ASIAN LITERATURE

Subtopic:
 Indian Literature
 Thai Literature
 Indonesian Literature
 Chinese Literature

 Lesson Proper:

 Indian Literature
 Most literary forms and works in Indian literature incorporate
philosophical and religious concepts. Often, these works are
viewed as extensions of Hindu teachings.
 • Considered to be the oldest Hindu writings, the Vedas (meaning
“knowledge” in Sanskrit) are a collection of sacred books written in
Sanskrit. There are four Vedas:
 ◦ Rig Veda (“knowledge of the verses”)—a collection of 1,028
sacred hymns and is divided into ten books called Mandalas
 ◦ Yajur Veda (“knowledge of the sacrifice”)—a handbook for priests
in the performance of sacrificial rituals
 ◦ Sama Veda (“knowledge of the melodies”)—a collection of chants
and melodies drawn from the Rig Veda and are to be sung during
worship
 ◦ Atharva Veda (“knowledge of the fire priest”)—a collection of
charms, spells, and hymns, largely outside of the scope of worship
and Vedic sacrifice
 • Mahabharata and Ramayana are two great Sanskrit epics in
Indian literature.
 • Mahabharata, whose authorship is traditionally attributed to
Vyasa, is composed of about one hundred thousand couplets
divided into eighteen sections, making it longer than Homer’s Iliad
and Odyssey combined. Mahabharata focuses on the conflict
between the Pandava and the Kaurava princes.
 • Ramayana, written by the poet Valmiki, contains twenty-four
thousand couplets divided into seven books. It centers on the life
and adventures of the couple Ramachandra and Sita.
 • The origins of the Indian drama were attributed to the Hindu
deities. It was believed that Brahma, the creator, created drama to
please the deities; Shiva, the destroyer, introduced dance; and
Vishnu, the preserver, introduced the four types of drama.

 • Four types of ancient Indian drama:
 ◦ Nataka—inspired by the epics Mahabharata and Ramayana; the
highest form of drama
 ◦ Prakaranas—inspired by the daily life of mortals, including their
virtues and weaknesses
 ◦ Prahsanas—inspired by the lower castes’ ridicule of the upper
class
 ◦ Yatra—inspired by the lewd escapades of the deity Krishna, as
told by the traveling bards
 • Bhavabhuti, Harsha, and Kalidasa were renowned Sanskrit
writers.
 • Kalidasa wrote Abhijñanashakuntala, or simply Shakuntala. It is a
play about the love story of Shakuntala and King Dushyanta from
the epic Mahabharata. Sir William Jones translated it to English.
 • Bhavabhuti was known for his three plays, namely
Mahaviracharita, Malatimadhava, and Uttararamacharita.
 • Harsha was an Indian emperor and a poet. He wrote Nāgānanda,
Priyadarśikā, and Ratnāvalī.
 • Some of the notable contemporary authors of Indian literature
include Arundhati Roy and Rabindranath Tagore. Roy was known
for her famous novel, The God of Small Things (1997). It won the
Man Booker Prize for Fiction in 1997. Meanwhile, Tagore was
awarded with the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913. Some of his
remarkable works include Mānasī (1890), Chitrāṅgadā (Chitra,
1892), and Sonār Tarī (The Golden Boat, 1894).

