Integrated Space For African Society: Annette Froehlich Editor

Southern Space Studies
Series Editor: Annette Froehlich
Annette Froehlich Editor
Integrated Space
for African Society
Legal and Policy Implementation
of Space in African Countries
Series Editor
Annette Froehlich , University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, South Africa
Advisory Editors
Josef Aschbacher, European Space Agency, Frascati, Italy
Rigobert Bayala, National Observatory of Sustainable Development,
Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
Carlos Caballero León, Peruvian Space Agency, Lima, Peru
Guy Consolmagno, Vatican Observatory, Castel Gandolfo, Vatican City State
Juan de Dalmau, International Space University, Illkirch-Graffenstaden, France
Driss El Hadani, Royal Center for Remote Sensing of Morocco, Rabat, Morocco
Dirk Heinzmann, Bundeswehr Command and Staff College, Hamburg, Germany
El Hadi Gashut, Regional Center For Remote Sensing of North Africa States,
Tunis, Tunisia
Peter Martinez, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, South Africa
Francisco Javier Mendieta-Jiménez, Mexican Space Agency, Mexico City, Mexico
Félix Clementino Menicocci, Argentinean Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Sias Mostert, African Association of Remote Sensing of the Environment,
Muizenburg, South Africa
Val Munsami, South African National Space Agency, Silverton, South Africa
Greg Olsen, Entrepreneur-Astronaut, Princeton, NJ, USA
Azzedine Oussedik, Algerian Space Agency, Alger, Algeria
Xavier Pasco, Fondation pour la Recherche Stratégique, Paris, France
Alejandro J. Román M., Paraguayan Space Agency, Asunción, Paraguay
Kai-Uwe Schrogl, International Institute of Space Law, Paris, France
Dominique Tilmans, YouSpace, Wellin, Belgium
Jean-Jacques Tortora, European Space Policy Institute, Vienna, Austria
anton.alberts@prevoyance.co.za
The Southern Space Studies series presents analyses of space trends, market
evolutions, policies, strategies and regulations, as well as the related social,
economic and political challenges of space-related activities in the Global South,
with a particular focus on developing countries in Africa and Latin America.
Obtaining inside information from emerging space-faring countries in these
regions is pivotal to establish and strengthen efficient and beneficial cooperation
mechanisms in the space arena, and to gain a deeper understanding of their rapidly
evolving space activities. To this end, the series provides transdisciplinary
information for a fruitful development of space activities in relevant countries
and cooperation with established space-faring nations. It is, therefore, a reference
compilation for space activities in these areas.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/16025
Annette Froehlich
Editor
Integrated Space
for African Society
Legal and Policy Implementation
of Space in African Countries
123
Editor
Annette Froehlich
University of Cape Town
Rondebosch, South Africa
ISSN 2523-3718 ISSN 2523-3726 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-030-05979-8 ISBN 978-3-030-05980-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05980-4
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019
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Foreword
Most people do not realise or appreciate the role played by space in their daily lives,
or the importance of space-related data and technologies. As if to symbolise this,
apart from a fortunate few, most of the world’s population have never had any
direct, personal experience of space, especially in Africa. For this reason, I am
pleased to share my own personal experiences with students in South Africa as
often as I can, both because space is vital for Africa’s future, but also to motivate
the upcoming generation of professionals and entrepreneurs to seize the opportu-
nities which present themselves, and persevere in the pursuit of their dreams, since I
have learned that if you work really hard and do not give up, success will eventually
follow. This book, Integrated Space for African Society—Legal and Policy
Implementation of Space in African Countries, symbolises that idea well and
summarises the latest developments in the African space area.
My connection to South Africa goes back to 1971–1972 when I did a post-doc at
the University of Port Elizabeth (now Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University),
Physics Department under Profs. Koos Vermaak and Hennie Snyman. I performed
electron microscope studies on thin metal films with metallurgical applications and
taught several classes.
After returning to the USA, I worked at a semiconductor research laboratory
(RCA Laboratories) and developed lasers and photodetectors for fibre optic
applications. Many of my innovations were based on scientific work that I had
performed in South Africa. I also frequently returned to South Africa, visiting
research laboratories and continuing professional relationships.
After 11 years at RCA, I spun off my first high-tech business called EPITAXX
which made devices for fibre optic systems. After selling this business, I started my
second company called Sensors Unlimited which developed and manufactured
infrared cameras for military night vision and industrial sensing applications. The
sale of this second company gave me the resources to realise my dream of owning a
wine farm near Cape Town and also to think about travelling in space as a private
citizen, much as (South African) Mark Shuttleworth had done. I purchased Olsen
Wineries in Paarl at about the same time (2003) that I began my efforts to fly in
space.
vi Foreword
My journey into space with the Russian Space Agency was a long tale, with a
number of setbacks described in my book By Any Means Necessary. I launched
from Kazakhstan aboard Soyuz TMA-7 with Russian Cosmonaut Valeri Tokarev
and NASA astronaut Bill McArthur. After spending eight days on the International
Space Station, I came back down to Earth on Soyuz TMA-6 with Cosmonaut
Sergey Krikalev and Astronaut John Phillips. All four men have been to my farm in
Paarl, travelled the country extensively, and all delighted in seeing the Cape of
Good Hope which they all had photographed from space! The picture shown is one
of such photographs of Cape Town, taken from space.
Cape Town taken from space/ISS. Credits NASA
I have thousands of photographs and hours of video from my journey, and I have
visited many organizations, universities and elementary schools giving talks about
my visit to space and trying to encourage students from all walks of life to explore
science, math and engineering. Amongst these is the University of Cape Town,
where the Spacelab offers its multi-disciplinary research-based Master’s degree in
Space Studies. I believe that this book, produced by participants from the Spacelab,
is a valuable contribution to the literate on African space activities, and I hope it
will encourage further interest in space affairs on the continent, including from
investors. As I have said before, timing is everything, and Africa’s space sector is
currently making rapid strides. Be ready!
Princeton, USA Greg Olsen

Entrepreneur-Astronaut
Executive Summary1
This report consists of a thorough and critical investigation into all African
space-related activities, policies, local and international law and its social impli-
cations against the goals set by the African Union and the United Nations related to
sustainable development, with the objective to identify how space technology can
be embedded and applied to achieve those goals. Therefore, a breakdown of the
continent’s leading space actors and their roles and the African Union’s Space
Policy and Strategy (ASPS) is reflected upon within the context of the African
Union’s Agenda 2063 (Agenda 2063) goals and the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) set by the UN in 2015. A range of qualitative methods is deployed to
identify and convey the overall challenges, progress and solutions available to the
African continent, as a collection of individual space actors with differing capa-
bilities, to meet and achieve the Agenda 2063 and SDG objectives.
The investigation herein starts out firstly by delving into the most significant
challenges faced by the African continent and the tactics, as a subset of the strategy
arising from the ASPS, through which space technology can effectively assist
governments in confronting them. Globally, as informed by the SDGs, the chal-
lenges have been identified as those underlying sustainable development in the form
of the triple bottom line of economic, environmental and social goals and backed by
the fourth goal of proper governance to ensure effective implementation. Whilst
Africa shares these challenges overall, the continent shares a disproportional burden
of global poverty, climate change impacts and social disruption that allows for a
reinterpretation of its own goals. As a result, the challenges for Africa for the
purposes of this study are predominantly situated in the domains of climate change
and environmental concerns (that impacts on economic and social goals), popula-
tion and urbanisation (that is taking place at unprecedented levels and impacts upon
rural life and agriculture), as well as the disruptive influence of breaches in national
security (that is a growing phenomenon with a global impact). It is acknowledged
that these challenges are emergent from a complex interlinked societal and natural
system and deserve a response that takes this into account. In this regard, correct
information to assess the scope of the problem and to plan strategically is of the
This Executive Summary is authored by Sean Woodgate, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch,
South Africa, swoodgate4@gmail.com.
vii
viii Executive Summary
utmost importance, and it is a given that space-originated information allows for

holistic analysis and response. With respect to dealing with climate change (and by
implication economic development), utilising space technology and space-
generated information to assist with the effective conduct of farming practices,
and environmental monitoring for the oceans and forests as well as resource
management, would all be highly beneficial throughout the continent. Given the
extensive growth in population and urbanisation in Africa together with high
poverty levels, utilising satellite imagery and communication to track informal
settlements, optimise town planning and support social and economic development
would provide governments much needed assistance in facing these challenges. The
threat of militants and politically related violence poses a major problem for
regional stability and political focus and severely undermines any societal goals. In
this regard, space systems can be utilised to track and identify these threats and
assist governments in both preventative and reactive measures.
The second stage of the enquiry consists of an encompassing overview of both
the SDGs and Agenda 2063, followed by a discussion of space applications cur-
rently embedded in Africa and the potential for ensuring a deepening of this pro-
cess. It is be noted that as far as Agenda 2063 is concerned, the African Union
Commission has duly recognised the importance of outer space, and within the
Agenda 2063 Framework, outer space is identified as one of the Flagship Pro-
grammes with the recognition that it is of critical importance to the development of
Africa in all fields. An examination follows into the extent and methodology
through which space applications can be used to support and address the identified
challenges. The extent to which these applications are currently embedded in the
continent and the roles they play at a societal level is similarly examined. Several
effective applications and their uses were identified with respect to space assets and
infrastructure, namely communication, earth observation and navigational satellites,
as well as the fields of space science and astronomy. These have the means to
effectively offer solutions to universal challenges in areas such as the environment,
economic development, agriculture, health, security, education and disaster man-
agement. Specific solutions in support of the aforementioned universal challenges
can be provided in the fields of tele-education, tele-medicine, smart agriculture and
smart cities, allowing satellites to provide a wide array of assistance, so that basic
needs can be met on the African continent.
Against this backdrop the ASPS is interrogated, its policy goals identified and its
strategy discussed. With an understanding of the embedded and highly active
influences of space technology within everyday African lives, the positions taken
and goals set out by the ASPS are then scrutinised and discussed. Having identified
outer space as one of the Agenda 2063 Flagship Programmes, support for outer
space development has gained momentum across the continent, yet there still
remains much to be done in terms of collaboration and action on the subject.
In order to understand Africa’s space capabilities and its need for improvement
in this regard properly, a country-by-country analysis was performed. By investi-
gating and summarising the space capabilities of each African country, a selection
of 11 of the most proactive, advanced or promising were identified. These countries
Executive Summary ix
were then analysed in terms of their individual embedded systems and capabilities,
as well as their political, national and international dedication towards space-related
activities. The space activities of each country are examined by considering the
background of the selected country with regards to space, its relevant challenges
and development goals and finally how it is setting out to meet those challenges and
goals with space applications, policy and law (the latter two being prerequisites to
embed space applications). Countries such as Algeria, South Africa, Morocco,
Egypt and Nigeria were identified as the major actors in the African space com-
munity, with others such as Kenya, Angola, Namibia, Ghana, Sudan, Zambia,
Tanzania, Uganda and Ethiopia furtively expanding their sectors. Whilst many
of these countries that own satellites acquired them via international procurement
processes, the training and knowledge gained by many of their citizens during the
acquisition process has allowed for more internal development and research. From
Algeria’s range of Alsat satellites to Nigeria’s goals to become a launching state,
the South African Square Kilometre Array alongside heavy investment into
Angolan national satellite infrastructure, there are many examples of space-related
developments across the continent as a whole—yet not nearly enough. The vast
opportunities and possible space applications leave Africa’s space progress want-
ing, and it will take multiple collaborations in both the public and private sectors to
change this.
A case by case investigation is then used to identify areas of common ground,
where possible linkages can be created for benefit sharing, and to create new
opportunities for the adoption of space applications. All African countries,
including those already investigated, are then sorted into visualised tables, matrixes
and graphs—depicting a formalised overview of the international treaties entered
into collaborations, engagement and technological status of each. A formalised
rating system was devised to depict the standing of the African countries in terms of
space-readiness and progression and is expressed in the form of an extensive
weighted table, normalised space score diagram and a colour-based geographical
map, reflecting the scores singularly and cumulatively. Whilst the data reflects little
correlation between geographical location and space development, parallels can be
drawn between international treaty signatory countries and space-readiness—indi-
cating that international space awareness seems to be linked with practical space
development. The use of African-owned satellites in Earth observation, commu-
nication and science is similarly compared alongside a selection of user needs
experienced by different national sectors. The sector demand versus resolution or
service is overviewed within the same matrix, with the active African space
countries depicted within their respective fields of operation.
The report proceeds to investigate and explain the concepts and methodology
through which space-originated services and value is embedded in society at var-
ious levels. A concise overview is given as to how one approaches the concept of
something being “embedded” within a country or society. Based on this approach,
examples ranging from the monitoring of the environment to urban development
form the basis of the following section which addresses the fundamental prereq-
uisites required in order to embed a space application. These prerequisites are
x Executive Summary
identified, amongst others, as return on investment, availability, communication

demand, political will, social acceptance and technological readiness level in order
to foster growth in the space applications sector. The main factors required to
allow the embedding of space applications were identified to be investment
opportunities, education of decision-makers about space as well as the technolog-
ical climate of the country. It was concluded that there is evidently political will-
power to address space activities by the AU, hence the creation of the ASPS, yet
many more aspects need to be addressed before effective growth can occur in the
sector. A SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) was
conducted to reflect upon the ASPS and its viability. Strengths such as intra-
continental partnerships are compared with weaknesses of language and infras-
tructural challenges, opportunities such as the potential to collaborate further are
similarly contrasted to the threats of political instability, and financial difficulty of
some countries.
Given that the central purpose of this investigation is to provide suggestions and a
way forward, it does so by use of an “African Space Application Infusion
Framework”, whereby the short (1 year), medium (5 years) and long-term (10 years)
goals defined by the ASPS’s timeframe can be practically achieved. Through the
application of both “Top-down” and “Bottom-up” development methods, the
framework identifies aspects such as commercialisation, political posturing, public
support and data sharing as the principle avenues of progression. An ensemble of
suggested initiatives for African countries flow from this: the creation and sharing of
space policies and strategy documentation, as well as the establishment of national
space legislation and support of and accession to international space treaties and UN
declarations and resolutions; the sharing of academic expertise and experience
between African tertiary institutions with further collaboration between them on the
training of students to grow the knowledge—and functional base of the continent;
funding and supporting university “space start-up incubators” to nurture commercial
space technology programs from an academic to a professional environment; and
lastly the strong coordination of African countries at international space forums such
as the UNCOPUOS and a decisive effort to collaborate regionally and continentally.
A significant problem, which is predicted as a result of impending climate change
and exponential urbanisation in the continent, is food shortages. In order to combat
this dilemma, one suggestion is the creation and management of a free, mobile-
based, user-friendly farming application. By utilising free existing satellite imagery
services, and backed by a conclusive database of farming practise techniques, the
application would provide farmers with an intuitive aid towards improving and
protecting their crops. This is one of many possibilities that space applications
enable. In the form of a supporting role, the South African National Space Agency
has pursued in the advancement of space weather monitoring systems, opening up
the opportunity to position itself as an expert in a competitive global niche market.
Such developments allow for partnerships with other African countries, and the
sharing of data could assist in the creation of a worldwide early-detection system to
prevent space weather catastrophes. Taking the above into account, many more
Executive Summary xi
possibilities exist and can be created if a supportive environment is fostered with the
appropriate cooperation and dedication.
In conclusion, the processes and logic that was used in this report are discussed
and a qualitative reflection upon the findings is made. There is no doubt that
addressing the challenges this continent faces lies in the hands of all Africans, and
especially when governments, tertiary institutions, like universities, and ordinary
citizens begin to realise the true power and value of space technology the continent’s
full potential will be realised. It is already clear that African societies are utilising
space technologies in innovative ways, but now is the time to expand on these with a
collective and collaborative mindset to give effect to the ASPS, achieve the goals
of the AU’s Agenda 2063 and the SDG’s and ultimately achieve prosperity.
Contents
Part I Sustainable Development Goals and Space in Africa

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
André Siebrits and Mchasisi Gasela
2 Africa and Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
André Siebrits, Okeletsang Mookeletsi, Anton Alberts
and Alexander Gairiseb
Part II Country Reports

3 South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Anton Alberts
4 South Africa’s Current Vulnerabilities and Capabilities
Relating to Space Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
James Wilson and Nicolas Ringas
5 Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Carl Eriksen
6 Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
André Siebrits
7 Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Besir Suleyman OZ
8 Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Bas Martens
9 Morocco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
André Siebrits
10 Namibia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Alexander Gairiseb
11 Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
André Siebrits
xiii
xiv Contents
12 Ghana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Mchasisi Gasela
13 Angola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Sean Woodgate
14 Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Adebayo Olutumbi Ogunyinka
15 Sudan and South Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Barbara Ojur
16 Tanzania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Anton Alberts
17 Uganda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Okeletsang Mookeletsi
18 Zambia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Alexander Gairiseb
19 Zimbabwe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
André Siebrits
Part III Integrated Space for African Society

20 Embedding Space in Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Bas Martens, Alexander Gairiseb and Carl Eriksen
21 Initiatives for Embedding Space Applications
in African Societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
André Siebrits, Bas Martens and Carl Eriksen
Part I
Sustainable Development
Goals and Space in Africa
Introduction
1
André Siebrits and Mchasisi Gasela
Abstract
Space-derived information and data have revolutionised our understanding of
our planet, and our impact upon it. It has also allowed us to see how this impact
relates to the series of environmentally-related critical challenges now
confronting us all. For this reason, a strong focus has been placed on sustainable
development in recent times, including in responses to the challenges
confronting the African continent. This chapter provides an overview of these
challenges in areas such as the environment, population growth and urbanisa-
tion, and security. It follows this up with a discussion of Africa’s response to
these challenges in the form of Agenda 2063. The chapter concludes with an
overview of supportive space applications in Africa speaking to sustainable
development.
1.1 Background
Space technology has been seen by both the public and private sectors in Africa as a
potential contributing factor to these states’ long-term development, despite the plethora of
obstacles to their economic, social, and political development. However, a deficit of
A. Siebrits (&) M. Gasela

University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, South Africa
e-mail: SBRAND003@myuct.ac.za; asiebrits1@gmail.com
M. Gasela
e-mail: gasellarmc@gmail.com
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 3

A. Froehlich (ed.), Integrated Space for African Society, Southern Space Studies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05980-4_1
4 A. Siebrits and M. Gasela
modern technology is not among them. Even in the relatively poor countries of Africa,
space-based technologies increasingly play a part in socioeconomic development schemes.
—Harding1
The information gleaned from space has allowed humanity to consider the
challenges facing us in a more coherent, informed, and holistic manner. Space
applications in various fields, such as remote sensing and Earth observation,
communications, global positioning and navigation, and disaster monitoring and
emergency response, have given us new understandings of the impact of human
activities on the planet, its capacity to absorb the human-made and natural impacts,
and the enormity of the collective challenges we face in the coming decades.
In the realm of the natural environment, Sachs observes some of the “many
overlapping crises” facing humanity.2 These include the destruction of habitats and
ecosystems, decreases in biodiversity, high levels of pollution (including nitrogen
and phosphorus-based fertiliser runoff), ocean acidification, depletion of fossil fuel
resources, decreasing food and feed grain productivity, and the change of the
Earth’s climate due to greenhouse gas emissions. The reason for emphasising these
environmental challenges is because, in recent decades, there has been an
increasing awareness around “planetary boundaries”—that the Earth and its
resources can only be exploited up to a point before becoming permanently
degraded. As Sachs explains, planetary boundaries revolve around the “idea that
human activity is pushing critical global ecosystem functions past a dangerous
threshold, beyond which the Earth might well encounter abrupt, highly non-linear,
and potentially devastating outcomes for human wellbeing and life generally”.3
As a consequence, the many other challenges we face today—poverty, hunger,
rapid population growth, unemployment, inequality, gender disparity, discrimina-
tion, lack of education and medical care, poor governance, lack of clean water,
rapid urbanisation, conflicts and security threats, record numbers of refugees and
displaced persons, and many others—cannot be addressed in isolation from each
other, or from environmental sustainability. As a result, sustainable development
has entered the global lexicon, and is characterised by “a shared focus on economic,
environmental and social goals [which] … represents a broad consensus on which
the world can build”.4 This, in turn, constitutes one definition of sustainable
development—“the so-called triple bottom line approach to human wellbeing”—
although this is necessarily reliant on a fourth factor, namely good governance,
which will determine the world’s ability to achieve the triple bottom line of sus-
tainable development.5 In 1987, a United Nations (UN) report entitled Our
1
R. C. Harding, Space Policy in Developing Countries: The search for security and development
on the final frontier (Oxon: Routledge, 2013), 165.
2
J. D. Sachs, “From Millennium Development Goals to Sustainable Development Goals,” Lancet
379, no. 9832 (2012): 2207. http://thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(12)60685-
0/fulltext?_eventId=login (accessed March 3, 2017).
3
Ibid.
4
Ibid., 2206.
5
Ibid., 2206–2209.
1 Introduction 5
Common Future, provided another definition: “development that meets the needs of
the current generations without compromising the needs of future generations”.6
Accordingly, at the global level, the UN passed Resolution A/RES70/1 in
September 2015 to formally adopt the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as
part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, the successor to Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs), to guide global development efforts for the next
15 years, 2015–2030.7 It has often been lamented that progress on the MDGs,
while substantial, was uneven, and Nhamo notes: “[a]lthough progress has been
made towards attaining the MDGs, there still remains a lot of work to be done in
respect of certain goals, particularly in Africa”.8 The SDGs, like the MDGs before
them, are also dependent for their success on “data that are accurate, timely, and
available to managers, policy makers, and the public”.9
It is within this context that this study was produced to showcase how integrated
space applications can, when informed by the SDGs, the African Union Agenda
2063, as well as the African Space Policy and Strategy, assist in not only meeting
this need for timely and reliable data, but also in meeting the many shared chal-
lenges faced by African societies in the 21st Century. Accordingly, selected African
countries and their national space activities will be analysed, in addition to enabling
legislation and policies. In each case, factors including geopolitics, international
partnerships, and participation in space fora, will also be considered. First, however,
a broad discussion of African challenges is necessary to contextualise the analysis,
since African space activities are being, and should further be, utilised to address
these challenges.
1.2 African Challenges and Trends
This section will consider three of the main interlinked challenges facing the
African continent today as a subset of the triple bottom line of challenges, where
integrated space applications can contribute, and which will have to be grappled
with if Africa is to meet its development goals. These are climate change,
population growth and urbanisation, and security challenges and threats.
6
United Nations, Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our
Common Future (New York: United Nations, 1987), 41. http://www.un-documents.net/our-
common-future.pdf (accessed March 4, 2017).
7
United Nations, Transforming Our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (New
York: United Nations, 2015). http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1
(accessed February 28, 2017).
8
Godwell Nhamo, “New Global Sustainable Development Agenda: A Focus on Africa,”
Sustainable Development 25, no. 3 (2016): 3.
9
Sachs, “From Millennium Development Goals to Sustainable Development Goals,” 2210.
1.2.1 Climate Change and Environment
One of the most far-reaching challenges facing Africa in the coming decades is the
expected impact of climate change. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change, in their Fifth Assessment Report (AR5), identify that “[n]ear surface
temperatures have increased by 0.5 °C or more during the last 50 to 100 years over
most parts of Africa” and that the continent will experience a further increase in
temperature in the 21st Century that is beyond the global average.10 Thus, while
Africa’s contributions to greenhouse gas emissions have been small in relation to
the rest of the world, it will nevertheless have to bear a disproportionate burden.11
While the consequences of climate change are expected to be widespread, some of
the more severe identified impacts include changes in precipitation and weather
(including extreme weather events), ecosystems and biodiversity, water resources,
agriculture and food security, human health, and sea-level.
While Africa is heavily dependent on rain-fed agriculture (in sub-Saharan Africa
98% of agriculture is rain-fed), mean annual precipitation by the middle of the
century is “very likely” to decrease over northern and southern Africa, while it is
“likely” to increase over central and eastern Africa.12 More frequent heat waves are
expected in the north and south of the continent as well, and there is already a trend
of more extreme cycles of heavy rains and droughts over eastern Africa, with more
heavy rainfall events expected in future.13
Concerning biodiversity and ecosystems, climate change, together with
increased human pressures on land use, will likely produce three main trends:
expansion of deserts, a decrease in natural vegetation, and changes in the distri-
bution and makeup of remaining areas of natural vegetation.14 Ocean and coastal
ecologies will also be affected, not only by ocean acidification and temperature
fluctuations of currents, but also by ‘upwellings’ of low-PH and high CO2 levels,
which will have a significant impact on fishing, since “[African] fisheries mainly
depend on either coral reefs (on the eastern coast) or coastal upwelling (on the
western coast)”.15 At the same time, it is predicted that a 500% increase in aqua-
culture production will be necessary to meet the demand for fish in Africa over the
coming decades.16 Existing challenges around pollution and overexploitation of
ocean resources will also compound this challenge.
Similarly, water resources will come under increasing strain in the future, but the
impact of climate change is expected to be modest when compared to the direct
10
I. Niang et al., “Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability,” in Part B: Regional
Aspects. Contribution of Working Group, ed. D. J. Dokken et al. (Cambridge, United Kingdom
and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 1206.
11
African Union Commission, Agenda 2063: The Africa We Want—Popular Version (Addis
Ababa: African Union Commission, 2015), 3-4.
12
Niang et al., “Change 2014,” 1210-1212.
13
Ibid., 1210-1211.
14
Ibid., 1213.
15
Ibid., 1216.
16
Ibid., 1220.
1 Introduction 7
human impacts of population growth and urbanisation, and land use change and
increases in demand for irrigation. However, the impact of climate change on
agriculture and food security is expected to be high, with an overall reduction in
yields of especially major cereal crops, diminishing distribution of suitable
agro-climatic zones, coupled with pressures on livestock due to degradation and
fragmentation of grazing land and more variability in the water supply.17
Apart from changes and potential increases in agricultural and livestock diseases
and pests, human health can also be severely impacted by changes in the distri-
bution of diseases like malaria, and as an example, the East African highlands are
expected to suffer an increase in malaria epidemics due to higher temperatures,
which will make the area more hospitable for mosquitoes.18 While the full range of
potential health impacts cannot be discussed here (they include food- and
water-borne diseases, tick-borne diseases, schistosomiasis, and meningococcal
meningitis), an example of projected malnutrition in Mali illustrates the severity and
urgency of the problem, since climate and demographic change projections up to
2025 “suggest approximately 250,000 children will suffer stunting, nearly 200,000
will be malnourished, and more than 100,000 will become anemic”.19 The problem
could become so severe that by 2080 “it is likely that 75% of the African population
will be at risk of hunger”.20 Sharp price spikes in foodstuffs will also most dra-
matically affect the urban poor.21 The risks of famine and malnourishment are thus
very high, especially when considering the interplay between extreme climate
events, freshwater pressures, increasing demands on agricultural land, and changing
pest and disease distributions.
Regarding sea level rise, not only will this negatively impact coastal freshwater
aquifers, but coastal ecosystems will be damaged, for example through the flooding
of river deltas, but when combined with storm swells severe damage to coastal
settlements can occur.22 This vulnerability is expected to be compounded by more
urbanisation, including migration towards coastal settlements.
In order to meet the challenges posed by these potentially dire and interlinked
impacts of climate change, it is vital to stress that the “uncertainties in the African
context mean that successful adaptation will depend upon developing resilience in
the face of uncertainty”.23 While the African Union’s Common African Position
(CAP) on the Post-2015 Development Agenda (2014) prioritises environmental
sustainability, natural resource and disaster risk management, it has been noted that
“Regional policies and strategies for adaptation, as well as transboundary adapta-
tion, are still in their infancy”.24 In contrast, national climate change adaptation
17
Ibid., 1218–1219.
18
Ibid., 1223.
19
Ibid., 1222.
20
United Nations Office of the Special Adviser on Africa, “Climate Change: Paris Agreement,”
http://www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/advocacy/climate.shtml (accessed April 15, 2017).
21
Niang et al., “Change 2014,” 1221.
22
Ibid., 1216–1218.
23
Ibid., 1226.
24
Ibid., 1227.
programmes and response strategies are better established, but despite “progress in
mainstreaming climate risk in policy and planning, significant disconnects still exist
at the national level, and implementation of a more integrated adaptation response
remains tentative”.25 A key facet of successful adaptation on a governmental level
is that it is necessary to make progress in “replacing hierarchical governance sys-
tems that operate within silos with more adaptive, integrated, multilevel, and
flexible governance approaches, and with inclusive decision making that can
operate successfully across multiple scales”.26
In terms of national climate change risk reduction, efforts include Disaster Risk
Reduction (DRR) platforms, Early Warning Systems (EWS), and governmental
social protection, while on a community level livelihood diversification is a strategy
“long used by African households to cope with climate shocks, [which] can also
assist with building resilience for longer term climate change by spreading risk”.27
Non-Governmental Organisations such as the Africa Climate Change Resilience
Alliance (ACCRA), active in Ethiopia, Mozambique, and Uganda, are also making
contributions to “enhanced gender-responsive climate resilience by improving
governance and planning processes through a multi-sector collaborative process”.28
1.2.2 Population Growth and Urbanisation
In 2015, the UN estimated that Africa’s population numbered just over 1.1 billion,
making it the continent with the second largest population after Asia.29 One of the
significant challenges the African continent will have to grapple with is the
expectation that it will have more than half of the global population growth between
2015 and 2050, totalling about 1.3 billion additional people.30 More sobering
perhaps, is that a “rapid population increase in Africa is anticipated even if there is a
substantial reduction of fertility”.31 Additionally, much of the growth will be
concentrated in the poorest and least developed countries—what Nhamo calls
“surely a ticking time bomb that cannot be left unchecked if we wish to be sus-
tainable, silence the guns, diffuse the bomb and have peace”.32 The UN echoes this
view:
25
Ibid., 1228.
26
Ibid.
27
Ibid., 1230–1231.
28
Africa Climate Change Resilience Alliance (ACCRA), “What is ACCRA?,” 2017, http://
community.accraconsortium.org/.59d669a8/about.html (accessed April 15, 2017).
29
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division, “World
Population Prospects: The 2015 Revision, Key Findings and Advance Tables,” 2015, 1, https://
esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Publications/Files/Key_Findings_WPP_2015.pdf (accessed March 1, 2017).
30
Ibid., 3.
31
Ibid.
32
Nhamo, “New Global Sustainable Development Agenda,” 13.
1 Introduction 9
The concentration of population growth in the poorest countries will make it harder for
those governments to eradicate poverty and inequality, combat hunger and malnutrition,
expand education enrolment and health systems, improve the provision of basic services
and implement other elements of a sustainable development agenda to ensure that no-one is
left behind.33
Another UN report highlights the impact this population growth will have on
cities and urbanisation. With just over half of the global population living in cities
in the middle of the 2010s, by 2050 an additional 2.5 billion people will be added to
the burgeoning urban population, of which over 90% will be concentrated in Africa
and Asia.34 All existing challenges around overcrowding, provision of adequate
employment opportunities, health care and education, pollution, water provision,
refuse disposal, energy generation, transport and many others already experienced
in African cities, will thus inevitably be compounded in coming decades. Indeed,
unlike in the 20th century when most of the world’s largest cities were found in the
developed countries, “today’s large cities [and those of the future] are concentrated
in the global South, and the fastest-growing agglomerations are medium-sized cities
and cities with 500,000 to 1 million inhabitants located in Asia and Africa”.35
The UN recognises that these urbanisation challenges are “integrally connected
to the three pillars of sustainable development: economic development, social
development and environmental protection”.36 Because the challenges of urbani-
sation are cross-cutting and inseparable from sustainable development to this end:
Sustainable urbanization requires that cities generate better income and employment
opportunities, expand the necessary infrastructure for water and sanitation, energy, trans-
portation, information and communications; ensure equal access to services; reduce the
number of people living in slums; and preserve the natural assets within the city and
surrounding areas.37
However, while representing a severe challenge, Africa’s burgeoning young

population also represents a significant asset and opportunity, through the demo-
graphic dividend. This dividend means that the young, growing population can
more readily support the (relatively smaller proportion) ageing population, with one
major caveat: “that appropriate labour market and other policies allow for a pro-
ductive absorption of the growing working-age population and for increased
investments in the human capital of children and youth”.38
33
Population Prospects,” 4.
34
Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision, Highlights,” 2014, 2, https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/
Publications/Files/WUP2014-Highlights.pdf (accessed March 2, 2017).
35
Ibid.
36
Ibid., 3.
37
Ibid., 17.
38
Population Prospects,” 7.
1.2.3 Security
Africa’s security challenges present a serious risk to the continent’s development

goals. The interconnected nature of these challenges also means that instability and
deteriorating security can undermine progress in many other spheres. One of the
most destabilising threats is that of violence between “disparate and ethnically
oriented armed groups”, such as recently witnessed in the Central African Republic
(CAR), South Sudan, and the north-eastern Democratic Republic of Congo
(DRC).39 Such violence, in turn, can result in massive movements of displaced
persons, both within states and between them, with around 2 million displaced
since 2012 from violence in South Sudan and the CAR. This, in turn, places
enormous strain on the resources of neighbouring countries. Indeed, as the office of
the UN High Commissioner for Refugees reports, “Africa continued to host the vast
majority of refugees worldwide”, with assistance being provided to “more than
18 million refugees, internally displaced people (IDPs), people at risk of state-
lessness and other people of concern”.40
Militant groups, including Islamist extremists such as Boko Haram in Nigeria,
Al-Shabaab in Somalia and Kenya, and extremist groups in Mali and the broader
Sahel, all present major security challenges. Apart from acts of mass violence, the
actions of these groups can create conditions of broader political instability, as the
example of Boko Haram illustrates, whose actions can “undermine the legitimacy
of the government elected—a move which could foster far-reaching instability
which the sect could readily exploit to its advantage”.41 As Keita notes, these
groups have become adept at exploiting “fragile governments in North Africa and
unrest elsewhere on the continent”, as well as “porous borders, political vacuums,
local grievances, socioeconomic stresses, and diminished focus on counterterror-
ism”.42 Transnational criminal networks, in turn, can further exploit these condi-
tions, including human and drug traffickers.
Political and election-related violence also have the potential to create security
and stability challenges. As an example, Kamau notes that the “impact of the
violence that was witnessed in Kenya [after the 2007 general elections] affected the
stability and economic activity in the East African region”—illustrating the
importance of the “ability to maintain our stability and security and also to tran-
sition peacefully from different governments”.43
39
R. Cummings, “What Security Challenges Face Sub-Saharan Africa in 2015?,” International
Peace Institute Global Observatory, January 16, 2015, https://theglobalobservatory.org/2015/01/
security-challenges-sub-saharan-africa-2015/ (accessed April 16, 2017).
40
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), “Global Report 2015: Africa,”
2016, http://www.unhcr.org/574ed6e14.html (accessed April 15, 2017).
41
Cummings, “What Security Challenges Face Sub-Saharan Africa in 2015?.”.
42
A. M. B. L. Keita, “The Current Security Challenges in Africa: Part 1,” Potomac Institute for
Policy Studies, 2014, 11–17, http://www.potomacinstitute.org/images/ICTS/
ReportonTheCurrentSecurityChallengesinAfrica.pdf (accessed April 15, 2017).
43
Jean Kamau, “The Current Security Challenges in Africa: Ambassador Jean Kamau,” Potomac
Institute for Policy Studies, 2014, 30–32, http://www.potomacinstitute.org/images/ICTS/
ReportonTheCurrentSecurityChallengesinAfrica.pdf (accessed April 15, 2017).
1 Introduction 11
As further example of the interlinked nature of Africa’s challenges, and the risks
of security and stability challenges, Alexander recalls that the Ebola epidemic in
West Africa occurred “in a part of the world that has suffered from chronic insta-
bility and underdevelopment, conditions that have also given rise to serious
man-made threats, including crime, piracy, terrorism, insurgency, and war”.44 The
breakdown of security and stability, and the emergence of violent factionalism in
Libya also “raised fears that the country may become a failed state evolving into an
all-out civil war”—highlighting again that no development or progress on social,
economic, or environmental fronts can take place without conducive conditions of
political stability and good governance, as was argued by Sachs.45
1.3 SDGs and AGENDA 2063
Broadly, as noted in UN Resolution A/RES/70/1, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable

Development revolves around the following five core pillars: (i) People, which
focuses on poverty and health-care, and unlocking the full range of human potential
in a context of equality and dignity; (ii) Planet, to ensure the sustainable use of
planetary resources and protect habitats and ecosystems from degradation;
(iii) Prosperity, namely progress in the economic, scientific and technological
spheres; (iv) Peace, not only the ending of conflicts but the building of inclusive
and equitable societies; and (v) Partnership, with the recognition that none of these
ambitions can be achieved without strong and mutually beneficial relations.46 It is
easy to recognise that these pillars closely mirror the ‘triple bottom line’ (plus
governance) advocated by Sachs.47
The UNs’ SDGs consist of 17 main goals, with 169 associated targets, making
them much more encompassing than their predecessor MDGs. These goals and
targets came into effect on 1 January 2016, and although they are not legally
binding, they are recognised as being “integrated and indivisible, global in nature
and universally applicable”.48 The 17 main goals are as shown in Table 1.1.
It is clear that all of these goals directly relate to the challenges identified above
and as illustration, Goal 13 directly speaks to combating climate change, but
indirectly, Goal 5 (empowering women and girls) will make livelihood diversifi-
cation mentioned earlier more achievable, which will, in turn, combat the worst
impacts of climate change as well. It is thus impossible to isolate these goals from
each other. Similarly, combating poverty (Goal 1) will contribute to building
44
Y. Alexander, “The Current Security Challenges in Africa: Ebola & Extremism: Rising Security
Threats from Natural & Man-made Challenges in Africa,” Potomac Institute for Policy Studies,
2014, 2, http://www.potomacinstitute.org/images/ICTS/ReportonTheCurrentSecurityChallenges
inAfrica.pdf (accessed April 15, 2017).
45
Sachs, “From Millennium Development Goals to Sustainable Development Goals.”.
46
United Nations, Transforming Our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, 2.
47
Sachs, “From Millennium Development Goals to Sustainable Development Goals.”.
48
United Nations, Transforming Our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, 6.
Table 1.1 17 Sustainable Development Goals

1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere
2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture
3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages
4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities
for all
5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all
7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all
8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive
employment and decent work for all
9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster
innovation
10. Reduce inequality within and among countries
11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts (Acknowledging that the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is the primary international,
intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to climate change)
14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable
development
15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage
forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss
16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to
justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels
17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalise the Global Partnership for Sustainable
Development
Source United Nations: Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
United Nations, New York (2015). http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/
70/1, 14. Accessed 28 Feb 2017
peaceful and inclusive societies (Goal 16). The 169 individual targets cannot be
summarised here, but where appropriate, references to these will be made in the
discussion of the initiatives to further embed space applications in African societies.
The UN makes specific reference to the implementation of the SDGs requiring
“taking into account different national realities, capacities and levels of develop-
ment”, and emphasises that individual countries are responsible for their own
economic and social development.49 It is also recognised that African countries are
among the most vulnerable, and “deserve special attention”.50 It is thus clear Africa
features quite prominently in the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda. More-
over, the true measure of Africa’s success in meeting the many challenges facing it
in the coming decades is the extent to which solutions are generated from within
Africa, in partnership between all countries on the continent. Thus, the
49
Ibid., 6, 10.
50
Ibid., 7.
1 Introduction 13
operationalisation of the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda within Africa is of

paramount concern, and this is where the African Union Agenda 2063 (Agenda
2063), drawn up as Africa’s own development agenda by the African Union
(AU) which is “cognisant of the New Global Development Agenda”, becomes
critical.51
In many ways, Agenda 2063 reflects the core concerns of the SDGs, and in its
Common African Position (CAP) on the Post-2015 Development Agenda, the AU
identifies six main pillars of development: (i) Structural Economic Transformation
and Inclusive Growth; (ii) Science, Technology and Innovation; (iii) Peo-
ple-Centred Development; (iv) Environmental Sustainability, Natural Resources
Management and Disaster Risk Management; (v) Peace and Security; and
(vi) Finance and Partnerships.52 Again it is easy to note how closely these match the
SDGs, although the Agenda 2063 has the benefit of simplifying the 17 SDGs and
their 169 targets into seven broad aspirations (see Table 1.2).
As with the SDGs, each of these aspirations encompasses further goals and
priorities, but again the full specificities of these cannot be discussed here. It is
important to note, however, the following differences between the SDGs and
Agenda 2063:
The definition of goal is different from that of the SDGs. Since Agenda 2063 is of a 50 year
horizon, the goals are broader. The priority areas and their associated targets define the
goals. While the goals are fixed, the priority areas and their associated targets can change
over the various ten year plan cycles.53
Agenda 2063 represents Africa’s own vision of its future, but the close align-
ment with the broader 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda remains clear. For
example, in an AU-UNECA Joint Ministerial Conference in Addis Ababa in April,
2016, African leaders made it clear that achieving the goals of the 2030 Sustainable
Development Agenda as well as Agenda 2063 could only be possible by adopting
an “integrated and coherent approach to the implementation, monitoring and
evaluation of Agenda 2063 and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)”.54 As
a consequence, this “need to harmonize the two development programs” is
embedded in the African Union Commission’s First 10-Year Implementation Plan
51
Nhamo, “New Global Sustainable Development Agenda,” 3.
52
African Union, Common Africa Position (CAP) on the Post 2015 Development Agenda (Addis
Ababa: African Union, 2017).
53
African Union Commission, “AGENDA 2063: The Africa We Want - A Shared Strategic
Framework for Inclusive Growth and Sustainable Development, First Ten Year Implementation
Plan 2014–2023,” 2015, http://www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/pdf/au/agenda2063-first10year
implementation.pdf (accessed March 4, 2017).
54
African Union Commission, “AU-UNECA Joint Ministerial Conference concludes with an
urgent call for the Domestication of Agenda 2063 at Continental level aligned to the UN Agenda
2030,” 2016a, https://www.au.int/web/sites/default/files/pressreleases/27507-pr-pr_-_joint_
ministerial_au-uneca_conference_concludes_with_an_urgent_call_for_the_domestication_of_
agenda_2063_at_continental_level_aligned_to_the_un_agenda_2030.pdf (accessed March 4,
2017).
Table 1.2 Seven core aspirations of the African Union Agenda 2063
1. A prosperous Africa based on inclusive growth and sustainable development
2. An integrated continent, politically united, based on the ideals of Pan-Africanism and the
vision of Africa’s Renaissance
3. An Africa of good governance, democracy, respect for human rights, justice and the rule of
law
4. A peaceful and secure Africa
5. An Africa with a strong cultural identity, common heritage, values and ethics
6. An Africa whose development is people-driven, relying on the potential of African people,
especially its women and youth, and caring for children
7. Africa as a strong, united, resilient and influential global player and partner
Source African Union Commission, Agenda 2063: The Africa We Want—Popular Version, 2–9
Table 1.3 Priority areas in the first 10-year implementation plan 2014–2023 for Agenda 2063
• Incomes, Jobs and Decent Work • Democracy and Good Governance
• Poverty, Inequality and Hunger • Human Rights, Justice and The Rule of Law
• Social security and protection, • Institutions and Leadership
including Persons with Disabilities • Participatory Development and Local
• Modern and Liveable Habitats and Governance
Basic Quality Services • Maintenance and Preservation of Peace and
• Education and STI skills driven Security
revolution • Institutional structure for AU Instruments on
• Health and Nutrition Peace and Security
• Sustainable and inclusive economic • Defence, Security and Peace
growth • Fully operational and functional APSA [African
• STI driven Peace and Security Architecture] Pillars
Manufacturing/Industrialisation and • Values and Ideals of Pan Africanism
Value Addition • Cultural Values and African Renaissance
• Economic diversification and resilience • Cultural Heritage, Creative Arts and Businesses
• Tourism/Hospitality • Women and Girls Empowerment
• Agricultural Productivity and • Violence & Discrimination against Women and
Production Girls
• Marine resources and Energy • Youth Empowerment and Children
• Ports Operations and Marine Transport • Africa’s place in global affairs
• Biodiversity conservation and • Partnership
Sustainable natural resource • African Capital market
management • Fiscal system and Public Sector Revenues
• Water Security • Development Assistance
• Climate Resilience and Natural
Disasters preparedness and prevention
• Renewable Energy
• Framework and Institutions for a
United Africa
• Financial and Monetary Institutions
• Communications and Infrastructure
Connectivity
Source African Union Commission, “AGENDA 2063: The Africa We Want—A Shared Strategic
Plan 2014–2023.” 41–42
1 Introduction 15
2014–2023 for Agenda 2063.55 This plan identifies a range of broad priorities for
the period up to 2023 (see Table 1.3).
Initiatives in embedding space applications in African societies should, in the
short-term, be aligned with these priority areas. One of the indicative strategies
required for advancing Africa’s position in global affairs is to “Fully implement all
commitments/agreements required for the establishment of the African Space
Agency, including pooling of resources and sharing of knowledge in space related
areas”, while space-related milestones are identified as: “1. Development and
Adoption of African Space Policy and Strategy is done in 2015; 2. Preparation and
Implementation of Action Plan on African Space Policy starts in 2016; 3. African
Common Position on International Space Agenda is attained by 2018”.56
The African Union Commission has thus recognised the importance of outer
space, and within the Agenda 2063 Framework, outer space is identified as one of
the Flagship Programmes, with the recognition that:
Outer space is of critical importance to the development of Africa in all fields: agriculture,
disaster management, remote sensing, climate forecast, banking and finance, as well as
defense and security. Africa’s access to space technology products is no longer a matter of
luxury and there is a need to speed up access to these technologies and products. New
developments in satellite technologies make these very accessible to African countries.57
The following section will discuss supportive space applications and how they
can aid African societies in meeting the challenges and goals discussed above.
1.4 Supportive Space Applications
The end of the Cold War era provided a new paradigm shift in space activities that
compels radical transformation country by country, regional bloc by regional bloc
and even at continental level for investment, research and development of more
dedicated space satellites to increase humanity’s capability of solving many
developmental challenges. Satellites have become deeply embedded in societies
and their pervasiveness cannot be ignored anymore. A day without satellites is
doomed. From bank automated teller machines (ATMs), cellular phones, global
navigation satellite systems to general earth observation, are adequate evidence of
prevalent nature of space technology applications. Education, research and devel-
opment, sustainable development goals and scientific experiments have been driven
from space technologies of late. Space technology applications offer a new para-
digm of economy and economic development. Development of space assets
(ground segments and space segments) not only provide this economy shift, but
55
African Union Commission, “AGENDA 2063: The Africa We Want—A Shared Strategic
Plan 2014–2023.”.
56
Ibid., 81.
57
African Union Commission, “Agenda 2063: Framework Document,” 2015, 98, http://www.un.
org/en/africa/osaa/pdf/au/agenda2063-framework.pdf (accessed March 4, 2017).
also, enhances more research and development and offers unique opportunities for
scientific experiments as well. Practical scientific experiments and measurements of
the earth (where human beings and other elements of biodiversity survive on) lean
heavily Earth Observation (EO), Positioning, Navigation and Timing (PNT) and
Satellite Communications (SATCOM) making space technology more relevant in
this modern world. Unfortunately, in Africa, the potential of space technology on
the continent remains unrealised due to limitations in funding, expertise, infras-
tructure, equipment and education. Most of the people in Africa do not realize the
embeddedness and the impact of space technology and the potential it has for
development of this continent.
The extent to which space applications are currently embedded in the African
societies and the benefits to deepen this process can be analysed within the context
of the paradigm shift regarding their use over time. Initially, space applications
were a push demand by militaries for state security at the height of the Cold War, in
the context of international competition and prestige-building.58 It was after the
Russians set Sputnik in orbit that the stage of space activities became so important.
The Americans quickly joined in the race for space mainly in the military, out of
fear of being out-manoeuvred and bombed from space by the communist bloc. With
the fall of the communist bloc in the early 1990s and the end of the Cold War, space
applications shifted from being used as a powerful tool of state security to that of
human security. It became an integral pull demand tool in advancing sustainable
livelihoods of humankind.
The importance of space applications currently embedded in African societies
cannot be over-emphasised, given the important role they play in improving human
lives, particularly in the current era of the information revolution. Space applica-
tions have been used to churn out timely, reliable, disaggregated, bigger, faster,
more current and detailed data than ever before, which is critical especially in the
developing countries (most of which are found in Africa).59 These are vulnerable to
poverty, famine and hunger, conflict and extremism, natural disasters, gender
inequality, high illiteracy, poor health care and climate change, to mention but a
few.60 These data are critical to development agents for supporting goal setting,
optimising investment decisions and progress measuring. The African continent
therefore cannot afford to ignore space applications given their power and role
towards the direction of the challenges faced. It can be said, therefore, that to a
larger extent, the space applications are currently embedded in African societies so
as to ensure human security through meeting sustainable development needs.
The African continent is grappling with a large and fast growing population.
Larger portions of this ballooning population live under acute levels of poverty.
Meeting of basic needs such as food, water, housing, healthcare, and education
remain a challenge. Furthermore, challenges such as poor agricultural yields,
58
R. C. Harding, “Introduction: Space policy in developing countries,” Space Policy 37, (2016): 1–2.
59
United Nations, Transforming Our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
60
M. Simpson, “Space Assets and Sustainable Development Goals,” Secure World Foundation in
Cooperation with Krystal Wilson, 2016, http://swfound.org (accessed February 28, 2017).
1 Introduction 17
unpredictable climate, wars, diseases, famine, and natural disasters exacerbate the
situation. Production and distribution of critical data, information, and knowledge
around these becomes an integral component in ensuring that basic needs are rea-
lised. Space application technologies, through use of satellites, come in handy in the
provision of such data, information, and knowledge, with tremendous benefits
unlocked by the use thereof. Space assets and infrastructure such as communication
satellites, Earth observation satellites, global navigation systems satellites, together
with space science and astronomy, provide useful products and services needed for
meeting global and international agendas such as sustainable development goals (as
set out by the SDGs and Agenda 2063) and have a potential of offering solutions to
universal challenges in areas such as environment, agriculture, health, security,
education, and disaster management. Using specific applications such as
tele-education, tele-medicine, smart agriculture, and smart cities within space
satellite systems, basic needs can be met on the African continent. Given the chal-
lenging landscape in Africa, these space applications become embedded, that is, they
become a fixed and important part of African societies (Fig. 1.1).
With a high percentage of the population in Africa living in remote rural areas
where there is no likelihood of accessing terrestrial communication infrastructure
such as fiber optics, communication satellites, as part of space applications, offer a
viable and cost-effective option that enables people to access information and links
the rural people with the rest of the world as well as share development
Fig. 1.1 Summary of space technologies that can assist in the achievement of sustainable
development goals. Adopted from Geospatial World Magazine. Space-Technology and its
applications for National Development. https://geospatialworldforum.org/speaker/presentions
2018/Space-Technology-and-its-Applications-for-National-Development-UIM-2018-NRSC.pdf
(accessed January 27, 2019)
programmes.61 Access to the internet, which is an important part of information and

communication technology, which in turn is a key enabler of development, is a
challenge in Africa. The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
(UNCTAD) notes that out of fifty-four countries in Africa, only four (Nigeria,
Egypt, Morocco, and South Africa) account for sixty percent of internet users in the
continent, with the rest sharing the remaining forty percent.62 Such a distribution of
internet services is indicative of poor internet accessibility by a majority of people
in Africa. In order to spread internet connections for people of Africa to access
internet services, space applications like communication satellites would be a better
option, thus, it goes without saying that space applications are desperately needed
as an important factor in achieving societal developmental agendas.
Moreover, the building of cellular phone towers in the remote parts of Africa
with rough terrain is a great challenge to cellular network providers. Communi-
cation satellites may also be an option for people in remote and rural areas of Africa
to access cellular networks. The primary economic activity in rural and remote areas
of Africa is agriculture. In such a situation, availability of information regarding
weather forecast, planting seasons, and general expert knowledge on agricultural
productivity becomes critical to end hunger and poverty and ensure food security in
the continent. In South Africa, farmers receive text and WhatsApp messages (which
are part of space applications) on correct irrigation timing and this has helped in
saving farmers about $300/hectare and these savings can then be channelled to
other projects in farms. Figure 1.2 illustrates how space applications have become
pervasive in agricultural management for improvement of crop yields.
Such activities are a testimony of how space applications are currently embedded
in African societies.
In addition, the challenges presented by diseases and accessibility to medical
care in Africa (where the patient-doctor ratio is high, and health facilities are
manned by healthcare givers instead of well-trained professionals in specialty
fields), mean that the continent desperately needs technological advancement so
that such challenges are overcome, thus communication satellites in the ambit of
space technology becomes an important option. Tele-medicine, which has been in
use in the United States for a very long time may be used to link professionally
qualified doctors in urban areas with patients in rural clinics. Broadband internet
services capable of producing high quality video, which are not in sight in much of
Africa, play an important role in sending X-rays via communication satellite to
central hospitals in urban areas.63 Figure 1.3 shows Telemedicine and wireless
networks an illustration of how space has become so important in improving health
delivery system in rural areas of where there is poor infrastructure.
61
M. Hauser and M. John, “Space Applications for International Development, Solutions from
Space,” n.d., www.SpaceFoundation.org (accessed February 25, 2017).
62
United Nations Conference on Development (UNCTAD), Science, Technology and Innovation
Policy Review—Ghana (UNCTAD: Geneva, 2011).
63
R. Pavithra, “New phone technology to help fight river blindness, Sustainable Development
Goals in sync with Africa’s priorities,” AfricaRenewal, 2015, www.un.org/africarenewal (accessed
March 9, 2017).
1 Introduction 19
Fig. 1.2 Researchers utilizing GPS mapping systems and computers to know where certain seeds
are plotted in the field, Bradford Research Center. Adapted from Ojoyi, M. M. Harnessing space
technology for Africa’s growth and development, South African Institute of International Affairs,
October 2016, https://saiia.org.za/ (accessed March 7, 2017)
Fig. 1.3 Telemedicine and wireless networks. Adopted from Doug Comstock “Space Technology
Applications for Socio-Economic Benefits” Istanbul, Turkey September 14, 2010
In Mali, the International Institution for Communication and Development

(IICD) had a pilot project of such a programme where radiologists in Bamako were
able to provide diagnoses to patients in rural clinics. Communication satellites can
help in the determination of bacteria through the cell scope program developed by
Stanford University in the United States of America. Cell scope is applied through
the use of an iPhone’s camera as a microscope. Such a project has been tested in
Cameron and will be piloted at a large scale in central Africa.64 In Africa were
disease, remoteness, and fewer professional medical doctors (most located in urban
areas) is a huge challenge, such space applications are a viable option proving their
indispensability in societies. Communication satellites through automated teller
machines can be used to facilitate provision of water in informal settlements, which
are a common feature in African countries. Such a pilot project has been tried in
Kenya with success.65
Besides, these communication satellites and earth observation satellites may be
used in conjunction, in the case of dealing with natural disasters. The African
continent faces natural disasters, such as earthquakes, cyclones, floods, and drought
that impact negatively on economic growth, and social and infrastructure devel-
opment. Space applications play an integral role in the coordination of activities
from early warning of disasters, mitigation and preparedness, emergency relief and
response, recovery, rehabilitation, and long term sustainability development.66
Using earth observation satellites such as AVHRR, MODIS, Landsat and
COPERNICUS that offer satellite images for free, natural disasters may be detected
early and precautionary measures taken to mitigate their impact. Figure 1.4 shows a
satellite image of a hurricane tracked by a satellite.
These satellite sensors can be used to detect weather conditions and give early
warning by sending real-time alerts. Satellites of Earth observation have been used
to detect cyclones. A combination of Earth observation and communication satel-
lites have been used and are currently used in African societies to give information
about such disasters. Recently, Earth observation was used to detect tropical
cyclone Dineo and communication satellites were used to warm people particularly
in Mozambique, parts of eastern South Africa and south eastern Zimbabwe districts
as an early warning. Mitigation and preparedness efforts were thus put in place.
Zambia benefited from 25 satellite terminals that were donated by the International
Telecommunications Union (ITU) Framework for Co-operation in Emergencies
following flooding in 2008. During this period the Thuraya satellite phones were
used for voice communication and GPS locating while Inmarsat terminals were
used for voice and high speed data.67 These space applications played an important
64
Ibid.
65
E. Mourdoukoutas, “ATM-operated water dispensers bring safe water to poor communities,
Sustainable Development Goals in sync with Africa’s priorities,” AfricaRenewal, 2015, www.un.
org/africarenewal (accessed March 7, 2017).
66
V. Bhanumurthy and G. Behera, “Deliverables from Space Data Sets for Disaster Management
Present and Future Trend,” International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and
Spatial Information Sciences XXXVII, (2008): 263–270.
67
Hauser and John, “Space Applications for International Development, Solutions from Space.”.
1 Introduction 21
Fig. 1.4 Satellite picture of a Hurricane Katrina from space: August 25, 2015 SPACE.com www.
space.com
role in areas were infrastructure had been destroyed by floods and helped in
effective response. Also, satellites in space may be important in sending updated
photographs and engineering plans to main office during reconstruction phase.
Thus, it can be seen that space applications are an integral part of African societies.
Furthermore, remote sensing satellites also help in addressing challenges in rural
and remote areas of the African continent without scientists being physically pre-
sent. The African continent has a rugged landscape and sparse settlements. Col-
lection of data is thus a mammoth task. Moreover, more than a third of the
continent’s landmass is a desert. Space applications are useful in accomplishing
such tasks, making them necessary in the African societies. Earth observation data
is effective in observing land use and land cover changes. Earth observation
geospatial applications may be used in monitoring environmental change and
managing natural resources. It gives a synoptic view of the Earth’s surface over a
large area at a go, giving critical information about the rate, extent, magnitude, and
direction of change on the Earth’s surface resulting from human activities. These
space applications also assist in the mapping of natural resources, such as water,
forests, land, and determining their state at any given time. Timeous decisions by
policy makers regarding the condition of the environment and natural resources
based on data collected through space application technologies have been used
worldwide, proving that space applications are greatly embedded in societies and
would go a long way assisting in achieving sustainable development agendas such

as Africa’s Agenda 2063.
In the health domain, Earth observation satellites are embedded in the mapping
of disease risk areas. Africa has a serious problem of malaria disease caused by
mosquitoes. Earth observation space applications may be used to identify, locate,
and map geographical areas greatly affected by mosquitoes. Such data may then be
used by governments and non-governmental organisations’ officials in mobilising
and channelling resources to areas that are in desperate need. Such efforts can also
be applied in areas where there are dangerous diseases such as ebola and dengue
fever to predict and design models of controlling and mitigating the impact of these
diseases. Space applications are therefore an integral component of African soci-
eties and are a need as they greatly assist in achieving developmental goals.
It is not only communication and earth observation satellites that are integral in
societal needs of Africa, but also Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS).
GNSS is a space-based system of a constellation of satellites that assist in posi-
tioning and other services on Earth.68 With a history of applications in military
reconnaissance, global navigation was used in fighter planes during wars and
spying during the Cold War. Today it is also applicable to human development and
security needs, proving that they are so embedded in societies. It is also an
important space application tool crucial in various aspects of life ranging from
simple personal navigation in providing direction and locating places, to laying
power grids and telecom, to surveying and mapping, to disease control, to precision
agriculture, to aviation, to trucking and shipping, to oil exploration, to satellite
operations, to fishing and boating, and to intelligent cars. The African continent that
has a rough terrain and is still lagging in infrastructure development, can effectively
utilise space applications particularly GNSS in surveying and mapping for new
developments like electrification, telecommunications, pipeline installation, dam
construction, and port dredging. GNSS has a potential of facilitating fast and
cost-effective site preparation, machine control and automated wireless job tasking
in construction and mining.69
Investment in space applications cannot be only associated with the affluent
developed West world, it is a necessary component in societal advancements.
GNSS does not only facilitate the development of infrastructure, but plays an
integral role in assisting disaster management planning efforts. Scott notes that
GNSS helps relief workers navigate disaster areas devoid of landmarks, in the
containment and management of wildfires, and enables disaster warning systems.70
The African societies that grapple with problems of natural hazards such as wild-
fires, floods, cyclones, and drought may benefit from space applications in miti-
gating the impact of these disasters. Furthermore, in African societies greatly
68
G. I. Agbaje, 2016. “International Training Workshop on Global Navigation Satellite Systems
(GNSS) Holding,” African Regional Centre for Space Science and Technology Education in
English, August 8–13, 2016, Rectus Auditorium, Obafemi Awolowo University.
69
Ibid.
70
M. Scott, Global Navigation Satellite Systems and their Applications, (New York, Springer,
2015).
1 Introduction 23
endowed with natural resources, mapping of such resources becomes extremely

difficult when traditional field work methods are applied. Traditional methods are
subject to human error and moreover are affected by time delays, yet space
applications are quick and capable of handling huge volumes of data at a go with a
much higher accuracy.71 GPS equipped buoys and ground networks can be used to
manage wildlife effectively and curb challenges of poachers. It can be seen that
space applications are an integral component in the African societies and hence
political leadership has an obligation of facilitating investment in space assets and
infrastructure and everyday use of these technologies.
Due to cost implications and the transverse nature of space, space applications
can also be used as a tool for fostering international cooperation. The costs carried
in putting up space assets and infrastructure is beyond the capability of individual
states, when going it alone. Furthermore, the fact that outer space does not have
boundaries and that nations benefit from space applications, for instance the use of
Landsat and COPERNICUS imagery, space applications can be adopted as a tool to
enforce interstate cooperation and regional integration, thereby ending
cross-boundary conflicts in Africa where such conflicts are a legacy of the colonial
era. Despite the huge initial costs carried in investing in space assets and infras-
tructure, space systems have a potential of huge profits that African societies cannot
afford to miss. Investment in space applications has a potential of improving the
African continent’s economic output. The World Bank observes that space-related
activities generate US$257 billion annually.72 With such revenue, African societies
that lag behind economically could seize the opportunity and use space as a
springboard for economic development and improve on their Gross Domestic
Product and per capita grants.
It has also been noted that space applications are a direct result of human
curiosity in understanding the universe that houses us. Therefore, space science and
astronomy would be a great investment for future generations.73 Space science and
astronomy encourages students to undertake science, mathematics, engineering and
technology subjects, which would be an encouragement to African societies to
invest in future generations. Furthermore, space science and astronomy has played a
critical role in making human kind understand the impact of accumulation of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere, from Venus’ experience, and the impact of weather
perturbations on power lines and the impact of accumulation of dust in the planet’s
atmosphere as was studied from the experience of Mars.74 Thus, space applications
remain an indispensable part of African societies.
71
P. M. Mather and M. Koch, Computer Processing of Remotely Sensed Images, An Introduction
(Sussex: Willey-Blackwell, 2011); R. Tateishi, T. Sugimura, “Introduction to remote Sensing, in
Remote Sensing Society of Japan” in Remote Sensing: An Introductory Textbook, ed. (Tokyo:
Maruzen Planet, 2013).
72
Hauser and John, “Space Applications for International Development, Solutions from Space.”.
73
African Union, African Space Strategy: Towards social, political and social integration (Second
Ordinary Session for the specialized Technical Committee meeting on Education, Science and
Technology (stc-est) 21 October to 23 October 2017, Cairo, Egypt).
74
Ibid.
In conclusion, any thinking that renders investment in space systems and assets
as an unnecessary luxury that the African continent cannot afford due to her poverty
levels, must be dismissed as its benefits outweigh its costs. Space systems and
infrastructure cannot at this age be viewed as luxurious, prestigious, and an inter-
national tool for competition, let alone associated with the affluent states the world
over, but rather as a necessity with a potential of driving the African continent to
success and improved livelihoods. Space applications are a necessity in
socio-economic circles as an investment, a tool for meeting sustainable develop-
ment goals, as a justification for the on-going quest for technological and scientific
research, and politically as a tool that fosters national security and international
cooperation. They are a crucial component in connecting people, on health issues,
in education, as a source of critical data for knowledge and use by policy makers, as
a form of investment and for general growth and development. As a result, the
identified areas of space applications used in Africa are positive signs as the benefits
are numerous but it is not yet nearly sufficient to meet the SDG and Agenda 2063
goals. This will be further elaborated upon below within the context of Africa’s
own policy and strategy initiative.
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Author Biographies
André Siebrits is a South African researcher focusing on the space arena (especially in developing
world contexts), education and the use of educational technologies, and International Relations
(particularly in the Global South). He is currently working with the European Space Policy
Institute (Vienna), and has experience as an e-learning researcher and as an African political risk
analyst. He graduated with a Master of Arts in International Studies from the University of
Stellenbosch, where his research revolved around theories of International Relations. He is
currently a PhD Candidate at the Department of Political Studies at the University of Cape Town,
where his research revolves around the role of the Global South in the space arena, especially in
relation to governance, seen from an International Relations perspective. André is an author of
publications in the e-learning field, and has written on the space-education ecosystem for
sustainability and the role of educational technologies in Africa, on intersections between popular
culture and space, and on the African space arena.
Mchasisi Gasela holds a Master of Science Degree in Environmental Management (UNISA),

Bachelor of Science (Hons) Environmental Management (UNISA); Bachelor of Science Degree in
Geography and Environmental Studies (ZOU); Bachelor of Education (UZ). Currently, he is a
consultant in private practice on environmental management in Mpumalanga Province of South
Africa. His focus is on space applications technologies, environment, water, land and air quality
management, vegetation, forest ecosystems modeling and management, resource conservation and
management, environmental impact assessment and mitigation, environmental modeling, ecolog-
ical monitoring, remote sensing applications, water quality monitoring, land degradation,
ecosystem and hydrological processes, biodiversity, climate change, land-use and land cover
management, environmental management, environmental education, climate change adaptation,
ecological modeling, vegetation mapping. He is a member of the African Association Remote
Sensing of the Environment (AARSE).
Africa and Space
2
André Siebrits , Okeletsang Mookeletsi, Anton Alberts
and Alexander Gairiseb
Abstract
The African Union has elected to be active in space exploration as part of its
Agenda 2063, African Space Policy and Strategy (ASPS), and has taken steps
towards creating an African Space Agency. There are also various space-related
activities already underway within some member states which the African Union
may leverage since active participation and initiation of space-related activities
in Africa will make progress towards meeting the continent’s socio-economic
challenges. This chapter explores the ASPS, other continental space initiatives,
how space law as an international piece of legislation evolved with time
alongside the evolution of space exploration and the legal aspects and precedents
that Africa will need to engage into develop its member States’ national laws
juxtaposed with international laws, continental engagement in the United
Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, plus debates and
initiatives around the African Space Agency. The particular focus on legal
aspects is important since space law is a subset of international law and regulates
all activities in and relating to outer space, and no holistic understanding of any
area of space activities is possible without what the law is and how it works.
A. Siebrits (&) A. Gairiseb

A. Gairiseb
e-mail: agairiseb@gmail.com
O. Mookeletsi
Johannesburg, South Africa
e-mail: o_mookeletsi@yahoo.com
A. Alberts
Parliamentary Portfolio Committee, Cape Town, South Africa
e-mail: anton.alberts@prevoyance.co.za

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05980-4_2
28 A. Siebrits et al.
When considering Africa’s posture towards outer space, the critical point that must
be borne in mind is clearly stated by Aganaba-Jeanty: “how can space engagement
contribute towards the priorities of the region? To answer this question, it must first
be clear what those priorities are”.1 It is for this reason that the primary challenges
faced by Africa as a collective are critical to understanding the continent’s space
policy and strategy, as well as how its developmental priorities were shaped by
local imperatives and by the broader UN SDGs. Consequently, as Abiodun
reminds, all space activities, whether they are national, regional, or even conti-
nental, must prioritise meeting the needs of ordinary people on the ground, and
must as a consequence be based on the framework provided by the SDGs and
Agenda 2063 of Africa’s developmental priorities.2
In this chapter, the African Space Policy and Strategy (ASPS) is discussed,
including its short and medium-term milestones, with particular attention on those
high-level policy goals that constitute the ‘drivers’ of an African space programme.
A broader discussion of the African Union in space then follows, with a particular
emphasis on the African Resource Management (ARM) Satellite Constellation, as
an example of a multilateral satellite project focused on African needs. Space Law
(and broader International Law), are then explored, which all efforts relating to
space, including African ones, must take cognisance of. African participation at
international space fora is then discussed, including some of the related challenges
and opportunities in this regard, and the chapter then concludes with a reflection on
the need for an African Space Agency and the debate around this issue, as well as
the steps taken to implement it. The goal is to impart a broad understanding of space
activities from the African perspective, as well as the priorities of the continent in
this arena.
2.1 Introduction and Overview
Regionally, Aganaba-Jeanty reflects on some of the initiatives undertaken in Africa,

including the African Leadership Conference on Space Science and Technology for
Sustainable Development (ALC), the Regional African Satellite Communications
Organisation (RASCOM), and the African Resource Management Satellite Con-
stellation (ARMS-C).3 However, African space capabilities are very unevenly
distributed, to say nothing of the “lack of basic infrastructure, knowledge genera-
tion culture and facilities that are essential to support an innovative knowledge
economy”.4 In addition to this, shortfalls in human capacity, especially “a lack of
appropriate skills to analyse and interpret remote sensing data and to maintain local
1
T. Aganaba-Jeanty, “Precursor to an African Space Agency: Commentary on Dr. Peter Martinez
‘Is there a need for an African Space Agency?’,” Space Policy 29 (2013): 169. Emphasis added.
2
A. A. Abiodun, “Trends in the Global Space Arena—Impact on Africa and Africa’s Response,”
Space Policy 28, (2012): 283–290.
3
Aganaba-Jeanty, “Precursor to an African Space Agency,” 168.
4
Ibid., 170.
2 Africa and Space 29
and regional cooperation”, create hurdles to the wider adoption of space technology
across the continent. However, the value of space for African development is
undeniable, and according to Abiodun, space is “a critical part of the solution” to
Africa’s major problems.5 This is especially true in the realm of space-acquired
data, which is “a necessary starting point on the path towards sustainable devel-
opment and must be rigorously pursued”.6
The framework within which this must take place is provided by the African
Space Policy, and the African Space Strategy collectively referred to in this doc-
ument as the African Space Policy and Strategy (ASPS). In January 2016, the
African Union Heads of State and Government formally adopted the ASPS, in line
with the goal of supporting outer space as one of the Agenda 2063 flagship pro-
grammes.7 The ASPS is noteworthy as it is the first comprehensive space policy
document for the continent of Africa. Agenda 2063 sets out seven aspirations for
the continent, which also gives direction to the ASPS.8 Produced by the African
Union Space Working Group, the ASPS takes full cognisance of the need to
“mobilise the continent to develop the necessary institutions and capacities to
harness space technologies for socio-economic benefits that improve the quality of
lives and create wealth for Africans”.9 The main points of the ASPS will be
discussed and presented in the next sections.
2.2 The African Space Policy and Strategy
The discussion here opens with an analysis of the African Space Policy, followed
then by the African Space Strategy. The African Space Policy is grounded in full
recognition of the challenges facing the continent in space endeavours. It
acknowledges, in line with the discussion above, that “Africa cannot boast of
possessing the technical know-how to participate independently in space-related
activities as a service provider, but only as a consumer of space-derived prod-
ucts”.10 It also recognises that continental efforts consist of “fragmented initiatives
that have a regional dimension”. However, the promise of space applications is
clearly identified in “proactively managing, among other things, disease outbreaks,
our natural resources and the environment, our response to natural hazards and
5
Abiodun, “Trends in the Global Space Arena,” 5.
6
Ibid., 6.
7
African Union Commission, “African Union Heads of State and Government Adopts the African
Space Policy and Strategy,” January 31, 2016, https://www.au.int/en/pressreleases/19677/african-
union-heads-state-and-government-adopts-african-space-policy-and (accessed March 11, 2017).
8
African Union Commission, “Agenda 2063: The Africa We Want—Popular Version,” 2015,
http://www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/pdf/au/agenda2063.pdf (accessed February 28, 2017).
9
Space Policy and Strategy.” Emphasis added.
10
African Union, “African Space Policy (Draft Version 7).” World Meteorological Organisation,
n.d., 6, https://www.wmo.int/amcomet/sites/default/files/field/doc/events/african_space_policy-v7.
pdf (accessed March 17, 2017).
disasters, weather forecasting, climate-change mitigation and adaptation, agriculture

and food security, peacekeeping missions and conflicts”11—in short, all of the
challenges identified in Chap. 1 of this volume.
Thus, it recognises the value of space applications in agriculture, risk reduction
and disaster management, and transportation services, and identifies three broad
beneficial areas of space applications: (i) Earth observation and remote sensing;
(ii) satellite navigation; and (iii) satellite communication.12 What is immediately
clear from the policy document is that it strongly positions the needs of users, and
the broader socio-economic demands, at the top of the agenda. In light of these, the
policy expresses two main goals, six main policy objectives, and associated prin-
ciples with each objective. The two main goals are:
1. To create a well-coordinated and integrated African space programme that is

responsive to the social, economic, political and environmental needs of the
continent, as well as being globally competitive.
2. To develop a regulatory framework that supports an African space programme
and ensures that Africa is a responsible and peaceful user of outer space.13
The specific policy objectives (discussed in greater detail in the next section) are:
addressing user needs, accessing space services, developing the regional market,
adopting good governance and management, coordinating the African space arena,
and promoting intra-African and other international cooperation.14 Any efforts to
embed space applications in African societies will thus have to cater to these goals
and objectives.
The African Space Strategy delves into more detail regarding implementing the
broader policy goals and similarly identifies four main areas in which space
applications can help to address African challenges, namely Earth observation,
navigation and positioning, communication, and science and astronomy.15 The
strategy summarises the main contributions that space technology can make to the
development of African societies as: “The ability to communicate anywhere in the
world”, “The ability to observe any spot on earth very accurately”, and “The ability
to locate a fixed or moving object anywhere on the surface of the globe”.16
Importantly, the strategy also provides an analysis of the strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities, and threats to African space applications. The most critical weak-
nesses in terms of the discussion here include: (i) “African user needs are not well
quantified and documented”; (ii) “No governance structure to coordinate and
11
Ibid.
12
African Union, “African space policy: towards social, political and economic integration,”
October, 2017, 7–8, https://au.int/sites/default/files/newsevents/workingdocuments/33178-wd-
african_space_policy_-_st20444_e_original.pdf (accessed November 28, 2018).
13
Ibid., 8.
14
Ibid., 8–14.
15
African Union, “African Space Strategy: towards social, political and economic integration,”
October, 2017, 6–9, https://au.int/sites/default/files/newsevents/workingdocuments/33178-wd-
african_space_strategy_-_st20445_e_original.pdf (accessed November 28, 2018).
16
Ibid., 6.
manage continental-level space activities”; (iii) “Disjointed continental efforts

because there are no data management or data sharing policies”; (iv) “No gover-
nance structure to coordinate and manage continental-level space activities”, and
(v) “Limited number of space initiatives, so skills are lost”.17 Likewise, the main
threats include “Over-reliance on financial and technical support from outside the
continent”, “Brain drain of core skills”, “Lack of a focus on user needs and
innovation in delivering relevant space services and products”, and “Lack of a
coordinated continental approach to multilateral space agreements and
guidelines”.18
Strengths include growing political will to operate national space programs,
inter-continental partnerships (such as ARM—discussed below), existing satellite
assemblies and “nodes of space expertise and in situ capabilities” as well as
“Experience in the manufacture and/or operation of small satellites”.19 The strategy
repeats the six core objectives of the policy, but adds a broader vision: “An African
space programme that is user-focused, competitive, efficient and innovative”.20 One
of the central components of the strategy is thus the creation of an African Space
Program. This will be explored further in the final section of this chapter.
Managing and responding to these weaknesses identified in the strategy must be
a priority if space applications can fruitfully serve Africa’s needs. To this end, the
strategy proposes several actions. These are: (i) “Addressing user needs—har-
nessing the potential of space science and technology to address Africa’s
socio-economic opportunities and challenges”, (ii) “Accessing space services—
strengthening space mission technology on the continent to ensure optimal access to
space-derived data, information services and products”, (iii) “Developing the
regional and international market—developing a sustainable and vibrant indigenous
space industry that promotes and responds to the needs of the African continent”,
(iv) “Adopting good governance and management—adopting good corporate
governance and best practices for the coordinated management of continental space
activities”, (v) “Coordinating the African space arena—maximising the benefit of
current and planned space activities, and avoiding or minimising the duplication of
resources and efforts”, and (vi) “Promoting international cooperation—promoting
an African-led space agenda through mutually beneficial partnerships”.21
The strategy also sets out “rolling milestones” as part of its implementation
framework, stipulating 1-year, 5-year, and 10-year outcomes. These short, medium,
and longer-term goals are critical for embedding space applications in Africa and
are listed in Table 2.1.
These actions summarise the most urgent steps needed to operationalise the
African Space Policy. Critically, the strategy document also emphasises a tech-
nology and space application ‘pull philosophy’ in line with user needs, alongside a
focus on research and development. The next section will delve into greater detail
17
Ibid., 10.
18
Ibid.
19
Ibid.
20
Ibid., 13.
21
Ibid.
Table 2.1 1-year, 5-year, and 10-year outcomes of the African Space Strategy
Projected 1-year outcomes
• Establishment of the governance elements needed for a sustainable space programme, including
regional centres of excellence
• Approval and implementation of an intercontinental and international partnership plan
• Approval and implementation of a human capital and infrastructure development plan
• On-going research, development and technology transfer programmes that will contribute to
building the foundations for a continental space programme
• An established continental space programme
• Appropriate technology platforms in place to support the various components of a continental
space programme
• Advances in human capital development that support the continental space programme
• Strategic partnerships, both intercontinental and international, through projects that promote
research and technology development
• Operational and on-going developments of space application services and products for the
broader public good
• Well-defined funding mechanisms for sustainability
• A continental space programme that is globally positioned and ranked in the world’s top 10
• Independent Earth observation high-resolution satellite data available for all of Africa from a
constellation of satellites designed and manufactured in Africa
• Appropriate services and products relating to space applications
• Indigenous space capacity, in terms of both technology platforms and human capital.
• Spin-off enterprises emanating from space activities and programmes
• Strategic partnerships, both within and outside Africa, that are translated into viable space
missions, applications, products and services
Source African Union, “African space strategy: towards social, political and economic
integration,”October, 2017, 24, https://au.int/sites/default/files/newsevents/workingdocuments/
33178-wdafrican_space_policy_-_st20444_e_original.pdf (accessed November 28, 2018)
regarding the key drivers of an African Space Agency in the form of the six
high-level policy goals.
2.3 High-Level Policy Goals Identified by the African

Space Policy
The ASPS finds its place within the AU vision of creating an “integrated, pros-
perous and peaceful Africa, driven by its own citizens and representing a dynamic
force in the global arena.”22 In general, the ASPS acknowledge the power of a
coordinated space programme across the continent to assist with the sustainable
development of Africa. Currently, few African countries have a space policy and
22
Ibid., 3.
programme and the fragmented nature thereof needs to be consolidated and

developed for the whole of Africa. To this end, the African Space Policy proposes
the six high-level policy goals:
• Addressing User Needs23: The purpose of this principle is to “…harness the

potential benefits of space science and technology in addressing Africa’s
socio-economic opportunities and challenges”. The ASPS proceeds to identify
further (subsidiary) objectives:
– Improving Africa’s economy and quality of life of its people by focusing on

space applications that “will be used to address the socio-economic develop-
mental needs of Africa by providing critical information for evidence-based
management of human habitats, ecosystems and natural resources”.
– Addressing the essential needs of the African market where “[s]pace-derived
services and products will be applied to address the essential information needs
of the African market” by leveraging and sharing the capacity of African space
countries in the form of “technological know-how and knowledge transfer on
data and information dissemination, and operational services and products”
with “non-space nations in Africa in order to leverage the full socio-economic
benefits”.
– Developing the requisite human resources for addressing user needs. In order to
meet the goals of the ASPS “Africa must develop and adopt critical/essential
learning programmes/tools needed to build its capacity and maintain the
widespread use of space technologies for its development”.
– Developing services and products using African capacities in order to create
internal efficiencies on the African continent.
– Establishing communities of practice that will be responsive to grassroots needs.
– Developing and enhancing early warning systems on the continent by making
use of a range of space applications.
The African Space Strategy identifies the following user needs (key priority
areas) in Africa: disasters, health, energy, climate, water, weather, ecosystems,
biodiversity, peace, safety and security, human migration and settlements, educa-
tion and human resources, communications, trade and industry, transport and
infrastructure.24 It also sets out the technical requirements to achieve for proper
intervention concerning the user needs by making use of earth observation, navi-
gation and positioning, satellite communications, and space science and astronomy.
With regard to space applications, the ASPS focuses on the following strategy:
(i) Developing a data sharing policy; (ii) Timely access to the right datasets;
(iii) Provisioning of appropriate services and products; (vi) Ensuring robust pro-
cessing capabilities; (v) Ensuring all levels of government are able to access data
through a centralised portal; (vi) Providing geospatial and scientific data for
23
African Union, “African space policy: towards social, political and economic integration,” 8–9.
24
African Union, “African Space Strategy: towards social, political and economic integration,” 18.
research and development, and education, and (viii) Providing geospatial data for
commercial exploitation at minimum cost.25
• Accessing Space Services26: The purpose of this principle is to “strengthen space

technology applications on the continent in order to ensure optimal access to
space-derived data, information services and products”. The further (subsidiary)
objectives are as follows:
– Using existing space infrastructure on which to build further capacity.

– Coherently developing, upgrading and operating cutting-edge African space
infrastructure that ensures optimal coordination, utilisation and
cost-effectiveness.
– Promoting capacity-building for the development of space services by making
use of existing related-institutions and the Pan-African University for Space
Science.
– Developing and increasing the space asset base without duplication.
– Establishing regional and sub-regional centres “to ensure that the continent is
appropriately capacitated and serviced in space science and technology”.
– Adopting data-sharing protocols “to ensure equitable access and data democ-
racy that is cost-effective and acceptable to all member states”.
The African Space Strategy identifies the following enabling technologies that
deserve development: (i) a wholly indigenous capability for the medium to
high-resolution payloads and subsystems, (ii) development of the SAR [synthetic
aperture radar] payload and subsystem requirements, and (iii) a geostationary
communications satellite with indigenous African participation on the technology
and engineering front.27
• Developing the Regional Market28: This principle must ensure that a sustain-
able and vibrant indigenous space is developed that responds to the needs of the
continent. The further (subsidiary) objectives are as follows:
– Developing a globally competitive African space programme by meeting the

globally accepted space standards and carving out a piece of the international
market.
– Creating an industrial capability with a focus that remains people-centred and
market-based that will lead to a cost-effective continental space programme.
– Promoting public-private partnerships in developing an innovative indigenous
and sustainable space industry by establishing appropriate commercialisation
frameworks and agreements to service the regional and foreign export markets.
25
Ibid., 20–21.
26
27
28
– Promoting R&D-led industrial development to create an innovative indigenous

space industry that must support an innovation value chain into services and
products for either commercial use or the broader public good.
– Using indigenous space technologies, products and services in Africa by
responding to the needs of the African space market.
• Adopting Good Governance and Management29: This will ensure the coor-
dinated management of African space activities. The further (subsidiary) objec-
tives are as follows:
– Establishing an organisational framework that “will coordinate all African

space activities and assets to serve the goals of this policy in an efficient and
cost-effective manner”.
– Financially supporting the African space programme in such a manner that
international cooperation is possible, but not at the expense of Africa mostly
financing the programme itself, thus enabling it to compete independently
within the international market.
– Maintaining an efficient and sustainable African space programme by imple-
menting key performance indicators for regular reviews to ensure that the
ASPS-goals are met.
– Promoting knowledge sharing as one of the strategic tools to ensure the sus-
tainability of an indigenous space sector.
– Maintaining an awareness campaign as space technology, applications and
services and its socio-economic benefits are not necessarily appreciated by all
African states.
– Monitoring and evaluating space activities to ensure “proper return on
investment, significant investment in people, best resource utilisation, proper
funding approaches, and an efficient risk management and mitigation strategy”.
• Coordinating the African Space Arena30: “To maximise the benefit of current
and planned space activities, and avoid or minimise duplication of resources and
efforts”. The further (subsidiary) objectives are as follows:
– Committing funds to optimise and improve effectiveness whereby the African

space-states must make available their space assets and resources and all
African states commit to funding the development of the African space
programme.
– Harmonising and standardising all infrastructure to ensure interoperability,
seamless integration of data, data integrity and data security that will enable the
sharing of knowledge.
29
Ibid., 12–13.
30
Ibid., 13–14.
– Regulating space activities so as to ensure the attainment of the

ASPS-objectives, the minimizing of conflicts of interest, and to ensure com-
pliance with all domestic, African and international law obligations.
– Securing the space environment for Africa’s use by ensuring “that wavelength
spectrums, orbital locations, quiet areas for radio astronomy and other assets
and rights, are secured for current and future continental and national space
activities in Africa” by, inter alia, joining organisations like the International
Telecommunications Union.
– Preserving and maintaining the long-term sustainability of outer space for
future generations by mitigating the negative effect any space activities may
have on space, such as space debris.
• Promoting Regional and International Cooperation31: The objective is to

promote the African-led space agenda through mutually beneficial partnerships.
The subsidiary objectives are as follows:
– Promoting intra-continental partnerships to leverage national strengths, activi-

ties and programmes of the various African countries, and also fostering
regional cooperation where necessary.
– Forging international partnerships in projects by which Africa will acquire
knowledge and experience.
– Fostering partnerships across all sectors such as academia, industry and gov-
ernment whereby “an enabling environment must be created to effect a fluid
transfer of scarce skills and knowledge between different economic sectors”.
– Facilitating partnerships on a principle of equal partners to ensure the inde-
pendent development of African space capability while protecting the African
initiative against stiff international competition when engaging with them.
– Ensuring a reasonable and significant financial and/or social return for Africa
when cooperating with international partners.
– Influencing international agreements and to take a joint African position in the
implementation of any such agreements.
The African Space Strategy focuses on the following space applications:

(i) Earth observation; (ii) Satellite communications; (iii) Navigation and position-
ing, and (iv) Space science and astronomy.32
31
Ibid., 14–15.
32
2.4 The African Union and Space
As seen above in the discussion of the ASPS, the African Union is the leading body
for promoting Africa’s broader space agenda. Since Morocco joined the AU in
January 2017, all 55 African states are members of the continental body (including
the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic). Thus, no African space activities can be
analysed or understood outside of the overarching AU framework, which includes
the developmental goals of Agenda 2063. Indeed, a core aspiration of Agenda 2063
is to make Africa “a major social, political and economic force in the world, with
her rightful share of the global commons (land, oceans and space)”.33 Agenda 2063
“is a strategic framework for the socio-economic transformation of the continent
over the next 50 years. It builds on, and seeks to accelerate the implementation of
past and existing continental initiatives for growth and sustainable development”.34
The AU has thus made provision in its aspirations to play a significant role in the
area of space. This is a promising milestone for the future of Africa and its pro-
motion of space on a national and local level for each member state.
On 19 and 20 December 2013 a group of space experts, tasked by the AU
Commission, met in South Africa to brainstorm a space strategy for the African
continent. This workshop was focused on helping develop an African space pro-
gramme, which will help to realize a better quality of life, and to build wealth, for
Africans. Space science and technology can, for example, help manage and mitigate
disease outbreaks, natural disasters, weather forecasting, climate change mitigation
and adaptation, food security, maritime activities and peacekeeping missions and
conflicts.35 In light of the above, the African continent is well underway to
becoming a notable player in space affairs.
On 31 January 2016, as mentioned earlier, member states of the AU adopted the
African space policy and strategy as one of the main programmes of Agenda
2063.36 The AU thus now realizes that through the adoption of this space policy
and strategy, some of Africa’s socio-economic challenges can be alleviated through
space technologies. Realizing the worth of space technologies to Africa, the AU
went further in developing this space policy and strategy by developing an
implementation architecture and governance frameworks for an African Space
Programme.37 However, the ASPS implementation is slow and member states have
formed a working group to execute this task speedily.
33
African Union Commission, Agenda 2063: The Africa We Want—Popular Version, 10.
34
African Union Commission, “What is Agenda 2063?,” n.d., https://www.au.int/web/en/
agenda2063 (accessed April 6, 2017).
35
African Union Commission, “AU Commission Holds an Experts’ Workshop on Designing an
African Space Strategy,” December 19, 2013, https://www.au.int/web/en/newsevents/27619/
au-commission-holds-experts%E2%80%99-workshop-designing-african-space-strategy (accessed
March 4, 2017).
36
Space Policy and Strategy.”.
37
Ibid.
Nevertheless, there have already been instances of successful space activities and
projects in Africa. The first example of the Pan-African space initiative is called
RASCOM (Regional African Satellite Communication Organisation), established in
1992. RASCOM took 20 years to become fully operational, and membership has
grown to 45 African countries.38 The AU should take this case study into con-
sideration when it starts a new agency/programme. RASCOM’s satellite launches
has managed to link 150 000 villages to access telecommunications services.39
The second example of the Pan-African space initiative is called the African
Resource Management (ARM) satellite constellation which the AU can leverage to
broaden access to, and participation in, space information and activities. Mostert
identifies the need for daily high-resolution imagery over the African continent, so
that applications can be developed that would support Africa’s economic growth in
sectors such as tourism and agriculture.40 This is one of the core functions of the
ARM constellation that began in 2003, following a data sharing agreement between
Kenya, South Africa, Nigeria and Algeria. The agreement requires of each of the
ARM constellation members to deploy a microsatellite that can meet the technical
requirements set out after a careful analysis of user needs. These requirements for
each stage of the project are: (ARM 1) multispectral with a resolution of 3–5 m,
with a revisit time of one per two days for land use, and once per month for
agriculture; (ARM 2) multispectral with 20–30 m resolution and swath of 600 km
and daily revisit time, or twice daily is possible; (ARM 3) Pan, RGB with 0.5 m
resolution and once per annum revisit time for areas of interest.41 Accordingly, as
part of the ARMS constellation agreement, the members share the data generated by
their individual satellites, which Mostert points out is “optimised for the use of
African countries for regional conditions”.42 Moreover, a core component of the
project is the human resource development in each participating country, consti-
tuting “the key to the long term success of the ARM system”.43 As noted below in
the discussion regarding the need for an African space agency, this existing
structure presented by the ARM constellation presents a promising avenue for
developing and broadening African space-related capabilities—the necessary
foundation for an eventual continent-wide agency.
Beyond these initiatives, Africa also hosts two Regional Centres for Space
Science and Technology Education, affiliated to the United Nations. These are
located in Morocco (for Francophone countries), and Nigeria (for Anglophone
countries)44. Thus, it is possible to argue that Africa has been participating in space
38
For a full list, please consult http://www.rascom.org/info_detail.php?langue_id=2&id_r=25&id_
sr=0&id_gr=2.
39
For more information on this initiative (and Rascom QAF 1R), please see https://spaceflightnow.
com/ariane/v196/.
40
Sias Mostert, “The African Resource Management (ARM) Satellite Constellation,” African
Skies/Cieux Africains 12, (2008): 53.
41
Ibid., 55.
42
Ibid., 53.
43
Ibid., 54.
44
L. Ngcofe and K. Gottschalk, “The growth of space science in African countries for Earth
observation in the 21st century,” South African Journal of Science 109, no. 1/2 (2013): 3.
activities, albeit at a low level. The challenge now, as recognised by the ASPS, is to
propel Africa into a higher level of participation in space. International Law, and in
particular Space Law, are vital elements of this effort, and are explored in the next
section.
2.5 Embedding Space Law in National Law of African

Countries
The exploration of space took centre stage in 1957 when Sputnik 1 (the first
satellite) travelled around the earth. This exploration led to the need to regulate
activities around space.45 In 1963, the United Nations adopted a Declaration reg-
ulating the use of space, and therefore space became part of international law as we
know it.46 In light of the fact that space was a new arena, it was difficult to create
relevant legislation which would adequately regulate this newfound subject matter.
Legal minds used the usual legal jurisprudence to try and tame/regulate this new
frontier. Some defined space as a res nullius which means belonging to nobody.
This term, by implication means that any country can acquire celestial bodies if it
belongs to no one. The state community opted to go with the same approach that
was taken towards the high seas, which is to accept space as res communes which
means it is not subject to any state’s sovereignty. States must thus not act in any
way that can negatively affect the use of space by other states.47 The latter is where
the laws around space emanated, and countries which are big players in space have
helped the international community to further establish these laws as space
exploration becomes more and more part of our everyday experience. In this sec-
tion, legal aspects pertaining to space will be delineated by considering the monist
and dualist schools of thought, International Law, and International Space Law (and
its associated treaties, principles, and resolutions). As a rising actor in the space
arena, the African continent must also grapple with these legal aspects, especially to
ensure that African countries can increasingly become part of the debate in the
Legal Subcommittee of UNCOPUOS, which is a topic for discussion later in this
chapter.
2.5.1 Monist-Dualist Approach in African Countries
The nuances between international law and national laws should ordinarily be in
sync with each other, however they tend to conflict due to varying opinions
between the international community and the member states. International space
45
P.H. Tuinder, “Basic principles of international space law,” In Keys to Space: An Interdisci-
plinary Approach to Space Studies, ed. A. Houston & M.J. Rycroft (Boston, Massachusetts:
McGraw-Hill, 1999). 12-3–12-9.
46
Ibid., 12-3.
47
Ibid., 12-5.
activities and laws are a good example of the juxtaposition of the views that
member states have and the views that the general international community has.
There are two differing schools of thought around these views. There is the monist
school of thought which advocates that international laws should apply to a state
and be binding directly to that state. The second school of thought is the dualist
school which advocates for both legal systems to work side by side—in other words
to take the international law and cascade it down to national law in order to make it
binding. The monist school of thought seems more robust in its approach to
applying the law, there is neither democracy nor collaboration in this school of
thought. The positive side of this school of thought is that it can ensure uniformity
among states in its application and applicability of the law. The dualist school of
thought is inclusive of states as it seeks to allow bespoke application of interna-
tional law by each individual state. This approach allows a state to apply the law in
a way which is befitting to the state as the challenges and maturity of each state are
different from country to country. The latter may lead to an implementable law
which can increase the success rate of its application in a state.
2.5.2 International Law
Space Law is a subset of International Law (IL). A brief overview of IL will thus be
an appropriate starting point. Dugard defines IL as “a body of rules and principles
which are binding upon states in their relation with one another”.48 These rules can
be divided between general rules applicable to a large body of states and/or other
international subjects—if not all—e.g. multilateral treaties, jus cogens49 rules and
erga omnes50 rules on the one hand, and particular rules that arise between a limited
number of states and international subjects e.g. bilateral treaties, on the other
hand.51 Different sub-fields of IL have developed over time and are still under
development since its modern version was devised by Hugo de Groot in 1625 in
reaction to the emergence of the modern state. Space activities itself are regulated
by an IL sub-field also known as International Space Law (ISL).
The sources of IL—and therefore ISL—are set out in Section 38(1) of
the Statute of the International Court of Justice as follows: (a) international con-
ventions or treaties (that can be general or particular in nature)52; (b) international
48
J. Dugard, International Law: A South African Perspective (Cape Town: Juta, 2012), 1.
49
Jus cogens refer to a peremptory international law norm that must be complied with without
deviation. Not many of these rules exist and are still mostly in development as this is a fairly new
feature of IL. Examples are the prohibition of aggression, genocide and slavery. Ibid.
50
Erga omnes are obligations “which a state owes to the international community as a whole and in
the enforcement of which all states have an interest”. Ibid., 38.
51
Ibid., 1.
52
Some examples are the United Nations Charter, the International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, signed and
ratified by a majority of states.
custom53; (c) general principles of law recognized by civilized nations54; and

(d) judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists, as
subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law.55
2.5.3 International Space Law
ISL started its development on a speculative basis before the launch of Sputnik into
space on October 4 of 1958.56 However, the launch of Sputnik moved states to
adopt rules that will have a real effect on their relations inter se with regard to space
activities. This resulted in the development of various international legal instru-
ments.57 The most important will be briefly discussed for later application.
2.5.3.1 Core Treaties
• The UN General Assembly (UNGA) adopted a resolution in 1958 to create the

United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCO-
PUOS).58 The work of UNCOPUOS culminated in the Declaration of Legal
Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer
Space (Space Declaration) at the UN General Assembly. This was the first
important step in creating a global framework for outer space law. It was
unanimously adopted by the UN General Assembly, including the USA and the
USSR, giving it special status.59
• The Space Declaration eventually developed into the Treaty on Principles
Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space,
53
The requirements to prove an IL rule developed by way of custom or conduct, requires the
following: (a) settled practice (usus) and the acceptance by a state that it is bound to a rule (opinion
juris), thus conduct and intention. See Dugard. Ibid., 26.
54
Legal principles found in municipal law can be used to fill gaps in IL. See Dugard. Ibid., 34.
55
Judicial decisions are increasingly used as more judgments are made by the International Court
of Justice and other international tribunals. Though IL does not make use of judicial precedent, the
practice is to refer to previous decisions. In contrast the teachings of publicists are used less due to
growing abundance of the other sources. Dugard. Ibid., 35.
56
In 1956, C. Wilfred Jenks published an article in The International and Comparative Law
Quarterly, namely “International Law and Activities in Space” (Volume 5, Issue 1, January 1956)
wherein he interrogates probable legal problems that could arise from activities in space, including
making contact with extra-terrestrial intelligence.
57
See the UN Treaties and Principles on Outer Space published by the UN Office for Outer Space
Affairs (2013): http://www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2013/stspace/stspace61_0_
html/st_space_61E.pdf.
58
The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) was also created to serve as the
secretariat to UNCOPUOS. Today it also maintains the UN register for objects launched into outer
space. See for more information: http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/aboutus/roles-responsibilities.
html.
59
The importance of the support given by the only two space-faring nations in the world at that
stage and the wide support it received from other states was to give these principles the status of
international custom even to date. Dugard. Ibid. 397.
Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies of 1967 [Outer Space Treaty
(OST)] which was ratified on 30 September 1968. This Treaty is the basis from
which the later treaties flowed and is regarded to be a codification of the Space
Declaration. It covers a wide array of matters from the status of space and
celestial bodies to principles of cooperation and support between states parties.60
• The Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts and the Return of Objects
Launched into Outer Space of 1968 [Rescue Agreement (ARRA)] which was
ratified on 6 October 1969 elaborates on aspects of Articles 5 and 8 of the OST,
and provides that States shall take all possible steps to rescue and assist astronauts
in distress returning them to the launching State, and shall provide assistance in
recovering space objects that return to Earth outside the territory of the launching
State.61
• The Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space
Objects of 1972 [Liability Convention (LIAB)] elaborates on Article 7 of the
OST and provides that a launching State shall be absolutely liable to pay com-
pensation for damage caused by its space objects on the surface of the Earth or to
aircraft, and shall be liable for damage due to its fault in space.62
• The Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space of 1976
[Registration Convention (REG)] provides for the keeping of a UN launch
register for all objects launched into space so as to identify the State party in
relation to certain responsibilities for their space objects.63
• The Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other
Celestial Bodies of 1979 [Moon Agreement (MOON)] was adopted by the
General Assembly in 1979, but it was not until June 1984, however, that the fifth
country, Austria, ratified the Agreement, allowing it to enter into force in July
1984 only. MOON reaffirms and elaborates on many of the OST provisions as
applied to the Moon and other celestial bodies and provides that these bodies
should: (a) be used exclusively for peaceful purposes; (b) that their environments
should not be disrupted, and (c) that the UN should be informed of the location
and purpose of any station established on those bodies. Notably, it provides that
the Moon and its natural resources are the common heritage of mankind and that
an international regime should be established to govern the exploitation of such
resources.64
60
Most importantly the OST establishes that space and celestial bodies are not available for
appropriation and that space is the “province of all mankind”. As at 01 January 2018 the following
number of States have signed and ratified the OST: 107 with 23 signatures. (http://www.unoosa.
org/documents/pdf/spacelaw/treatystatus/AC105_C2_2018_CRP03E.pdf).
61
As at 01 January 2018 the following number of States have signed and ratified the ARRA: 96
with 23 signatures.
62
As at 01 January 2018 the following number of States have signed and ratified the LIAB: 95 with
19 signatures.
63
As at 01 January 2018 the following number of States have signed and ratified the REG: 67 with
3 signatures.
64
As at 01 January 2018 the following number of States have signed and ratified the MOON: 18
with 4 signatures.
2.5.3.2 Other Treaties65

Other treaties—relevant to this enquiry—that contain elements of space activities
are as follows:
• Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and
under Water of 1963 (NTB) (regular multilateral treaty)66;
• Agreement Relating to the International Telecommunications Satellite Organi-
sation of 1971 (ITSO) (establishment of international organisation)67;
• Convention on the International Mobile Satellite Organisation of 1976 (IMSO)
(establishment of international organisation)68;
• International Telecommunication Constitution and Convention of 1992 (ITU)
(establishment of international organisation)69; and
• Constitutive Act of the African Union of 2000 (AU) (establishment of interna-
tional organisation).70
2.5.3.3 UN Principles
In addition, the following salient space-related principles/declarations were adopted
by the UNGA71:
• Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the

Exploration and Use of Outer Space (1963) [Outer Space Declaration (OSD)]72;
• The Principles Governing the Use by States of Artificial Earth Satellites for
International Direct Television Broadcasting (1982) [Direct Satellite Broadcast
Principles (DBS)]73;
• The Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space (1986)
[Remote Sensing Principles (REMSEN)]74;
65
Other treaties include, e.g. the Convention Relating to the Distribution of Programme-Carrying
Signals Transmitted by Satellite of 1974, and treaties related to the establishment of international
space organisations like INTERSPUTNIK, the European Space Agency, ARABSAT, INTER-
COSMOS, EUTELSAT, and EUMETSAT.
66
As at 01 January 2018 the following number of States have signed and ratified the NTB: 126
with 11 signatures.
67
As at 01 January 2018 the following number of States have signed and ratified the ITSO: 150
with 1 signatures.
68
As at 01 January 2018 the following number of States have signed and ratified the IMSO: 103.
69
As at 01 January 2018 the following number of States have signed and ratified the ITU: 193.
70
See https://au.int/web/sites/default/files/pages/32020-file-constitutiveact_en.pdf.
71
This is not a complete list of space-related resolutions. It is also important to note that the
resolutions do not constitute ISL, but may be indicative of international custom. See Dugard. Ibid.,
30.
72
The resolution was adopted without a vote. See http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/documents-and-
resolutions/search.jspx?&view=resolutions.
73
The resolution was adopted with a vote. See: https://library.un.org/sites/library.un.org/files/itp/
a37_0.pdf. p. 454.
74
The resolution was adopted without a vote: See http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/oosadoc/data/
resolutions/1986/general_assembly_41st_session/res_4165.html.
• The Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space
(1992) [Nuclear Space Principles (NUKESPACE)]75; and
• Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer
Space for the Benefit and in the Interests of All States, taking into Particular
Account the Needs of Developing Countries (1996) [Developmental Space
Principles (DEVSPACE)].76
2.5.3.4 Further UN Resolutions

Other space-related UNGA resolutions of note are:
• International cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space—Resolutions 1721

A and B (XVI) (PEACESPACE RES) (1961)77;
• International cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space—Some aspects
concerning the use of the geostationary orbit—Paragraph 4 of resolution 55/122
(GEO-ORB RES) (2000)78;
• Application of the concept of the “launching State”—Resolution 59/115
(LAUNCHSTATE RES) (2004)79;
• United Nations Platform for Space-based Information for Disaster Management
and Emergency Response (DISASTERMAN RES) (2006)80;
• International cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space—Resolution
endorsing the Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines developed by the Committee
on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space—Resolution 62/217 (SPACEDEB RES)
(2007)81;
• Recommendations on enhancing the practice of States and international inter-
governmental organisations in registering space objects—Resolution 62/101
(REGOB RES) (2007)82;
• Recommendations on national legislation relevant to the peaceful exploration
and use of outer space Resolution 68/74 (NATLEG RES) (2013)83;
75
resolutions/1992/general_assembly_47th_session/res_4768.html.
76
resolutions/1996/general_assembly_51st_session/ares51122.html.
77
78
Ibid.
79
Ibid.
80
Ibid.
81
The resolution was adopted with a vote. See: http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/oosadoc/data/
resolutions/2007/general_assembly_62nd_session/ares62217.html.
82
83
Ibid.
• Matters relating to activities under the United Nations Programme on Space

Applications (SPACEAPP RES) (2016).84
It is now appropriate to review African’s role in space-related international fora.
2.6 African Space Representation at UNCOPUOS

and Other International Fora
Following the launch of Sputnik-1, the UN established the Committee on the

Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS) in 1959, in order to govern the
exploration and use of outer space. The committee has, since then, been providing a
significant platform to discuss the issues of security, peace and governance in outer
space. Nevertheless, the participation of the African states in UNCOPUOS is
meagre. In fact, out of the 92 member states of UNCOPUOS, only 19 are African
states. These are South Africa, Kenya, Cameroon, Nigeria, Benin, Ghana, Sierra
Leone, Senegal, Burkina Faso, Niger, Chad, Sudan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Alge-
ria, Ethiopia, Mauritius, and Morocco.85 Moreover, in addition to the underrepre-
sentation of the African continent, the subcommittees of UNCOPUOS (namely the
Legal Subcommittee and the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee) lack the
participation and activism of African states. For instance, there were only seven
African countries at the 2017 Technical Subcommittee meeting of UNCOPUOS.86
Dennerley outlines in clear terms the risks for emerging space nations of not
actively participating in international space fora:
an essential strategy for the inclusion of developing countries is their active participation in
these groups, committees and meetings, because inevitably their competitors will be there.
An attitude of apathy toward the development of international standards will simply leave
certain States behind. Therefore, the less active emerging space nations are in developing
their own space standards, the more likely it may be that these States will be at risk of being
sidelined by an elite grouping of established space nations that can, and do, influence the
development of international space standards.87
84
The resolution was adopted without a vote. See http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/oosadoc/data/
resolutions/2015/general_assembly_70th_session/ares70230.html.
85
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, “Members of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses
of Outer Space,” 2019, http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/members/index.html (accessed February 3,
2019).
86
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, “Scientific and Technical Subcommittee: 2017,”
2017, http://www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2017/aac_105c_12017crp/aac_105c_
12017crp_2_0_html/AC105_C1_2017_CRP02E.pdf (accessed March 16, 2017).
87
J.A. Dennerley, “Emerging Space Nations and the Development of International Regulatory
Regimes,” Space Policy 35, (2016): 29.
Accordingly, on a regional and continental governmental level, another initiative

that could be undertaken that would further Agenda 2063 Aspiration 7 (“Africa as a
strong, united, resilient and influential global partner and player/Africa Speaks with
One Voice on Global Affairs”) is a closer coordination at global space fora,
especially UNCOPUOS. However, African membership there is far from universal,
and there are great divides regarding resources and capabilities. Political initiatives,
either at regional level (for example in the Southern African Development Com-
munity—where South Africa and Mauritius are the only UNCOPUOS members) or
continentally in the AU, could encourage further membership and attendance at
international space fora, or potentially provide some level of support for those
members states willing to attend but that lack the funds or required expertise.
Unless the majority of African states actively participate in space fora, Africa will
have great difficulty speaking with one voice or breaking down the impression that
space applications are a luxury for only a few states. Such an endeavour will
undoubtedly be a long-term one, but short-term steps such as encouraging states to
join UNCOPUOS or attend and participate when they are already members can be
undertaken. This can go some way towards promoting further political support of
space activities across the continent.
It is useful to consider again the importance of counteracting the apathy of many
developing and emerging space nations—“emerging space nations must make an
effort to participate in the space regulation and standard setting processes at both
domestic and international levels”, with an awareness that:
it is not enough to invest in technology. One must also have the capacity to understand and
shape regulatory agendas around technologies. Therefore, emerging space nations must
educate and train professionals and governmental officials … identifying key agencies and
actors, and look to enroll them into capacity building programs … increase their presence
and participation at various multi-lateral international fora … [and build] increased regional
or multi-lateral cooperation between emerging space nations.88
Without this cooperation and participation, and a robust African voice, there is a
risk that the African space agenda will be shaped by only a few leading states. As
Abiodun notes, in an example of space hazards, “even if few countries are yet active
in space, they are equally at risk from asteroid and space weather hazards, and also
need to feel that, once they are in a position to build and launch their own satellites,
these will still find room in crowded orbits”.89 This is also related to more equitable
cost sharing of space initiatives, as an “absence of funding support is plaguing the
two UN-affiliated centres in Morocco and Nigeria because, in both cases, the
financial burden of keeping them afloat is shouldered mostly by the host country”.90
There is still much work to be done before dreams such as the African Space
Agency can be fully realised. It to a discussion of such an agency that the next
section turns.
88
Ibid., 29–31.
89
Abiodun, “Trends in the Global Space Arena—Impact on Africa and Africa’s Response,” 286.
90
Ibid., 289.
2.7 The Need for an African Space Agency?
In the first 10-year implementation plan of the African Union’s Agenda 2063, the
setting up of an African Space Agency is stated as one of the goals for the conti-
nent. The implementation plan explicitly states that “An African Space Agency
would have been established by 2023”, and that, in alignment with this, the AU
would “[f]ully implement all commitments/agreements required for the establish-
ment of the African Space Agency, including pooling of resources and sharing of
knowledge in space related areas”.91 Thus, having set in place the African Space
Policy and Strategy, the goal of establishing an African Space Agency is fully
supported in the first 10-year Agenda 2063 implementation plan. Similarly, the
African Space Strategy’s rolling milestones call for the creation of an “established
continental space programme” within five years of the adoption of the ASPS (thus
around 2021—as depicted in Table 2.1 above).
However, the debate has been ongoing regarding the need and specific imple-
mentation of such an African Space Agency, with the foremost participants being
Martinez, Aganaba-Jeanty, Munsani, Nicolaides, Gottschalk, and Offiong.
Reviewing this debate will shed light on the many dynamics behind the estab-
lishment of a continental space agency in Africa.
In 2008, Gottschalk forwarded an argument in support of an African Space
Agency, specifically about the following: to “facilitate … inclusion for researchers
working in universities and other institutes in countries without national space or
remote sensing agencies”; “to compile an inventory of space infrastructure in Africa
that was previously operated by foreign space agencies, and explore how Africa
itself can make better use of them”; “take the lead in helping Africa take up …
foreign offers of technology cooperation” and in line with this, “rather than national
space agencies, to negotiate future MOUs and agreements with NASA … and other
space agencies”.92 It is thus clear that for Gottschalk, one of the advantages of an
African Space Agency is that it is better placed to negotiate with foreign space
agencies and governments on space-related matters than any individual national
African agency and that it would be able to draw on the talents of the entire
continent’s researchers and space professionals.
In 2012 however, Martinez argued that any African Space Agency should
emerge from “a bottom-up evolutionary process”.93 As such, Martinez noted that
“[u]ntil such time as there are established space programmes and capabilities in the
different regions of Africa, and established modalities of space cooperation among
those regions, it would be premature to discuss the creation of an African Space
91
Plan 2014-2023,” 2015, 24 & 81, http://www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/pdf/au/agenda2063-
first10yearimplementation.pdf (accessed March 4, 2017).
92
Kieth Gottschalk, “Roles of Africa's Institutions in Ensuring Africa's Active Participation in the
Space Enterprise: The Case for an African Space Agency,” African Skies/Cieux Africains 12,
(2008): 27–28.
93
Peter Martinez, “Is there a need for an Africa space agency?,” Space Policy 28, (2012): 145.
Agency”.94 Since, even in 2019 it can be identified that such programmes and
capabilities are distributed extremely unevenly across Africa, and that cooperation
is still limited to the major space-faring actors such as South Africa, Nigeria, Egypt
and Algeria, together with a small group of other states, Martinez’s argument about
an African Space Agency being premature could still apply. Martinez also con-
sidered the example of the ARM (discussed above), identifying that “even a
comparatively simple cooperative project … can take longer than a decade to
develop” and “the ARM initiative came about without a continental agency to drive
it”—thus identifying the possibility for cooperation to come about through
smaller-scale initiatives.95
Martinez also argued that “a new multinational agency with partners having very
limited space experience will not result in synergy, it will in fact lead to a dilution
of the individual efforts”, and related to this, the challenge of funding means that
“We should avoid creating any new continental institutions, and rather support and
strengthen already existing institutions”.96 On this point, Martinez emphasises that
the European Space Agency itself emerged through existing initiatives, with leading
members of ESA having established national space programmes already.97 Finally,
Martinez cautions against over-estimating the importance or priority of space on the
African political agenda, and to promote space the best approach is to “emphasize
the role of space as an instrument to support various primary policies at national and
regional level”.98 This also links up with Martinez’s argument in another publi-
cation99 regarding South Africa’s national space policy, that space policy, in gen-
eral, is “ancillary policy, that is, policy in support of primary policy in areas such as
human and environmental security, peace and stability, etc.”.100 Establishing clear
links for space applications to support primary policy goals is thus the best way to
promote space and advance its importance on the political agenda, before estab-
lishing an African Space Agency.
Thus, Koschatziky and Knoll further point out that, added to the financial
challenge, a challenge to the regional cooperation in the development of science,
technology and innovation that can stir Africa towards realizing her dream of an
African space agency, is the lack of policy directives to pull resources towards
science, technology and innovation.101 Governance structures in Africa affect the
development of enabling conditions for funding of science, technology, and
94
Ibid., 143.
95
Ibid.
96
Ibid., 144.
97
Ibid., 143.
98
Ibid., 145.
99
Peter Martinez, “The Development and Initial Implementation of South Africa’s National Space
Policy,” Space Policy 37, (2016): 30–31.
100
Ibid.
101
K. Koschatzky and H. Knoll, “Which side of the coin? The regional governance of science and
innovation,” Regional Studies 41, no. 8 (2007): 1115–1127.
innovation that can take space science and technology to greater heights.102,103
Rather than investing in space science for long-term goals of ending poverty, many
African states weigh in on poverty alleviation short-term programmes. Space sci-
ence is thus often regarded as unnecessary by many African governments.
Furthermore, the fact that the African continent is divided into eight Regional
Economic Communities (RECs) makes collaboration and cooperation at the con-
tinental level challenging to achieve.104 The goals of the RECs in science, tech-
nology and innovation differ because they are grounded in national aspirations and
at the same time RECs differ in their backgrounds. With such differences at the
regional level, it would be worse at the continental level. Munsami and Nicolaides
argue that since the ASPS is pushed from the African Union platform, disagree-
ments on differing agendas are likely to collapse the whole project.105 It could thus
be a viable option for individual African states first to develop national space
policies and strategies and then integrate them later.
In further doubting the benefits and opportunities coming with the establishment
of an African continental space agency, Martinez laments the lack of a robust
industrial base in Africa to support this endeavour.106 While it has been argued that
the establishment of the African Space Agency is likely to boost the African
aerospace industrial base, Martinez notes that the trickle effect is going to be felt
outside Africa where there are already strong industrial bases, particularly in the
aerospace field.
To add, Martinez brings forth the synergy argument. While he supports the idea
of cooperation so as to share economic burden of establishing and running the
African space agency, he observes that cooperation under the banner of ARMC,
where agreements on “common priorities”, “common requirements”, and “technical
autonomy” are retained, would be better compared with a situation where “over-
heads and potential pitfalls of cooperation are greater”.107
Responding to Martinez, Aganaba-Jeanty agrees that “[t]hough it is imperative
for Africa to pursue developmental leapfrogs, running too fast can lead to grazed
knees”.108 Accordingly, the first step to an African Space Agency should be
“development and enhancement of mechanisms such as the African Leadership
Conference” and to “take greater advantage of established networks of international
102
Martinez, “Is there a need for an Africa space agency?.”.
103
V. Munsami and A. Nicolaides, “Investigation of a Governance Framework for an African
Space Programme,” Space Policy, (2017): 1–27.
104
These RECs are: the Arab Maghreb Union (AMU/UMA), the Economic Community of West
African States (ECOWAS), the East African Community (EAC), the Intergovernmental Authority
on Development (IGAD), the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the Common
Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) External, the Economic Community of
Central African States (ECCAS), and the Community of Sahel-Saharan States (CENSAD). For
more information, please visit https://www.au.int/web/en/organs/recs.
105
Munsami and Nicolaides, “Investigation of a Governance Framework for an African Space
Programme.”.
106
Martinez, “Is there a need for an Africa space agency?.”.
107
Ibid., 143.
108
cooperation”.109 Taking a similar stance to Martinez, Aganaba-Jeanty forwards the

argument that “the current and aspirant African space nations” must step forth to
take decisive leadership roles for the African Space Agency to eventually become a
success. However, this requires careful coordination since this could devolve to a
“leadership competition at the wider regional level” (given the differing agendas of
the RECs), and thus a good approach could be to foster closer cooperation within
each of the eight African Regional Economic Communities (RECs), where a single
country might take up a leadership role.110
Aganaba-Jeanty also concurs with Martinez on the point of industrial develop-
ment. Martinez posited that, in contrast to some expectations that an African Space
Agency will stimulate African industrial development in the space arena, a situation
could arise where the agency “would become a sort of clearinghouse to consider
proposals from entities outside of Africa for space systems devised by the inter-
national industry to solve Africa’s needs”, which “will not result in the development
of African industry”.111 Aganaba-Jeanty believes it “is inevitable that this will
indeed be the case”.112 The only antidote is investing in innovation in Africa so that
local industries can be created and sustained, and that could compete on the global
stage. Technology transfer is afforded a key role here.
Moreover, Aganaba-Jeanty argues for a ‘hybrid paradigm’ involving “a com-
bination of in-house development and acquisition of foreign technology”.113
Beyond this, funding is again highlighted as a continuing challenge, with Nigeria’s
UN Space Science centre (mentioned earlier) being solely financially supported by
Nigeria itself, even though the states of the wider region have benefited. No doubt
this will remain a challenge to any African Space Agency as well if funding of
smaller-scale efforts remains unequal and problematic. Finally, Aganaba-Jeanty
calls for closer consideration of the Asian experience with the Asia Pacific Space
Cooperation Organisation (APSCO) and the Asia Pacific Space Regional Agency
Forum (APRSAF). These can provide a more fruitful model for Africa than the
European Space Agency (ESA), as “having different cooperative regimes instead of
one framework such as ESA could create constructive impacts to regional space
governance”, to which end the “African Leadership Conference could be given
more influence and evolve into something like APRSAF with operational projects
of its own. This kind of cooperation on regional projects could lead to fostering
competition, synergy, industrial development and capacity building without the
challenges, political and otherwise as faced by the institutional model”.114
While Munsami and Nicolaides primarily focus on the more technical aspects of
a governance framework for an African space programme in their paper, they do
note that Africa’s science, technology, and innovation (STI) base is among the
109
Ibid.
110
Ibid.
111
Martinez, “Is there a need for an Africa space agency?,” 144.
112
113
Ibid.
114
Ibid., 172.
weakest in the world.115 Additionally, they also reflect the sentiment that, within the
AU, there are competing agendas that contribute to disunity and lack of collective
action—a severe concern for Africa’s space efforts.116 They also lament that the AU
is primarily funded by foreign donors, with the result that “Member States do not
feel obliged to undertake or commit to constructive action at the continental
level”.117 These are all serious challenges to the successful implementation of an
African Space Agency, even before considering Aganaba-Jeanty’s view that the
“primary obstacle to the establishment of an ASA in the apparent lack of visible
support from space capable African countries”, in other words, champions.118
Munsami and Offiong further reflect on whether an African Space Agency should
follow the European space governance model, and they make the comment that
differences between the EU and AU are important factors to consider, such as that
the AU is given direction by its members while the EU to a large extent gives
direction to its members.119 They recommend that “the proposed governance
framework for an African space programme must concede that centralised control
could be counter-productive, but rather a hybrid model of bootstrapping national
competencies with regional level programmes will be a preferred option”.120
It is thus clear that the scholarly debate around the goal of an African Space
Agency reveals that there is much more work to be done, not only regarding
establishing a suitable governance framework but in meeting the broader challenges
posed to such an undertaking. Viable alternatives, or at least initial steps, such as
developing national competencies, and then collaborating “through alignment of
national programmes that still retain their autonomy at a technical and operational
level” in order to gain experience, followed by “cooperative programmes with an
element of technical cooperation” do bear consideration and discussion before
moving forward with a continental-level project.121 Thus, in short, there is a need
for an African space agency, but this cannot and must not be rushed.
2.8 Implementation of the African Space Agency
Despite the ongoing scholarly arguments for or against the establishment of the
African space agency, the reality is that the AfSA has been established in the legal
sense. This is because the Assembly of the AU adopted the Statute of the African
Space Agency during its 30th Ordinary Session from 28–29 January 2018 in Addis
115
Munsami and Nicolaides, “Investigation of a Governance Framework for an African Space
Programme,” 1.
116
Ibid., 2.
117
Ibid.
118
119
V. Munsami, and E. O. Offiong, “Should Africa follow the European space governance model
for an African space programme?,” Space Policy, (2017): 6.
120
Ibid.
121
Martinez, “Is there a need for an Africa space agency?,” 145.
Ababa, Ethiopia.122 Thus, AfSA is established as an Organ of the African Union,

dedicated to promoting, advising and coordinating the development and utilisation
of space science and technology in Africa and associated regulations for the benefit
of Africa and the world, and forging intra-African and international cooperation.123
The primary objectives of AfSA is to promote and coordinate the implementation of
the African Space Policy and Strategy and to conduct activities that exploit space
technologies and applications for sustainable development and improvement of the
welfare of African citizens.124 The institutional governance and management of
AfSA consists of (a) the Assembly, (b) Heads of State and Government
Championing-Education, Science and Technology, (c) the Executive Council,
(d) the African Union Specialised Technical Committee on Education, Science and
Technology; (e) The African Space Council; (f) Advisory Committee; and (g) the
Secretariat.125 Therefore, we can infer from Article 2 of the Statute Establishing
AfSA, that the role of the African Space Agency is hybrid, in the sense that it will
implement the African Space Policy and Strategies and at the same time coordinate
space activities in the continent in order to avoid duplication of efforts.
What is the legal status of the Statute Establishing AfSA? In terms of Article 20
of the Statute of AfSA, it entered into force upon its adoption by the Assembly.
Hence, as alluded to earlier the Assembly adopted the Statute of AfSA in its
Decision No. 676 (Assembly/AU/Dec.676(XXX)) at its 30th Ordinary Session.126
Therefore, we know that the Assembly is required to act by decisions, and those
decisions are binding on the Member States and organs of the African Economic
Community, as well as regional economic communities. Moreover, the decisions
are automatically enforceable thirty (30) days after the date of their signature by the
Chairman of the Assembly.127 Consequently, the African Space Agency has been
established in a legal sense, therefore, what remains is for the Member States to
implement and/or enforce the provisions of the Statute Establishing the AfSA
[Egypt was recently selected as host for AfSA in line with this].
122
African Union Commission. 2018. Decisions, Declarations and Resolution of the Assembly of
the Union Thirtieth Ordinary Session Assembly. Available: https://au.int/en/decisions/decisions-
declarations-and-resolution-assembly-union-thirtieth-ordinary-session [2019, February 1].
123
Article 2 of the Statute Establishing the African Space Agency (herein referred to as the Statute
of AfSA).
124
Article 4 of the Statute of AfSA.
125
Article 8 of the Statute of AfSA.
126
African Union Commission. 2018. Decisions, Declarations and Resolution of the Assembly of
the Union Thirtieth Ordinary Session Assembly. Available: https://au.int/en/decisions/decisions-
declarations-and-resolution-assembly-union-thirtieth-ordinary-session [2019, February 1].
127
Article 10 of the Treaty Establishing the African Economic Community (Abuja Treaty, 1991).
2.9 Conclusion
This chapter has attempted to identify some of the critical issues concerning
Africa’s approach to outer space on the continental (macro) level. The cornerstone
of this approach is provided by the African Space Policy and Strategy (ASPS),
especially the high-level policy goals that constitute the ‘drivers’ of an African
space programme, and the alignment of these with Agenda 2063 and the UN SDGs.
Some examples of existing international initiatives in space were then highlighted,
most notably the ARM constellation. The legal aspects of space were then explored,
which are as pertinent to Africa as to any other region, but even more so as Africa
as a whole has limited experience in the space arena. It was then also considered
how vital African participation at high-level space fora (most notably UNCOPUOS)
is, especially in representing the continent’s interests and for Africans to help shape
the global agenda. Finally, the debate around the need for an African Space Agency
was explored, and some issues were identified that emphasise conscientious con-
sideration of existing challenges in the journey to a continental agency, as well as
highlighting existing initiatives and experiences that can be strengthened and
expanded as an initial (and arguably essential) step.
All of these themes will come to the fore in the following chapters that will
present detailed space-related profiles of selected African countries, to better
illustrate how they are addressing their specific development goals and how space
applications support these.
2.10 African Country Profiles
The discussion of the selected African countries included in the following chapters
provides a good representation of the range of, and variation in, African space
capabilities and activities. The space activities of each country are analysed by
considering the background of the country with regards to space with reference to
space capabilities, accession to international treaties and support for UN and AU
declarations, resolutions and policies, its local policies and laws, if any, its relevant
challenges and development goals, and finally how it is setting out to meet those
challenges and goals with space applications. The aim here is to provide an over-
view of some of the ways in which African countries are utilising space applications
to meet national development goals and challenges. In turn, this can be used to
identify areas of common ground, where possible linkages can be created for
benefit-sharing, and to create new opportunities for the adoption of space appli-
cations. In relation to South Africa, an additional chapter considers the country’s
current vulnerabilities and capabilities relating to space weather, and provides good
insight into the ways in Africa’s capabilities in this area are being developed. In
Fig. 2.1 African countries covered in the following chapters
relation to Sudan and South Sudan, these two states are treated together in one
chapter. In total, there are thus 17 chapters covering the space activities of 17 rising
African space actors, namely Algeria, Angola, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya,
Morocco, Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, Tunisia,
Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. These are highlighted in Fig. 2.1, giving an
indication of the diverse African regions and space capabilities included in this
volume. However, the information presented in Chap. 20 (especially the African
Space Ranking Matrix) includes an overview of all African countries.
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Author Biographies
Okeletsang Mookeletsi is an attorney managing the Africa region for SAS Institute Proprietary
Limited located in Johannesburg, South Africa. She obtained her LLB degree in 2006 from Wits
University and obtained a dispute resolution diploma with the Arbitration Foundation of Southern
Africa in 2013. She is now underway with a Master degree in the philosophy of space studies at
UCT. She has been a corporate attorney for 11 years working in big companies including Mobile
Telephone Networks (telecommunications), Nedbank Limited (Banking), British Petroleum
(Petrochemicals) and now SAS Institute which is a data analytics company. She is a member of the
Corporate Counsel Association of South Africa (CCASA), Mandela Washington Young African
leaders Initiative (YALI) and a member of the National Council of African Women. She currently
resides in Johannesburg, South Africa.
Anton Alberts is admitted as an advocate/barrister of the High Court of South Africa specialising
in the legal fields of media law, ICT and space law. He is currently a Member of Parliament in
South Africa and serves as a full member on the Parliamentary Portfolio Committee on Trade and
Industry where he, amongst others, promotes the development of the country’s space industry. He
received his legal education at the University of Johannesburg where he obtained the degrees, BA
(Law), LLB, and LLM [International Law (Cum Laude)], as well as an M.Phil. in Futures Studies
from the University of Stellenbosch. He is a prolific researcher and has published several legal
works. Anton’s focus is now increasingly on Space Law and its development for a new era of
cooperation between government and private industry.
Alexander Gairiseb is an MPhil in Space Studies postgraduate student at the University of Cape
Town, and also pursuing the MBA in Aviation Management at the University of Petroleum &
Energy Studies in India. He received his Bachelor of Laws with honours from the University of
Namibia and currently working as an aviation security inspector: regulations at the Ministry of
Works and Transport (Namibia).
Part II
Country Reports
South Africa
3
Anton Alberts
Abstract
South Africa has historically been the most economically advanced country on
the continent of Africa and this factor coupled with its strategic geographic
position has placed it in an advanced position regarding the early development
and application of space resources and engagement in space activity. This
resulted in South Africa engaging in earth segment activities and scientific
research since the early part of the Cold War. During the late stages of the Cold
War the country also engaged in research and development of non-human space
flight capabilities that were eventually cancelled as the country moved to a new
political dispensation. Post-Cold War and post-1994 after entering a new
political era, research in, development and launch of satellites first came from the
university sector. The government followed up the initiative, followed by private
companies and this has now resulted in the development of satellites by a mix of
actors in South Africa: government, universities and private companies.
Ground-based space activities have also escalated with various astronomy
projects like MeerKAT and the Square Kilometre Array. The sum total of these
space activities already presents a force for good in South Africa’s economy.
3.1 Background
The Republic of South Africa is located in Southern Africa, bordering Botswana,

Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia, Swaziland, and Zimbabwe. Its climate is mostly
semiarid and subtropical along the East coast. South Africa is rich in natural
A. Alberts (&)
90 Plein Street, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05980-4_3
60 A. Alberts
resources such as, gold, chromium, coal, iron ore, nickel, phosphates, tin, rare earth
elements, uranium, gem diamonds, platinum, copper, vanadium, salt, and natural
gas.1 The country has an advanced infrastructure system with thousands of kilo-
metres of good tarred roads, rail systems and air transport, especially around urban
areas with roads stretching into the most desolated areas, one of the best banking
systems in the world, a huge mineral resource exploration and mining industry, a
large and sophisticated agricultural economy that regularly exports surplus crops
despite increasing drought and farm safety conditions, a strong pension funds
industry and various government incentives and self-funding institutions, like the
Industrial Development Corporation, that invests in viable economic projects, to
name but a few characteristics that places South Africa apart from the rest of the
African continent. Until recently, South Africa was the largest economy on the
African continent, but has since been overtaken by Nigeria and later Egypt,
although these positions seem to fluctuate to some degree.
There are, however, currently severe challenges, mostly political in origin that
places pressures on the strengths outlined supra. This can, however, be resolved
with the right amount of pressure brought to bear by active citizens’ movements in
between election-cycles and the very effective electoral system where political
parties contest for power during the election cycle.
One of the interesting facts about South Africa’s space activity history is that
despite its various political stages, it never shrunk back, politically and more
important scientifically, from participating in the unfolding space sphere even
before the launch of Sputnik in 1957. The country’s geographic location also made
it particularly important for space activities. Therefore, South Africa’s scientific
community, like the global scientific community, succeeded in continuing to
cooperate despite the overbearing politicised world in the form of the Cold War
after the end of the Second World War.
South Africa’s role as a space-player will be discussed infra by reference to the
space-related activities, national legislation, and international law compliance over
two main periods, the pre-1994 dispensation and the post-1994 dispensation.
3.2 Pre-1994 Dispensation
3.2.1 Space-Related Activities
South Africa’s foray into the world of space activities started out with an astro-
nomical observatory progressing on to space object tracking and culminating into
prospective rocket design and assembly and satellite design, assembly and opera-
tion, and the creation and use of space applications. An example of early
space-related activity is the creation of the South African Astronomical Observatory
1
Central Intelligence Agency, “The World Factbook: South Africa,” n.d., https://www.cia.gov/
library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sf.html (accessed August 10, 2017).
3 South Africa 61
(SAAO) in 1820, which later on made use of the newly invented technique of
astro-photography to perform the first distance measurement to the nearest star.
Today the SAAO forms part of South Africa’s National Research Foundation
(NRF) with its telescopes situated 15 km outside the small Karoo town of
Sutherland.2 Of special relevance is the Southern African Large Telescope (SALT)
that has been in operation since 2011 and is regarded as “the largest single optical
telescope in the southern hemisphere and among the largest in the world. It has a
hexagonal primary mirror array 11 m across, comprising 91 individual 1 m
hexagonal mirrors”.3
Another space-related activity of relevance was the establishment of the United
States’ (US) National Astronautical and Space Administration’s (NASA) Deep
Space Station 51 at Hartebeesthoek (known today as the Hartebeesthoek Radio
Astronomy Observatory (HRAO) and operated under the auspices of the NRF) that
provided ground support for many of NASA’s unmanned missions during the latter
half of the 20th century. Notable was support provided for Mariner IV’s fly-by of
Mars, the first in human history, tracking and support for various explorative lunar
orbit and landing missions for the US Lunar Orbiter, Ranger and Surveyor mis-
sions, Mariner V’s Venus fly-by, support for Pioneer 8—an interplanetary weather
satellite—that measured the Sun’s winds, and the participation of South African
Earth Scientists in the investigation of lunar soil samples returned by the Apollo
manned moon missions.4 The ground support and monitoring activities of the
HRAO are still continuing today.5
Further to this, South Africa initiated the Greensat Programme during the late
1980s into the early 1990s.6 This entailed the development of a South African earth
observation satellite and would have been the country’s first ever satellite. The
project originally started out as a military reconnaissance satellite to be launched on
a RSA-3 rocket.7 This indicated that pre-1994 South Africa probably had space
launch capability. It is known that rockets were tested at the government’s Houwteq
facility near Cape Town. In 1993 as the country moved towards a new political
settlement and dispensation, the project was changed to a civilian earth observation
satellite development. The RSA-3 rocket project was cancelled and in 1994 the
Greensat project was cancelled due to a lack of funds. This also represented the end
of the pre-1994 satellite and launch programmes.8
2
South African Astronomical Observatory, “History,” 2017, http://www.saao.ac.za/about/history/
(accessed August 10, 2017).
3
Ibid.
4
F. Ghadaki, “An Overview of Past and Future South African Space Activities,” Spaceref, 2010,
http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewnews.html?id=1458 (accessed August 10, 2017).
5
Hartebeesthoek Radio Astronomy Observatory, “Summary: History,” n.d., http://www.hartrao.ac.
za/summary/sumeng.html (accessed August 10, 2017).
6
Peter Martinez, “Africa in Space (EEE5124Z Lecture notes),” Department of Electrical
Engineering in the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of Cape Town,
2017, 40.
7
South African National Space Agency, “South African Satellites,” 2015, http://atlas.sansa.org.za/
atlas-sa_satellites.html (accessed August 10, 2017).
8
Ibid.
62 A. Alberts
3.2.2 National Legislation
Just before South Africa’s political transition to a new constitutional dispensation,

the country promulgated its first focused space-related legislation, namely the Space
Affairs Act No. 84 of 1993 as later amended by the Space Affairs Amendment Act of
1995. The South African Space Affairs Act established the South African Council
for Space Affairs (SACSA) and is currently the primary legislation in South Africa
providing the legal framework for the regulation of matters pertaining to outer space
and related activities in South Africa. SACSA was established to operate under the
authority of the Minister of Trade and Industry and the Department of Trade and
Industry (DTI) to exercise space-related regulatory functions and advise the Min-
ister on all space-related matters.9
The Space Affairs Act regulates, amongst others, the following space-related
activities10:
• The establishment of a National Space Policy for the country;

• The establishment of the South African Council for Space Affairs (SACSA) to
regulate space-related activities in the country;
• SACSA to advise the Minister of Trade and Industry on the country’s interna-
tional obligations and related matter in space affairs;
• SACSA to authorise and supervise space activities within the borders of the
country or in cases where subjects fall under the country’s jurisdiction;
• SACSA to create and maintain a national register of domestic space entities;
• SACSA to ensure the safety of all space-related activities.
The Space Affairs Act is currently under review by the DTI, since South Africa’s
space programme has outgrown the legislative framework foreseen in the Act, as
discussed infra.
3.2.3 International Law Compliance
South Africa signed the following three major international outer space treaties and
ratified two of the treaties before 1994 (note that the third treaty’s signature
pre-dates 1994 while ratification only took place post-1994):
• Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and

Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (Outer Space
Treaty), entered into force on 10 October 1967: Signed by South Africa on
01/03/1967 and ratified on 30/09/1968 (ratification instrument deposited in
9
South African Council for Space Affairs, “Space Council Home,” n.d., http://www.sacsa.gov.za/
(accessed August 10, 2017).
10
Department of Trade and Industry, “Review of the Space Affairs Act No. 84 of 1993
[Presentation],” May 12, 2015, https://www.thedti.gov.za/parliament/2015/Space_Act.pdf (ac-
cessed August 10, 2017).
3 South Africa 63
Washington), 08/10/1968 (ratification instrument deposited in London), and

14/11/1968 (ratification instrument deposited in Moscow)11;
• Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return
of Objects launched into Outer Space (Rescue Agreement), entered into force on
3 December 1968: Signed by South Africa on 06/08/1968 and ratified on
24/09/196912;
• Convention on the International Liability for Damage caused by Space Objects
(Liability Convention), entered into force on 1 September 1972: Signed by South
Africa on 29/03/1972 and only ratified post-1994 on 14/12/2011 (United Nations
Office for Outer Space Affairs [UNOOSA], 2017).13
According to the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), the
other space-related treaties supported by South Africa during the pre-1994 period
were as follows:
• Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and
under Water (Nuclear Test Ban Treaty), entered into force on 10 October 1963:
Signed by South Africa on 10/10/1963 and ratified on the same date14; and
• Agreement relating to the International Telecommunications Satellite Organi-
sation (ITSO) that created the international satellite institution known as
INTELSAT, entered into force on 12 February 1973: Signed by South Africa on
20/08/1971 and ratified on 12/02/1973.15
In addition, South Africa supports 11 United Nations General Assembly

(UNGA) declarations, principles and resolutions related to space affairs that are not
legally binding in nature but does have persuasive effect and may in certain cir-
cumstances constitute international customary law.
11
United Nations, “Treaties: Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the
Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies: South
Africa,” n.d., https://treaties.un.org/pages/showDetails.aspx?objid=0800000280128cbd (accessed
August 10, 2017).
12
United Nations, “Treaties: Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and
the Return of Objects launched into Outer Space: South Africa,” n.d., https://treaties.un.org/Pages/
showActionDetails.aspx?objid=080000028016ffa9&clang=_en (accessed August 10, 2017).
13
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, “Convention on International Liability for
Damage Caused by Space Objects: South Africa,” 2017, http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/treaties/
treaty-status-search.jspx?view=list&f=en%23countryTreatyStatus.treaty..treaty.name.html_s%
3AConvention%5C+on%5C+International%5C+Liability%5C+for%5C+Damage%5C+Caused%
5C+by%5C+Space%5C+Objects&f=en%23countryTreatyStatus.country.country.name.html_s%
3ASouth%5C+Africa (accessed August 10, 2017).
14
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, “Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the
Atmosphere, in Outer Space and under Water: South Africa,” 2017, https://treaties.un.org/pages/
showDetails.aspx?objid=08000002801313d9 (accessed August 10, 2017).
15
United Nations, “Treaties: Agreement relating to the International Telecommunications Satellite
Organisation ‘INTELSAT’: South Africa,” n.d., https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/
Volume%201220/volume-1220-I-19677-English.pdf (accessed August 10, 2017).
64 A. Alberts
The following significant space resolutions, principles and declarations were

adopted by UNGA pre-1994 (South Africa adopted the first two resolutions and
declarations, but political complexity ensued with the later ones as elucidated
infra):
• International cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space—Resolutions 1721

A and B (XVI) (1961);
• Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the
Exploration and Use of Outer Space (1963) (Outer Space Declaration (OSD))
that became the basis of the later Outer Space Treaty and that is considered to
constitute international customary law;
• The Principles Governing the Use by States of Artificial Earth Satellites for
International Direct Television Broadcasting (1982) (Broadcasting Principles
(DBS)). While South Africa was sanctioned from participating in the UN during
this time due to its apartheid-policies, the country’s participation in the UNGA
and UNCOPUOS since 1994 without any known reservations against DBS seems
to indicate compliance. South Africa’s National Space Policy of 2008 states as
one of its principles that the country is committed to “ensure that all public and
private sector activities are conducted in accordance with national legislation,
relevant international treaties and appropriate international best practices”.16 DBS
can be construed as appropriate international best practice and can thus be used
by South Africa in accordance with its national needs;
• The Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space (1986)
(Remote Sensing Principles (REMSEN)). During this period South Africa was
still barred from participating in the UNGA, but since 1994 the country’s re-entry
into the UNGA has placed it in a position to comply with REMSEN if it so
wishes. Consequently, the same logic applies as set out regarding DBS; and
• The Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space
(1992) (“Nuclear Power Sources” Principles (NUKESPACE)). The same logic
applies to NUKESPACE as with the other pre-1994 UN principles.
3.2.4 Pre-1994 Dispensation Conclusion
It is, therefore, clear that South Africa had a clear intention and political, legal, and
scientific willingness to be involved in space-related activities even before Sputnik
was launched in 1957. Despite the country’s controversial political history, it
managed to play a continuous role in this regard. The changes brought about by the
post-1994 period resulted in a vastly new positive international attitude towards
South Africa whilst the global space industry was advancing fast into a post-Cold
South African Council for Space Affairs, “South Africa’s National Space Policy,” 2009, 6, http://
16
www.sacsa.gov.za/policy/Nat_Space_Policy_Doc_A3_pages_final.pdf (accessed August 10,

2017).
3 South Africa 65
War mode of increasing privatisation of space activities that opened new oppor-
tunities for the country.
3.3 Post-1994 Dispensation
3.3.1 Space-Related Activities
During 1992 South Africa’s University of Stellenbosch (USB) launched the

SUNSAT Project to build the country’s first satellite.17 This was successfully
achieved as part of a capacity building exercise within its engineering department as
the satellite was almost entirely designed and built by postgraduate students. The
satellite, named Sunsat, was partly experimental in nature and partly remote
sensing-oriented that was successfully launched on 23 February 1999 from the US
VandenBerg Air Force base in California on board a Delta II rocket.18 This project
led to the creation of expertise and innovations and ultimately to the spinoff of the
project into a separate private company, Sunspace (Pty) Ltd. This in turn led to
more capacity building and eventual new companies offering space-related services,
like SCS Space (Pty) Ltd that provides space commercial satellite mission services
as well as remote sensing products.19
Perhaps a symbolic signifier of South Africa’s space interest and presence was
the 2002 space-tourist journey to the International Space Station (ISS) by the South
Africa internet billionaire, Mark Shuttleworth that garnered much international
attention.
In the background to all the hype around this event, South Africans were
working diligently to advance the country’s presence in space. Sunspace (Pty) Ltd,
in cooperation with the USB, built the country’s second satellite, named Sum-
bandilaSAT (initially known as ZA SAT-002)—aimed at earth observation with
additional experiments—that was successfully launched in 2009 from the Baikonur
Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, Russia. SumbandilaSAT (Sumbandila is a Venda
word meaning “lead the way” or “pathfinder”) was financed by the South African
government, is owned by the Department of Science and Technology (DST) on
behalf of the government and represents a return of government to building satellite
capability and local capacity.20 Unfortunately it is no longer operational. Its main
purpose was capacity building.21 Sunspace (Pty) Ltd, due to its reliance on
17
University of Stellenbosch, “SUNSAT History,” n.d., http://research.ee.sun.ac.za/sunsat/launch/
index.html (accessed August 10, 2017).
18
South African National Space Agency, “South African Satellites.”.
19
SCS Space, “Company Profile,” 2016, https://www.scs-space.com/#about (accessed August 10,
2017).
20
South African National Space Agency, “South African Satellites.”.
21
Martinez, “Africa in Space (EEE5124Z Lecture notes),” 41, University of Cape Town.
66 A. Alberts
government funding, was eventually merged with the government state-owned

military enterprise, DENEL, as a sub-unit named Denel SpaceTeq.22
New Dawn was South Africa’s first ever private sector joint venture established
to build, launch and operate a communications satellite in a geosynchronous orbit
(33˚ E GEO slot). The joint-venture was established between Intelsat and a South
African investor group led by Convergence Partners (consisting of the Industrial
Development Corporation (IDC), Nedbank Capital, Altirah Telecoms and Con-
vergence Partners) with Orbital Sciences developing the satellite and Intelsat
operating it after its launch on 22 April 2011.23 Unfortunately the C-band antenna
reflector failed to open on 02 May 2011 and since then the satellite has been able to
use only the 24 Ku-band transponders to wireless, broadband and television ser-
vices. The failure of the C-band ability reduced the usability of the satellite with
twelve years. In November of 2012 Convergence Partners disposed of its 25.1%
shareholding in New Dawn and thus severed any South African link with the
project.24
The Cape Peninsula University of Technology (CPUT) followed with the
development and successful launch of South Africa’s first nano-satellite, named
TshepisoSat (also known as ZACUBE-1) in 2013 aimed at space science projects.25
Interestingly the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) that
acts as the Secretariat for the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of
Outer Space (UNCOPUOS) and that keeps a register of objects launched into outer
space in compliance with international law, mentions an enigmatic fourth object
launched into outer space on behalf of South Africa by the Russian Federation,
named Kondor E.26 To date the South African government has not disclosed the
nature and purpose of this object despite calls for disclosure by Members of
Parliament.27
Currently the South African government is working in partnership with Nigeria,
Algeria and Kenya, known as the African Resource Management Constellation
(ARM-C) that entails the construction by each country of an earth observation
satellite that will together form a constellation of satellites to which any of the
partner countries will have access to. The agreement was signed in Algiers in
November 2009. Algeria and Nigeria have already developed and launched their
22
Department of Trade and Industry, “Repeal of the Space Affairs Act No. 94 of 1993 by the South
African Outer Space Bill (Presentation],” June 20, 2017, 4, https://www.thedti.gov.za/parliament/
2017/Space_Draft_legislation.pdf (accessed August 10, 2017).
23
Martinez, “Africa in Space (EEE5124Z Lecture notes),” 42.
24
Ibid.
25
South African Council for Space Affairs, “Report 2010–2014,” 2014, 9, http://www.sacsa.gov.
za/reports/SACSA_REPORT_2010-14.pdf (accessed August 10, 2017).
26
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, “Information Furnished in Conformity with the
Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space,” 2015, 6, https://cms.unov.org/
dcpms2/api/finaldocuments?Language=en&Symbol=ST/SG/SER.E/746 (accessed December 1,
2018).
27
G. Van Zyl, “Secret SA ‘spy satellite’ ready to launch?” Fin24, December 17, 2014, https://
www.fin24.com/Tech/News/Secret-SA-spy-satellite-ready-to-launch-20141217 (accessed Febru-
ary 3, 2019).
3 South Africa 67
respective satellites. South Africa and Kenya are in the process of developing their
satellites in this respect.28 South Africa’s Earth Observation Satellite 1 (EOS-1) has
been in development for years but is projected to launch in 2020.29 The partnership
is in principle open to other partners as well.30
On 25 May 2017, a nano-satellite named nSight-1, was successfully placed in
orbit 400 km above earth. The satellite was first launched to the International Space
Station and thereafter launched into low-earth orbit. The satellite was designed and
built by SCS Space, a subsidiary of South Africa’s largest private owned group of
satellite companies, SCS Aerospace Group. The Department of Trade and Industry
also invested in the satellite as part of the European Commission’s QB20 project.
The project’s objective is to launch a range of satellites to study the largely
unexplored lower thermosphere.31
Another South African satellite was launched together with nSight-1, namely
ZA-Aerospace. This satellite is a Cubesat and was designed and built by the
Electronic Systems Laboratory at the University of Stellenbosch. It also forms part
of the European Commission’s QB20 project.32
The Cape Peninsula University of Technology (CPUT) has also recently com-
pleted the design and built of their second Cubesat satellite, ZACube-2. It was be
placed in an orbit of 600 km above earth on 27 December 2018 and will collect data
on behalf of the South African National Space Agency on space weather.33
South Africa’s space register under the auspices of SACSA currently exhibits the
following entries34:
• ZA-001: SUNSAT (Launched: 23/02/1999; Function: Earth observation with

additional experimental payloads);
• ZA-002: SUMBANDILA (Launched: 17/09/2009; Function: Earth observation
with additional experimental payloads); and
• ZA-003: ZACUBE-1 (Launched 21/11/2013; Function: Space science).
The new satellites launched in 2017, nSight-1 and ZA-Aerospace, have not been
placed on the register, as yet.
As for ground segment space-related activities the MeerKAT radio telescope and
the Square Kilometre Array (SKA) radio telescope is very noteworthy. The first
28
29
S. Wild, “Launching satellite is space agency’s big focus,” Business Day, February 3, 2017,
https://www.pressreader.com/south-africa/business-day/20170203/281711204380878 (accessed
August 10, 2017).
30
31
SCS Space, nSight-1, 2017, http://scs-space.com/nsight-1/ (accessed February 03, 2019).
32
Electronic Systems Laboratory, “ZA-Aerosat Projects”, University of Stellenbosch, n.d., http://
www.esl.sun.ac.za/za-aerosat-projects/ (accessed February 03, 2019).
33
Space in Africa, “Name South Africa’s next Satellite”, September 07, 2018, https://africanews.
space/name-south-africas-next-satellite/ (accessed on February 03, 2019).
34
South African Council for Space Affairs, “National Registry of Objects Launched into Outer
Space,” n.d., http://www.sacsa.gov.za/registry/ (accessed August 10, 2017).
68 A. Alberts
mentioned project is a precursor to the SKA project.35 The SKA is an international

project to build the world’s largest radio telescope to the size of one square kilo-
metre. The plan is to deploy thousands of radio telescopes in three unique con-
figurations that “will enable astronomers to monitor the sky in unprecedented detail
and survey the entire sky thousands of times faster than any system currently in
existence” and will exceed the resolution quality of the Hubble Space Telescope in
space by a factor of fifty times. The SKA is co-located in various spots in Africa and
also in Australia with South Africa as an important partner which will make it
possible to survey wide swaths of sky in parallel. The project is managed by the
SKA Organisation established in 2011 and based near Manchester in the United
Kingdom. There are eleven partner countries: South Africa, Australia, Canada,
Germany, the United Kingdom, Italy, New Zealand, China, Sweden, the Nether-
lands and India as an associate member.36
3.3.2 National Legislation
As stated supra, the Space Affairs Act was amended in 1995 by the Space Affairs
Amendment Act and the effect thereof was also set out in the above analysis.
In 2008 the DTI published a National Space Policy and the DST a National
Space Strategy. Both documents emphasised the importance of using space for
socio-economic development purposes. This was followed by the establishment of
the South African National Space Agency (SANSA).
Consequently, in addition to the existing Space Affairs Act, as amended, the
South African cabinet in 2008 approved the establishment of SANSA to act as an
institutional vehicle for the coordination and implementation of national space
science and technology programmes.37 Thus, the South African National Space
Agency Act 36 of 2008 was promulgated. The Act provides for the establishment of
SANSA, and mandates to “provide for the promotion and use of space,
co-operation in space-related activities, foster research in space science, advance
science and engineering through human capital and support the creation of an
environment conducive to industrial development in space technologies within the
framework of national government policy”.38
The Astronomy Geographic Advantage Act 21 of 2007 was also promulgated on
17 June 2008 to “provide for the preservation and protection of areas within the
35
Square Kilometre Array, “MeerKAT Radio Telescope,” 2016, http://www.ska.ac.za/gallery/
meerkat/ (accessed August 10, 2017).
36
Square Kilometre Array, “The Project,” 2016, http://www.ska.ac.za/about/the-project/ (accessed
August 10, 2017).
37
South African National Space Agency, “About”, n.d., https://www.sansa.org.za/about/ (accessed
February 03, 2019).
38
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, “South African National Space Agency Act,”
2017, http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/spacelaw/national/safrica/Act36-2008.pdf (accessed
August 10, 2017).
3 South Africa 69
Republic that are uniquely suited for optical and radio astronomy” such as the
MeerKAT and SKA Project.39
Most importantly, the Space Affairs Act is currently under review due to various
identified shortcomings. The Act does, for instance, not cover the regulation of
functions of space objects such as earth observation, communications, navigation or
the use of satellite derived information.40
The DTI identified the following shortcomings of the Space Affairs Act as set out
in its report to the South African Parliamentary Portfolio Committee on Trade and
Industry on 12 May 201541:
• Definitions: There is a need to define or redefine various terms such as

“Launching”, “Licence”, “Outer space”, “Space activities”, “Spacecraft”, “Space
industry” etc.;
• Scope and Application: No actual provision that outlines the scope and appli-
cation of the Space Affairs Act resulting in the reliance on Section 11 that deals
with licencing to deduce what it is;
• Authorisation and Licencing: A new licencing regime is necessary given the
new types of space activities by new role players;
• Continuing Supervision of Space Activities: This is necessitated by the inter-
national obligations placed on the country by international conventions, treaties
and agreements to which the country is a party;
• Safety and Environmental Considerations: The current sections in the Space
Affairs Act are not sufficiently clear and need to be revised;
• Liability and Insurance: There is no mention of third-party liability expressed as
a requirement. Limits on liability is also needed to encourage industrial
development;
• Registration: There is no provision for the registration of space objects in the
Space Affairs Act. This must, therefore, be included in line with the Registration
Convention;
• In-Orbit Transfer of Ownership: No such provision in the Space Affairs Act
deals with this matter. The Bill will have to address this in accordance with a
national registry as prescribed, inter alia, by the Registration Convention.
The DTI further states in its submission to the South African Parliamentary
Portfolio Committee on Trade and Industry on 20 June 2017 that the Space Affairs
Act deserve to be repealed and replaced by the South African Outer Space Bill (Bill)
based on the following considerations42:
39
Republic of South Africa, “Astronomy Geographic Advantage Act 21 of 2007,” 2007, http://
www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/gg31157_nn666a_pg1-30.pdf (accessed August 10, 2017).
40
[Presentation],” 1.
41
Ibid., 10.
42
African Outer Space Bill (Presentation],” 2.
70 A. Alberts
• The changing of the local space environment by the increasing participation of

domestic and foreign, and public and private sector players in the country;
• The increasing growth and involvement of commercial space actors locally and
internationally;
• The international legal landscape has seen intense development since the pro-
mulgation of the Space Affairs Act and deserves local alignment and compliance;
• Domestic policies and strategies have shifted and deserves alignment and
compliance.
The submission also specifically mentions that local alignment with the UN
Space Principles also deserve attention. In addition, the Bill also needs to address
the need to acknowledge the key role played by the industry and universities and
provide support for the industry, clustering of role-players and incubation
opportunities.43
In order to draft the Bill, two stakeholder processes were embarked upon: (a) the
first stakeholder consultation workshop was held for local stakeholders at the
University of Pretoria in 2012 where the DTI informed them of their position on the
Bill; (b) the second workshop for local stakeholders were held in 2014 to review
and refine the 2012 workshop results. The workshop was also joined by two
international experts in space law in December 2014. They were Dr Tare Brisibe,
the Chairperson of the Legal Subcommittee of UNCOPUOS for the period 2012–
2013, and Prof. Ram Jakhu, Associate Professor—Faculty of Law and Associate
Director—at the Center for Research in Air and Space Law at the McGill University
in Montreal, Canada.44
The second workshop came to the conclusion that the new Bill is required
instead of an amendment to the Space Affairs Act based on the following
considerations45:
• The recommendation by UNCOPUOS of the essential elements of space

legislation;
• The Model Space Law prescribed by the International Legal Association (ILA);
• The fact that the Space Affairs Act does not address national developments—as
set out in the national Space Policy and the Space Strategy—and socio-economic
needs of the country.
Of importance is that South Africa’s Cabinet adopted the Socio-Economic

Impact Assessment System (SEIAS) for implementation by all government
departments in July 2015. It is a system that aims to improve the policy and
legislative process and ultimately optimise the benefits of legislation and identifies
43
[Presentation],” 4.
44
Ibid., 6.
45
Ibid., 7.
3 South Africa 71
any risks associated with a policy position. The Bill’s assessment was completed on
4 May 2017.46
The Bill’s scope of application covers the following space activities in broad that
is expected to fill the gaps in the current Space Affairs Act47:
• Manufacture of space objects;

• Operation of a space facility;
• Launching of space objects into outer space;
• Operation and control of space objects in orbit;
• Re-entry of space objects; and
• Space applications regulation.
Importantly, the Bill envisages that SACSA will be replaced by the South
African Space Regulatory Council (SASREC) to regulate space affairs. SASREC
will advise the Minister on regulations pertaining to space affairs; supervise and
implement matters arising from international legal obligations; issue, amend, sus-
pend or revoke licences; regulate persons and authorities involved in the space
industry; publicise its work; and perform any other activities to meet the objectives
of the Bill.48 Since SASREC is an ad hoc body, a Space Affairs Chief Directorate
will be established to provide secretariat functions to SASREC.49
Section 5 of the Bill further provides that the Minister may determine and review
the National Space Policy in consultation with Ministers from other Departments.
Three major objects of the Bill have been identified50:
• Open Regulation: To promote a clear and transparent regulatory environment;

• Socio-Economic Benefits: To strive to disseminate all benefits derived from
space regulation and activities as widely as possible to the public;
• National Interest and International Co-Operation: To protect the national
interests of the country and ensure international co-operation with regard to space
activities.
The Bill is now progressing through further public consultations where after it is
expected to be published in the Government Gazette during September 2017 for
public consultation with another public consultation workshop taking place in
October 2017. The State Law Advisers are expected to review and update the Bill in
February 2018 and the Bill together with the SEIAS should then be submitted to
Parliament to be dealt with by the Parliamentary Portfolio Committee on Trade and
Industry to progress to a final Act of Parliament.
The DTI and SACSA’s planned priorities for the 2017/2018 period is to finalise
the Bill; undertake research and advise the Minister on the possible ratification of
46
Ibid., 8.
47
Ibid., 9.
48
Ibid., 11.
49
Ibid., 12.
50
Ibid., 14.
72 A. Alberts
the fifth and last major space treaty, namely the Agreement Governing the Activities
of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies of 1979 (Moon Agreement); the
development together with the DST of the Space Industry Framework; the review
and finalisation of licensing and registration processes; licencing of the second
CPUT CubeSat; participation at the 2017 International Astronautical Congress
(IAC); continued participation in UNCOPUOS; and preparation for the country’s
participation in UNISPACE +50.51
3.3.3 International Law Compliance
South Africa became a member of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful
Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS) on 12 September 1994.52 UNCOPUOS is a
subsidiary body of the UNGA’s Fourth Subcommittee (Special Political and
Decolonisation). It focuses on international cooperation in space affairs between
countries and, therefore, South Africa’s admittance to UNCOPUOS can be viewed
as an important milestone in the elevation of South Africa as an international space
player. Since becoming a member of UNCOPUOS, SACSA Councillors have been
active in this international body by supporting South Africa’s participation in
prominent roles, inter alia53:
• Dr Peter Martinez, the Chairperson of SACSA in 2011, acted as Chairperson of

the UNCOPUOS Working Group on the Long-Term Sustainability of Outer
Space Activities since 2011. He also served as South Africa’s expert on the
United Nations Group of Governmental Experts on Transparency and
Confidence-Building Measures in Outer Space Activities dealing with collective
security in outer space;
• Ms Nomfuneko Majaja, Vice-Chairperson of SACSA, served as the first
Vice-Chairperson of UNCOPUOS from 2010 to 2011;
• SACSA Councillors attend the UNCOPUOS sessions as well as those of its two
Subcommittees every year.
As far as international treaties are concerned and as stated supra, South Africa
ratified its third major outer space treaty, namely the Liability Convention, on 14
December 2011 that was originally signed as far back as 29 March 1972. Post-1994
South Africa then commenced to sign and ratify a fourth major outer space treaty:
51
African Outer Space Bill (Presentation],” 22.
52
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, “Enlargement of the Committee on the Peaceful
Uses of Outer Space: South Africa,” 2017, http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/oosadoc/data/resolutions/
1994/general_assembly_49th_session/ares4933.html (accessed August 10, 2017).
53
South African Council for Space Affairs, “Report 2010–2014,” 11.
3 South Africa 73
• Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space of 1976

(Registration Convention), entered into force on 15 September 1976: ratified by
South Africa on 27/01/2012.54
South Africa has thus currently signed and ratified four of the five major outer
space treaties. The government is now investigating the viability of signing and
ratifying the last and the most unpopular of the five major outer space treaties,
namely the Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other
Celestial Bodies of 1979 (Moon Agreement) that was adopted by the General
Assembly in 1979. Its unpopularity is highlighted by the fact that it was not until
June 1984 that the fifth country, Austria, ratified the Agreement, allowing it to enter
into force on 11 July 1984, quite a period of time after its adoption.55
As for other space-related international agreements, South Africa joined the
following international institutions by signing and ratifying the following interna-
tional institutional agreements:
• Convention on the International Mobile Satellite Organization (IMSO) that

created the international satellite institution known as INMARSAT, entered into
force on 16 July 1979: Signed by South Africa on 03/03/1994. South Africa is a
shareholder in INMARSAT through Telkom56; and
• International Telecommunication Convention (ITC) establishing the International
Telecommunications Union (ITU), established as the International Telegraphic
Union in 1865 with its new constitution entering into force on 1 July 1994:
Signed and joined by South Africa in 1881, but excluded during the
apartheid-years and again allowed to participate post-apartheid with South Africa
ratifying the 1992 ITU constitution on 30/06/1994.57
As for notable UNGA principles and declarations, the following Declaration

supported by South Africa is important:
54
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, Convention on Registration of Objects Launched
into Outer Space: South Africa,” 2017, http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/treaties/treaty-status-search.
jspx?&f=en%23countryTreatyStatus.treaty..treaty.name.html_s:Convention%5C+on%5C
+Registration%5C+of%5C+Objects%5C+Launched%5C+into%5C+Outer%5C+Space (accessed
August 10, 2017).
55
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, “Agreement Governing the Activities of States on
the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies,” 2017, http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/
treaties/intromoon-agreement.html (accessed August 10, 2017).
56
Department of International Relations and Cooperation, “International Mobile Satellite
Organisation (IMSO/INMARSAT),” 2004, http://www.dirco.gov.za/foreign/Multilateral/inter/
inmarsat.htm (accessed August 10, 2017).
57
Department of International Relations and Cooperation, “International Telecommunications
Union (ITU),” 2004, http://www.dirco.gov.za/foreign/Multilateral/inter/itu.htm (accessed August
10, 2017).
74 A. Alberts
• Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer

Space for the Benefit and in the Interests of All States, taking into Particular
Account the Needs of Developing Countries (1996) (Benefits Declaration)).
Other post-1994 space-related UNGA resolutions of note that could have a ‘soft
law’ persuasive effect on South Africa’s internal policies are as follows:
• International cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space—Some aspects

concerning the use of the geostationary orbit—Paragraph 4 of resolution 55/122
(2000);
• Application of the concept of the “launching State”—Resolution 59/115 (2004);
• United Nations Platform for Space-based Information for Disaster Management
and Emergency Response (2006);
• International cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space—Resolution
endorsing the Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines developed by the Committee
on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space—Resolution 62/217 (2007);
• Recommendations on enhancing the practice of States and international inter-
governmental organizations in registering space objects—Resolution 62/101
(2007);
• Recommendations on national legislation relevant to the peaceful exploration
and use of outer space Resolution 68/74 (2013); and
• Matters relating to activities under the United Nations Programme on Space
Applications (2016).
On a regional level, South Africa is also a member of the African Union

(AU) since 11 July 2000 when it ratified the Constitutive Act of the African
Union.58 The AU was officially launched in Durban, South Africa in 2002.
Therefore, South Africa was part of the African Union Heads of State and
Government decision to adopt the African Space Policy and Strategy (ASPS) in
January 2016 that should play a significant role in paving the way forward for the
country’s own space initiatives in collaboration with African partner countries,
universities, other institutions and business.
3.3.4 Post-1994 Dispensation Conclusion
South Africa re-established itself as a major space player among developing

countries after 1994. Its local legislation and international participation and influ-
ence has shown that South Africa is serious in its role to make use of the benefits
that can be derived from space-related activities, especially those scientific and
socio-economic in nature, and that the country is positioning itself to play an even
stronger role in the future. While government played a large role in creating a
58
African Union, “Constitutive Act of the African Union 2000,” 2000, https://au.int/web/sites/
default/files/pages/32020-file-constitutiveact_en.pdf (accessed August 10, 2017).
3 South Africa 75
regulatory environment, private industry and universities—in cooperation with

government—started showing their own mettle in advancing space science, engi-
neering, development and commercialisation.
3.4 Challenges and Development Goals
Economically, poverty and inequality are the major challenges in South Africa.
Therefore, the government’s National Development Plan (NDP) as devised by the
National Planning Commission established eight aims to be achieved by 2030.
Amongst others, the objective is to eliminate poverty and reduce inequality by
2030.59 In particular, the NDP stipulates that in order to eliminate poverty and
reduce inequality, the economy must grow faster and in ways that benefit all South
Africans.
Four socio-economic objectives deserve attention, namely60:
• Raising economic growth, promoting exports and making the economy more
labour absorbing;
• Focusing on key capabilities of both people and the country;
• Capabilities include skills, infrastructure, social security, strong institutions and
partnerships both within the country and with key international partners; and
• Building a capable and developmental state.
In support of these objectives, two specific aims are of importance and must be
achieved by 203061:
• A reduction in the number of people who live in households with a monthly

income below R419 per person from 39% to zero; and
• A reduction in inequality as measured by the Gini coefficient, from 0.69 to 0.6.
In this regard, South Africa’s Space Policy devised by the DTI and Space
Strategy created by the DST are also clear that the socio-economic benefits to be
derived from space-related activities are paramount.
From a policy perspective the DTI’s Space Policy and the DST’s Space Strategy
is very clear that socio-economic needs must be addressed by making use of
space-related activities, services and products. The aim of the Space Policy is to
utilise space applications to contribute to economic growth and social
59
National Planning Commission, “National Development Plan,” n.d., https://nationalplanning
commission.wordpress.com/the-national-development-plan/ (accessed August 10, 2017).
60
Ibid.
61
Ibid.
76 A. Alberts
development.62 The Space Strategy states that the South African government rea-
lises the importance of space science and technology to address national priorities,
including job creation, poverty reduction, and resource management.63
On a practical level, South Africa is currently making use of data derived from
mostly third-party earth observation applications to address the effect of climate and
weather patterns, promote sustainable land management, and disaster management.
The country also uses third-party communications satellites that enables
long-distance communications, television broadcasting, distance learning and
health education, and disaster relief networks.64
SANSA Earth Observation Directorate also has a collection of information on
the Earth’s surface derived from various third-party earth observation satellites. It
has for instance a satellite imagery archive of dating back to 1972 from the first
Landsat satellite. It now owns over million scenes from various satellites like
Landsat 2–5, SPOT 1–5, SumbandilaSAT, CBERS-2B, SAC-C, and ERS-1.
SANSA Earth Observation Services also acts as a data reseller. The SANSA Space
Operations Directorate provides raw image applications, processing services and
fire scar mapping that allows for information processing and planning. The SANSA
Earth Observation Directorate also produces an annual mosaic composition of
South Africa based on SPOT 5 images.65
An example of the use of space-derived data adopted by South Africa, was the
establishment of a National Upgrading Support Programme (NUSP) to respond to
the challenges of poor access to basic sanitation and water supply, solid waste
accumulation, recurrent shack fires and safety risks. Consequently, SANSA made
SPOT 5 data available to be used to study the status of informal settlements and
assess the changes that have taken place.66
The MeerKAT and the SKA project will also play a role in creating job
opportunities, human resource development and other forms of capacity. The
SKA-related Human Capital Development Programme also makes a huge impact in
developing the skills required for its operation and space sciences.
More direct employment opportunities will be created once the country’s private
industry and government starts building more space products and parts, satellites
and eventually space launch and space vehicles. This will give rise to a space
economic eco-system as hundreds of new suppliers develop to supply and service
the new developers, builders, and operators.
It is clear that space-related activities and space-derived products and services
are already playing a significant role in South Africa’s economy. Internationally, the
growth curve in private space applications and services is increasing and can turn
62
South African Council for Space Affairs, “South Africa’s National Space Policy,” 7.
63
South African National Space Agency, “National Space Strategy”, n.d., 4, https://www.sansa.
org.za/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/National-Space-Strategy.pdf (accessed February 03, 2019).
64
South African National Space Agency, “About”, n.d., https://www.sansa.org.za/about/ (accessed
February 03, 2019).
65
South African National Space Agency, “Data Archive and Catalogue”, n.d., https://www.sansa.
org.za/products-services/earth-observation/ (accessed February 03, 2019).
66
Ibid.
3 South Africa 77
into a huge international economic driver. South Africa should therefore position
itself to identify the economic niches where it can play an optimal part to ensure
greater socio-economic benefits for the country.
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78 A. Alberts
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za/products-services/earth-observation/ (n.d.). Accessed 03 Feb 2019
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24. South African National Space Agency: South African Satellites. http://atlas.sansa.org.za/atlas-
sa_satellites.html (2015). Accessed 10 Aug 2017
25. Space in Africa: Name South Africa’s next Satellite. https://africanews.space/name-south-
africas-next-satellite/ (07 Sept 2018). Accessed on 03 Feb 2019
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(2016). Accessed 10 Aug 2017
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treaties/intromoon-agreement.html (2017). Accessed 10 Aug 2017
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Damage Caused by Space Objects: South Africa. http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/treaties/treaty-
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3AConvention%5C+on%5C+International%5C+Liability%5C+for%5C+Damage%5C
+Caused%5C+by%5C+Space%5C+Objects&f=en%23countryTreatyStatus.country.country.
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Dec 2018
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3 South Africa 79
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Author Biography
(Law), LLB, and LLM [International Law (Cum Laude)], as well as an MPhil in Futures Studies
South Africa’s Current Vulnerabilities
and Capabilities Relating to Space 4
Weather
James Wilson and Nicolas Ringas
Abstract
Space weather is a naturally occurring phenomenon produced by the sun that can
heavily disrupt human activities. Solar flares and corona mass ejections are
bursts of high-energy radiation from the sun that can destroy satellites and
possibly disable power systems for weeks, compromising modern societal life.
South Africa is particularly vulnerable as a developing country. Fortunately, the
South African National Space Agency has advanced space weather monitoring
capabilities (such as ionosonde and magnetometer stations), and South Africa
has a chance to position itself as and expert in this niche market, and partner with
other African countries and the rest of the world. This sharing of data could
eventually enable a worldwide early-detection system that could prevent
catastrophes caused by space weather.
Space-faring countries within Africa can aim to leverage their technological

expertise and heritage to strategically position themselves in select niche areas of
the space industry to maximise their involvement in the world market. This chapter
offers an example specific to South Africa, who has substantial heritage and
infrastructure relating to radio-astronomy and space weather monitoring. This work
was developed in preparation for the UNISPACE+50 conference, specifically
relating to one of the seven key thematic priorities identified by the United Nations
Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS)—an international
framework for space weather services.
This document offers a brief introduction to space weather phenomena, followed
by an in-depth analysis of South Africa’s current capabilities and vulnerabilities
J. Wilson (&) N. Ringas (&)

e-mail: WLSJAM015@myuct.ac.za
N. Ringas
e-mail: RNGNIC002@myuct.ac.za

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05980-4_4
82 J. Wilson and N. Ringas
relating to space weather. A suggested road map is then proposed, which details
short, medium and long term objectives which focus on ensuring South Africa
secures itself as a key role player in international space weather activities and
economy.
4.1 Introduction
Space weather is a common occurrence caused by fluctuations in the sun’s atmo-

sphere and poses a serious threat to orbital, sub-orbital and ground systems.1 There
are two main types of space events—solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs,
see Fig. 4.1). Solar flares are sudden flashes on the sun’s surface which lead to
high-speed waves of electromagnetic (EM) radiation and ions colliding with the
Earth. CMEs are slower moving than solar flares and lead to a dense high-energy
plasma colliding with the Earth. Both types could have potentially catastrophic
effects on terrestrial and space-based infrastructure.2
Smaller CMEs and solar flares are relatively common, but usually these have
little effect on terrestrial systems. However, rarely large events occur which can
cause serious damage to modern systems, with possible large scale terrestrial
impacts and economic loss.3
The possible effects of solar are generally divided into four subsections4:
Satellite damage: Solar storms can damage satellite electronics, ruining Global
Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) services as well as other disaster-prevention
and security operations. This can disrupt the associated timing of stock markets and
communication networks leading to large monetary losses and downtime of
emergency systems.
Astronaut endangerment: Solar storms can expose astronauts to increased levels
of radiation, increasing their cancer risk. In the most serious case it may require
emergency astronaut evacuation of a space-station if systems are threatened.
Airline disruptions: Airlines can face costly diversions or cancellations during
severe solar weather to prevent radiation exposure to passengers and avoid inter-
ference with their navigation systems.
Power network disruption: Solar events can cause large electric field fluctuations
in the Earth’s surface which can desynchronise power networks and trip sensitive
fault-protection devices.
1
Richard Marsden. Interplanetary Aspects of Space Weather. Research & Scientific Support Dept.
of ESA.
2
CMEs and Flares (Page 1). Coronal Weather Report. Available at: http://cse.ssl.berkeley.edu/
coronalweather/CMEsFlares/. Accessed 13 March 2018.
3
Mark Prigg. 2017. NASA prediction system for ‘doomsday’ solar storms | Daily Mail
Online. Available at: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-4161180/NASA-prediction-
doomsday-solar-storms.html. Accessed 13 March 2018.
4
NASA. 2017. How Space Weather Affects Space Exploration | NASA. Available at: https://www.
nasa.gov/mission_pages/rbsp/science/rbsp-spaceweather-human.html. Accessed 13 March 2018.
4 South Africa’s Current Vulnerabilities and Capabilities … 83
Fig. 4.1 Coronal Mass Ejection observed in 2012
It is thus imperative to mitigate the effects of space weather and appropriate

plans are developed and implemented to ensure resilient infrastructure.
4.2 Objectives and Mechanisms Already Identified

for UNISPACE+50
The proposed agenda for UNISPACE+50 (with regards to space weather) identifies
the need for States knowing why they must act, and what they must do. To achieve
this, UNCOPUOS has stated that a “space weather roadmap for international
co-ordination and information exchange” must be developed. This will allow a
global effort to identify and mitigate any potential extreme space weather event,
both through the sharing of information about possible events, as well as the sharing
of infrastructure and possibly technology. This roadmap involves a few key steps,
summarized below:
• Identify most vulnerable systems and products, prioritized based on public safety.
• Develop an information protocol to allow early warnings to be shared.
• Include awareness of space weather risks into national emergency response
procedures, and encourage knowledge of such systems to be shared between
States.
• Maintain current operating status of systems and further develop observation and
protection technologies associated with space weather services, including possi-
ble socioeconomic risk analysis of systems.
• Further develop international understanding of the scientific basis of space
weather.
• Build capacity and develop training specific to space weather.
The proposal further acknowledges that many space weather systems do already
exist, however they are fragmented between many different stakeholders and since
space weather is a global issue they will have to be united to be truly effective.
Lastly, UNCOPUOS acknowledges the fact that international policy may need to be
developed to mitigate the negative effects of space weather. They also propose the
possible formation of a committee specifically devoted to international co-operation
for space weather services.
4.3 South Africa’s Vulnerabilities and Capabilities
To develop a relevant and effective road map for South Africa to adopt, an in-depth
analysis of their current vulnerabilities and capabilities relating to space weather
must first be performed.
South Africa is unique in that it has both high-end infrastructures and com-
mercial systems along with seriously under-developed areas with minimum
infrastructure. It is for this reason that it is vulnerable to space weather events,
perhaps more so than developed countries with modern and robust infrastructures.
South Africa has previously experienced blackouts and load-shedding due to
inadequate power grid infrastructure and generation capabilities. The electrical grid
remains vulnerable and a big solar storm could cause widespread blackouts, putting
the economy at strain. Also, South Africa (and the rest of Africa) lacks
ground-based communication infrastructure. This makes satellites and
long-distance radio (which is affected by ionospheric disturbances) of utmost
importance for both commercial and emergency operations.
South Africa and Africa also lack many developed roads and mapping of these
roads, making GNSS paramount in providing reliable positioning information for
transport and logistics. If GNSS satellites were to be damaged, many businesses in
South Africa could simply not operate.
Furthermore, the Johannesburg Stock Exchange is the largest and oldest stock
exchange in Africa, and the 19th largest in the world.5 The timings of stock
exchanges are critically dependent on satellites, and if a solar event was to cause
damage to one of these systems the economic consequences could be dire.
Another example is satellite TV, which could be heavily threatened by a space
weather event. Even though this is a private enterprise, it is the only way many
remote South African and African households6 can receive current news, which in a
disaster situation is critical.
5
JSE. 2018. History and Company Overview—Johannesburg Stock Exchange. Available at:
https://www.jse.co.za/about/history-company-overview. Accessed 15 March 2018.
6
Glenda Nevill. 2017. Pay-TV in Africa is thriving | The Media Online. Available at: http://
themediaonline.co.za/2017/04/pay-tv-in-africa-is-thriving/. Accessed 15 March 2018.
For these reasons, it is imperative that South Africa develops its own strategy to
deal with space weather and incorporate this with the international roadmap for
space weather mitigation, both to receive assistance from and give assistance to
other countries. In this regard, the SANSA Space Weather Centre, which forms part
of SANSA’s Space Research and Applications Unit, was established in 2012 and is
one of the seventeen regional warning centres comprising the International Space
Environment Service (ISES). Since 1962,7 ISES has been the primary organization
focussing on international coordination of space weather services, with the fol-
lowing core objectives8:
1. Risk mitigation and reduction of the terrestrial impacts of space weather through
real-time forecasting and monitoring of space weather.
2. Facilitating and promoting international coordination and communication
regarding space weather (especially during extreme space weather events or
heightened activity).
3. Improve services relating to space weather monitoring and forecasting while
also educating the general public about space weather events and their possible
terrestrial implications.
The SANSA Space Weather Centre is the only regional warning centre on the
African continent and joined ISES in 2007 and specializes in ionospheric mea-
surements, geomagnetic field monitoring and high frequency (HF) propagation
prediction. The regional centre performs predictions and evaluations for the whole
African continent.9 The aim of the Space Weather Centre is to monitor and predict
space weather events to enable early warnings and alerts to minimize associated
negative impacts. Examples of previous space weather events which resulted in
large scale economic loss terrestrially are listed below10:
• The Carrington Event of 1859, was caused by a CME and was “one of the largest
magnetic storms in recorded history”, temporarily disabled many of the telegraph
systems across Europe and North America, crippling means of intercontinental
communications with telegraph operators reporting electrical shocks in certain
areas.11
• In May 1921, a geomagnetic storm interrupted communication networks in North
America and resulted in the entire signalling and switching system of the New
7
International Space Environment Services, The History of ISES, Available at: http://www.
spaceweather.org/ISES/intro/history/history.html, accessed: 22 Feb 2018.
8
International Space Environment Services, What Do We Do, available at: http://www.
spaceweather.org/ISES/intro/wdwd/wdwd.html, accessed: 22 Feb 2018.
9
International Space Environment Services, South African National Space Agency (SANSA),
available at: http://www.spaceweather.org/ISES/rwc/rwc_za.html, accessed 22 Feb 2018.
10
B. Stebbins, Sun-burned: Space Weather’s impact on US national security, School of Advanced
Air and Space Studies, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, Jun 2013.
11
P. Riley, On the probability of occurrence of extreme space weather events, Space Weather 10,
no. 2 (2012).
York Railroad shutting down as well as a fire outbreak in one of the control
towers and is hence often referred to as “the New York Railroad Storm”.
• The geomagnetic storm of 1989 resulted in the collapse of the world’s largest
hydroelectric system for 9 h as a result of induced currents in the transmission
line network. The power outage, known as the Quebec Power Outage of 1989,
resulted in a black-out across the majority of the Quebec region and parts of north
eastern United States and is estimated to have resulted in a cost of $6 billion.12
• The Halloween Storms of 2003 affected power system infrastructure, aviation
activities and communications with satellites, degrading HF communications to
such an extent that certain airlines in North America rerouted high-latitude flights.
59% of NASA’s missions were affected by the storm according to the Goddard
Space Flight Center, with more than 20 satellites being damaged.13,14
South Africa’s power utility, Eskom, was also affected by the Halloween Storms
of 2003. Geomagnetically-induced currents (GICs) arising from the storms resulted
in extensive damage to power transformers situated along Eskom’s network (see
Fig. 4.2).15 These examples highlight the vulnerability of terrestrial infrastructure to
large space weather events. Early warning and alerts relating to these events can
help reduce damages and economic losses from such events, thereby resulting in
more resilient societies.
South Africa has some geographic advantages in respect of its location—it is in
the Southern hemisphere, in close proximity to Antarctica, and is located within the
Southern Atlantic Anomaly (SAA)—an area where the Earth’s magnetic field is
weakest, extending from Southern America over the Atlantic Ocean to South Africa
(see Fig. 4.3). The weakened magnet field allows high energy particles to penetrate
deeper into the Earth’s atmosphere in the SAA.16
The SANSA Space Weather Centre has numerous ground stations located within
South Africa and Namibia that it uses to monitor space weather. The ground
stations consist of five categories, namely GPS TrigNet stations, Ionosonde stations,
magnetotelluric stations, magnetometer stations and HF Doppler stations. The type
and location of each ground station is shown in Fig. 4.4.
12
P. Schieb, Geomagnetic Storms, CENTRA Technology on behalf of Office of Risk Management
and Analysis, United States Department of Homeland Security, 2011.
13
P. Schieb, Geomagnetic Storms, CENTRA Technology on behalf of Office of Risk Management
and Analysis, United States Department of Homeland Security, 2011.
14
M. van Harte, Application of Geomagnetic Disturbance Vulnerability Assessments using the
Eskom Main Transmission System Model, Eskom, Cigre Paris Conference, 2014.
15
E. H. Bernhardi, P. Celliers and C. Gaunt, Improvement in the modelling of geomagnetically
induced currents in southern Africa, South African Journal of Science, Volume 104, August 2008.
16
Dr. P. Cilliers, Dr. C. Mitchell & Mr. B. Opperman, Characterization of the Ionosphere Over the
South Atlantic Ocean by Means of Ionospheric Tomography Using Dual Frequency GPS Signals
Received on Board a Research Ship. Hermanus Magnetic Observatory, Hermanus, South Africa,
2008.
Fig. 4.2 Damage on Eskom Transformers as a result of the 2003 Space Weather Events. B.
Murtagh, Space Weather Impacts on Aviation Systems, Presentation at the International Air Safety
& Climate Change Conference (IASCC), Cologne, Septermber 2010
Fig. 4.3 South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA). S. Snowden, ROSAT Guest Observatory Facility—
South Atlantic Anomaly, Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA, URL: https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.
gov/docs/rosat/gallery/misc_saad.html, accessed: 31 Mar 2018
Fig. 4.4 SANSA Space

Weather Centre Stations
around South Africa. SANSA
Space Weather Centre,
Instrument Map, URL:
https://spaceweather.sansa.
org.za/space-weather-
information/resources/
instrument-map, last
accessed: March 2018
4.3.1 GPS TrigNet Stations
The establishment and maintenance of the South African national horizontal and
vertical control survey networks is the responsibility of the Chief Directorate of the
National Geospatial Information (NGI).17 The South African survey network consists
of 29,000 trigonometrical beacons, 20,000 town markers and 30,000 benchmarks,
which have been supplemented with 67 permanent GNSS receivers that continuously
record navigation data from satellites and is known as the TrigNet network.18,19
The International GNSS Service (IGS) incorporates seven TrigNet station in its
post-processing data services which provide near real-time data. The mission of IGS
is to provide open access to the “highest-quality GNSS data, products and services in
support of the terrestrial reference frame, Earth observation and research; position-
ing, navigation and timing; and other applications that benefit science and society”.20
The National Ocean and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) uses data from
TrigNet stations to aid global weather forecasting and global weather models.21
TrigNet data is employed for the following space-related measurements:
radio-occultation soundings, estimation of the Total Electron Content (TEC) in the
ionosphere and ionospheric scintillation monitoring. Radio-occultation soundings
use signals from satellites and ground stations to measure atmospheric temperature
and humidity, and to perform ionospheric soundings. Estimation of the TEC in the
ionosphere, as performed by SANSA, utilizes 30 s epoch data from 22 TrigNet
stations and allows for modelling of HF communication in the ionosphere as the
TEC influences signal propagation speed. SANSA is also responsible for monitoring
ionospheric scintillation—interference of radio frequency signal phases and/or
amplitudes caused by irregularities in the electron density of the ionosphere.22
4.3.2 Ionosonde Stations
The SANSA Space Weather Centre operates four ionosonde stations in the country,
namely Grahamstown, Louisvale, Madimbo and Hermanus, which are vertical
sounding radars that emit high frequency radio pulses into the ionosphere and
17
South African Government, Land Survey Act 8 of 1997, available at: http://sagc.org.za/pdf/
legislation/Land%20Survey%20Act%208%20of%201997.pdf.
18
http://www.ee.co.za/article/trignet-south-africas-gnss-base-station-network.html.
19
R. Wonnacott, “TrigNet: The South African Network of Continuously Operating GPS Base
Stations”, Surveys & Mapping—Chief Directorate, Space Geodesy Workshop, Matjiesfontein,
Nov 2007.
20
International GNSS Service, About Us, available at: http://www.igs.org/about, accessed: 01
April 2018.
21
P. Vorster and S. Koch, TrigNet, South Africa’s GNSS baste station network, Dept. of Rural
Development and Land Reform, Article published by EE Publishers, Nov 2014, available at:
http://www.ee.co.za/article/trignet-south-africas-gnss-base-station-network.html, accessed: 02
April 2018.
22
Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology—Space Weather Services, About Ionospheric
Scintillation, available at: http://www.sws.bom.gov.au/Satellite/6/3, accessed: 01 April 2018.
Fig. 4.5 Ionogram from Hermanus Ionosonde Station (1 April 2018). SANSA Space Weather
Centre, Current Conditions—Ionograms, Daily conditions posted by SANSA at: https://space
weather.sansa.org.za/products-and-services/current-conditions/ionograms, accessed 01 April 2018
record the reflected signals. The results from these soundings are converted into
ionograms which indicate the “virtual height” of the ionosphere layers (see
Fig. 4.5). Such data is critical for ionospheric modelling and forecasting, which can
influence HF communications with spacecraft.23
The data from the South African ionosonde stations are sent to the following
international organizations in real-time: World Data Center for Paleoclimatology (in
Boulder, USA), the Digital Ionogram Database (DIDBASE, in Lowell, USA) and
the IPS Radio and Space Services, which is a unit of the Australian Space Weather
Services in Sydney, Australia.24
4.3.3 Magnetometer Stations
Magnetometer stations are used to measure the direction and intensity of the Earth’s
magnetic field. SANSA currently operates four magnetometer stations: Harte-
beeshoek and Hermanus in South Africa, and Keetmanshoop and Tsumeb, which
23
J. Habarulema, Measuring the Ionosphere: Emphasis on Ionosondes, EISCAT and 42AM Radar
School, SANSA, September 2015.
24
Dr. L. McKinnel, South African Ionospheric Stations, ISES Regional Warning Centre for Africa,
SANSA, available: http://spaceweather.hmo.ac.za/index.php?action=info&topic=IONOSONDE,
accessed 05 April 2018.
are in Namibia. The Keetmanshoop Observatory is run in co-ordination with the

Helmholtz Centre Potsdam Research Centre for Geosciences in Germany. The four
stations are part of the INTERMAGNET programme, which is an international
organization consisting of ground stations and satellites with the aim to “establish a
global network of cooperating digital magnetic observatories, adopting modern
standard specifications for measuring and recording equipment, in order to facilitate
data exchanges.”25,26
The measurements from the magnetometer stations are used to derive the “Kp
index” of current geomagnetic activity which is a key indicator of global space
weather and space climate conditions. Furthermore, the measurements facilitate
optimization and validation of satellite-borne magnetic measurements and can
indicate changes in the Earth’s core and in near-Earth space.27
4.3.4 Magnetotelluric Stations
Magnetotelluric (MT) stations are passive electromagnetic stations used to calculate

the electrical resistivity of the Earth’s surface by measuring the electric and mag-
netic fields along the surface. The data assists with mining and hydrocarbon
exploration, geothermal exploration and groundwater monitoring. They can also be
used to determine the surface impedance of the ground, which is a vital input for
modelling GICs. Currently there are ten such stations distributed around South
Africa. The data obtained from MT stations can be incorporated with measurements
from magnetometer stations to greatly improve the modelling and estimation of
GICs in power networks, thereby ensuring a more robust power network.28,29 The
South African Ionospheric Geophysics and Geomagnetic Experimental Resource
(SNIGGER) Project is an analytical research system consisting of 20 MT stations
and one HF Doppler system in South Africa.30
25
INTERMAGNET, International Real-Time Magnetic Observatory Network, Feb 2017, available
at: http://www.intermagnet.org/index-eng.php, accessed 03 April 2018.
26
INTERMAGNET, Geomagnetic Information Nodes (GINS), Feb 2017, available at: http://www.
intermagnet.org/gins-eng.php, accessed 03 April 2018.
27
Dr. J. Matzka, Geomagnetic Observatories, Helmholtz Centre Potsdam German Research Centre
for Geosciences available at: https://www.gfz-potsdam.de/en/section/geomagnetism/topics/
geomagnetic-observatories/, accessed: 04 April 2018.
28
S. Thiel, Modelling and inversion of magnetotelluric data for 2-D and 3-D lithospheric
structure, with application to obducted and subducted terranes, Ph.D. Thesis, University of
Adelaide, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2008.
29
P. Cilliers and D. Oyeddokun, Improved methods for surface impedance estimation in modelling
of geomagnetically induced currents in power networks, CIGRE, Southern Africa Regional
Conference, Nov 2017.
30
NRF Research Equipment Database, The South African Ionospheric Geophysics and Geomag-
netic Experimental Resource (SNIGGER), South African National Research Fund, available at:
http://eqdb.nrf.ac.za/equipment/other/south-african-ionospheric-geophysics-and-geomagnetic-
experimental-resource-snigger, accessed: 04 April 2018.
4.3.5 HF Doppler Stations
HF Doppler measurements are performed at certain SANSA observatories, and

allow scientists to study ionospheric disturbances (including gravity waves),
ionospheric sporadic E (a unique form of radio propagation which can allow for
long-distance communication using VHF frequencies), ionospheric spread F
(specific irregularities occurring in the F layer of the ionosphere) and also magnetic
pulsation techniques.31
4.3.6 Additional Infrastructure
In addition to the stations mentioned above, the SANSA Space Weather Centre also
runs HF radars in Antarctica at the South African National Antarctic Expedition
(SANAE) facility and is part of the Super Dual Auroral Radar Network (Super-
DARN)—an international collaboration of HF radars studying plasma in the
near-Earth space system and its effects on terrestrial infrastructure such as com-
munications, energy and transport.32 The Space Weather Centre is currently
establishing a Callisto Spectrometer Station in Hermanus to monitor solar radio
bursts and emissions.33 South Africa is also home to the largest single optical
telescope in the southern hemisphere, the South African Large Telescope (SALT).
The Space Weather Centre has international agreements to allow them to use data
from satellites such as the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, the Advanced
Composition Explorer, Solar Dynamics Observatory and the Solar Terrestrial
Relations Observatory.
It is worth noting that space weather monitoring techniques share some simi-
larities with radio astronomy and new advanced radio telescopes, such as the
Square Kilometre Array (SKA) have potential for additional ionospheric monitor-
ing. Furthermore, research has shown that it may be possible to use the Faraday
Rotation technique to monitor and detect the heliospheric magnetic field. As such,
the SKA may become a key tool for monitoring and recording space weather
events.34
31
P. Kotze, P. Cilliers and P. Sutcliffe, The role of SANSA’s geomagnetic observation network in
space weather monitoring: a review, Space Weather, 13, 656–664, https://doi.org/10.1002/
2015sw001279, 2015.
32
SuperDARN CANADA, What is SuperDARN, 2016, available at: http://superdarn.ca/about/
superdarn, accessed: 01 April 2018.
33
SANSA Space Science, Space Science in the new Space Agency, available at: http://www.uct.ac.
za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/281/events/physics_talks/121017%2520SANSA.pdf.
34
C. J. Schrijver et al., Understanding space weather to shield society: A global road map for 2015
to 2025 commissioned by COSPAR and ILWS, Advances in Space Research, Volume 55, Issue 12,
COSPAR, Published by Elsevier Ltd, June 2015.
4.4 South Africa’s Suggested Roadmap and Goals
The above section has shown that South Africa is an active player in international
initiatives and collaborations relating to space weather monitoring, predictions and
alerts via SANSA’s Space Weather Centre. It also offered a detailed overview of the
existing space weather infrastructure within South Africa, and highlighted the geo-
graphic importance of its observatories. This section offers suggestions on how South
Africa can leverage this infrastructure to aid in promoting international co-operations
and policies specific to space weather, both within the African States and abroad.
4.4.1 Short-Term Goals (5–10 Years)
• Spread awareness within local government of space weather and its possible
effects on infrastructure within the country.
• Promote improved co-ordination and co-operative governance within local gov-
ernment relating to the National Space Policy, with a specific focus on reducing
the country’s exposure and vulnerability to space weather events.
• Increase the capabilities of certain magnetic observatories to allow for magnetic
pulsation research by increasing the time domain of data collection.
• SANSA can also investigate increasing the MT network to include coastal areas
to allow studies of the coastal anomaly to be performed.
• SANSA is currently investigating different MT measurement methods to allow
for measurements to be performed under power lines. This will greatly increase
the accuracy of GIC modelling. Partnerships and research initiatives with Eskom
should focus specifically on these new magnetometers.
• Investigate the possibility of employing neural networks with machine learning
and artificial intelligence capabilities to automatically receive space weather data,
model GIC levels and alert Eskom of any potential threats and required actions.
• Continue to foster and encourage international agreements and promote space
weather data exchange between states, with specific focus on leveraging the SKA
data to encourage new international partnerships.
• Focus on capacity building with respect to space weather monitoring and pre-
diction through funding research projects, facilitating partnerships with interna-
tional universities and providing bursaries or scholarships for relevant tertiary and
post-graduate education modules.
• Establish a working group within SANSA to identify critical technologies and
industries which are currently vulnerable to space weather events. Thereafter the
group must quantify the exposure of each technology/industry and create an
associated risk register. The final aim of the working group is to identify
obtainable procedures and actions to reduce the vulnerability of critical tech-
nologies to space weather, noting that these may require new partnerships and
agreements, both locally and internationally.
• Present the findings of the working group to UNCOPUOS for consideration.
4.4.2 Medium-Term Goals (10–20 Years)
• Suggest and support the formation of a committee specifically devoted to inter-

national co-operation regarding space weather within UNCOPUOS.
• Establish a new INTERMAGNET magnetic observatory in Botswana in con-
junction with Botswana Power Corporation or private mining houses.
• Implement the procedures and activities identified by the proposed SANSA
working group to increase the resilience of South Africa’s infrastructure and
reduce our exposure to space weather events.
• Expand the SANSA online data and information management system to provide
online access to all of the Space Weather Centre’s measurements and forecasts to
customers.
• Include space weather risks and associated procedures into national emergency
response procedures. Once this has been achieved, share the procedures and
associated information with other African States and UNCOPUOS.
• Establish data-protocols to promote data sharing, formatting and security to
promote information and knowledge sharing with African States.
• Promote and perform research using the SNIGGER infrastructure to evaluate the
possibility of earthquake precursor predictions and disseminate findings with the
international community.
4.4.3 Long-Term Goals (>20 Years)
• Expand SANSA’s observatories into other countries in southern Africa in

strategic locations using international agreements and joint ventures. This will
increase SANSA’s monitoring capabilities and position in the global space arena
but also foster growth and developing in African countries.
• Co-ordinate African expansion into space weather monitoring and forecasting by
providing advice and information to new actors within Africa and by planning
and co-ordinating expansions and new infrastructure to eliminate duplications.
• Promote capacity-building and knowledge sharing within African States through
exchange programmes and new funded inter-African research projects.
• Support and advise the UNCOPUOS subcommittee on space weather if it is
formulated.
References
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induced currents in southern Africa. S. Afr. J. Sci. 104 (2008 Aug)
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Radar School, SANSA, Sept 2015
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www.intermagnet.org/gins-eng.php. Accessed 03 Apr 2018
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Apr 2018
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spaceweather.org/ISES/intro/history/history.html. Accessed 22 Feb 2018
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spaceweather.org/ISES/intro/wdwd/wdwd.html. Accessed 22 Feb 2018
13. JSE: History and Company Overview—Johannesburg Stock Exchange. Available at: https://
www.jse.co.za/about/history-company-overview (2018). Accessed 15 Mar 2018
14. Kotze, P., Cilliers, P., Sutcliffe, P.: The role of SANSA’s geomagnetic observation network in
space weather monitoring: a review. Space Weather 13, 656–664 (2015). https://doi.org/10.
1002/2015sw001279
15. Marsden, R.: Interplanetary Aspects of Space Weather. Research & Scientific Support Dept.
of ESA
16. Matzka, J.: Geomagnetic Observatories. Helmholtz Centre Potsdam German Research Centre
for Geosciences. Available at: https://www.gfz-potsdam.de/en/section/geomagnetism/topics/
geomagnetic-observatories/. Accessed 04 Apr 2018
17. McKinnel, L.: South African Ionospheric Stations. ISES Regional Warning Centre for Africa,
SANSA. Available: http://spaceweather.hmo.ac.za/index.php?action=info&topic=
IONOSONDE. Accessed 05 Apr 2018
18. Murtagh, B.: Space Weather Impacts on Aviation Systems. In: Presentation at the
International Air Safety & Climate Change Conference (IASCC), Cologne, Sept 2010
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gov/mission_pages/rbsp/science/rbsp-spaceweather-human.html (2017). Accessed 13 Mar
2018
20. Nevill, G. Pay-TV in Africa is thriving | The Media Online. Available at: http://
themediaonline.co.za/2017/04/pay-tv-in-africa-is-thriving/ (2017). Accessed 15 Mar 2018
21. NRF Research Equipment Database: The South African Ionospheric Geophysics and
Geomagnetic Experimental Resource (SNIGGER). South African National Research Fund.
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geomagnetic-experimental-resource-snigger. Accessed 04 Apr 2018
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doomsday-solar-storms.html (2017). Accessed 13 Mar 2018
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10(2) (2012)
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uct.ac.za/sites/default/files/image_tool/images/281/events/physics_talks/121017%
2520SANSA.pdf
25. SANSA Space Weather Centre: Current Conditions—Ionograms. Daily conditions posted by
SANSA at: https://spaceweather.sansa.org.za/products-and-services/current-conditions/
ionograms. Accessed 01 Apr 2018
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space-weather-information/resources/instrument-map. Last accessed Mar 2018
27. Schieb, P.: Geomagnetic Storms. CENTRA Technology on behalf of Office of Risk
Management and Analysis, United States Department of Homeland Security (2011)
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2015 to 2025 commissioned by COSPAR and ILWS. Adv. Space Res. 55(12) (2015, June).
COSPAR, Published by Elsevier Ltd
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Accessed 31 Mar 2018
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legislation/Land%20Survey%20Act%208%20of%201997.pdf
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superdarn (2016). Accessed 01 April 2018
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structure, with application to obducted and subducted terranes. Ph.D. thesis, University of
Adelaide, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences (2008)
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Eskom main transmission system model. In: Eskom, Cigre Paris Conference (2014)
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Development and Land Reform, Article published by EE Publishers, Nov 2014. Available at
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Apr 2018
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stations. Surveys & Mapping—Chief Directorate, Space Geodesy Workshop, Matjiesfontein,
Nov 2007
Author Biographies
James Wilson graduated from Electrical Engineering at the University of the Witwatersrand in
2017. He has a large interest in Space technology and hence pursued a Master of Philosophy in
Space Science at the University of Cape Town in 2018. He has a sizeable knowledge of and
interest in cars and is a guitar player in an alternative rock band. He aims to work with rocketry as
he completes his Master’s dissertation designing a control system for a liquid rocket test stand.
Nicolas Ringas graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree in Electrical Engineering from the
University of the Witwatersrand, in Johannesburg, South Africa, in 2012. Since graduating Nicolas
has been working at an engineering consultancy firm in the water, oil and natural gas sector,
specializing in electromagnetic interference issues with AC power lines, rail ways and cables. He
is currently completing a Master’s of Philosophy in Space Sciences at the University of Cape
Town in South Africa.
Nigeria
5
Carl Eriksen
Abstract
Nigeria is one of the leader’s in the African space arena they have grown from
producing their first small satellite to commissioning a geostationary satellite and
now plan towards sending an astronaut to orbit (Kieron Monks, “Nigeria Plans
to Send an Astronaut to Space by 2030,” CNN, 2016). In this chapter we cover
what the Nigerian space program has achieved and how it has achieved that. We
also provide insight towards the problems and goals facing Nigeria and how they
have used space related activities in response to these as well as how they intend
to grow their space related endeavours with these problems and goals in mind.
Throughout the chapter there is an effort to give the reader an understanding of
decision drivers through the context of Nigeria’s socio-economic landscape.
5.1 Background and Overview
Whilst having one of the largest economies in the world, Nigeria has a population
of over 170 million and with more than half living below the poverty line.1 Funding
an expensive space program is considered by some to be a luxury that the nation
simply cannot afford. However, Nigeria aims to use space applications for
socio-economic benefits and justifies its spending based on long term benefits and
sustainability. This strategy aligns with former President Goodluck Jonathan’s
transformation agenda which sought to implement long-term transformation of the
1
L. Ngcofe, K. Gottschalk, M. Mangena, “The growth of space science in African countries for
Earth observation in the 21st century,” South African Journal of Science 109(1/2), pp. 1–5, 2013.
C. Eriksen (&)
e-mail: carl.eriksen@ioloc.co.za

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05980-4_5
98 C. Eriksen
country by ensuring continuity, consistency and commitment (3Cs). The space

program has been a great success with regards to its conformity with the 3Cs
business model in recent times.2
The National Space Research and Development Agency (NASRDA) is Nigeria’s
national space agency. It was founded in 1999 and its mandate includes all Space
Science and Technology (SST) applications with an emphasis on socio-economic
benefits for the nation which is illustrated in the Nigerian Space Policy initially
published in 2001.3 The policy document states thirteen functions of the agency
including building human resources, building and launching satellites, coordinating
space programmes to optimize the use of resources, developing strategies, collab-
orate with international institutions, promote active participation in the United
Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Space (UNCOPUOS), provide support
for academic institutions, be the repository of all satellite data and review national
space policy.
Nigeria passed the National Space Research and Development Agency Act in
2010 which saw NASRDA become empowered as the regulatory and supervisory
entity for space activities in the nation. Combined with the Insurance Act, the
Communications Act and the National Geoinformation Policy (all 2003) these
provide the legislative framework upon which NASRDA decisions are based.4
Nigeria has currently signed and ratified four of the five UN treaties on outer
space. These include the Outer Space Treaty (1968), the Rescue Agreement (1968),
the Liability Convention (1972) and the Registration Convention (1976). The
content of these treaties is not included within Nigerian space policy and legislation
but is binding in terms of International Law. At present Nigeria is not among the 17
states that have ratified the Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the
Moon and Other Celestial Bodies of 1979 (Moon Agreement).5
In addition to the United Nations treaties, Nigeria has also ratified the Nuclear
Test Ban Treaty, the International Telecommunications Satellite Treaty (ITSO), the
International Mobile Satellite Organisation Treaty (IMSO) and International
Telecommunication Convention establishing the International Telecommunications
Union (ITU).
2
Jacob Olufemi Fatile, “A Critical Appraisal of Jonathan’s Transformation Agenda and Gender
Equality in Nigeria,” UNIVERSITY OF MAURITIUS RESEARCH JOURNAL—Volume 22—2016
22 (2016): 207–244.
3
NASRDA, “National Space Policy,” 2011.
4
W Momoh, “An Overview of Nigerian Space Activity and Space Law,” African Skies, No. 12,
2008, 6–10.
5
Van Wyk JA, “Overview of the Implementation Status of the Five United Nations Treaties on
Outer Space in African Countries,” AFRICAN SKIES, No. 12 (2008): 20–28, osts.
5 Nigeria 99
5.2 Relevant Challenges and Development Goals
As mentioned previously, Nigeria has more than half its population living below the
poverty line. Data from the UN SDG indicators global database suggests that 53.2%
of the adult population had moderate to severe food insecurity. It should be no
surprise to see that in the PEW research Spring 2016 Global Attitudes Survey 27%
of Nigerians stated that food supply should be the most important priority for
Nigeria. This was the highest priority ahead of energy supply (19%) and education
(18%) where for example, only 34% of primary schools have access to electricity.
Despite figures such as 2.01 health workers per 100,000 citizens in 2009 and 69.4
deaths per thousand infant mortality rate, Nigerians are most optimistic about the
healthcare sector with 86% believing that it will improve over the next decade (Pew
Research 2014). Many blame the terrorist group, Boko Haram for the food short-
ages and negative views of the group have risen to 93% in 2016. Despite the many
challenges that Nigeria and her citizens face, there is a typically positive outlook on
the future with 78% believing that young people would have a better life choosing
to stay in the country if given the choice to emigrate (Pew Research 2014).
5.3 Meeting Challenges with Space Applications
Nigeria has launched five satellites.6 The first, Nigeria Sat-1 was manufactured at
Surrey Space Technologies Ltd and launched using the Russian Kosmos-3M rocket
in 2003 to form part of a disaster management constellation consisting of seven
micro-satellites from Nigeria, Algeria, Turkey, United Kingdom and China and
illustrated its international disaster management effectiveness by providing images
of the affected regions during Hurricane Katrina and the Asian Tsunami. Within
Nigeria, Nigeria Sat-1 imagery has been used to observe desertification and pol-
lution, research contributing factors towards malaria outbreaks, predict floods and
meningitis outbreaks and more.
In 2007, Nigeria launched its first communications satellite, NigComSat-1 which
was manufactured and launched by China Aerospace Science and Technology
Corporation (CGWIC) and became the first African geosynchronous communica-
tion satellite. Following the failure of NigComSat-1 in 2008 after an anomaly in its
solar array, NigComSat-1R launched by CGWIC in 2011 to replace it. 97% of
Nigerian households do not have terrestrial communication links (landlines/fibre
optics) (Pew Research 2014) which has resulted in a large dependency on satellite
communications which shall only increase in the coming years.
NigeriaSat-2 and NigeriaSat-X were launched in 2011 aboard a Ukrainian Dnepr
rocket after again being manufactured by Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd with
on-the-job training of NASRDA engineers for Nigeria to build satellites without
Adetoro L and Aro O, “Nigeria Space Programs,” 2011.

6
100 C. Eriksen
foreign assistance.7 These were built to replace NigeriaSat-1 and supply greater
resolution and remote sensing capabilities. The satellites were the subject of media
attention in 2014 when imagery was used to assist with the search for schoolgirls
abducted by Boko Haram.8
Nigeria is currently focusing on freeing themselves from relying on foreign
partners for satellite launching. They aim to develop launch capabilities by 2030
with support from the Nigerian Society of Engineers (NSE) and Massachusetts
Institute for Technology (MIT).9 Furthermore, Nigeria has negotiated a deal with
Russia to launch their own astronauts which are currently being trained and the goal
is for them to be launched by 2020.10 Within the African continent Nigeria formed
part of the countries aiming to develop an African Resource Management
(ARM) satellite constellation via a data-sharing agreement. This agreement aims to
remove the limitations caused by relying on non-African countries for satellite
imagery that is not focused on the specific requirements of the continent.
Nigeria has begun the process of building a National Geospatial Data Infras-
tructure (NGDI) which uses Nigerian satellite data to meet sustainable development
goals. Focuses include the production, trade and implementation of geospatial data
as well as eliminating data duplication thereby reducing costs and human resources.
These goals are achieved through the unification of multiple agencies and
disciplines.
NASRDA received a total N968 million in 2016 which was equal to $5 million
using the 2016 exchange rate where the Naira was worth in the region of 0.005 US
dollars. This equated to 0.016% of the national budget and 1.8% of the science and
technology budget.11 The major investments are in developing infrastructure and
human resources signalling an intent to continue growing both the space agency as
well as creating a space technology and incubation centre for the public sector.
Research and development centres have also been created or are in development
within fields including satellite technology, astrodynamics, remote sensing, space
transportation and propulsion and basic space science research.
Next, we create an image of Nigeria’s space posture by observing the 2016
budget allocations to the space program and the relevant political alignments that
contributed to it. In the following chapters we review the African Space policy and
Strategy and determine whether the Nigerian National Space Policy falls in line
with it.
7
D. Ogbodo, “Nigeria Plans to Launch Indigenous Satellite by 2030”, 2016.
8
Adams C, “Nigerian Space Agency’s Satellites Searching For Schoolgirls Abducted By Boko
Haram,” IB Times, 2014.
9
Ogbodo, D. 2016. Nigeria Plans to Launch Indigenous Satellite by 2030. This Day Live.
10
Adetoro L and Aro O, “Nigeria Space Programs,” 2011.
11
Ogbodo, D. 2016. Nigeria Plans to Launch Indigenous Satellite by 2030. This Day Live.
5 Nigeria 101
5.4 Nigeria’s Status Regarding Space Treaties and Polices
Nigeria has currently signed and ratified four of the five United Nations treaties on
outer space. These include the Outer Space Treaty (1968), the Rescue Agreement
(1968), The Liability Convention (1972) and the registration convention (1976). At
present Nigeria is not among the 17 states that have ratified the Moon agreement
(1979).12
The Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration
and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies more
commonly referred to as the Outer Space Treaty has three key principles: that space
shall not be used for weapons of mass destruction, that no government shall claim
appropriation of any celestial resource and that countries have jurisdiction and
control over any object that they launch into space.
Nigeria signed The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
(NPT) in 1968 which it ratified in 1968. This recognizes five states (the United
States of America, the Russian Federation, China, France and the United Kingdom)
as being nuclear-weapon states and all other non-nuclear-weapon states agree to
never develop a nuclear arsenal. In theory, this renders Nigeria permanently
compliant of the first key principle of the OST. However, there have been recent
efforts to have Nigeria join the list of permanent members of the United Nations
Security Council which consists of the nuclear-weapon states. This raises an
interesting question of what would occur if Nigeria were hypothetically given the
status of a nuclear-weapon state in the future.13
The current national space policy of Nigeria has no specific mention of weapons
of mass destruction. The defense, national security and law enforcement chapter of
the policy states that Satellite Space Technology can be applied in the following
ways:
1. Conflict prevention through pre-emptive actions such as advance communica-

tion, early warning system, remote sensing, border delineation, identification of
resources and monitoring of movements of suspected perpetrators of various
situations.
2. Enhancement of Regional Peace Keeping Operations. This is critical to the
ability of our armed forces to protect and maintain our strategic interests.
3. Space Science and Technology is a potent weapon in the fight against crime
especially the deluge of international crime that are fall-outs of globalization and
it plays a crucial role in the command control, and execution of the tactical and
strategic operation of our armed forces, as already demonstrated in other areas
around the world.14
12
V. W. JA, “Overview of the Implementation Status of the Five United Nations Treaties on Outer
Space in African Countries,” AFRICAN SKIES, No. 12, pp. 20–28, 2008.
13
T. Usman, “Why Nigeria deserves a permanent UN Security Council seat,” 2015.
14
NASRDA, “National Space Policy,” Tech. Rep., 2011.
102 C. Eriksen
While the policy does not make mention of using outer space for ballistic
weaponry, it does not make any statement forbidding it. There is thus no direct
implementation of the first key principle of the OST in national policy, but it can be
argued as irrelevant due to the absence of weapons of mass destruction.
This trend of an absence of policy relevant to international space treaties con-
tinues throughout Nigerian space policy and legislation. The question is then
whether this absence represents a lack of binding to international space treaties or
rather an assumption that international space law is completely binding and does
not require further mention in national acts.
To better understand Nigeria’s position, we can assess the following quote from
the Nigerian delegation to the 49th Session of the United Nations Committee on the
Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS) in 2006:
…inasmuch as my delegation is in support of the idea of a universal, comprehensive
convention on space law, we recognize that in order to strengthen the legal framework for
global space activities, member states should commit themselves to the ratification and the
scrupulous implementation of the existing legal instruments.15
Clearly Nigeria’s stance points towards complete implementation of interna-

tional space treaties. It can be argued that Nigeria believes in the multi-layer leg-
islative structure where the first layer is international space law and national
legislation forming subsequent layers.16
It is thus not necessary for Nigeria to include mentions of outer space treaties in
its national documentation as it is understood to be binding and all subsequent
legislation and policy is lex specialis.
Interpretation of the international space treaties has come under question with
the USA’s passing of the 2015 Space Act, as the nation has passed legislation
allowing mining in outer space. Many believe this to be a violation of the Outer
Space Treaty due to mining space resources being considered appropriation. At this
stage this writer cannot find any information regarding Nigeria’s position on this
interpretation but the following quote again from the 49th session of UNCOPUOS
provides further insight:
…although the United Nations Treaties and Resolutions on international space law provide
a minimum framework for the conduct of space activities, my delegation is convinced that
advances in technology necessitate the need to expand our understanding of the scope,
content and application of space law rules17
This statement suggests that Nigeria would be open to a novel interpretation of

space law and could perceivably fall on the side of the USA with regards to the
position on outer space mining which could potentially pave the way for further
shifts in interpretation.
15
W. Momoh, “An Overview of Nigerian Space Activity and Space Law,” African Skies, No. 12,
pp. 6–10, 2008.
16
Tare Brisibe, “Outer Space Activities and Intellectual Property Protection in Nigeria,” Journal of
Space Law 32, no. 2 (2006).
17
Momoh, “An Overview of Nigerian Space Activity and Space Law.”
5 Nigeria 103
5.5 Nigeria’s Space Posture: NASRDA
The National Space Research and Development Agency (NASRDA) is Nigeria’s

national space agency. It was founded in 1999 and its mandate includes all Space
Science and Technology (SST) applications with an emphasis on socio-economic
benefits for the nation which is illustrated in the Nigerian Space Policy initially
published in 2001. The policy document states thirteen functions of the agency
including building human resources, building and launching satellites, coordinating
space programmes to optimize the use of resources, developing strategies, collab-
orate with international institutions, promote active participation in UNCOPUOS,
provide support for academic institutions, be the repository of all satellite data and
review national space policy. We shall begin by assessing the 2016 budget alloca-
tions to create a sense of priority within these functions.
NASRDA received a total N968 million in 2016 which was equal to $5 million
using the 2016 exchange rate where the Naira was worth in the region of 0.005 US
dollars. This equated to 0.016% of the national budget and 1.8% of the science and
technology budget.
Nigeria is a part of the third tier of space actors along with the African countries
Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt per the metric used in the publication “Space Policy in
Developing Countries”18 which sorts space programs into tiers based on the level of
technology used as well as how the program fits into the country’s national security
and development policies.
Taking a closer look at the 2016 NASDRA budget we can obtain the major
budget allocations shown in Table 5.1.
It is clear to see that the major investments are in developing infrastructure and
human resources. This shows an intent to grow the space agency in the coming
years. The space technology and incubation centre will be a platform to promote
entrepreneurship within the space sector in Nigeria. There is a notable lack of
emphasis placed directly on security, however NASRDA has shown in the past that
Nigerian satellite imagery can be assist with the tracking of the terrorist group Boko
Haram as they did when searching for abducted schoolgirls in 2014.19
5.6 Transformation Agenda
NASRDA has seen undergone considerable growth in recent time as a part of

President Goodluck Jonathan’s administration’s transformation agenda. The agenda
was initially a five-year plan running from 2011 to 2015 and focused on three key
areas: economic growth, employment generation/poverty alleviation and citizenry
value re-orientation. It was characterized by aiming to improve government action
18
Robert C Harding, Space Policy in Developing Countries, 2013.
ADAMS, “Nigerian Space Agency’s Satellites Searching For Schoolgirls Abducted By Boko
19
Haram.”
104 C. Eriksen
Table 5.1 Table showing the major projects in the 2016 science and technology budget proposal.
Federal Government of Nigeria, “2016 FGN Budget Proposal,” 2016
Project Amount (N)
Laboratory equipment and machineries 1,000,000,000
Consultancy services for the construction of space technology for incubation 364,925,635
centre
Consultancy services for civil works (AIT/DC) 235,312,270
Comprehensive operational training program 116,503,654
with regards to continuity, consistency and commitment (3Cs) with a focus on

long-term perspective.20,21
NASRDA mandate was to use satellite technology to assist and fall in line with
many of the thirteen key sectors of the transformation agenda. These key sectors
are:
1. Job creation
2. Education
3. Health
4. Power
5. Transportation
6. Improvement of the Niger Delta region
7. Labour and productivity
8. Foreign policy and economic diplomacy
9. Legislature
10. Governance
11. Judiciary and justice delivery
12. Public expenditure management
13. Information and Communication Technology (ICT).
As we can see from the budget allocation there is significant emphasis on job
creation and infrastructure with the current post transformation agenda budget
illustrating accordance with the 3Cs.
In 2015, the Nigerian government signed a $250 million collaboration agreement
with the United Kingdom based company Menasat Gulf Group Plc to develop
synthetic aperture radar satellites. The aim is to use satellite images to contribute
towards several key sectors. Minister of Science and Technology, Dr. Abdu Baluma
illustrates some of these contributions in a statement on the satellite:
…will be helpful in the area of security, mapping out our solid minerals deposit and, also to
monitor the coastal areas of Niger Delta.22
20
Fatile, “A Critical Appraisal of Jonathan’s Transformation Agenda and Gender Equality in
Nigeria.”
21
Governmnent of Nigeria, “The Transformation Agenda 2011–2015,” 2011.
22
Technology Times, “Nigerias Next Satellite to Spy on Niger Delta,” Technology Times, 2015.
5 Nigeria 105
There are strong examples of an intent to employ international collaboration as

much as possible to enhance the investments made in space applications. The
British Government assisted Nigeria with the establishment of a West African
Science Innovation Network initially in Abuja before being moved to Lagos to
improve opportunities for stakeholder engagement by promoting evidence-based
policy making and developing sustainable science and innovation partnerships.23
These operations follow a strong history of international allegiance with regards
to space science and technology. At present Nigeria has launched five satellites. The
first, Nigeria Sat-1 was manufactured at Surrey Space Technologies Ltd and
launched using the Russian Kosmos-3M rocket in 2003 to form part of a disaster
management constellation consisting of seven micro-satellites from Nigeria,
Algeria, Turkey, United Kingdom and China. In 2007, Nigeria launched its first
communications satellite, NigComSat-1 which was manufactured and launched by
China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation (CGWIC) and became the
first African geosynchronous communication satellite. Following the failure of
NigComSat-1 in 2008 after an anomaly in its solar array, NigComSat-1R launched
by CGWIC in 2011 to replace it. NigeriaSat-2 and NigeriaSat-X were launched in
2011 aboard a Ukrainian Dnepr rocket after again being manufactured by Surrey
Satellite Technology Ltd with on-the-job training of NASRDA engineers for
Nigeria to build satellites without foreign assistance.24
Nigeria is currently focusing on freeing themselves from relying on foreign
partners for satellite launching. They aim to develop launch capabilities by 2030
with support from the Nigerian Society of Engineers (NSE) and Massachusetts
Institute for Technology (MIT).25
Furthermore, Nigeria has negotiated a deal with Russia to launch their own
astronauts which are currently being trained and the goal is for them to be launched
by 2020.26
Within the African continent Nigeria formed part of the countries aiming to
develop an African Resource Management (ARM) satellite constellation via a
data-sharing agreement. This agreement aims to remove the limitations caused by
relying on non-African countries for satellite imagery that is not focused on the
specific requirements of the continent.27
23
“UK Science & Innovation Network in Nigeria,” Gov.uk, 2013.
24
Adetoro, “Nigeria Space Programs.”
25
Dele Ogbodo, “Nigeria Plans to Launch Indigenous Satellite by 2030,” This Day Live, 2016.
26
NASRDA, “National Space Policy.”
27
Luncedo Ngcofe et al., “The Growth of Space Science in African Countries for Earth
Observation in the 21st Century,” S Afr J Sci. 109, no. 1 (2013): 1–5, growth.
106 C. Eriksen
5.7 Nigerian Implementation of the African Space Policy

and Strategy (ASPS)
The African Space Policy and Strategy (ASPS) was approved by the African Union
(AU) in January 2016 as the first of the concrete steps to realize an African Outer
Space Program, as one of the flagship programmes of the AU Agenda 2063. In this
chapter we look at the goals and implementation guidelines of the ASPS and
determine how they correspond to the current standing and future orientation of the
Nigerian space program.28
The ASPS lists two major goals in this official documentation. The first goal is to
use space science and technology for socio-economic benefits to improve quality of
life and create wealth which perfectly mirrors the mandate stated by NASRDA.
Next is to develop and maintain indigenous infrastructure and capabilities that
services an African market. Nigeria through the launch of its satellites and the use
of the opportunity to negotiate human development are certainly aspiring to achieve
this goal. Separating the African market into the private and public sector we find
NigComSat-1 currently being used to provide internet and broadcast services and
the other providing imagery and remote sensing that is currently servicing Nigeria
and the ARM countries. Hopefully more countries can join the ARM agreement in
the future to further help service the African market.
The strategic focus for the policy and strategy describes four key areas, Earth
observation, satellite communication, and space science and astronomy. Nigeria
have currently launched three Earth observation satellites with plans for more.
Research and development centres have either been created or are in development
within fields including satellite technology, astrodynamics, remote sensing, space
transportation and propulsion, and basic space science research. These coincide
with an increase in funding for space-based education.
We can observe a strong emphasis on three of the four key areas with a
noticeable lack of emphasis placed on navigation and positioning. It is however
understandable for navigation and positioning to be of a lower priority given the
extremely large costs required to develop such technology in terms of both capital
and human resources. Currently only the USA has a GPS network although projects
from the Europe and China are close to completion. Given the open source nature of
these positioning systems it is more fruitful at this stage to focus on using the data
available from international efforts and focus on diplomatic ties to obtain as many
resources from navigation and positioning networks as possible.
“African Space Policy and Strategy,” 2016.

28
5 Nigeria 107
Table 5.2 Space applications

Goal No Mentioned In Completion
mention development
Develop a data sharing policy ✓ ✓ ✓
Timely access to the right data sets ✓ ✓ ✓
Provision of appropriate services ✓
and products
Robust processing capabilities ✓
Ensure all levels of government ✓
are able to access data through a
centralised portal
Provide geospatial and scientific ✓ ✓ ✓
data for R&D and education
Provide geospatial data for ✓ ✓ ✓
commercial exploitation
Table 5.3 Accessing space services

mention development
Use existing space infrastructure ✓
Promote capacity building for ✓ ✓
accessing space services
Adopt a data sharing framework ✓ ✓ ✓
Develop and increase our asset ✓ ✓
base
Establishment of regional and ✓ ✓
subregional centers of excellence
The following tables illustrate the status of Nigeria in terms of its alignment with
the more in-depth goals of the African Space Policy and Strategy regarding the
space policy and achievements of the nation. In cases where there ticks for both “In
development” and “Developed” it means that the goal has been somewhat achieved
but further efforts are in development29,30,31 (Tables 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8,
5.9, 5.10, 5.11 and 5.12).
29
African Space Policy and Strategy, 2016.
30
Adetoro, “Nigeria Space Programs.”
31
NASRDA, “National Space Policy.”
108 C. Eriksen
Table 5.4 Enabling technologies

mention development
Develop AIT facilities and design ✓ ✓
centers to support satellite
manufacturing facilities
Develop ground segments for ✓
TTC to support satellite operations
and data retrieval
Develop space segments for house ✓
keeping and health of satellites
Secure orbital slots for use by ✓
indigenous satellites
Table 5.5 Space mission operations

mention development
Develop capability for the medium ✓
to high-resolution payloads and
subsystems
Develop the SAR payload and ✓
subsystem requirements
Develop a geostationary ✓
communications satellite with
indigenous African participation
Table 5.6 Developing the regional market

mention development
A people centered, market based ✓
industrial capability
Globally competitive African ✓
space programme
Promote public private ✓
partnerships
Coherent development, upgrade ✓
and operation of African space
infrastructure
R&D led industrial development ✓
Use indigenous space ✓ ✓
technologies, products and
services
5 Nigeria 109
Table 5.7 Industrial development

mention development
Develop an industrial framework ✓
to unlock industrial opportunities
Building an industrial base to ✓
support Africas requirements
Maximising the benefits of ✓
innovation and technology transfer
into and out of the space sector
Creating an enabling environment ✓
for small and medium enterprises
Table 5.8 Good governance and management

mention development
Establish an organisational ✓
framework
African financial support as the ✓
main funding source
Promote knowledge sharing ✓
Monitor and evaluate space ✓
activities
Regulate space activities ✓
Maintain an awareness campaign ✓
Table 5.9 Coordinating the African space arena

mention development
Promote partnerships across all ✓ ✓
sectors
Commit funds to optimise and ✓
improve effectiveness
Harmonize and standardize all ✓
infrastructure
Establish communities of practice ✓ ✓
Preserve the longterm ✓
sustainability of outer space
Secure the space environment for ✓
Africas use
110 C. Eriksen
Table 5.10 Infrastructure

mention development
Building new and expanding ✓ ✓
existing AIT centers
Vicarious calibration facilities ✓
Data banks and high performance ✓
computing centers
R&D centers ✓ ✓
Complementaries between ✓
spacebased and in-situ
infrastructure
Table 5.11 Promoting international cooperation

mention development
Space in Africa, for Africa and by ✓
Africans
Ensuring a reasonable and ✓
significant financial and/or social
return
Respect international agreements ✓
Table 5.12 International partnerships

mention development
Establishing a panAfrican ✓
cooperation and partnership
framework
Cooperation agreements, reducing ✓
the space divide and technological
gaps
African academia to establish a ✓ ✓
partnership agreement with global
networks
African space infrastructure ✓
positioned as a global
infrastructure
5 Nigeria 111
5.8 Analysis of Nigeria’s Space Policy and Strategy w.r.t.

the African Space Policy and Strategy
Nigeria’s space policy and program is very well aligned with the Africa Space
Policy and Strategy which is not surprising as there was strong Nigerian partici-
pation in the working group that drafted it. Most of the policies are mentioned in the
Nigerian space policy as well as most of the implementation strategy either com-
plete or in development. All this bodes well for the future of the Nigerian Space
program.
The major concern for the future of the Nigerian space program lies with
funding. Whilst having one of the largest economies in the world, Nigeria has a
population of over 170 million and with 70% living below the poverty line.
Funding an expensive space program is considered by some to be a luxury that the
nation simply cannot afford. However, Nigeria aims to use space applications for
socio-economic benefit and justifies its spending based on long term benefits and
sustainability. This strategy aligns with President Goodluck Jonathan’s transfor-
mation agenda which sought to implement long term transformation of the country
by ensuring continuity, consistency and commitment. The space program has been
a great success with regards to its conformity with the 3Cs.
In conclusion, we have found that Nigeria’s space program conforms to the
African Space policy and Strategy in most applications and we hope that future
amendments to the National Space Policy include rectifications of the relatively few
absences.
Bibliography
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Haram. IB Times (2014)
4. Adetoro, L., Aro, O.: Nigeria Space Programs (2011)
5. Brisibe, T.: Outer space activities and intellectual property protection in Nigeria. J. Space Law
32(2) (2006)
6. Fatile, J.O.: A critical appraisal of Jonathan’s transformation agenda and gender equality in
Nigeria. Univ. Mauritius Res. J. 22, 207–244 (2016)
7. Federal Government of Nigeria: 2016 FGN Budget Proposal (2016)
8. Governmnent of Nigeria: The Transformation Agenda 2011–2015 (2011)
9. Harding, R.C.: Space Policy in Developing Countries (2013)
10. Momoh, W.: An overview of Nigerian space activity and space law. Afr. Ski. (12), 6–10
(2008)
11. Monks, K.: Nigeria plans to send an astronaut to space by 2030. CNN (2016)
12. NASRDA: National Space Policy (2011)
13. NASRDA: National Space Policy. Tech. Rep. (2011)
14. Ngcofe, L., Gottschalk, K., Mangena, M.: The growth of space science in African countries
for Earth observation in the 21st century. S. Afr. J. Sci. 109(1/2), 1–5 (2013)
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16. Technology Times: Nigeria’s next satellite to spy on Niger Delta. Technology Times (2015)
112 C. Eriksen
17. Usman, T.: Why Nigeria deserves a permanent UN Security Council seat (2015)
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Author Biography
Carl Eriksen is a mechatronics engineer from the University of Cape Town. He worked on this
publication while studying towards an MPhil in Space Studies as well as working as a
development engineer at Bowler Plastics (Pty) Ltd. His undergraduate thesis was on the design of a
small satellite ground station. Carl is now a co-founder and technical director of the real time
locations service company—ioLoc (Pty) Ltd, which specialises in applications where GPS is not
viable.
Algeria
6
André Siebrits
Abstract
Algeria is one of Africa’s leading states in the space arena. Its space agency
Agence Spatiale Algérienne (ASAL) was formed in 2002 to contribute to
economic, social, and cultural development, the protection of the environment,
the management of natural resources, and the safety and wellbeing of Algeria’s
people. ASAL’s actions are guided by the Programme Spatial National (PSN),
which runs until 2020. Thus far, six Algerian satellites have been placed in orbit,
and a strong emphasis has been placed on using space applications to support
sustainable development in line with ASAL’s mandate. Overall, Algeria has a
robust space posture that, while predicated on cooperation, actively places space
at the service of national development efforts, particularly in the gaining of
critical skills and capabilities. As such, the country has shown a clear upward
trend in its technical autonomy and capabilities, and Algeria is set to remain one
of the African leaders in space.
This chapter provides an overview of the space activities, and the attendant legal
and policy aspects, of the Democratic People’s Republic of Algeria. Specifically,
the focus will be placed on identifying whether Algeria presents a clearly defined
approach, or posture, towards space, and how it is positioning itself internationally
in the space arena. Another aim is to identify what the implications will be for the
country concerning the recent adoption of the African Space Policy and Strategy,
and to what extent it is in a position to implement this domestically. To this end, the
chapter is divided into eight main sections. First, a brief background and context
will be provided, considering Algeria’s history (including French space launches in
the country), and some of its main challenges. Second, the regulatory and policy
aspects concerning outer space will be investigated, divided by international and
A. Siebrits (&)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05980-4_6
114 A. Siebrits
domestic spheres. Third, the Algerian Space Agency (Agence Spatial Algérienne—
ASAL) and its guiding legislation and mission will also be considered. Fourth, the
primary reference instrument concerning space policy in Algeria—the Programme
Spatial National—will be analysed. Fifth, ASAL’s infrastructure and operating
entities will be investigated. Sixth, Algeria’s key space systems and activities will
be reviewed, with emphasis on the six Algerian satellites that have been launched
since 2002. Seventh, an investigation of the country’s critical global and regional
partnerships and cooperation will be presented. Eighth, and finally, the overall
findings of the analysis will be presented.
6.1 Background and Context
In order to gain an adequate understanding of Algerian space activities, and their

legal and policy aspects, it is first necessary to review the particular context of the
country. This discussion will necessarily be brief and will focus on Algeria’s
geography, demographics, main developmental challenges, and history, particularly
its use by France as a rocket launch site. With an area of 2.38 million square
kilometres, Algeria is the largest country in Africa,1 comparable in size to Green-
land. Its landscape is dominated by the Sahara in the south, which gives way to a
high mountainous plateau in the north, with a narrow, discontinuous coastal plain
along the Mediterranean.2 This coastal region is also where the majority of the
40.2 million citizens of the country reside (70% are urban), of whom around 45%
are younger than 24. Reported natural hazards include earthquakes, mudslides and
floods in the mountainous region, while the country is faced with numerous
environmental challenges, including “soil erosion from overgrazing and other poor
farming practices; desertification; dumping of raw sewage, petroleum refining
wastes, and other industrial effluents is leading to the pollution of rivers and coastal
waters; Mediterranean Sea, in particular, becoming polluted from oil wastes, soil
erosion, and fertilizer runoff; inadequate supplies of potable water”.3 Despite these
environmental challenges, Algeria is ranked 83rd by the United Nations Devel-
opment Program (UNDP) in its Human Development Index 2016, and the country
ranks third out of only five African countries that are classified as having a high
level of human development.4 However, Algeria’s very large territory, vast and
remote desert region, almost 1000 km of coastline, coupled with its particular
1
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), “The World Factbook: Algeria,” 2017, https://www.cia.gov/
library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ag.html (accessed March 18, 2017).
2
Ibid.
3
Ibid.
4
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), “Human Development Report 2016: Human
Development for Everyone,” 2016, http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2016_human_
development_report.pdf (accessed March 16, 2017).
6 Algeria 115
environmental vulnerabilities, mean that space applications and satellite technology

can play an especially critical role in the country’s development, a realisation that
has not been lost on Algerian authorities, as will be discussed later.
As for Algeria’s history, Redfield,5 whose research focuses on the intersection
between science studies and postcolonial studies, reminds us that there is a “his-
torical geography of power that runs through the Final Frontier”, and which
necessitates a particular appreciation of colonial history. While focusing on the use
of French Guiana as a launch site for French and European rockets, Redfield6
argues that “outer space reflects a practical shadow of empire”, which is also
undoubtedly true of Algeria.
Occupied by France between 1830 and 1962, Algeria was considered a French
province instead of a colony and hosted a large number of French residents.7
Independence was only achieved after nearly eight years of what is described as
“one of the bloodiest and most violent wars fought for independence”, which saw
the coming to power of the Front de Libération Nationale (FLN), which remains in
power today.8 Of particular interest for this discussion is the extent to which the
French, including the military, were invested in Algeria. While the Algerian War
was raging, France began a series of nuclear tests in the Saharan region of the
country, which continued even after independence, as per the Franco-Algerian
independence agreements (the Evian Accords of 1962).9 The Evian Accords
encapsulated French interests in Algeria, of which military interests were para-
mount, and made allowance for continued nuclear testing in the Sahara until testing
sites in French Polynesia could be prepared.
Interestingly, France had attempted to emphasise a distinction between Algeria
and the Sahara during the independence negotiations, with some proposals that
would have allowed France to maintain its sovereignty over the desert territory.10
This position proved untenable, however, and France eventually recognised
Algerian sovereignty over the Sahara before the Evian Accords were signed. Apart
from nuclear testing, and the valuable oil and gas reserves of the Algerian Sahara,
France had also constructed and used the Hammaguir test range to launch its early
rockets, including the Diamant booster, which placed the first French satellite,
Asterix-1, in orbit, thereby making it the third global space power.11
5
P. Redfield, “The Half-Life of Empire in Outer Space,” Social Studies of Science 32 (2002): 792.
6
Ibid., 795.
7
CountryWatch, “Algeria Country Review,” 2017, 9, http://web.a.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.uct.ac.
za/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=3&sid=6930943b-d691-406f-ac2c-65619cd27083%40session
mgr4010&hid=4101 (accessed March 19, 2017).
8
Ibid., 10.
9
R. Zia-Ebrahimi, “Courting the Former Colony: Algeria’s Special Position in French Third World
Policy, 1963,” The Journal of North African Studies 17, no. 1 (2012): 24.
10
Ibid., 33.
11
W. A. McDougall, “Space-Age Europe: Gaullism, Euro-Gaullism, and the American Dilemma,”
Technology and Culture 26, no. 2 (1985): 180.
116 A. Siebrits
The Hammaguir site occupied a critical position in De Gaulle’s resurgent French

policy, and after 1947 it was also the home of the V-2 rockets captured by France.12
Hammaguir became the third most active launch site in the world (after the US and
Soviet sites), and because of the dual-use nature of space technology, the French
Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (CNES) did not distinguish between civilian
and military rocketry.13 Thus, it is apparent that the Hammaguir site was another of
the vital strategic interests in the Algerian Sahara, and as per allowance under the
Evian Accords, France continued to use it until 1967, after which operations were
moved to French Guiana. Two sites were of particular importance for France: the
Centre Interarmées d’Essais d’Engins Spéciaux (CIEES)—Inter-Arms Special
Weapons Test Centre—at Colomb-Bechar, which was opened in 1947 and hosted
the V-2s, and Hammaguir itself, 120 km south-west of Colomb-Bechar, which was
used after 1952 for more powerful tests.14 At Hammaguir, four facilities were
created: Blandine and Bacchus, for liquid and solid-fuelled sounding rockets;
Beatrice, for testing surface-to-air missiles and hosting the Europa program; and
Brigitte, from where the French launched their “Precious Stones” boosters such as
Diamant. As a testament to the previous claim, of Hammaguir being the third most
active launch site on Earth during the fifties and early sixties, a total of 214 launches
took place between 1952 and 1967.15 As agreed to in the Evian Accords, Ham-
maguir and its facilities were dismantled and evacuated by France by the end of
June 1967.16 Nevertheless, through its colonial occupier, Algeria had become the
first African country from whose territory orbital payloads had been launched. It
was not, however, until the end of the century that Algeria would begin its own
space activities, as discussed in the next section.
6.2 Algeria’s Regulatory and Policy Aspects Concerning

Outer Space
This section is dedicated to an analysis of Algeria’s outer space regulation and

policy. It is organised into two subsections, detailing Algeria’s status regarding
international treaties on outer space, as well as its level of involvement in inter-
national fora (a further discussion of specific international agreements will take
place in Sect. 7, under partnerships). This is followed by a discussion of Algeria’s
domestic legislation, space policy, and political pronouncements. This will also
highlight the specific institutions in Algeria that are involved in outer space
activities.
12
Ibid., 184.
13
Ibid.
14
J. J. Serra, “The CIEES (Inter-arms Special Weapons Test Center),” http://www.sat-net.com/
serra/sahara_e.htm (accessed March 16, 2017).
15
Ibid.
16
A. Zak, “History of the Launch Site in Kourou, French Guiana,” 2008, http://www.
russianspaceweb.com/kourou_origin.html (accessed March 13, 2017).
6 Algeria 117
6.2.1 UN Treaties on Outer Space, and Algerian Involvement

in International Fora
It has been noted that the overall level of “participation and activism” on the part of
African states in UN outer space fora, especially the Committee on the Peaceful
Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS), is lacklustre.17 While only becoming a per-
manent member of UNCOPUOS in 2002, Algeria has been one of the few African
exceptions. As noted by the Legal Subcommittee of UNCOPUOS in its Status of
International Agreements relating to activities in outer space as of 1 January 2016,
Algeria has ratified three of the five core outer space treaties (the 1967 Outer Space
Treaty, the 1972 Liability Convention, and the 1975 Registration Convention).
Also, it has ratified the 1971 Agreement Relating to the International Telecom-
munications Satellite Organization, the 1976 Agreement of the Arab Corporation
for Space Communications, the 1976 Convention on the International Mobile
Satellite Organisation, and the 1992 International Telecommunication Constitution
and Convention.18 Algeria has also signed, but not ratified, the 1963 Treaty
Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and under
Water.
As will be noted in the next section, Algeria only ratified the three core space
treaties relatively recently. As for the remaining two, clues may be garnered from
statements issued by Algeria on the definition and delimitation of outer space,
which can suggest why they have not been signed or ratified. In response to a
question on the proposition of any further questions that could be considered
regarding the legal definition of suborbital flights, Algeria’s formal reply stated:
“There are several related questions, notably in relation to passengers on suborbital
flights: for example, will they be considered astronauts?”.19 This suggests that
further clarification is needed by Algeria before it will consider signing the 1968
Rescue Agreement since the Outer Space Treaty stipulates that “States Parties to the
Treaty shall regard astronauts as envoys of mankind in outer space”.20 Algeria has
also not at any point indicated an interest in sending its citizens to space, either
through an agreement with other states or on its own, and could thus perceive little
relevance for it to sign or ratify the Rescue Agreement. This lack of perceived
immediate interest and legal ambiguity could be the same reason for not signing the
1979 Moon Agreement.
17
J. A. Van Wyk, “Overview of the Implementation Status of the Five United Nations Treaties on
Outer Space in African Countries,” African Skies/Cieux Africains 12 (2008): 93.
18
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), “Status of International Agreements
relating to activities in outer space as at 1 January 2016,” 2016, http://www.unoosa.org/
documents/pdf/spacelaw/treatystatus/AC105_C2_2016_CRP03E.pdf (accessed March 15, 2017).
19
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), “Questions on suborbital flights for
scientific missions and/or for human transportation,” 2013, http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/reports/
ac105/AC105_1039Add02E.pdf (accessed March 14, 2017).
20
United Nations, United Nations Treaties and Principles on Outer Space (New York: United
Nations Publication, 2008), 4, http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/publications/st_space_11rev2E.pdf
(accessed March 16, 2017).
118 A. Siebrits
Dennerley21 outlines in clear terms the risks for emerging space nations of not
development of international space standards.
Since formally joining UNCOPUOS, Algeria has been one of the more active
African states. For example, as illustrated above, it has been actively involved in
discussions on the definition and delimitation of outer space. In 2010, Algeria stated
its interest on this topic as a developing country, especially “in the nature and
rational and equitable use of geostationary orbit”.22 Its Ambassador in Vienna has
also, as stated in the same document, chaired the Working Group on the Definition
and Delimitation of Outer Space (in 2003). Algeria has placed a strong emphasis on
consensus in the definition and delimitation of outer space, in arriving at a “uniform
interpretation of relevant treaties and conventions”.
Moreover, as noted by Jasentuliyana,23 as part of the Group of 77, Algeria was
concerned by and involved in space affairs long before becoming a full member of
UNCOPUOS in 2002, or launching its national space program, especially in the
field of remote sensing. For instance, in 1986 Algeria issued a statement at the UN
General Assembly’s Special Political Committee, expressing concern regarding
“how a developing country affected by a remote sensing programme might be
assured of obtaining information concerning the programme if one of the principles
contained the restriction that such information was to be transmitted to the ‘greatest
extent feasible and practicable’”.24 Here, Algeria’s concern about accessing remote
sensing data can be identified, which eventually culminated in its space program
and remote sensing satellites.
Further evidence of Algeria’s high level of involvement in international space
fora includes its participation at the recent International Space Forum for Global
Challenges, which was organised jointly by the International Astronautical Feder-
ation (IAF), the International Academy of Astronautics (IAA), and the Italian Space
Agency (ASI). At this event, the Algerian Minister of Higher Education and Sci-
entific Research highlighted the country’s international cooperation regarding space
activities, including the chairing of UNCOPUOS during 2014–2015 and of the
21
J. A. Dennerley, “Emerging Space Nations and the Development of International Regulatory
Regimes,” Space Policy 35 (2016): 29.
22
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), “Questions on the definition and
delimitation of outer space: replies from Member States,” 2011, 2, http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/
reports/ac105/AC105_889Add09E.pdf (accessed March 20, 2017).
23
N. Jasentuliyana, “Article 1 of the Outer Space Treaty Revisited,” Journal of Space Law 17, no.
2 (1989): 137.
24
Ibid.
6 Algeria 119
Scientific and Technical Subcommittee during 2008–2009.25 Specifically, the 57th

and 58th sessions of UNCOPUOS were chaired by the Director General of the
Algerian Space Agency, Oussedik Azzedine.26,27 This indicates that Algeria is not
only active in space fora but possesses the necessary capabilities to even assume
leadership roles. Additionally, Algeria’s Space Agency hosts a Regional Support
Office (RSO) of the United Nations Platform for Disaster Management and
Emergency Response (UN-SPIDER), which was inaugurated in 2013.28 The
Director of the UN Office for Outer Space Affairs acknowledged that this Regional
Support Office “has an important role not only in Algeria but also to become a
leader and a source of knowledge in the whole region … [which] however, comes
with responsibilities for ASAL, including about the quality of the services and
about ensuring the long term sustainability of the RSO”.29 The opening of this
office in Algeria is, therefore, recognition of Algeria’s capabilities in space activities
in the North African/Francophone Africa region, and a sign of its importance as a
UN partner in outer space.
6.2.2 Algeria’s Domestic Space Legislation, and Space Policy
Although France had used the Hammaguir site for its early space launches and
handed this over to Algeria in 1967, Algeria itself is a relative newcomer to the
space arena. Before considering Algeria’s domestic legislation and institutional
arrangements, it is first useful to consider the legal process in the country. The
single most important figure in the creation of Algerian law is the President who, as
head of State, promulgates laws and ratifies international treaties.30 The President
may also initiate legislation, which then passes through the two chambers of par-
liament—the National People’s Assembly and the National Council—but in reality,
these are “largely limited to rubber stamping government decisions”.31 The military
remains a dominant force in Algerian political life since the coup d’état of 1965,
25
International Astronautical Federation, “Speech delivered by Professor Tahar HADJAR,
Minister of Higher Education and Scientific Research, ALGERIA,” 2016, http://www.iafastro.
org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/ISF2016_Statement_Algeria.pdf (accessed March 13, 2017).
26
Algeria Press Service, “Outer space: Algeria presents in New York report of 57th session of
UNCOPUOS,” October 20, 2014, http://en.aps.dz/health-science-tech/4554-outer-space-algeria-
presents-in-new-york-report-of-57th-session-of-COPUOS (accessed March 17, 2017).
27
Algeria Press Service, “Outer Space: Algeria presents in New York UNCOPUOS’ annual
report,” October 20, 2015, http://en.aps.dz/health-science-tech/9012-outer-space-algeria-presents-
in-new-york-uncopuos%E2%80%99-annual-report (accessed March 17, 2017).
28
UN-SPIDER, “Official inauguration: UN-SPIDER Algeria Regional Support Office,” 2013,
http://www.un-spider.org/news-and-events/news/official-inauguration-un-spider-algeria-regional-
support-office (accessed March 17, 2017).
29
Ibid.
30
D. Touchent, “Algerian Law Guide,” 2006, http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Algeria.html
31
Algeria Country Monitor, “Country Reports—Algeria,” HIS, 2016, 24, http://web.b.ebscohost.
com.ezproxy.uct.ac.za/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=4&sid=402d1e3b-608a-466a-b6fd-ef6918
5f4e3d%40sessionmgr101&hid=128 (accessed March 16, 2017).
120 A. Siebrits
after which “political power has rested in a small elite tied to the military despite
talk of political liberalization or socialism”.32 This small elite is itself selected not
through party politics, but by the security forces and the presidency.33 While the
Prime Minister is the head of government, he or she is appointed by the President
(who is also leads the armed forces), and in turn appoints the Council of Ministers
(cabinet), which is then presided over by the President instead of the prime min-
ister.34 This illustrates the extent to which the President is in charge of Algeria’s
political affairs.
This brief overview serves to explain why all relevant space legislation in
Algeria has taken the form of either Presidential Decrees or Executive Decrees. The
first significant space-related legislation was Presidential Decree 87-81 of April
14th, 1987, which transformed the National School of Geodetic Sciences into the
Centre National des Techniques Spatiales (CNTS)—the National Centre of Space
Technology, thereby laying the foundation for Algeria’s subsequent space efforts.35
The CNTS was placed under the auspices of the High Commission for Research,
was based at Arzew, and was authorised to conclude any service agreements or
contracts necessary to promote the development of space technology and geodetic
science, and its use.36 It was explicitly mandated to undertake scientific and tech-
nical research in the fields of space technology, space telecommunications, remote
sensing, image processing, geodesy, and related fields, with the additional mandate
to provide training in remote sensing and geodesy, and to train state engineers,
technicians and operators, including provision of post-graduate training. The
commission in charge of the CNTS included representatives from a broad range of
government departments and ministries, including Agriculture and Fishing, Infor-
mation, Transport, Defence, Finance, Higher Education, the Environment, and
Urban Planning. This illustrates that the government was taking a cross-cutting and
comprehensive approach to managing the CNTS, and attempted to involve as large
as possible a coalition of actors to promote buy-in and support of space technology
by government sectors.
The next significant piece of legislation was Presidential Decree 91-342 of 28
September 1991, which ratified the Outer Space Treaty of 1967.37 It was thus only
by the late 1980s and early 1990s that Algeria began moving towards more active
national efforts concerning outer space, and at this time they fell within what Peter38
identifies as the first category of governmental institutional structures to support
national space-related efforts. This first category concerns those countries that have
32
CountryWatch, “Algeria Country Review,” 10.
33
Algeria Country Monitor, “Country Reports—Algeria,” 24.
34
Ibid., 26.
35
Journal Officiel de la Republic Algeriénne Democratique et Populaire, “Décret Présidentiel, N
87-81 du 1987,” Avril 15, 1987, 26 ème ANNEE (N 16), Alger: Imprimerie Officiel, 382, http://
www.joradp.dz/FTP/Jo-Francais/1987/F1987016.pdf (accessed March 17, 2017) (French).
36
Ibid., 383.
37
91-342 du 1991,” Octobre 9, 1991, N 47, Alger: Imprimerie Officiel, 1500, http://41.221.27.114/
JO8499/1991/047/FP1500.pdf (accessed March 15, 2017) (French).
38
N. Peter, “The Changing Geopolitics of Space Activities,” Space Policy 37 (2016): 146.
6 Algeria 121
created “their own agencies devoted more or less exclusively to space”.39 It was
only about a decade later, in 2002, that Algeria moved into the second category, “in
which space affairs are directly handled by a ministry … or by an interministerial
entity … [of which a] dedicated national space agency is not the most widespread
institutional structure dealing with space activities”.40
6.3 Algerian Space Agency (ASAL)
Presidential Decree 02-48 of 16 January 2002 is arguably the most significant

national legislation concerning space activities, and it was concerned with the
creation of the Agence Spatiale Algérienne (ASAL)—the Algerian Space Agency—
and its organisation and operation.41 The approach to setting up ASAL was similar
to the one adopted in the creation of CNTS, with a broad range of ministerial
representatives included in the Board of Directors, including Defence, Foreign
Affairs, Communication, Finances, Energy and Mining, Industry, Agriculture,
Water Resources, Land-Use Planning, and Higher Education and Research—in
total the Board is made up of representatives of 15 ministerial departments.42,43
ASAL is tasked broadly with “the promotion and exploitation of the peaceful uses
of outer space, capacity building with a view on ensuring the safety and well-being
of the national community and to contribute to economic, social and cultural
development, the protection of the environment and knowledge and management of
the country’s natural resources”.44 Funding is derived from four sources, state
subsidies, funds generated through the agency’s own business, resources garnered
through international cooperation, and donations.45
Presidential Decree 02-48 of 16 January 2002 was subsequently modified by
several decrees. The first was Executive Decree 04-12 of 20 January 2004, which
refined some of the governing structures of ASAL, and stipulated in more detail the
responsibilities of specific posts, such as legal affairs, and the scientific monitoring
unit.46 This was followed by Presidential Decree 06-189 of 31 May 2006, which
further clarified organisational aspects, such as that the Board of Directors will have
39
Ibid.
40
Ibid.
41
02-48 du 2002,” Janvier 20, 2002, 41è ANNEE (N 05), Alger: Imprimerie Officiel, 9, http://www.
vitaminedz.org/articlesfiche/1235/1235754.pdf (accessed March 17, 2017) (French).
42
Ibid., 10.
43
Agence Spatial Algérienne, “Mission,” 2009, http://www.asal.dz/mission.php (accessed March
13, 2017) (French).
44
02-48 du 2002,” 9.
45
Ibid., 11.
46
Journal Officiel de la Republic Algeriénne Democratique et Populaire, “Décret Exécutif, N 04-12
du 2004,” Janvier 25, 2004, N 06, Alger: Imprimerie Officiel, 4, http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/
pdf/alg72027.pdf (accessed March 13, 2017) (French).
122 A. Siebrits
a Chairman appointed by Presidential Decree, and that ASAL is “created with the
[aupres du] Minister of Post and Information and Communications Technology”.47
In this same year, through Presidential Decrees 06-225 and 06-468, the Liability
and Registrations Conventions were ratified by the President. The following year,
under Executive Decree 07-150 of 20 May 2007, the National Centre of Space
Technology (CNTS) was dissolved and all of its property, personnel, and obliga-
tions transferred to ASAL.48 This passed responsibility for graduate and
post-graduate training in space-related matters to ASAL as well and cemented its
position as the centre of Algeria’s space efforts. Additional supplements were made
to the internal organisation of ASAL with the accompanying Presidential Decree
07-151 of 20 May, which set out the four main operating entities of the Algerian
Space Agency, outlined later.49 Finally, Executive Decree 08-348 of 20 January
2008 stipulated that the four centres within the Space Agency will each be governed
by a director.50
These decrees encapsulate Algerian space legislation and created the foundation
for the modern space infrastructure in the country. However, two more points can
be raised. First, as stated in the compendium of space debris mitigation standards,
Algeria does not have any “national mechanism” in place to aid in the reduction of
space debris but does consider that the International Telecommunications Union
ITU-R S.1003-1 recommendations are “appropriate measures” to mitigate space
debris.51 This is the latest record for Algeria that was recorded by the UNOOSA
space debris compendium. Similarly, the latest record of UNOOSA on the delim-
itation of outer space by Algeria reveals that the country “does not yet have national
legislation directly or indirectly related to the definition and delimitation of outer
space”.52
It is useful at this point to reflect on ASAL’s specific mission and responsibil-
ities, as well as its main structures, as these provide a clear indication of Algeria’s
stance or posture towards space. ASAL’s specific responsibilities revolve around six
main points: (i) proposing “to the Government the elements of a national strategy in
47
06-189 du 2006,” Mai 31, 2006, 45ème ANNEE (N 36), Alger: Imprimerie Officiel, 10, http://
www.vitaminedz.org/articlesfiche/1244/1244317.pdf (accessed March 17, 2017) (French).
48
Journal Officiel de la Republic Algeriénne Democratique et Populaire, “Décret Exécutif, N
07-150 du 2007,” Mai 23, 2007, N 35, Alger: Imprimerie Officiel, 12, http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/
docs/pdf/alg72019.pdf (accessed March 17, 2017) (French).
49
07-151 du 2007,” Mai 23, 2007, N 35, Alger: Imprimerie Officiel, 13, http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/
docs/pdf/alg72028.pdf (accessed March 14, 2017) (French).
50
08-348 du 2008,” Novembre 16, 2008, 47ème ANNEE (N 63), Alger: Imprimerie Officiel, 13,
http://www.vitaminedz.org/articlesfiche/1294/1294871.pdf (accessed March 17, 2017) (French).
51
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), “Compendium of space debris
mitigation standards adopted by States and international organizations,” 2014, http://www.unoosa.
org/documents/pdf/spacelaw/sd/Algeria.pdf (accessed March 20, 2017).
52
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), “National legislation and practice
relating to the definition and delimitation of outer space,” 2013, http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/
reports/ac105/AC105_865Add14E.pdf (accessed March 19, 2017).
6 Algeria 123
the field of space activity and to ensure its implementation”; (ii) “Establishing a
space infrastructure to strengthen national capacities”; (iii) implementing “annual
and multi-annual programs for the development of national space activities in
relation to the various sectors concerned and to ensure their monitoring and eval-
uation”; (iv) proposing “to the Government the space systems best suited to national
concerns and to ensure, on behalf of the State, their design, implementation and
operation”; (v) proposing “to the Government a bilateral and multilateral
co-operation policy adapted to national needs”; and (vi) ensuring “monitoring and
evaluation of commitments arising from the obligations of the State in respect of
regional and international agreements in the fields of space activity”.53 These can be
condensed into three main areas of operation—partnerships and obligations, space
policy, and infrastructure and space systems and related activities. More will be
discussed regarding the partnership aspect in Sect. 6.7, and the specifics of the
space systems will be discussed in Sect. 6.6. The next section will look at the space
policy, followed by the ground-based space infrastructure and programs.
6.4 National Space Program (2006–2020)
The primary reference instrument concerning space policy in Algeria is the Pro-
gramme Spatial National (PSN)—National Space Program.54 It was officially
adopted on 28 November 2006, and spans until 2020, with an emphasis on
strengthening sovereignty, contributing to sustainable development, and promoting
space technology mastery.55 More specifically, the PSN aims to: promote improved
efficiency in the management of natural resources, and in the prevention of major
risks; to promote national technological capability; and to promote space technol-
ogy for use in various fields. Seven core elements are contained within the PSN.
One of these covers the four operating entities contained within ASAL, discussed
below. The second core component is the direct involvement in the program of 21
ministerial departments, representing an even greater emphasis on broadening
participation across government departments, again involving a broad coalition of
agents.56 This is directly related to the next core element—the Applications Action
Program, which represents a selection by government of more than 100 space
application projects to be implemented by 2020 across various government
departments.57,58 These applications mainly concern telecommunications services,
Geographic Information Systems (GIS), global navigation, and remote sensing.
53
Agence Spatial Algérienne, “Mission.”.
54
Agence Spatial Algérienne, “Programme spatial national (PSN),” 2015, http://www.asal.dz/psn.
php (accessed March 17, 2017) (French).
55
N. Haned, “The Algerian Space Program,” 2015, 4, http://www.alc.narss.sci.eg/webroot/
attachments/alc2015/Day%203/Session%201/Algerian%20space%20program.pdf (accessed March
17, 2017).
56
Ibid., 5.
57
Agence Spatial Algérienne, “Programme spatial national (PSN).”.
58
Haned, “The Algerian Space Program,” 5.
124 A. Siebrits
Together, these cover four thematic areas, of which Equipment and Infrastructure,
and Natural Resources are dominant, followed by Major Risks and finally
Telecommunications.59 The bulk of the applications are distributed to the Ministry
of Energy and Mines, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, the
Ministry of Water Resources, and the Ministry of Public Works, with smaller
numbers assigned to other government departments. The remaining core elements
of the PSN concern the training of engineers, the mobilising of research in 40
thematic areas, the overall strengthening of Algeria’s scientific potential, and space
systems (discussed in Sect. 6.6). Four primary resources have been identified to
fulfil these goals—institutional and organisational frameworks, international
cooperation, human resources and training, and national industry and its promo-
tion.60 Algeria also announced that the successor to the PSN 2006–2020 will cover
the period from 2020 to 2040, and is “under study now”, with “plans for the launch
of many cutting-edge satellites”.61
6.5 ASAL’s Ground-Based Space Infrastructure

and Operating Entities
The four main operating entities of ASAL, created through Executive Decree
07-151 of 2007, are the Space Techniques Centre (Centre des Techniques Spatiales
—CTS), the Centre for Space Applications (Centre des Applications Spatiales—
CAS), the Satellite Development Centre (Centre de Dévelopment des Satellites—
CDS), and the Telecommunication Systems Operations Centre (Centre
d’Exploitation des Systemes de Télécommunications—CEST).62 Alongside these
four core entities are two associated entities, namely the Satellite Image Reception
and Exploitation Centre (Centre de Réception et d’Exploitation des Images Satel-
litaires—CREIS) and the Doctoral School of Technologies and Space Applications
(Ecole Doctorale des Technologies et Applications Spatiales—EDTAS).63 A school
of space technology and geodetic sciences was also being set up, but no further
information is available to indicate whether this has been achieved.
Together, these six entities constitute the organisational and institutional
framework of ASAL and demonstrate the government’s commitment to setting up a
robust domestic space sector. CTS is located in Arzew, and is the successor to the
CNTS, with the responsibility of conducting all technical and scientific research on
the areas of space technology (including sensors, control stations, Earth observation
59
Agence Spatial Algérienne, “Programme spatial national (PSN).”.
60
61
SpaceWatch Middle East, “Algeria Unveils Its National Space Programme to 2040,” ThorGroup
GmbH, December, 2017, https://spacewatchme.com/2017/12/algeria-unveils-national-space-
programme-2040/ (accessed December 2, 2018).
62
07-151 du 2007,” 13.
63
6 Algeria 125
instruments, etc.), remote sensing, GIS, processing of geographical data, satellite

navigation, radio astronomy, processing of satellite images, and geodesy, among
other related areas.64 The CAS is tasked with implementing “sectoral and inter-
sectoral operational projects based on remote sensing and geographic information
systems, particularly in the fields of environment and natural hazards, agriculture
and water resources, territory and town planning, as well as geology and Earths
sciences”.65 The CDS is located in the town of Bir El-Djir in Oran, and was opened
by President Bouteflika on 23 February 2012, and is dedicated to the design,
assembly, and testing of satellites up to 1000 kg, including the satellite subsys-
tems.66 As will be discussed in the next section, this facility has already been used
to create functioning Algerian satellites. CEST, in turn, is tasked with managing,
marketing and operating telecommunications satellite products and services and to
manage terrestrial control and reception infrastructure.67 It is also responsible for
the services of the Alcomsat-1.68 CREIS is based in Ouargla, and consists of an
acquisition, control, and command station, with both an S-band and an X-band
station, and is responsible for the control of AlSat-2A and 2B and general Earth
observation systems.69 Finally, EDTAS was created in 2007, and in association
with several Algerian universities, is tasked to “contribute to the strengthening of
the potential of high-level researchers, technological mastery and the emergence of
skills”, with at least 65 Masters students and 53 Doctoral students trained by
2015.70
6.6 Space Activities
Over the last 15 years, six Algerian satellites have been placed in orbit. Interest-
ingly, the first of these, AlSat-1, was launched into its sun-synchronous orbit of
around 700 km altitude, in 2002—before Algeria ratified either the Liability or
Registration Conventions.71 However, it was registered with the United Nations
under General Assembly resolution 1721 B (XVI), in December 2002, with the
64
Agence Spatial Algérienne, “Entités opérationnelles,” 2015, http://www.asal.dz/entites.php
(accessed March 13, 2017) (French).
65
Ibid.
66
Geoconnexion, “Algerian President inaugurates satellite center,” March 13, 2012, http://www.
geoconnexion.com/news/algerian-president-inaugurates-satellite-center (accessed March 14, 2017).
67
Agence Spatial Algérienne, “Entités opérationnelles.”.
68
69
Ibid., 31.
70
Agence Spatial Algérienne, “Ecole Doctorale des Technologies et Applications Spatiales
(EDTAS),” 2015, http://www.asal.dz/Ecole%20doctorale.php (accessed March 16, 2017)
(French).
71
World Meteorological Organisation, “Observing Systems Capability Analysis and Review Tool:
AlSat-1,” 2017, https://www.wmo-sat.info/oscar/satellites/view/8 (accessed March 17, 2017).
126 A. Siebrits
specifications of Earth observation and disaster monitoring.72 AlSat-1 was pur-

chased from and built by Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd (SSTL) in the UK and
included a training package for 11 Algerian scientists and engineers.73,74 This
satellite was launched from Russia’s Plesetsk Cosmodrome in November of 2002,
and was the first satellite that contributed to the international Disaster Monitoring
Constellation, which is focused on using “low cost small satellites providing daily
images for applications including global disaster monitoring”, with freely available
images for use in supporting humanitarian efforts related to major international
disasters.75,76 Exceeding its initial five-year planned lifetime, AlSat-1 was retired in
2010.77 Its dry mass totaled 88 kg, while its imaging equipment provided red,
green, and near-infrared imaging with a 32-m resolution and 600 km imaging
swath.78,79
AlSat-2 was launched from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in India in July
2010, with the general function of Earth observation.80 Similar to AlSat-1, this
satellite was also built in partnership with a foreign manufacturer, Airbus Defence
and Space (EADS Astrium at the time), and included the training of 30 Algerian
engineers, as well as six Doctoral and eight Masters students.81,82 With a dry mass
of 111 kg and a sun-synchronous orbit of 686 km altitude, AlSat-2 has also
72
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), “Information Furnished in
Conformity with General Assembly Resolution 1721 B (XVI) by States Launching Objects into
Orbit or Beyond,” 2002, http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/osoindex/data/documents/dz/a/aac.
105inf.408.html (accessed March 17, 2017).
73
D. Wood and A. Weigel, “Charting the Evolution of Satellite Programs in Developing Countries
—The Space Technology Ladder,” Space Policy 28 (2012): 19.
74
Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd. (SSTL), “First satellite to take 32 m resolution multispectral
images at 600 km swath width, AlSAT-1 (2002),” 2017, https://www.sstl.co.uk/30-Firsts/AlSAT-
1-2002 (accessed March 12, 2017).
75
Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd. (SSTL), “Algeria’s First Satellite Mission Completed,” 2010,
https://www.sstl.co.uk/Blog/August-2010/Algeria-s-first-satellite-mission-completed (accessed
March 12, 2017).
76
Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd. (SSTL), “First internationally co-ordinated disaster monitoring
constellation, the Disaster Monitoring Constellation (2002),” 2017, https://www.sstl.co.uk/30-
Firsts/Disaster-Monitoring-Const-2002 (accessed March 12, 2017).
77
Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd. (SSTL), “Algeria’s First Satellite Mission Completed.”.
78
AlSat-1.”.
79
images at 600 km swath width, AlSAT-1 (2002).”.
80
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), “Information furnished in conformity
with the Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space,” 2010, http://www.
unoosa.org/documents/pdf/ser609E.pdf (accessed March 12, 2017).
81
Airbus Defence and Space, “Successful launch of ALSAT 2B completes Airbus Defence and
Space’s ALSAT Programme,” 2016, https://airbusdefenceandspace.com/newsroom/news-and-
features/successful-launch-of-alsat-2b-completes-airbus-defence-and-spaces-alsat-programme/
82
6 Algeria 127
exceeded its planned five-year lifespan and continues to operate currently.83,84 It

has a resolution of 2.5 m panchromatic, and 10 m multispectral (blue, green, red,
and near-infrared), with an observation field of 20 km and a revisit time of three
days.85 AlSat-2 can cater to various sectors, such as natural resource management,
urban planning, environment and land-use planning. By 2015, AlSat-2 had taken
more than 94,000 images, covering more than 72% of Africa.86
The next three Algerian satellites were all placed in orbit simultaneously by
another Indian polar launch vehicle in September 2016.87 The smallest of the three,
AlSat-1N (Nano) is a 3U CubeSat of 3.5 kg, the work of a joint Algerian-British
team in line with a cooperation framework between ASAL and the United Kingdom
Space Agency (UKSA).88,89 Algerian students were involved in the project as part
of an education program at the Surrey Space Centre, and instruments on board the
satellite include a SpaceMag-PV Boom, magnetometer, RadFET radiation moni-
tors, C3D2 camera, and Thin Film Solar Cell.90 A vital component of this small
satellite is that ASAL is responsible for its operations—a common theme for the
other two satellites launched in 2016, and a demonstration of increasing Algerian
space systems capabilities.
AlSat-1B is the successor to AlSat-1, and also forms part of the Disaster
Monitoring Constellation.91 Its primary function is given as land observation for
disaster monitoring, with a dry weight of 88 kg and another sun-synchronous orbit
of around 690 km altitude.92 Like AlSat-1, this satellite is dedicated to the moni-
toring of “infrastructure and structures, establishment and updating of the steppe,
Saharan cadastre, prevention and management of natural hazards”.93 It is projected
83
AlSat-2,” 2017, https://www.wmo-sat.info/oscar/satellites/view/9World (accessed March 17,
2017).
84
Space’s ALSAT Programme.”.
85
Agence Spatial Algérienne, “Alsat-2A: deuxième satellite d’observation de la terre du
Programme Spatial National–horizon 2020 (PSN),” 2015, http://www.asal.dz/Alsat.%202A.php
86
87
Algeria Press Service, “ASAL: Three Algerian satellites successfully launched from India,”
September 26, 2016, http://en.aps.dz/health-science-tech/14362-asal-three-algerian-satellites-
successfully-launched-from-india (accessed March 15, 2017).
88
Revolvy, “National Space Program (Algeria),” 2017, https://www.revolvy.com/topic/National%
20Space%20Program%20(Algeria)&uid=1575 (accessed March 20, 2017).
89
Algeria Press Service, “ASAL: Three Algerian satellites successfully launched from India.”.
90
United Kingdom Space Agency, “UK Space Agency’s second CubeSat mission is taking shape,”
2015, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-space-agencys-second-cubesat-mission-is-taking-
shape (accessed March 21, 2017).
91
Algeria Press Service, “ASAL: Three Algerian satellites successfully launched from India.”.
92
AlSat-1B,” 2017, https://www.wmo-sat.info/oscar/satellites/view/708 (accessed March 17, 2017).
93
International Astronautical Federation, “Speech delivered by Professor Tahar HADJAR,
Minister of Higher Education and Scientific Research, ALGERIA.”.
128 A. Siebrits
to have a lifespan of five years (2016–2021).94 AlSat-2B, the final of the three
satellites launched in 2016, has a dry mass of 111 kg and represents the culmination
of the AlSat-2 (A and B) contract awarded to Airbus in 2006.95 Unlike AlSat-2(A),
which was built and tested in Toulouse, AlSat-2B was integrated in Algeria at the
CDS and demonstrates the success of the training and technology transfer program
that was part of the contract. Indeed, Airbus itself recognised the extent to which the
Algerian engineers and scientists were able to take what they had learnt from the
first AlSat-2, and use it domestically to integrate AlSat-2B, “ALSAT 2B’s great
success demonstrates that ASAL’s engineers are fully competent and have acquired
a great autonomy through this programme”.96 AlSat-2(A) and 2B operate in con-
stellation mode, and are positioned on a phased orbit, with the same overall Earth
observation applications—“cartography, agriculture and forestry, water manage-
ment, mineral and oil exploitation, yield management, natural disaster management
and urban planning”.97 In recognition of the achievements of the Algerian teams
who contributed to the manufacturing of the three satellites of 2016, a ceremony
was held at the CDS in November 2016, where the Minister of Post and Infor-
mation and Communication Technologies congratulated the individuals involved.98
At this event, the minister “congratulated the engineers who contributed to this
achievement, welcoming their efforts for the transfer of technologies coming under
a sector which is highly protected and whose access is difficult, i.e. space”.
Moreover, both AlSat-1B and 2B are controlled directly from Algeria, again
demonstrating their capabilities.99
Alcomsat-1, launched in December 2017, is Algeria’s first communications
satellite.100 It was placed into geostationary orbit by a Chinese rocket, and provides
services including “telecommunications, broadband internet, audio transmission,
broadcast and television, satellite-based navigation, remote education, as well as
enterprise and emergency communications” with coverage of “Algeria, Sahel, and
other regions in North Africa”.101 Specifications include a design life of 15 years, a
launch mass of 5225 km, 588 kg of payload, two deployable solar arrays, and
anti-jamming capabilities. Alcomsat-1 has “a total of 33 transponders, including
94
AlSat-1B.”.
95
96
Ibid. Emphasis added.
97
Ibid.
98
Algeria Press Service, “Algerian satellites manufacturers honoured in Oran,” November 10,
2016, http://en.aps.dz/health-science-tech/15111-algerian-satellites-manufacturers-honoured-in-
oran (accessed March 17, 2017).
99
Algeria Press Service, “Alsat-2B, Alsat-1B: Reception of first images went smoothly,” October
24, 2016, http://en.aps.dz/health-science-tech/14835-alsat-2b,-alsat-1b-reception-of-first-images-
went-smoothly (accessed March 17, 2017).
100
Aerospace Technology, “Alcomsat-1 Communications Satellite,” Verdict Media Limited, 2018,
https://www.aerospace-technology.com/projects/alcomsat-1-communications-satellite/ (accessed
December 2, 2018).
101
Ibid.
6 Algeria 129
19 Ku-band, 12 Ka-band, and two L-band transponders”, and “[n]ine of the 19

Ku-band transponders are used to broadcast TV and digital radio channels, while
the remaining are used to provide communications in North African regions,
including Tunisia, Northern Chad, and Northern Sudan at speeds of 2 Mbps,” while
the “Ka-band transponders are used to deliver high-speed broadband internet to the
Algerian territory at speeds of 20 Mbps”.102 The satellite is controlled from Algeria
via “two ground control stations, one in Médéa Province of Algeria, and the other in
Ouargla Province” with “0.45 m antenna device and state-of-the-art equipment to
ensure reliable satellite communications to the users”.103 The satellite was designed,
developed, manufactured, assembled, and tested by the China Great Wall Industry
Corporation (CGWIC). Again, “an ‘important’ training programme” forms part of
the agreement, with the operation of the satellite to be handled by Algerian spe-
cialists, and with infrastructure, including a “terrestrial station in Bouchaoui, with
redundancies in the High Plateaus” already in place.104
Since being launched, Alcomsat-1 was reported to have “successfully accom-
plished some of its missions like the broadcasting of five public television channels
(National programme, Canal Algerie, TVA3, TV4 and TV5) and 57 radio channels,
previously broadcasted by foreign satellites”, while “distance learning (e-education)
and telemedicine programmes (e-health)” were also launched with planned 15 year
lifespan.105 A second telecommunication satellite—Alcomsat-2—to be “built by
the Algerian scientists and specialists” is reportedly being planned.106 Other future
satellites planned include AlSat-3 and AlSat-4A, by 2020.107
6.7 Algeria’s Partnerships and International Cooperation
This section will outline the central partnerships between the Algerian space sector,
primarily ASAL, and foreign companies and states. First, the global sphere will be
considered, followed by the regional. Peter108 notes that there is a clear distinction
between states regarding their approach to cooperation in the space arena: “several
countries actively solicit, establish and work to maintain partnerships with space-
faring countries, while other[s] have a more nationalistic and individual approach”.
As will be discussed, in line with the previous section showing Algeria’s intense
102
Ibid.
103
Ibid.
104
Algeria Press Service, “Satellite Alcomsat1, devoted to telecommunications, to be launched
before June 2017,” September 28, 2016, http://en.aps.dz/health-science-tech/14420-satellite-
alcomsat1,-devoted-to-telecommunications,-to-be-launched-before-june-2017 (accessed March 17,
2017).
105
Space in Africa, “How successful is Algerian Communication Satellite “Alcomsat-1”?,”
January 8, 2019, https://africanews.space/how-successful-is-algerian-communication-satellite-
alcomsat-1/ (accessed January 30, 2019).
106
Ibid.
107
108
Peter, “The Changing Geopolitics of Space Activities,” 146.
130 A. Siebrits
focus on including training and domestic capacity building with all their foreign
relationships, the country falls squarely in the first category but with an underlying
drive to build up more independent capabilities through each partnership.
6.7.1 On a Global Level
Regarding Algeria’s multilateral relations in the space arena, it has already been
mentioned that the country has been an active member of UNCOPUOS since 2002,
with the chairmanship of both the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee, and the
central UNCOPUOS committee itself. It has also been discussed that Algeria
inaugurated in 2013 a regional office of UN-SPIDER, the result of a cooperation
agreement with UNOOSA. Algeria has, over the last decade and a half, in col-
laboration with UNOOSA, hosted several international seminars on space topics.109
The country is also a signatory member of Le Centre Régional Africain des Sci-
ences et Technologies de l’Espace en Langue Français (The African Regional
Centre for Space Science and Technology in French Language—CRASTE-LF),
based in Morocco, part of the UN-affiliated Programme of Space Applications and
its regional education centres in space sciences.110 ASAL is moreover present on
the Board of Directors of CRASTE-LF.111 Beyond these, Algeria is involved in a
range of international space programs and initiatives, such as the Disaster Moni-
toring Constellation mentioned earlier, the Global Earth Observation System of
Systems (GEOSS), the International Telecommunications Satellite Organisation
(ITSO), the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), the Global Navigation
Satellite System (GNSS), European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service
(EGNOS), and others.112 In 2014, ASAL also signed a cooperation agreement with
the United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR), making
allowance for “training the Algerian specialists, considering this institute’s expe-
rience in the fields of the digital processing of satellite photographs and their
exploitation for the prevention against natural disasters”.113
Bilaterally, Algeria has been equally active with a range of cooperation agree-
ments and memoranda of understanding. These include cooperation with the
National Commission on Space Activities (CONAE) of Argentina, ROSCOSMOS
of Russia, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO—which has launched
four out of six Algerian satellites), the Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI),
109
Programme Spatial National–horizon 2020 (PSN).”.
110
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), “Regional Centres for Space
Science and Technology Education (affiliated to the United Nations),” 2017, http://www.unoosa.
org/oosa/en/ourwork/psa/regional-centres/index.html (accessed March 17, 2017).
111
Agence Spatial Algérienne, “La coopération multilatérale,” 2015, http://www.asal.dz/
cooperationm.php (accessed March 17, 2017) (French).
112
113
Algeria Press Service, “ASAL, UNITAR sign cooperation agreement in space field,” February
23, 2014, http://en.aps.dz/health-science-tech/1257-asal,-unitar-sign-cooperation-agreement-in-
space-field (accessed March 17, 2017).
6 Algeria 131
the Malaysian National Space Agency, and China (which launched

Alcomsat-1).114,115 Particular mention can be made of the agreements between
CNTS (before it was absorbed into ASAL) and SSTL, which led to the joint
British-Algerian construction of AlSat-1, its launch in 2002, and the associated
training program for 11 Algerian engineers.116 Algeria and the UKSA later signed a
Memorandum of Understanding (in 2006) concerning space-related cooperation,
which created the framework for further UK-Algerian joint projects, with the
all-important caveat of being “accompanied by academic training sessions and
project training”.117 This, in turn, contributed to the creation of AlSat-1N, and its
launch in 2016.
Similarly, France and Algeria concluded an agreement in February 2006, which
created the groundwork for the AlSat-2 program, and the Airbus Defence and Space
(EADS Astrium) contract of the same year.118,119 Once again, this contract included
a technology transfer program and training of Algerian personnel. Another critical
bilateral agreement, with China, was signed in 2007, and laid the groundwork for
the building of Alcomsat-1 by China Great Wall Industry Corporation, again with
its associated training of Algerian engineers.120,121
More recently, ASAL’s Satellite Development Centre (CDS) has been collabo-
rating with the Kyushu Institute of Technology (Japan) on the Ten-Koh
nanosatellite project.122 The Ten-Koh satellite, launched on the 29th of October
2018, was monitored and tracked by the CDS “during the phases of its identifi-
cation and positioning, through the use of the CDS VHF/UHF ground station” and
the CDS also participated in data reception from the satellite, whereby it was
“possible to track the satellite in orbit, record beacon signals transmitted by the
latter and decode them before transmitting them to the Kyushu project team in
Japan”.123 Currently, “several lines” of cooperation are being explored between the
114
115
AllAfrica, “Algeria: China Helps Algeria Put First Satellite in Orbit,” April 16, 2018, https://
allafrica.com/stories/201804170264.html (accessed February 3, 2019).
116
images at 600 km swath width, AlSAT-1 (2002).”.
117
Algeria Press Service, “Algeria, UK sign MoU in space-related activities,” March 17, 2014,
http://en.aps.dz/health-science-tech/1607-algeria,-uk-sign-mou-in-space-related-activities (accessed
March 17, 2017).
118
J. Remiller, “Rapport fait au nom de la commission des affaires étrangères sur le rapport de loi
(no 249). Assemblée nationale,” 2008, http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/13/rapports/r0604.asp
119
120
Remiller, “Rapport fait au nom de la commission des affaires étrangères sur le rapport de loi (no
249). Assemblée nationale.”.
121
Revolvy, “National Space Program (Algeria).”.
122
Space in Africa, “Algeria/Japan collaboration on satellite development produces Nanosatellite,”
November 22, 2018, https://africanews.space/algeria-japan-collaboration-on-satellite-development-
produces-nanosatellite/ (accessed January 30, 2019).
123
Ibid.
132 A. Siebrits
CDS and Kyushu Institute of Technology, particularly concerning “academic

training, professional internships, and the development of satellites weighing less
than 50 kg”.124
6.7.2 On a Regional Level
Regionally, Algeria’s involvement in the CRASTE-LF training centre in Morocco

has already been highlighted and is reflective of the African continent’s division
into Francophone and Anglophone spheres. Similarly, Algeria is a founding
member of the Centre Régional de Télédétection des Etats de l’Afrique du Nord
(the Regional Center for Remote Sensing of North Africa States—CRTEAN),
based in Tunis (with Algeria, Mauritania, Morocco, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt and
Sudan as members).125 Its primary purpose is to “promote, encourage, coordinate
and harmonize the policies of the Member States in the fields of remote sensing,
geographic information systems and cartography”.126
In the Arab region, Algeria is a member of the Arab Satellite Communications
Organisation (ARABSAT) and will be part of a future Arab Satellite Constellation
for Earth Observation (ASEO), to support Earth observation efforts among Arab
states.127 Other countries supporting the project are Egypt, Syria, Tunisia, Yemen,
and Libya, although no further information is available to indicate the viability or
progress of the project, which was initiated in 2005.
Concerning the rest of the African continent, Algeria, along with South Africa,
Kenya, and Nigeria, is a member of the ARMS-C (African Resource Management
Satellite Constellation) initiative, which began as a data-sharing agreement about
satellite imagery.128 As part of the ARMS-C Agreement, the members share data
generated by their respective satellites, which must conform to precise specifica-
tions, such as 2.5 m panchromatic resolution, and 12 m multispectral resolution
with blue, green, red, and near-infrared bands.129 AlSat-2A and 2B satellites con-
form to this standard. Beyond ARMS-C, Algeria has also been actively partici-
pating in the African Leadership Conferences on Space Science and Technology
for Sustainable Development (ALCs), the Regional African Satellite Communica-
tion Organisation (RASCOM), and a range of African conferences on space science
124
Ibid.
125
CRTEAN, “The Center: Presentation,” 2014, http://www.crtean.org.tn/en/index.php/the-center/
presentation (accessed March 17, 2017).
126
R. Abidi, “Satellite Remote Sensing in Aid of Development: The Tunis Declaration,” Space
Policy 19 (2003): 143-145.
127
128
L. Ngcofe and K. Gottschalk, “The Growth of Space Science in African Countries for Earth
Observation in the 21st Century,” South African Journal of Science 109, no. 1/2 (2013): 3.
129
ARMS-C Framework Agreement, “Agreement between the Government of the People’s
Republic of Algeria and the Government of the Republic of Kenya and the Government of the
Federal Republic of Nigeria and the Government of the Republic of South Africa,” n.d., ftp://ftp.
earthobservations.org/AfriGEOSS/Data_Infrastructure_Coordination_Team/References/ARMC%
20Agreement%20Docs.pdf (accessed March 21, 2017).
6 Algeria 133
and technology.130,131 Algeria also recently joined the Arab Group for Space
Collaboration, launched in the United Arab Emirates in March 2019.132
6.8 Findings
This section will present the findings of the chapter, especially on two particular
points—does Algeria display a specific, identifiable space ‘posture’, and is it
attempting to position itself geopolitically vis-a-vis other states, particularly in the
region, and how. By this point, the regulatory and policy situation in Algeria
concerning outer space affairs has been outlined, along with the treaties the country
is party to. The national space policy and institutional arrangements have been
identified, as well as the space activities undertaken and the most significant
partnerships and cooperation agreements with other states and companies. Conse-
quently, the Algerian space posture will first be deliberated in light of the available
evidence, followed by its positioning globally within the space sector.
6.8.1 Algerian Space Posture
It is useful to consider the importance of counteracting the apathy of many

developing and emerging space nations again—“emerging space nations must make
an effort to participate in the space regulation and standard setting processes at both
domestic and international levels”, with an awareness that
it is not enough to invest in technology. One must also have the capacity to understand and
shape regulatory agendas around technologies. Therefore, emerging space nations must
educate and train professionals and governmental officials … identifying key agencies and
actors, and look to enroll them into capacity building programs … increase their presence
and participation at various multi-lateral international fora … [and build] increased regional
or multi-lateral cooperation between emerging space nations.133
While Algeria was not extremely active in the space arena for much of the
twentieth century, by the start of the twenty-first, it is arguable that it meets Den-
nerley’s criteria. Indeed, Algeria has consistently driven its space agenda for the last
15 years, starting with the creation of ASAL and the agreement with SSTL to build
AlSat-1. New entities have been created with support at the very highest level of
130
Ngcofe and Gottschalk, “The Growth of Space Science in African Countries for Earth
Observation in the 21st Century,” 3.
131
Programme Spatial National–horizon 2020 (PSN).”.
132
Space in Africa, “Egypt, Algeria, Morocco, Sudan join Arab Space Cooperation Group,” March
20, 2019, https://africanews.space/egypt-algeria-morocco-sudan-join-arab-space-cooperation-
group/ (accessed 25 Apr 2019).
133
Dennerley, “Emerging Space Nations and the Development of International Regulatory
Regimes,” 29–31.
134 A. Siebrits
government (as demonstrated by the Presidential Decrees), infrastructure has been

put in place (including the CDS), and Algeria has actively taken part in
space-related fora at global and regional levels. It is thus evident that the country
does have a concerted, well-supported and coordinated, and unified space posture.
This posture can best be summed up by a statement of the Minister of Higher
Education and Scientific Research, given at the 1st International Space Forum in
Italy in 2016. There, the minister summarised Algeria’s position: “[to] put the space
tool at the service of sustainable development, well-being of populations and a
vector of peace and stability nationally, regionally and internationally”.134 Thus far,
all of Algeria’s space activities have been focused on Earth observation, or related
scientific and engineering efforts (including communication), to support various
peaceful applications focused on “economic, social and cultural development of the
country and to ensure the safety and well-being of the national community”.135
The 2006–2020 PSN, and the structure of ASAL, as well as its predecessor
CNTS, all emphasise broad cross-cutting governmental involvement, including 21
ministerial departments. It is also clear from the discussion earlier that Algeria’s
space posture is one focused on building up domestic capabilities across all areas of
space activities, and that the cornerstone of every international agreement is some
skills or technology transference to Algerian personnel. There is thus an evident
trend of initial but diminishing reliance on foreign partners and expertise in the
building, testing, and operation of satellites, with a consistent drive to create an
independent Algerian capacity. This drive is encapsulated by the statements of
ASAL’s Director General, Azzedine Oussedik, who commented in December 2018
that “since 2002, we have trained a high-level human capital which increased from
100 to 600”, reinforced by the desire to actively plan ahead, for example in the case
of Alcomsat-2: “it is a really good thing, on the technical level, to plan for
Alcomsat-2. We will not wait for the fifteenth year [Alcomsat-1’s expected lifes-
pan] to think of building a new communications satellite”.136
6.8.2 Regional and Global Positioning
To better understand Algeria’s positioning in outer space affairs vis-a-vis other

states, a useful starting point is a study by Wood and Weigel137 on the Space
Technology Ladder. They identify four main categories of national achievement in
134
Algeria Press Service, “Hadjar recalls Algeria's willingness to ‘put space tool at service of
sustainable development’,” October 25, 2016, http://en.aps.dz/health-science-tech/14851-hadjar-
recalls-algeria-s-willingness-to-put-space-tool-at-service-of-sustainable-development (accessed
March 17, 2017).
135
Agence Spatial Algérienne, “Mission.”.
136
Space in Africa, “Algeria to begin work on its 2nd communications satellite,” December 7,
2018, https://africanews.space/algeria-to-begin-work-on-its-2nd-communications-satellite/ (ac-
cessed January 30, 2019).
137
D. Wood and A Weigel, “Charting the Evolution of Satellite Programs in Developing Countries
– The Space Technology Ladder,” Space Policy 28, (2012): 19.
6 Algeria 135
space technology, each containing procurement milestones corresponding to

increasing national autonomy. The four technology categories are National Space
Agency, Satellite in Low Earth Orbit, Satellite in Geostationary Orbit, and Launch
Capacity.138 The sub-categories of each are: (i) establish first government space
office, establish current national space agency; (ii) LEO satellite—procured with
training services, built with support in a partner’s facility, built locally with outside
assistance, built through mutual international collaboration, and built locally;
(iii) GEO satellite—procured, built locally with outside assistance, built through
mutual international collaboration, and built locally; (iv) launch satellite to LEO,
launch satellite to GEO.139 This makes it very easy, as the authors suggest, to
identify space technology milestones and to compare the achievements of different
countries.
Arguably, Algeria achieved the first step—establishing a government space
office—when the CNTS was created in 1987, followed by the second step—
establishing the national space agency—in 2002. It is also straightforward, through
this technology ladder, to identify the ‘movement’ in Algeria’s positioning of itself
in space technology. For instance, AlSat-1 falls into the sub-category ‘procured
with training services’, while AlSat-2B was ‘built locally with outside assistance’.
With Alcomsat-1, Algeria moved into the third category, by procuring a GEO
satellite abroad, again with training services. There is thus an identifiable and
consistent drive by Algeria to ‘climb the ladder’ and to position itself higher on the
technology and autonomy axes.
When considering launch services, it is also striking that Algeria has consistently
made use of non-western launch states, with a clear preference for another devel-
oping country, India. It has also not remained tied to its former colonial power
France in procuring satellites, with contracts going both to the UK and China as
well. This is possibly a reflection of remaining colonial mistrust of France, which
“especially manifests itself in Algerian reluctance to allow French companies to
acquire stakes in what are deemed to be strategic sectors”.140 However, it is
important to acknowledge that despite this mistrust, “Algeria maintains close
relations with its former colonial power”.141
Regionally, in both African and Arab contexts, Algeria has positioned itself as
one of the leading space nations. As Platov notes, the “greatest development of
space research and practical use of space in the interests of the national economy in
the last period can be observed in several Arab countries, but particularly in Algeria
… The Algerian Space Program is a great promising model for other Arab coun-
tries”.142 Platov also notes, in line with the discussion earlier in this chapter, that
Algeria’s size and need for Earth observation data provide the foundation for the
138
Wood and Weigel, “Charting the Evolution of Satellite Programs in Developing Countries –
The Space Technology Ladder,” 17.
139
Ibid.
140
Algeria Country Monitor, “Country Reports—Algeria,” 28.
141
Ibid., 27.
142
V. Platov, “Algeria rushes into space,” New Eastern Outlook, January 6, 2014,http://journal-
neo.org/2014/01/06/rus-alzhir-ustremlyaetsya-v-kosmos/ (accessed March 17, 2017).
136 A. Siebrits
country’s strong positioning in this field on the continent. Indeed, via its partnership
in the ARMS-C and other African bodies such as the regional UN-SPIDER office,
and participation in African space initiatives such as the ALC, Algeria is again
positioning itself as a leader and a reliable partner for using satellite data for
development purposes. In short, its overall efforts to position itself in outer space
affairs are cooperative, but with an eye on further developing Algerian capabilities
and serving local development needs.
6.8.3 Algeria and the African Space Policy and Strategy

Implications
Finally, it must be considered what opportunities and challenges are presented to

Algeria by the African Space Policy and Strategy, and to what extent it may be in a
position to implement this policy at national level. Three possible challenges can be
highlighted here. First, Africa continues to be divided along regional lines, not only
politically, but also economically (concerning the Regional Economic Communi-
ties). As Munsami and Nicolaides observe, Africa’s “national and regional
resources and programmes must converge at the continental level to effectively
define the African space programme … Because of competing agendas within the
AU, disunity is sometimes evident and often leads to an absence of collective
action”.143 No country, Algeria included, can be immune from such fracturing
when implementing the African Space Policy on a continental level. Actively
contributing to and promoting dialogue on continental levels, such as through the
ALC, is the only way to address such disunity effectively.
Second, Africa remains deeply divided regarding space capabilities, infrastruc-
ture, and national political will. Recall the dangers of not being an active participant
on the international level, for example in UNCOPUOS, as highlighted by
Dennerley.144 There is a risk that the African space agenda will be determined by
only a few leading states, for reasons of apathy or lack of resources and skills on the
part of many other African states. As Abiodun notes, in an example of space
hazards, “even if few countries are yet active in space, they are equally at risk from
asteroid and space weather hazards, and also need to feel that, once they are in a
position to build and launch their own satellites, these will still find room in
crowded orbits”.145 This is also related to more equitable cost sharing of space
initiatives, as an “absence of funding support is plaguing the two UN-affiliated
centres in Morocco and Nigeria because, in both cases, the financial burden of
143
V. Munsami and A. Nicolaides, “Investigation of a Governance Framework for an African
Space Programme,” Space Policy (2017): 2.
144
Dennerley, “Emerging Space Nations and the Development of International Regulatory
Regimes.”.
145
A. A. Abiodun, “Trends in the Global Space Arena – Impact on Africa and Africa’s Response,”
Space Policy 28 (2012): 286.
6 Algeria 137
keeping them afloat is shouldered mostly by the host country”.146 There is still
much work to be done before dreams such as the African Space Agency can be
fully realised.
Third, Algeria’s domestic space legislation demonstrates a potential vulnera-
bility—the reliance on top-level Presidential Decrees and support means that,
mainly, while the space sector has broad buy-in across government, it is directly
dependent on the will of the President. A potential future leader might not be as
enthusiastic about space (Abdelaziz Bouteflika recently resigned, emphasising this
point), leaving ASAL and the sector in a precarious position. This is equally true of
any Algerian contributions to the African Space Policy and other continental efforts.
Concerning opportunities, Algeria is very well-placed to implement the provi-
sions of the African Space Policy, given its active and growing infrastructure and
capabilities, and space project heritage. Its policy is also very much in line with the
policy objectives of the continental document. It is also in an excellent position to
continue promoting international cooperation through an African-led agenda, to
showcase good and effective management of space institutions, and to help coor-
dinate the African space arena. Partnerships such as ARMS-C are good examples of
how Algeria is already contributing to continental space efforts. Most of all, its
model of always ensuring the growth of skills of its own engineers and scientists
through international partnerships, and of domesticating those capabilities, can be a
useful guide to other African states. As Abiodun argues, “Africa must prioritise the
education and training of the scientists, technicians, engineers and mathematicians
it needs for both national and collective regional space efforts and related social and
economic development activities”.147
6.9 Conclusion
This chapter has presented an overview of Algeria’s space activities, the legal and
policy aspects of its space sector, and particularly its space ‘posture’ and attempts to
position itself. It was determined that Algeria does indeed have a robust space
posture that, while predicated on cooperation, actively places space at the service of
national economic and social development efforts, particularly in the gaining of
critical skills and capabilities. Some of the challenges and opportunities related to
the implementation of the African Space Policy and Strategy were also considered.
To summarise, Algeria is one of the leading African states in outer space affairs, if
not the leader, but the concentration of legislative authority in outer space affairs in
the hands of the President does pose a potential vulnerability.
146
Ibid., 289.
147
Ibid.
138 A. Siebrits
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Author Biography
142 A. Siebrits
Egypt
7
Besir Suleyman OZ
Abstract
This chapter examines Egypt’s participation in the international treaties
regarding space affairs as well as the national implementations within the
domestic legislation and policies. Following, it indicates the Egyptian space
program alongside the activities of related institutions and organisations. The
section also presents the past, current and proposed space missions and
objectives. Following that, it demonstrates the extent of Egypt’s participation in
international cooperation, partnerships and as well as regional collaboration.
Finally, it concludes with some future aspects and challenges concerning
Egypt’s space activities.
7.1 Introduction
Ancient Egypt, one of the earliest civilisations, had tremendous knowledge in

astronomy by means of their religious practices. Over time, these practices have
eventually evolved from a religious context to scientific information and practical
usage. As Norman Lockyer1 explains, in his comprehensive book “The Dawn of
Astronomy”, the transformation of the astronomical knowledge in Ancient Egypt
can be divided into three fundamental stages. The first was the worship stage, when
astronomical aspects were perceived as signs of god. During the second stage,
Lockyer, Norman. 1894. “The Dawn of Astronomy.” In A Study of Temple Worship and
1
Mythology of the Ancient Egyptians, edited by Giorgio de Santillana. New York London:
Macmillan.
B. S. OZ (&)
e-mail: besirsuleymanoz@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05980-4_7
144 B. S. OZ
Egyptians had advanced in agriculture and navigation using astronomy, and they
utilised the patterns and behaviours of stars and other sky objects for terrestrial
purposes. In the final phase, the astronomical focus was merely channelled into
gaining scientific knowledge. In brief, space possessed profound importance to the
Egyptians. Thanks to their developments in science and astronomy, we have a
variety of technological tools and knowledge to utilise outer space for the sake of
humanity and future generations.
Modern Egypt, on the other hand, is an emerging space-capable country in the
region. Although it is not a key player in the new space age, it has considerable
potential and infrastructure in the field of space and space applications. Using its
geopolitical and regional significance, Egypt is a potential candidate member for the
future space league. At this point, the purpose of this report is to give an insight into
Egypt’s space activities and its current position concerning the space-related policy
and regulatory issues. For this purpose, the chapter begins with examining Egypt’s
participation to the international treaties regarding the space affairs as well as the
national implementations within the domestic legislation and policies. Following, it
indicates the Egyptian space program alongside the activities of related institutions
and organisations. The chapter also presents the past, current and proposed space
missions and objectives. Thirdly, it demonstrates the extent of Egypt’s participation
in international cooperation, partnerships and as well as regional collaboration. In
the sequel, it concludes with some future aspects and challenges concerning
Egypt’s space activities.
7.2 Participation in International Treaties—Domestic

Level Implementation
Following the launch of Sputnik-1, the United Nations (UN) established the
Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS), in 1959, in order
to govern the exploration and use of outer space. The committee, since then, has
been providing a significant platform to discuss the issues of security, peace and
governance in outer space. Nevertheless, the participation of the African states in
the UNCOPUOS is very low. Only 18 member states of UNCOPUOS, including
Egypt, are from Africa. The subcommittees of the UNCOPUOS, namely, Legal
Subcommittee and Scientific and Technical Subcommittee lack participation and
activism of African states. For instance, there were only 7 African countries,
including Egypt, in the last Technical Subcommittee of UNCOPUOS.2
2
UNCOPUOS. 2017. Scientific and Technical Subcommittee: 2017. Accessed March 16, 2017.
http://www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2017/aac_105c_12017crp/aac_105c_12017crp_
2_0_html/AC105_C1_2017_CRP02E.pdf.
7 Egypt 145
The Committee was also the main instrument for the creation of the five fun-
damental treaties of outer space.3 The first and the most ratified space-related treaty
is the Outer Space Treaty (1967) which is also ratified by Egypt. A year later, the
1968 Rescue Agreement was introduced by the UN General Assembly, despite the
lower attention to the treaty; Egypt was one of the fifteen countries that ratified the
Rescue Agreement on the African continent. The number of ratifications and sig-
natures amongst the African countries drop significantly in the remaining three
treaties; Egypt only signed the Liability Convention (1972). Like many states
across the globe, Egypt is not a part of the Registration Convention (1975) and
Moon Agreement (1979). Such that, the only African state that took part in the
Moon Agreement is Morocco.
Egypt has also ratified a number of principles and resolutions adopted by the
UN: (1) Nuclear Test Treaty (1963), (2) International Telecommunications Satellite
Organisation Agreement (ITSO) (1971), (3) Arab Corporation for Space Com-
munication (ARABSAT) (1976), (4) International Mobile Satellite Organisation
Agreement (1976) and finally, (5) International Telecommunication Constitution
and Convention (1992) are few of these. It is important to emphasise that the
ARABSAT Agreement indicates a unique collaboration of an ethnic alignment with
regards to outer space affairs. Egypt’s role in the foundation of the ARABSAT is
prominent. The organisation was once led by Egyptian authorities, and Cairo was
the first headquarters.4 However, as a result of the political crisis between Saudi
Arabia and Egypt, the headquarters was moved to Saudi Arabia, and Egypt became
less active in the organisation.5
According to Wyk,6 Egypt was one of the four African states7 that have laun-
ched satellites by 2008 (by 2019 this figure has grown to eight8). However, it falls
behind when it comes to space law-making like many countries on the continent.
The level of implementation efforts within the domestic legislation remains inad-
equate. Unlike Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria, South Africa and Nigeria, Egypt does
not have a clear national space law. Also, despite its participation in UNCOPUOS,
Egypt has not yet established a space agency. Several announcements have been
made since 2014 about the establishment of a national space agency.9 Recently, the
Egyptian government has approved a draft law that would have finally established a
3
UN. 2017. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Accessed March 16, 2017. http://
www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/index.html.
4
Kraidy, Marwan M. 2002. “Arab Satellite Television Between Regionalization and Globaliza-
tion.” Global Media Journal 1 (1): 2.
5
Ibid.
6
Wyk, J-A. van. 2008. “Overview of the Implementation Status of the.” African Skies 12 (1): 8.
7
Others are Algeria, Nigeria and South Africa.
8
Ibeh, J., “A breakdown of the 30 satellites launched by African nations,” Space in Africa,
February 1, 2019, https://africanews.space/an-outlook-of-the-30-satellites-launched-in-africa/ (ac-
cessed February 27, 2019).
9
Streets Egyptian. 2014. How Egypt’s New Space Agency Will Benefit The Poor. Accessed March
20, 2017. https://egyptianstreets.com/2014/02/24/how-egypts-new-space-agency-will-benefit-the-
poor/.
146 B. S. OZ
national space agency in August 2016.10 Notwithstanding, it is unclear that when

exactly the agency will be introduced and who will govern it.
In contrast to its deficiency in the legal implication, under the guidance of the
National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences (NARSS), which will
be reviewed in the next sections, Egypt demonstrates a quite ambitious and clearly
outlined space policy.
7.3 Space Policy of Egypt
In this section, the study will identify key aspects of the Egyptian space program. In
general, Egypt aims to gain national capabilities and knowledge to utilise space
science and technology to satisfy local and regional needs. Similar to other
developing countries, it also aims to develop and manufacture research and remote
sensing satellites to support various industrial fields and to involve in mutual
information exchanges.
7.3.1 Egyptian Space Program—NARSS
The program was initially started with the guidance of the Egyptian Academy of the
Scientific Research and Technology (ASRT) in the early 1970s. A year after, this
American-Egyptian collaborative initiative has enabled the foundation of the
Remote Sensing Centre which has been transformed to National Authority of
Remote Sensing and Space Sciences (NARSS) in 1991. NARSS was finally reor-
ganised with a presidential decree in 1992 and is still operating under the Ministry
of Scientific Research. The main goal of the NARSS is to promote various space
technologies and earth observation systems for a sustainable and developable
Egypt.11
NARSS operates in a wide range of fields. Such that, it has a variety of divisions
from Geological Applications and Mineral Resources to Agriculture Applications—
Aviation and Aerial Photography to Environmental Studies and Land Use.12 It also
engages13 with other industrial bodies to increase its technical capabilities.14
10
SpaceWatch. 2017. Egypt on the road to establishing national space agency amidst controversy.
Accessed March 19, 2017. https://spacewatchme.com/2016/08/egypt-road-establish-national-
space-agency-amidst-controversy/.
11
NARSS. 2015. About NARSS. Accessed March 20, 2017. http://www.narss.sci.eg/about.
12
2015. Divisions. Accessed March 21, 2017. http://www.narss.sci.eg/divisions/view/1/
Geological_applications_and_Mineral_Resources.
13
See more in the website for the Cooperation between the General Authority for Industrial
Development and the National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences.
14
2016. News. Accessed March 21, 2017. http://www.narss.sci.eg/news/view/8/Cooperation%20%
E2%80%8Bprotocol%20%E2%80%8B%E2%80%8Bbetween%20IDA%20and%20NARSS.
7 Egypt 147
7.3.2 Egyptian Space Strategy
To begin, according to NARSS, some of the main objectives of the Egyptian

national space policy are as follows15: (1) Preparing the county to involve in the
space technology age by designing and producing satellites. (2) Obtaining
indigenous capabilities in space technology fields. (3) Establishing human resource
competences for various fields of space industry. (4) Regulating and enhancing the
collaboration between the scientific-industrial institutions and outer space pro-
grams within national policies. (5) Extensively utilising the space applications for
economic, social, educational, agricultural purposes.
Actualising such objectives in the field requires a strategic road-map.
Both NARSS and relevant ministries have published relevant documents that
indicate the initiatives and strategic developments focused on this matter. For
instance, Dr El-Dessouki16 indicates the following initiatives that NARSS under-
took to achieve the above stated objectives in the 2015 African Leadership Con-
ference (ALC-2015).17 In addition, significant financial and political support is also
provided by the Ministries of ‘State for Scientific Research’ and ‘Higher Education’
to NARSS in this regard18; (1) Optimisation of national resources, (2) Constructing
infrastructure for space science and technology, (3) Increasing space awareness,
(4) Integrating user needs and database, (5) Constituting international and
regional collaboration.
The same conference proceeding provides further strategical and policy level
aspects. In order to explore the extent of implementation of these policy goals, it is
essential to identify developments in the field. At this juncture, the following
section is concerned with Egypt’s past, ongoing and future space projects.
7.3.3 Egypt’s Development and Operation of Space Systems
In the light of the mentioned space goals, Egypt has been improving its capacity to
design, manufacture and launch satellites for various purposes (remote sensing,
communication, science). To this end, Egypt has launched its first remote sensing
satellite—EgyptSat-1—in 2007. The satellite was a mini-satellite and carried
multispectral imager for earth observations and manufactured together by NARSS
and the Yuzhnoye Design Bureau (Ukraine).19 However, the connection was lost
15
Helmy, Dr.Ashraf Khaled. 2015. Space Sciences and Strategic Studies. Accessed March 19,
2017. http://www.narss.sci.eg/divisions/view/5/%20Space%20Sciences%20and%20Strategic%
20Studies/16/Egypt%20Space%20Program.
16
El-Dessouki, Ayman. 2015. “Egyptian Space Program Road-Map.” Sharm El Sheikh:
ALC-2015.
17
Ibid.
18
UNESCO-UIS. 2009. “Policy of Scientific Research and Technology (Egypt).” Mombasa:
UIS UNESCO.
19
Grayzeck, