Electronics Measurement and Instrumentat

EMI- Electronics Measurement and Instrumentation Lab
2nd year ECE ©Shubhanshi Gupta

1. LVDT- Linear Variable Differential Transformer
Displacement S1 S2
Measurement Motor
DISPLAY
(using LVDT Sensor) CRO
Movable Screw gauge
GRAPH: Output Voltage
Residual Voltage
Displacement of core
Least Count of Screw Gauge of LVDT:
Least count of Main Scale = 0.5
Least count of Circular Scale= 50 mm
Objective is to find the residual voltage for given LVDT and plot a graph between
displacement of core and output voltage.
Working of LVDT:
1. Connect the CRO probe to points S1 and S2.

2. As we vary the distance on screw gauge, a movable soft iron core attached to it slides
as distance increases or decreases on screw gauge.
3. The soft iron core links the flux from primary coil to secondary coil.
4. Since the coils are arranged in an opposite manner, net voltage through secondary
winding system is the difference of voltages in the 2 coils.
5. At first the soft core is at rightmost end where the displacement is minimum. Here, the
voltage difference is maximum and as the displacement increases, the voltage
difference value decreases.
6. At around 10 mm, the voltage difference produced by both the windings is minimum
and known as the Residual Voltage. At this point, the flux linkage of primary coil to
both the secondary windings is almost equal.
7. As the displacement of the soft iron core increases further, the disparity in induced
voltages increases.
8. As a result, the voltage difference obtained at the output increases.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
+ First part of Secondary V1 V0= V1-V2

Winding ---W1
Primary ---
Inductor coil
_ Second part of secondary

winding--- W2
V2
Movable Core +
2. Maxwell Bridge
C This is an AC bridge.
Given:
Q=P=1000 ohm P Q
L=QRC
G L
Inductor
R
AC supply
~
Connection Diagram:
Power Supply
Detector
DC AC
Unknown To galvanometer key
OR
Unknown Headphones
Similar
Inductors
The objective of this experiment is to find the unknown inductance (L) in the Wheatstone
bridge alike arrangement called Maxwell Bridge, using: L=QRC
The value of resistance P and S are known: P=Q= 1000 Ω
1. Choose one of the unknown inductances and make connections as shown in the
connection diagram.
2. First to find R (DC analysis):
 Choose the DC Pin for power supply.
 Galvanometer acts as a detector.
 Change/ rotate the k o s to o tai R t isti g k o s i lo k ise di e tio
(increasing its value) till the galvanometer reaches the null point (zero) or nearby it
(starting from the leftmost knob because it has highest resistance). In this method
we are finding the exact value of R by converging from large values to smaller
values. In the leftmost knob, each division stands for a 100Ω. So if null deflection is
found at 0th division, i.e. 0Ω, then it means the actual alue of R is somewhere
between zeroth and first division, i.e., 0 to 100Ω.
CAUTION: While finding null deflection point from some knob, all the knobs on its right side
(i.e., the knobs which have not been checked yet) must point towards zero and all the knobs
on the left should point to their respective null deflection point.
 In similar manner, find resistance by bringing all the knobs to null point, keeping the
other knobs fixed (the ones at right are fixed to zero and the one on left to their
respective null points).
 Calculate the actual value of R:
Say, the null point for first knob (which has 100Ω least count) = 0
Say, the null point for second knob (which has 10Ω least count) = 4
And that for the third knob (which has 1Ω least count) = 6
Then, R= 0X100 + 4X10 + 6X1 = 46Ω

It is quite clear how we converge from multiples of 100 to multiples of 1, in order to find the
null point to get exact value of R.
3. To find the capacitance C (AC analysis):