 Thai Literature
 • The earliest form of Thai literature existed during the Sukhothai
period (from the thirteenth to the fourteenth century). These works
were carved in stones, providing descriptions of how life was back
then. The Ram Khamhaeng is distinguished among these stone
inscriptions, written by King Ram Khamhaeng himself, which is
about the economic condition of the kingdom during his rule.
 • During the Ayutthaya period (1351−1767), written verses
emerged, focusing on religion,history, and romance, among
others. Some examples include “Maha chat” (“The Great Birth”),
“Lilit Yuan phai” (“The Defeat of the Yuan”), and “Lilit phra Lo”
(“The Story of Prince Lo”).
 • The renaissance of Thai literature began during King Narai’s
reign (1656−1688). The royal court recognized writers, and various
writing genres developed, such as nirat poems. These poems
 focus on “journeying, separating, and love-longing” (David Smyth,
EncyclopaediaBritannica). One of the noteworthy works is “Nirat
khlong kamsuan” (“A Mournful Journey”) by Si Prat, a personal
account of the author’s journey into exile.
 • When Thailand recovered from the defeat it suffered from
Myanmar’s Hsinbyushin (1767), significant literary texts were
rewritten, such as Ramakien, Thailand’s national epic based on
Ramayana; Sunthorn Phu’s Phra Aphai Mani; and Khun Chang
Khun Phaen, an epic based on amorous and military feats (Smyth,
Encyclopaedia Britannica).
 • In the twentieth century, translated works of Western texts
dominated the literary scene (e.g., works of Marie Corelli, Arthur
Conan Doyle, Anthony Hope). Series stories surfaced by the mid-
1920s, chiefly focusing on “rich girl meets poor boy” narratives, or
vice versa, which usually have a happy ending.
 • Notable works such as Akatdamkoeng Raphiphat’s Lakhon
haeng chiwit (The Circus Life), Siburapha’s Songkhram chiwit (The
War of Life), and K. Surangkhanang’s Ying khon chua(The
Prostitute) were examples of narratives that tackle social issues,
which blossomed
 during the latter part of the 1920s.
 • By the 1940s, writers were producing works influenced by social
realism. These works commonly reflect social injustice. Meanwhile,
freedom of speech was suppressed from the 1950s to the 1960s,
which was considered as a “dark age” of Thai literature. Escapist
fiction, one that allows the reader to escape his everyday reality,
was the only literary genre to have survived. It was also referred to
as “stagnant water literature.” The most successful among these
escapist writers was Khamsing Srinawk, who, under the pen name
Lao Kham Hom, wrote the masterpiece, Fa bo kan (The Politician
and Other Stories), which was able to conceal the true nature of
the reality it was trying to portray but managed to deliver a
transgressive message. In 1992, the award for National Artist of
Thailand was bestowed on Khamsing Srinawk.
 • Social realism was rediscovered in the late 1960s, paving the
way for “literature for life.” This movement played a significant role
in helping to overthrow the military government in 1973.
 • Chart Korbjitti proved to be successful among his contemporaries
in terms of commercial and artistic accomplishments. His notable
works include Chon trork (The End of the Road, 1980) and Kham
phiphaksa (The Judgment, 1982).

 Indonesian Literature
 • Indonesian literature is composed of oral and written works. The
modern Indonesian literature was characterized by works with
Western influences, which have emerged in the twentieth century.
 • Prose narratives vary and are influenced by Indian literature and
those of the neighboring countries. They usually focus on “beast
fables,” legends, riddles, adventure stories, and more.
 • Texts were written in various languages, chiefly in Javanese and
Malay.
 • Early Javanese literature works existed between the ninth and the tenth century CE.
Proseand poems were prevalent, which merely served as varieties
of the famous Indian epics, Mahabharata and Ramayana.
Moreover, the Javanese adapted the Sanskrit court poetry and
developed it as their own.
 • The onset of Dutch colonization from the eighteenth to the
nineteenth century led to the decrease in Javanese and Malay
works.
 • The nationalist movement and the development of Bahasa
Indonesia as the national language were associated with modern
Indonesian literature.
 • Some of the modern writers include Muhammad Yamin, Abdul
Muis, Chairil Anwar, and Pramoedya Ananta Toer.
 • When Suharto rose to power in 1965, the government ordered
censorship and suspended the freedom of expression in literary
works. The situation of the writers eased when he resigned in
1998.

 II. Chinese Literature
 This chapter will focus on the literary forms that have emerged
during the Tang dynasty (AD 618–960). Additionally, this chapter
will include a brief overview of Confucian literature.
 • Chinese literature, especially poetry, flourished during the Tang
dynasty.
 • Lüshi (“regulated verse”) was a rigid alternative to gushi. It is
composed of eight lines with five to seven characters. In addition, it
follows a certain format: the first two lines should focus on the
exposition. As the theme progresses, the structure (body, second,
and third couplets) should be parallel; the conclusion should be
apparent in the final couplet. (Gushimeans “ancient style poetry,”
which has a lesser metrical limitation and a more extensive rhyme
than yuefu; yuefu refers to poems based on folk-ballad tradition.
The term yuefu
  means “music bureau,” which Emperor Wudi established to collect
songs and their scores “for ceremonial occasions in court.”)
 • Jueju (“severed sentence”) is a concise form of lüshi. Instead of
eight lines, it is composed of a quatrain. It maintains the tonal
quality of lüshi but removes either the first or the last four lines.
 • Ci is a song-like poem, or lyric poem, with uneven lengths of
lines. It has rhythmic and tonalpatterns that are musical in nature.
The ordinary people were the first to sing a ci, but it
waspopularized by professional women singers during the Tang
dynasty. Li Yu, the last ruler of Nan, was the greatest among ci
poets.
 • Bianwen is a combination of prose and poetry, retelling Buddha’s
life. It was believed to be the earliest form of vernacular prose, as
Buddhist missionaries employed a manner of storytelling using a
common language that was understood by everyone to channel
their messages.
 • Han Yu led the movement that encouraged writers to look up to Zhou philosophers
and Han authors as models for writing in prose, instead of complying
with the limitations of pianwen(“parallel prose”). The reform was
liberating, leading to a modern style of prose writingwherein writers
can freely create texts in various lengths and patterns. Some
importantauthors of this mode include Liu Zongyan, Shen Yazhi,
and Bai Xingjian. (Pianwen ischaracterized by unconventional
structure and balanced but nonrhyming patterns. It wasgenerally
used in addressing religious issues or philosophical arguments.)
 • Some of the notable writers during this period include Wang Wei,
Du Fu, and Li Bai. Du Fu’sfamous works include “Bingqu xing”
(“The Ballad of the Army Carts”) and “Liren xing” (“The Beautiful
Woman”).
 • Below are examples of Li Bai’s poems, as translated by the
celebrated American poet Ezra Pound.

Taking Leave of a Friend

Blue mountains to the north of the walls,
White river winding about them;
Here we must make separation
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass.

Mind like a floating wide cloud,

Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances Who
bow over their clasped hands at a distance. Our
horses neigh to each others as we are departing.
The Jewel Stairs’ Grievance
The jeweled steps are already quite white with dew,
It is so late that the dew soaks my gauze stockings,
And I let down the crystal curtain
And watch the moon through the clear autumn.

Confucian Literature
• Confucian literature was considered as the earliest form of literature,
which has existed even before the Qin dynasty. Some texts were
attributed to Confucius himself, while some were regarded as those of
his followers. The two most important texts of the Confucian literature
include the Five Classics or Wujing and The Analects. The Analects are
a collection of sayings and/or teachings of Confucius, his
contemporaries, and followers.
• The Five Classics contain the norms of Chinese society.
◦ Shijing (“Classic of Poetry”) is the earliest collection of poetry,
comprising roughly threehundred poems.
◦ Yijing (“Book of Changes”) is an ancient divination text that
existed during the Zhoudynasty. The writers of the Warring States
period attempted to explain the world and its moral principles
through the commentaries found in additional sections of the text.
◦ Shujing (“Book of Documents”) is a compilation of the ancient
history of China, whichincludes philosophies and recollections of
the great deeds of the rulers.
◦ Liji (“Book of Rites”) is a collection of texts about ethics in rituals,
music, education, etc. Itwas written during the Warring States
period. Dai De and his nephew Dai Sheng compiled the chapters
of the texts.
◦ Chunqiu (“Spring and Autumn Annals”) is a chronological history
of the state of Lu. Itcontains monthly narrations of important events
during the rule of the twelve leaders of Lu.