating the North magnetic pole and South magnetic pole as separate magnetic charges
is to treat them like we do electric charges, the charge of a proton and the charge of an electron,
which can be convenient for making computations, but don’t exist that we know of. So we will
solve equation 56 for μ, and see what its units are so we can understand what it represents and
we will let m be the mass of a proton and q the charge of a proton. We get:

r 3GM⊙ mp2 m 3 ⋅ kg
Equation 9.8 =μ=
qp2 C⋅s

We can write these units as, by taking Coulombs (C) equal to a m p ⋅ secon d s

m m2
Equation 9.9 kg 2 ⋅
s a m ps
This is units of force per current density, which makes sense because a flowing current creates a
force. We can also write it:

m2 m
Equation 9.10 kg ⋅
s 2 a m ps
Which is energy per magnetic field strength in that the SI units of magnetic field strength is
amps per meter. This tells us:

En erg y
Equation 9.11 μ=
Magn et icFiel d St rength
Thus we will use the energy as ionization of hydrogen, the energy to remove its electron and
make it a proton:

H ⟶ H + + e − = 1pr oton = 2.18E − 18J

We have

m2
qp = 1.6E − 19C, mp = 1.67E − 27kg, G = 6.67408E − 11N 2 ,
kg

M⊙ = 1.989E 30kg

 59 of 72

We want to look at the Sun as having a current flowing around its equator in a loop with its
radius R⊙ = 6.957E 8m

We find for the dipole field of the Sun at 50 Gauss=5E-3T, which is about 100 times stronger
than the Earth magnetic field, that this is a current I=5.5362E12 amperes driving the solar
magnetic dipole. This gives us that since the Earth orbit (1AU=1.495979E11m):

I 5.5362E12a m ps
Equation 9.12 = = 37.0a m ps /m
1AU 1.496E11m
Equation 9.13

Ioni z at ion En erg y 2.18E − 18J J⋅m

μ= = = 5.892E − 20
Magn et icFiel d St rength 37.0A m ps /m A
Or,…
1/3
qp2 μ 2
( 2GM⊙ mp2 )
Equation 9.14 r = = 4.9324E − 15m

The radius of a proton is 0.833E-15m. We have that r is:

r
Equation 9.15 = 5.92 ≈ 6Pr oton Ra dii = carbon
rp

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Our six-fold symmetry unfolding. This is again the carbon the core element of life. We see it
provided for by the Sun’s magnetic field.

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Let us write the computation as one equation, and verify it. We have
1/3
qp2 μ 2
( 2GM⊙ mp2 )
r = = 4.9324E − 15m

2B⊙ R⊙
I⊙ =
μ0
I 5.5362E12a m ps
= = 37.0a m ps /m
1AU 1.496E11m
Where 1AU = re

Ioni z at ion En erg y 2.18E − 18J J⋅m

μ= = = 5.892E − 20
Magn et icFiel d St rength 37.0A m ps /m A

IEH=Ionization energy of Hydrogen

I⊙ 2B⊙ R⊙ 1
=
1AU μ0 re

μ 2 = (5.982E − 20)2 = 3.47E − 39

2
(IEH )2 μ02re2 (2.18E − 18)2(12.56637E − 7)2(1.496E11)2
μ = =
4B⊙2 R⊙2 4(5E − 3)2(6.957E 8)2

=3.47E-39 (correct)

Equation 9.16
1/3
qp2
(IEH )2 μ02re2
( 2GM⊙ mp2 4B⊙2 R⊙2 )
6rp = ⋅

1/3
2 2 2 2
(1.6E − 19C ) (2.18E − 18J ) (12.56637E − 7T ⋅ m /A) (1.496E11m)
6rp = ⋅
2(6.67408E − 11N m2
)(1.989E 30kg)(1.67E − 27)2 4(5E − 3T )2(6.957E 8m)2
kg 2

(0.000034574)(3.47E-39)=1.19972E-43

1.19972E-43^(1/3)

=4.932E-15

So as you can see equation 7.15 is correct. It says that carbon, the basis of life is in the ratio of
the solar magnetic field and the solar gravitational field.!