 For this, the connections are similar to the previous one with a few changes.
 Disconnect the power supply to DC terminal and insert the probes into AC terminals.
Also insert the headphone probes to detector terminal and remove all previous
connections to the galvanometer (galvanometer is not used here).
 Starting from the left, rotate the knobs in clockwise direction (increasing value), till
the noise in headphones is the lowest. Let this pint be A. If noise becomes constant
with further twisting of knob, then the point A is the point of zero deflection. Here
also, while analyzing a knob, all knobs on right must point to zero capacitance.
 In similar manner, find null deflection point for all knobs, keeping the other knobs
fixed (the ones at right are fixed to zero and the one on left to their respective null
points).
 Here also we find actual capacitance by converging from 1µF to 0.01µF in steps of 0.1.
CAUTION: Detecting null point for the last knob (0.01µF) can get ambiguous since the value
gets too small to cause considerable changes to the overall value. Also, device imperfections
may overrule the changes produces while rotating the last knob. However, different values
obtained by different students would not lead to significant error.
 Cal ulate a tual apa ita e C :
Say, the least noise point for first knob (one with 1µF least count) = 2
Say, the least noise point for second knob (one with 0.1µF least count) = 6
Say, the least noise point for third knob (one with 0.01µF least count) = 7
Then, C= 1X2 + 0.1X6 + 0.01X7 = 2.67µF, ith the 7 ei g least sig ifi a t.
It is quite clear how we converged from large value to smaller ones, by decreasing the least
count with a scale of 0.1 each time.
3. ANDERSON BRIDGE
 Objective is to find the inductance of the unknown inductance L.
 This bridge is similar to Ma ell s Bridge, it is just that here capacitance is given.
P r Q
C
Inductor L
R S
 This is an AC Bridge.
 Make o e tio as i Ma ell s B idge.
 DC analysis: First we use DC supply to find R. Here, detector will be Galvanometer.
 AC analysis: use AC supply to find r. Here, detector will be Headphones.
Calculation:
(Given, C=0.1µF)
 Calculate the actual value of R (DC analysis):
And that for the third knob (which has 1Ω least count) = 5
R= 0X100 + 4X10 + 5X1 = 45Ω

 Calculate the actual value of R:
Say, the null point for third knob (which has 10Ω least count) = 3
And that for the fourth knob (which has 1Ω least count) = 0
Therefore, r= 4X1000 + 1X100 + 3X10 + 0X1 = 4131Ω
To find L, L= (Q+r) RC
COMMON QUESTIONS ASKED DURING VIVA
1. What are AC bridges?

All those bridges in which are used to measured the unknown resistances, capacitance,
inductance, frequency and mutual inductance by finally balancing the bridge using AC
supply. E : Ma ell s idge a d A de so s B idge
Si e heatsto e idge does t e ui e AC suppl a d gets ala ed ith DC, it is a DC
bridge.
2. What is the difference between Maxwell and Anderson bridges?
The only difference lies in the circuit and in the formula for L. Both are AC bridges used
for finding inductance.
3. Are these bridges a transducer?
No. They simply find inductance. Transducers are devices which convert a physical
quantity (like displacement, force, length, temperature) to a non physical quantity like
(electricity, change in resistance, voltage, and energy). Ex of transducer:
LVDT (converts displacement to voltage difference)
RTD (Converts temperature difference to change in resistance)
Solar cell (converts light energy to electrical potential and generates current)
4. Teacher may point to some random instrument or device and ask if it is a transducer or
not. If yes, then why?
5. Theory question related to the topic.
4. SOLAR CELL
Objective is to plot the V I characteristic of a solar cell.
Solar Radiation
_ _ Contact grid (negative)
_ + Junction
+
p-type silicon
N type silicon +
Bulb
Positive contact plate +
 There a layers In a solar cell:

Non-reflective layer
Contact grid
n- type silicon
Junction
p- type silicon
positive contact plate
 Contact grid is polished with a non reflective (absorptive) layer so as to ensure

maximum voltage.
 WORKING: Sunlight is made to fall over the n- type silicon surface. This generates
photocurrent which shows positively linear relation with intensity of incident light, i.e., as
intensity increases, magnitude of photocurrent increases. Vary the photo voltage. The
photocurrent is observed to be inversely proportional to the photo voltage.
 Principle of Photo current:

It has three basic processes:
-Generation
-Separation
-Collection
1. Generation of electron hole pairs due to photons (with hν>Eg) close to the junction.
2. Separation of electrons and hole due to electric field of depletion region. Electrons go to n
side and holes to p side.
3. Electrons reaching the n side are collected by front contact grid and holes reaching p side
are collected by back side contact.
 Why are contact grids used? Why not plates?

grids allows the sunlight to pass (while the metal plate blocks it) and collects the electrons.
 Important criterion for selection of material of solar cell:

1. Band gap (≈1.5 eV) eg: Si, GaAs, and CdTe, among others.
2. High optical absorption capacity.
3. Electrical conductivity.
 Applications of solar cell: Satellites, space stations, calculators, solar power plants, solar
water heater, solar cooker.
 Plot the V-I characteristic graph for different intensities of incident light from lamp.
Voltage is measured in Volts and photo current in mA.
 Che kout the o ept of Da k Cu e t .

