18 Biodiversity, classification and

conservation
Key terms
abiotic factor: a non-biological factor (e.g. temperature), that is part of the environment of an organism
autotrophic: capable of synthesising organic molecules from simple inorganic substances
binomial system: an internationally recognised system for naming organisms; each organism is given a
scientific name consisting of two words in Latin, the first indicating the genus and the second indicating the
species
biodiversity: a contraction of the words ‘biological diversity’, it is the total number of different species
living in a defined area, ecosystem or biome
bioremediation: waste management techniques that involve the use of organisms to neutralise pollutants at
contaminated sites
biosphere: the inhabited part of the Earth
community: all of the populations of all of the different species within a specified area at a particular time
conservation: applying the principles of ecology to manage the environment
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): a form of nucleic acid found in the nucleus, consisting of two
complementary chains of deoxyribonucleotide subunits, and containing the bases adenine, thymine, guanine
and cytosine
ecosystem: a unit made up of biotic and abiotic components interacting and functioning together, including
all the living organisms of all types in a given area and all the abiotic physical and chemical factors in their
environment, linked together by energy flow and cycling of nutrients. Ecosystems may vary in size but
always form a functional entity: for example, a decomposing log, a pond, a meadow, a reef, a forest, or the
entire biosphere.
environment: the external conditions, resources and stimuli with which organisms interact, affecting their
life, development and survival
eukaryotic (cells): cells with a large obvious nucleus, e.g. the cells of animals, plants, fungi and protoctista;
a eukaryote is an organism with eukaryotic cells
evolution: the gradual process of change in living organisms over geological time since the beginnings of
life about 3500 million years ago
extremophiles: the archaebacteria; a group within the prokaryotes of bacterial species living in and adapted
to extremely hostile environments
food chain: a sequence of organisms within a habitat in which each is the food of the next, starting with a
producer (which is an autotroph)
food web: a system of interconnected food chains
fungi: one of the five main kingdoms; eukaryotic organisms, mainly multicellular, non-motile and
heterotrophic, with a body made of a mycelium of hyphae with cells walls of chitin
gene pool: all the genes (and their alleles) present in a breeding population
genus: a group of similar and closely related species
habitat: the particular location and type of local environment occupied by a population or organism,
characterised by its physical features or by its dominant producers (such as rocky shore or sugar cane field)
heterotrophic: incapable of synthesising organic molecules from simple inorganic substances so obtains
organic molecules from other organisms
heterozygous: a diploid organism that has different alleles of a gene at the gene’s locus on both copies of
the homologous chromosomes in its cell (e.g. Hb Hb ) and therefore produces gametes with different
A S

genotypes (0.5 Hb and 0.5 Hb ); a heterozygote is an organism that is heterozygous

A S

homozygous: a diploid organism that has the same allele of a gene at the gene’s locus on both copies of the
homologous chromosomes in its cell (e.g. Hb Hb ) and therefore produces gametes with identical
A A

genotypes (all Hb ); ahomozygote is an organism that is homozygous

A

host: an organism in or on which another organism spends all or part of its lifecycle (either as a parasite or
in a mutualistic relationship)
inbreeding: when a small population of closely related individuals produce offspring; the offspring are
homozygous for some or many alleles which leads to a reduction in variation in the population
kingdom (taxonomy): the largest and most inclusive group in taxonomy; organisms are divided into five
kingdoms – prokaryotes, protoctists, fungi, plants and animals
lysis: breakdown, of cells or molecules
morphology: the appearance, form and structure of an organism
niche: the functional role or place of a species of organism within an ecosystem, including interactions with
other organisms (such as feeding interactions), habitat, lifecycle and location, adding up to a description of
the specific environmental features to which the species is well adapted
parasite: an organism that lives on or in another organism (its host) for most of its lifecycle, deriving
nutrients from its host
population: all of the organisms of one particular species within a specified area at a particular time, sharing
the same gene pool and more or less isolated from other populations of the same species
predator: an organism that catches and kills other animals to eat
prokaryotae (prokaryotes): one of the five main kingdoms; prokaryotic organisms, mainly unicellular;
include the bacteria, the cyanobacteria and the archaebacteria
prokaryotic (cells): cells without a true nucleus (they have a ring of RNA or DNA as a chromosome);
a prokaryote is a small, unicellular organism without a true nucleus, e.g. bacteria
protoctista (protoctists): one of the five main kingdoms; eukaryotic organisms, mainly unicellular but with
some multicellular organisms, nutrition may be autotrophic or heterotrophic; include algae, protozoa and
slime moulds
Red List: an internationally produced record of endangered species
RNA (ribonucleic acid): a form of nucleic acid containing the pentose sugar ribose, found in the nucleus
and cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells (and commonly the only nucleic acid of prokaryotes), and containing the
organic bases adenine, guanine, uracil and cytosine
species: a group of organisms that are reproductively isolated, interbreeding to produce fertile offspring;
organisms belonging to a species have morphological (structural) similarities, which are often used to
identify to which species they belong
taxonomy: the science of classification
transect: arbitrary line through a habitat, selected to sample the community
virus: minute, intracellular disease-causing agent containing a nucleic acid