 62 of 72

Thus we have a theoretical value for the radius of the proton:

1 hc RH
Equation 9.17 rp = ⋅
mp 2π 3G NA

And a theoretical value for its charge

2
h 4π rp2
ke ( 6 k )
c α2 1
Equation 9.18 ⋅ = q2
Gc

q 9.1435E − 19C
Equation 9.19 =⋅ = 5.71pr oton s ≈ 6pr oton s
qp 1.602E − 19C

And we have the radius of a proton in terms of the solar magnetic field at Earth
1/3
qp2
(IEH )2 μ02re2
( 2GM⊙ mp2 4B⊙2 R⊙2 )
Equation 9.20 6rp = ⋅

All of this based on the idea that the basis of their structure is in six-fold unfolding. Given our
constant k

4 8π 3G
Equation 9.21 k = mp (1 + α) ⋅ NA
3 c 3h

And making the approximation 1 + α = 1 we can with these equations eliminate qp in equation
5.21 using equation 5.19 in which we can eliminate k with equation 2.22.

α4 c4h 1 h 4π (IEH )2 μ02re2

Equation 9.22 31850496rp2 = ⋅ 3 ⋅
ke π G (NA )2 G c GM⊙ mp4 B⊙2 R⊙2

This has an accuracy of close to 88% because in equation 7.19 the charge of six protons is
predicted by the theory to be 5.72 protons, the rest of the equations are much more accurate, but
we seek to rectify that. We write this equation so we can have an equation that defines the solar
magnetic field by solving for B⊙.

To address the accuracy of the equation for the charge of a proton, equation 7.19, we ask what is
the culprit. We suggest it is (α 4 )/36. So we solve the equation for that to see by how much it is
off. It is:

α4 k Gc
Equation 9.23 = q2 ⋅ e ⋅ k 2
36 c h 4π rp2

We see it should be 7.79573E-11 and is actually 7.885E-11. The value we are using is 98.86785%
accurate, but we want to do better.
𝔼
𝔼
𝔼

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We now eliminate rp2 on the left in equation 9.22 with equation 9.17 to find the B field of the Sun
as described by the Earth orbit as the ground state:

2 (IEH )2 μ02re2 α 4 c 3 h 4π
Equation 9.24 B⊙2 = ⋅ ⋅
NRH2 GM⊙ mp2 R⊙2 ke Gc

Where N=31850496 is a perfect integer, that is has no values after the decimal. Equation 8 gives
a magnetic field strength of 4.73E-3 Teslas. Concerning equation 9.24

α4 k Gc
= q2 ⋅ e ⋅ k 2
36 c h 4π rp2
4
We want it to be more accurate. To do that we have to substitute for (α 4 )/36, the fraction 7
5
which is 39/5 and we have to formulate a theory for why this would be, though the discrepancy
could be in rp as its experimental value has the largest errors. Other possibilities are the (α 4 )/36
is right and that as well this is due to the radius of a proton having large errors, or even that it is
supposed to be the factor 8, which would be good to consider because 8-fold symmetry is very
dynamic, in particular in its role with beryllium 8 being a precursor to carbon in nuclear
synthesis by stars.

Because we are looking at 6 protons we had 62, and because of six-fold symmetry we had α 2 /6
and because the charge q = 6qp we had 63 because of the 1/3 root on the right. So taking
N = 67 = 279936 and leaving the 32 /42 that came from substituting for k, and the 8 = 23 as
well, and leaving the factors 2 and 4 because they describe the physical dynamics of the equation
we have:

2 2 (IEH )2 μ02re2 32 α 4 c 3 h 4π
Equation 9.25 B⊙ = ⋅ ⋅
NRH2 2GM⊙ mp2 4R⊙2 4 2 23ke Gc

Where N = 67 = 279936

Or we can factor out all the numbers on the right the 2 and 4 in equation 7.25 and write

2 1 (IEH )2 μ02re2 α 4 c 3 hπ
Equation 9.26 B⊙ = ⋅ ⋅
NRH2 GM⊙ mp2 R⊙2 ke Gc

In which case N=31850496/4=7962624. We see the solar magnetic field is determined by the
radius of a hydrogen atom, its ionization energy, and the solar gravitational field, with the earth
orbit re as the ground state.!

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Protons and neutrons pack in atoms in a way that can be seen from their electron clouds. Thus
since we can say the electron cloud of helium is spherical the nucleus packing is spherical. But
since the protons and and neutrons in the nucleus are moving (But only as far as their nuclear
wall) the packing is ordered but liquid.