5. SPECTRUM ANALYSER
Objective is to find the bandwidth for different signals- sine wave, square wave, and
triangular wave.
 The central frequency crest is called the Fundamental Frequency and the rest are called
harmonics.
 The two pair of harmonics on each side of the fundamental frequency (Both 1st harmonics,
both 2nd ha o i s… a e app o i ated to e si ila ut a e ot e a tl sa e.
 Fix the all the input signal to same values, say, 1MHz and 5volts.
 The highest point in the CRO display of the analyzer corresponds to gain of: -26db
 The gain keeps falling by 10 db with each block as we move down.
 All frequencies are actually combination of lower frequencies.
 The central frequency is always the fundamental freq. though sometimes it may seem to
have lower gain than the 1st harmonics. In such case, press the (-10db) button on CRO to
view the correct frequency analysis of signal.
What and How to do?
 In this experiment, we have to find the fundamental frequency, 1st harmonic, 2nd harmonic
and 3rd harmonic and bandwidth for sine wave, triangular wave, and square wave.
 The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd harmonics can be found on any of the one side (left/right) of the
fundamental frequency.
 The graph/ display on the spectrum analyzer is in the 2nd quadrant, i.e., the zero lies on
extreme right of the waveform. This is because frequency count decreases as we go from
left to right.
 First, choose the type of function (sine/square/triangle).
 Then, find the fundamental frequency of this waveform (the peak value is always central
one even when it is lower than the adjacent two first harmonics). To check for the
fundamental frequency and all harmonics, press the 10db button on spectrum analyzer.
This gets all the readings 10dB down and makes it is clear which one is the fundamental
frequency and which are harmonics. We will not take reading for this 10dB down
waveform but from the original one.
 Adjust the marker (a small movable point) so as to coincide with the concerned peak.
 Now read the frequency of that peak in the led display.
 Calculating gain:
The gain of the topmost line of the spectrum analyzer display is -26dB and going 1 block
down on y axis causes gain to drop by 10dB (=> -26-10 = -36dB). So, find the gain of the
peak of the concerned frequency by counting blocks.
 Calculating Bandwidth:
 Method 1: On both ends of the frequency distribution gets highly unstable (dancing
waveform) due to noise. So try to find the boundary frequencies for which least signal
strength is present and after which there is nothing but pure noise. The difference
between the two boundary frequency values gives the bandwidth.
 Method 2: Find the maximum signal frequency (fm), (i.e., the frequency after which it is
all pure noise/ unstable) o any of the sides (right/ left) of the fundamental frequency
(f). Then, Bandwidth = 2 X |fm-f|
Where fm= maximum /minimum signal frequency on the left or right respectively.
F= fundamental frequency
6. THERMOCOUPLE (T/C)
Objective is to plot the V-θ voltage v/s temperature plot for a thermocouple.
Here, we will vary the temperature of the T/C rod which would cause variation of output
voltage produced by the T/C.
The name of kit used is temperature measurement tutor kit.
Principle of Operation: Seeback Effect