Topic summary
• The process of classification involves naming organisms using the binomial system so that each has a
generic and a specific name. Genera are arranged in a hierarchical classification, of which the kingdom is
the largest and most inclusive category. There are five kingdoms.
• The Prokaryotae (prokaryotes) include the bacteria, cyanobacteria (photosynthetic forms) and
archaebacteria (extremophiles). They are unicellular or filamentous prokaryotic organisms consisting of very
small cells, 1–5 μm. Their nutrition is heterotrophic or autotrophic.
• The Protoctista (protoctists) include the algae (including the multicellular seaweeds), the protozoa and the
slime moulds. They are single-celled eukaryotic organisms or, if multicellular, not differentiated into tissues.
Their nutrition is heterotrophic or autotrophic.
• The Fungi include the moulds, yeasts, mushrooms and bracket fungi. They are multicellular eukaryotic
organisms (except the unicellular yeasts), not differentiated into tissues and non-motile. Their nutrition is
heterotrophic.
• The Plantae (the green plants) includes the mosses, ferns, conifers and flowering plants (broad-leaved and
the grasses). They are multicellular eukaryotic organisms, differentiated into tissues. The plants are non-
motile organisms, but the male gametes of mosses and ferns are motile. Their nutrition is autotrophic.
• The Animalia (animals) includes the non-vertebrates, such as worms and arthropods (which includes the
insects), and the vertebrates, which include the fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. They are
multicellular eukaryotic organisms, differentiated into tissues. Many are motile organisms. Their nutrition is
heterotrophic.
• Biodiversity refers to the vast number of living things that exist. About 1.7 million different species are
known, but a much larger number of organisms may exist, undiscovered. The need to maintain diversity is
based on ecological arguments, but includes diversity as the source of genes for improvement of agricultural
crops, as a source of new drugs, to resist climate change, to support ecotourism and for ethical and aesthetic
reasons.
• A species is a group of individuals of common ancestry that closely resemble each other and which are
normally capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring.
• The exponential expansion of the human population is a relatively recent phenomenon, but the current size
of the human population results in huge demands on the Earth’s living space and resources.
Many environments are being degraded and biodiversity is being reduced. Today, species are in danger
of extinction due to the loss of their natural habitats, changes in the environment or due to over-exploitation.
These causes are all attributable to human activity.
• Conservation is the management of resources and habitats so as to maintain the existing range of habitats
and to attempt to prevent future reductions in biodiversity. This includes captive breeding
programmes and the establishment and maintenance of reserves and national parks, where there is
supervised protection and an opportunity for people to learn about biodiversity and its conservation.
 Data handling
Genetic diversity in rare species
Genetic variation can be measured by looking at the number of loci at which organisms in a population are
heterozygous. Some species have a very high degree of heterozygosity while others are homozygous to a
high degree. The table below shows the amount of genetic variation in small populations of different sizes.

a) Represent this data graphically in a way that most effectively draws attention to its significance.
b) What do you understand by the terms:
i) heterozygosity
ii) inbreeding?
c) Outline the genetic problems that arise for a species that has declined to very low numbers.
d) Explain how captive breeding programmes may be so organised as to help overcome the problems arising
from inbreeding.

Do and understand
Classifying caminacules
Biological classification schemes are the invention of biologists, based upon the best evidence available. The
process of classification of organisms involves:
• the identification of each organism, normally by means of a name
• the arrangement of the organisms into groupings of apparently related organisms (as far as these
relationships are understood).
A successful classification system must be flexible enough to allow new organisms to be classified as they
are discovered. In fact, biological schemes use principles that change as our understanding changes. So
schemes are frequently changed and classification as a process is often controversial. Dr Joseph Camin of
Kansas University created a whole family of animals in order to introduce the principles of classification in
a practical way. He called these animals caminacules (see the diagram on the next page).
a) Using scissors, cut up this diagram so that each organism (with its number) is separate from the others.
b) Organise the caminacules into groups of similar organisms that may be related. Write down the criteria you
use to group them.
c) Now look for relationships between the groups. Perhaps you will group those with fins separate from those
with hands and feet. You may have one group with bodies divided into a thorax and an abdomen and another
with undivided bodies.
d) Can you construct a family tree that shows how closely your groups of animals are related? If your tree does
not look like your neighbour’s tree, stick to your own ideas. It may turn out that, whilst there is no one
answer, your classification makes more sense than others.
 Suggested websites
Look at these websites for examples of conservation programmes:
• http://nationalzoo.si.edu/SCBI/EndangeredSpecies/GLTProgram/Learn/default.cfm
• www.cheetahspot.com
• www.peregrinefund.org
For a review of captive breeding and reintroduction:
• www-personal.umich.edu/~dallan/nre220/outline23.htm
For information about botanic gardens:
• www.bgci.org
• www.kew.org/science-research-data/index.htm
For information about seed banks:
• www.kew.org/science-conservation/save-seed-prosper/millennium-seed-bank
For information about national parks:
• www.npca.org/protecting-our-parks/wildlife_facts
• www.nature.nps.gov/biology
• www.environment.nsw.gov.au/animals/ProtectedSpecies.htm

Further reading
Articles in recent editions of Biological Sciences Review:
• ‘Coral reefs: ecosystems at risk from climate change’, 23.3, pp 33–37 (Feb 2011)
• ‘The evolution garden’, 22.2, pp 12–15 (Nov 2009)
• ‘The work of the herbarium curator’, 21.4, pp 37–40 (April 2009)