I believe the reason for my finds of six-fold symmetry in both the radius of a proton and it its
charge can be explained by Buckminster Fuller’s vector equilibrium. It is the most
transformable straight-line geometry if you attach sticks with flexible corners, what Fuller calls a
flex-corner. See the following illustration.

Which means it zero-frequency for omni directional closest packing of spheres is 12 spheres,
which is carbon (six protons and six neutrons) which is the basis of life as we know it. Its
diameter is then six proton radii which we found provided for by the solar magnetic field. The
frequency is the number on any symmetrically concentric shell or layer and is given by

10F 2 + 2 = 10(1)2 + 2 = 12 = carbon

The more protons an element has the more neutrons it needs so the strong nuclear force in the
nucleus can overcome the mutual repulsion of protons, thus holding the atoms together.

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Thus, to go over that of the solar magnetic field again, proposed by Hannes Alfven (1942), at the
time there was no known mechanism for it, but he suggested the relative velocity between a
neutral gas and a plasma has a critical velocity at which the gas starts to ionize and that the
atoms or molecules will not exceed this velocity until the gas becomes almost fully ionized. The
additional energy put into the system goes into ionizing the gas instead of the velocity of the
atoms, and is roughly independent of pressure and magnetic field. Critical ionization velocity
has been recognized in the laboratory for some time. It is given by equating the kinetic energy of
the atoms to the ionization potential:

1
mv 2 = eVion
2

Alfven found:

Gas cloud enters Solar System

A neutral atom falls into Sun due to gravity
Motion is random, collisions happen
Temperature rises
At a distance from the Sun gas will ionize

Mm
ri = G
eVion
Mm m
ri = G = 13.5E10 cm
eVion Vion
m=atomic weight

Vion = volts

He found for a gas cloud with average voltage 12 volts. An average atomic weight of 7, the ri is at
Jupiter. That is atoms fall in towards the Sun and ionize at which point the solar magnetic field
pushes them out to Jupiter orbit where a halo forms from which planets can form.

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Thus if we are to suggest, as we have, that solar magnetic field provides for life, whose skeletons
are the hydrocarbons, that this has something to due with the solar wind which is plasma and
we can consider it a plasma that can move in neutral gas thus being subject to Alfven’s critical
velocity. The plasma is mostly electrons, protons, alpha particles kinetic energies between 0.5
and 10 keV. Their are trace amount sof heavy ions of C, N, O, Ne Mg, Is, S, and Fe. We note the
C, N, O are the most abundant elements in life chemistry. The solar wind can reach velocities of
25o000-750000 m/s. Remember the critical velocity for hydrogen is 50,900 m/s.

We propose the solar magnetic field may play a role in the outcome of life; we know the DNA
molecule spirals preferentially in one direction over another and scientists have hypothesized it
may be from a net circular polarization in one direction of light from the Sun that is caused by
magnetic fields in sunspot activity. Though as well this may come from cosmic ray net circular
polarizations that have been guiding the evolution of life on Earth.

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11.0 Honing The Value Of K

We want to hone our constant k best we can. It, and our intermediary mass, which we want to
hone as well, are derived from the Chandrasekhar limit, and, being based on Thermal and
Statistical Physics, uses a lot of approximations. It is actual value will probably be arrived at very
accurately with incoming data in astronomy for White Dwarf Stars. Values are often given from
1.39 solar masses to 1.44 solar masses mostly due to ranges given from varying stellar
compositions which can vary in metallicity and so forth from star to star. The non-relativistic
estimate from Chandrasekhar is

c 3ℏ3
M ≤ 0.77 = 1.44 ⊙
GN3 mp4

We made the estimate 0.77 approximately 3/4. But using the exact value above for our
intermediary mass we have

c 3ℏ3
mi = Mmp = 0.77
GN mp2

h
We had estimated and using ℏ =
2π
1/2
3 c 3h 3
mi = = 67.9943kg
2 8π 3G mp2

Thus precisely

3
= 0.8660
2
0.77 = 0.8775

We have

0.8775
= 1.01328
0.8660
We have honing our mi

mi = (67.9943)(1.01328) = 68.897kg ≈ 69kg ≈ 70kg

Thus since we said with our estimate

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1 (1 + α) 1 s
k = h ⋅ NA = ⋅
mi
2 G 773.5 m
1 (1.007299)
k = (6.62607E − 34) ⋅ ⋅ 6.02E 23 = 0.001268291s /m
(68.897kg)2 6.67408E − 11
1 m
= 788.4626
k s
Considering equation 4.1 of section 4.0 page 16, we see our value is still close to integer 6:

29790m s /s
k ve = = 6.145748
788.46m /s
And since we have since suggested we should rather be using not the average orbital velocity of
Earth but that at aphelion, we have

29300m s /s
k ve = = 6.095986
788.46m /s
Even closer to integer six.
𝔼

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Appendix 1

We suggested the second was a natural unit, and that, if it was, should be in the orbital
mechanics of the earth because the second comes from the calendar, which is based on the
orbital period of the year (1 year, 365.25 days) and the orbital period of the moon, and the
rotation of the Earth. We found that it was as the following:

K Emoon
(Ear th Da y) ≈ 1secon d
K Eearth
Let’s show that…

K . E . Moon = 3.67E 28J

K . E . Ear th = 2.649E 33j

To find the translational kinetic energy of the moon:
Distance from earth: 3.85E8m
2π (3.85E 8m) = 2.419E 9m
Orbital period:
T=27.32 days=2.36E6seconds
v=1.025E3m/s~1000m/s
Mass: 7.34767E22kg

1
Use E = mv 2
2
E=3.67E28 Joules

To find the translational kinetic energy of the earth:

Distance from Sun: 1AU=1.496E11m

2π (1.496E11m) = 9.399E11m
Orbital period: 1 year=3.1558E7 seconds
v=2.9785E4m/s, Earth mass: 5.9722E24kg
E=2.649E33 Joules

Earth day=(24)(60)(60)=86,400 seconds.!

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Appendix 2

1 h 4π rp2
α mp
2 Gc

Is proton-seconds. Divide by time we have a number of protons because it is a mass divided by

the mass of a proton. But these masses can be considered to cancel and leave pure number. We
make a program that looks for close to whole number solutions so we can create a table of values
for problem solving.

By what value would you like to increment?: 0.25

How many values would you like to calculate for t in equation 1 (no more than 100?): 100
24.1199 protons 0.250000 seconds 0.119904 decpart
12.0600 protons 0.500000 seconds 0.059952 decpart
8.0400 protons 0.750000 seconds 0.039968 decpart
6.0300 protons 1.000000 seconds 0.029976 decpart
4.0200 protons 1.500000 seconds 0.019984 decpart
3.0150 protons 2.000000 seconds 0.014988 decpart
2.1927 protons 2.750000 seconds 0.192718 decpart
2.0100 protons 3.000000 seconds 0.009992 decpart
1.2060 protons 5.000000 seconds 0.205995 decpart
1.1486 protons 5.250000 seconds 0.148567 decpart
1.0964 protons 5.500000 seconds 0.096359 decpart
1.0487 protons 5.750000 seconds 0.048691 decpart
1.0050 protons 6.000000 seconds 0.004996 decpart
0.2487 protons 24.250000 seconds 0.248659 decpart
0.2461 protons 24.500000 seconds 0.246121 decpart
0.2436 protons 24.750000 seconds 0.243635 decpart

A very interesting thing here is looking at the values generated by the program, the smallest
integer value 1 second produces 6 protons (carbon) and the largest integer value 6 seconds
produces one proton (hydrogen). Beyond six seconds you have fractional protons, and the rest of
the elements heavier than carbon are formed by fractional seconds. These are the hydrocarbons
the backbones of biological chemistry. Here is the code for the program:!

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#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(int argc, const char * argv[]) {

int n;
float value=0, increment,t=0, p=1.67262E-27, h=6.62607E-34,G=6.67408E-11,
c=299792459,protons[100],r=0.833E-15;

do
{
printf("By what value would you like to increment?: ");
scanf("%f", &increment);
printf("How many values would you like to calculate for t in equation 1 (no more than 100?):
");
scanf("%i", &n);
}
while (n>=101);
{

for (int i=0; i<n;i++)

{
protons[i]=((137*137)/(t*p))*sqrt(h*4*(3.14159)*(r*r)/(G*c));

int intpart=(int)protons[i];
float decpart=protons[i]-intpart;
t=t+increment;
if (decpart<0.25)
{ printf("%.4f protons %f seconds %f decpart \n", protons[i], t-increment, decpart);
}}}}!

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The Author