It is a phenomenon in which a temperature difference between two dissimilar electrical
conductors or semiconductors produces a voltage difference between the two substances.
When one of the two conductors or semiconductors are heated, heated electrons flow
towards the cooler one.
Seeback effect was discovered by: Thomas Seeback
He found that if two ends of a metal were at different temperature, an electric current
would flow through it.
Seeback repeated the experiment with other metals and then tried using two different
metals together. Now, if the way electricity or heat flows through a metal depends on the
ate ial s i e st u tu e, the t o diffe e t etals ill p odu e diffe e t a ou t of
electricity when they are heated to the same temperature. He took an equal length strip of
two different metals and joined them together at their two ends to make a loop. Next, he
dipped one end (one of the two junctions) in something hot (like a beaker of boiling water)
and other end (other junction) in cold water.
This results in flow of electric current through the loop (which is effectively an electric
current) and the size of that current is directly proportional to the difference in
temperature between the two junctions.
How and what to do:
 Fill the jug with water and put the thermocouple stick into it.
 Put in the immersion rod into jug and switch it on.
 Hold a thermometer immersed into the jug but make sure it hangs close to the T/C and
does t tou h the alls a d floo of the jug o the T/C.
 Start taking voltage readings from multimeter starting from 30ᵒC in thermometer and
taking variations of 5ᵒC.
 Plot V-θ graph.
VIVA VOCE
1. What is a thermocouple?
It consists of a junction of two dissimilar wires, so chosen that a voltage is generated by
heating the junction and proportional to the temperature difference.
2. How does a thermocouple work?

In a thermocouple instrument, the current to be measured is used to heat the junction of
two metals. These two metals form a thermocouple and they have a property that when
the junction is heated, it produces a voltage proportional to the temperature difference
due to heating effect. This output voltage can be measured using a multimeter.
3. What is the limitation of thermocouple?

Its efficiency decreases due to loss of heat by conduction. So, thermocouple heaters
operate at very close to burnout point, under normal conditions.
4. What are applications of spectrum analyzer?

- Study of Radio frequency (RF) spectrum produced in microwave instruments.
- Used in Radars, oceanography and bio- medical fields.
5. What is a spectrum analyzer?

A spectrum analyzer is an instrument which provides calibrated graphical display of a
waveform on the CRT with frequency on horizontal axis and gain (in dB) on the vertical
axis.
6. Is thermocouple a transducer?
Yes, it converts temperature variation to readable voltage difference.
7. Theory questions related to T/C.

7. Thermistor
Objective is to plot the V-θ voltage v/s temperature plot for a thermistor.
Here the output voltage will be negative.
ANALOG OUTPUT
2 VOLT DC
RTD
+12V COM -12V CURRENT
POWER CONDITIONER SOURCE
SUPPLY
T/C
SINGLE OUTPUT Ω
ON FUSE T/C
T/H
RTD T/H
+ve -ve
POWER SECTION
ᵒ ᵒ ᵒ ᵒ ᵒ ᵒ ᵒ ᵒ ᵒ
ᵒ ᵒ ᵒ ᵒ ᵒ ᵒ
RTD T/C T/H
THEORY:
Thermistors are semiconductor devices that are used to measure temperature. The name
o es f o a o i atio of the o ds esisto a d the al .
Thermistor has electrical resistance that is proportional to temperature. There are two types
of thermistor:
. Positi e te pe atu e oeffi ie t T/H PTC also alled Posiste : R α Te pe atu e
. Negati e te pe atu e oeffi ie t the isto NTC : R α /temperature

How and what to do?
This experiment is exactly same as T/C experiment with a few changes:

Make su e the k o o the po e se tio of the kit is poi ti g to a ds T/H .
Connect the thermistor to the 5 pin connector of the thermistor pin.
Take voltage readings for each 5ᵒC rise in temperature and keep thermometer close to
the isto ut do t tou h.
VIVA – VOCE
1. What is a thermistor?
A thermistor is a temperature sensor constructed of semiconductor material that exhibits a
large modification in resistance in proportion to a low modification in temp. They are easy
to use, cheap, durable, and respond quickly to change in temperature.
2. What are the types of thermistor?

- Negative temp coefficient thermistor: They have resistance that varies inversely with
temp. They are very often used for temperature control and indication, and current
suppression.
- Positive temp coefficient thermistor: their resistance varies directly with temperature.
They are used to protect circuits from overload and can function as thermal switches or
as ordinary thermometers.
3. Who discovered thermistor?

First NTC was discovered by Michael Faraday in 1833.
4. Advantage of thermistor:
small, very stable, durable, cheap, usually accurate, long- lasting.
Disadvantage of T/H:
non-linear like semiconductors, require compensation when used in circuits.
5. Differentiate between thermistor and thermo couple.

Thermistors are more stable, durable, cheap and easy to use than thermocouple but unlike
T/C, the a t e used at e high temperature.
6. Application of thermistor:
a) Temperature sensing: to measure temperature.
b) Circuit protection: protects circuit by limiting the amount of current flowing through it.
If too much current starts to flow into circuit through the thermistor, this causes T/H to
warm up. This in turn increases the resistance of the thermistor reducing the flowing
through it.
c) Voltage Regulator: It provides rush current limiting.
d) Used for temperature compensation.
e) Used often in the hot ends of 3D printers. They monitor the heat produced and allow
the p i te s i uit to keep a o sta t te pe atu e fo elti g the plasti fila e t.
f) Use in food storage systems and food preparation
g) Used in consumer appliances like toasters, coffee makers, refrigerators and hair dryers.
CHARACTERISTIC OF NEGATIVE TEMPERATURE
COEFFICIENT THERMISTOR
Temperature (θ)
Resistance (R)
SYMBOL OF THERMISTOR:
8. Q METER
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM of Q Meter:
UNKNOWN
COIL
R LX
Ca C Electronic
OSC
Voltmeter
RSH Thermocouple
V
Voltmeter
How to do and what to do:
1. We have to find the Q value of a transformer using a Q meter.

Q= XL/R
Q value gives a general specification of the device/ instrument.
2. To find the resistance and capacitance:

Insert the resistance between the crocodile probes of the BNC to crocodile connectors,
which are connected to the Q- meter.
In Q- ete , the fi st push s it h is la eled as LC/R a d has LEDS li ki g displays
above it.
This means if the left LED glows, then the Q- meter is displaying the Inductance (L) or
Capacitance (C) of the connected device, which can be distinguished by checking the unit
which is highlighted by blinking LED below the Display section.
If the ight LED a o e push utto LC/R lo s, the it ea s the displa se tio sho s
the resistance (R) of the device connected and check unit in blinking LEDs below the 7-
segment display.
Now insert the capacitor into the crocodile probes and measure capacitance.
3. Transformer: Find its resistance and inductance as above and then press the Q button the
7 segment display shows the Q- value of the transformer.
Due to certain errors, the practical Q value is not same as theoretical value:
Q= XL/R = 2πfL/R
To find resistance theoretically:

Color Digit Multiplier Tolerance
BLACK 0 X1Ω
BROWN 1 X 10 Ω ±1%
RED 2 X 102 Ω ±2%
ORANGE 3 X 103 Ω
YELLOW 4 X 104 Ω ±0.5%
GREEN 5 X 105 Ω ±0.25%
BLUE 6 X 106 Ω ±0.1%
VIOLET 7 X 107 Ω
GREY 8 X 108 Ω
WHITE 9 X 109 Ω
GOLD X 0.1 Ω ±5 %
SILVER X 0.01 Ω ±10 %

VIVA VOCE
1. What is Q- value?
The quality factor determines the performance of the circuit element and measures the
damping of the circuit, at resonance condition. It is inversely proportional to the Energy
Loss. Q meter is attached to the equipment to measure its inductance, the amount of
energy it can store, along with the resistance and conductance, showing how readily
current moves through the circuit.
Mathematically, it is the ratio of Inductance or Capacitive Reactance to total series loss
resistance.
Q= XL/R = ω L/R
OR Q= XC/R= 1/ω RC
2. What is Q- meter and its working principle?

It is an instrument designed for the measurement of Q- factor of the coil as well measure
resistance and capacitance.
It operates on principle of series resonance, i.e., at resonate condition of an AC series
circuit voltage across the capacitor is equal to the applied voltage times of Q of the circuit.
If a fixed voltage is applied to the circuit, a voltmeter across capacitor C is calibrated to read
Q directly.
3. What is formula of Q factor?

For Inductors: Q= XL/R = ω L/R
For Capacitors: Q= XC/R= 1/ω RC
For LC Band pass circuits and filters: Q= resonant frequency/ filter bandwidth
4. Application of Q- meter:
Used in RF circuits to find impedance.
9. RTD (Resistance temperature detector)
Objective is to draw the temperature v/s voltage characteristics of RTD temperature
transducer.
Theory: Resistance temperature detectors are sensors used to measure temperature by

correlating the resistance of RTD element with temperature. They have high accuracy,
repeatability and stability than T/C.
The resistance ideally varies nearly linearly with temperature.
For RTD: Variation of resistance R with temperature T (ᵒK) for most metals is:
R= R0 (1+ α1T + α2T2 + …. + αnTn +...) ≈ R0 +α0 Δθ
Where, R0 = resistance at 0K
α1, α2,…,αn = constants
In a RTD device: Copper, Nickel and Platinum are widely used metals. These 3 metals are
having different resistance variation with respect to temperature variations. For Platinum,
resistance changes by 0.4 Ω per ᵒC.
What to do and how to do: This experiment is quite similar to thermistor and thermocouple
experiment. Make the necessary changes in circuit by turning the knob in power section to
RTD, joining probes to RTD pins. Plot a graph between temperature (θ) and resistance (R).
VIVA VOCE
1. Write applications of RTDs?

 Temperature control in textile, chemical, and food industries.
 Immersion sensors (RTD placed in fluid)
 Waterproofing
 pressure seals
 surface mount sensors (RTD placed on pipe of fluid)
2. Who discovered RTD?

Sir William Siemens.
3. Advantages:
 High accuracy and stability.
 Low drift
 Wide operating range.
 Suitability of precision application
4. Limitations:
 Have lesser sensitivity to small temperature changes as compared to thermistor.
 Have a higher sensitivity at high temperature than T/H and T/C.
 The power dissipated by RTD causes a slight heating effect, called self- heating of
RTD. This can cause erroneous reading.

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EMI- Electronics Measurement and Instrumentation Lab

2nd year ECE ©Shubhanshi Gupta

Movable Screw gauge

GRAPH: Output Voltage

Least Count of Screw Gauge of LVDT:

Least count of Main Scale = 0.5

Least count of Circular Scale= 50 mm

1. Connect the CRO probe to points S1 and S2.

+ First part of Secondary V1 V0= V1-V2

_ Second part of secondary

Unknown To galvanometer key

The value of resistance P and S are known: P=Q= 1000 Ω

Then, R= 0X100 + 4X10 + 6X1 = 46Ω

3. To find the capacitance C (AC analysis):

 Cal ulate a tual apa ita e C :

 Calculate the actual value of R (DC analysis):

R= 0X100 + 4X10 + 5X1 = 45Ω

 Calculate the actual value of R:

Therefore, r= 4X1000 + 1X100 + 3X10 + 0X1 = 4131Ω

COMMON QUESTIONS ASKED DURING VIVA

1. What are AC bridges?

_ _ Contact grid (negative)

Positive contact plate +

 There a layers In a solar cell:

 Contact grid is polished with a non reflective (absorptive) layer so as to ensure

 Principle of Photo current:

 Why are contact grids used? Why not plates?

 Important criterion for selection of material of solar cell:

 Che kout the o ept of Da k Cu e t .

What and How to do?

Principle of Operation: Seeback Effect

2. How does a thermocouple work?

3. What is the limitation of thermocouple?

4. What are applications of spectrum analyzer?

5. What is a spectrum analyzer?

7. Theory questions related to T/C.

RTD T/C T/H

. Positi e te pe atu e oeffi ie t T/H PTC also alled Posiste : R α Te pe atu e

. Negati e te pe atu e oeffi ie t the isto NTC : R α /temperature

How and what to do?

This experiment is exactly same as T/C experiment with a few changes:

2. What are the types of thermistor?

3. Who discovered thermistor?

5. Differentiate between thermistor and thermo couple.

CHARACTERISTIC OF NEGATIVE TEMPERATURE

How to do and what to do:

1. We have to find the Q value of a transformer using a Q meter.

2. To find the resistance and capacitance:

To find resistance theoretically:

RED 2 X 102 Ω ±2%

YELLOW 4 X 104 Ω ±0.5%

GREEN 5 X 105 Ω ±0.25%

BLUE 6 X 106 Ω ±0.1%

SILVER X 0.01 Ω ±10 %

2. What is Q- meter and its working principle?

3. What is formula of Q factor?

Theory: Resistance temperature detectors are sensors used to measure temperature by

R= R0 (1+ α1T + α2T2 + …. + αnTn +...) ≈ R0 +α0 Δθ

α1, α2,…,αn = constants

1. Write applications of RTDs?

2. Who discovered RTD?

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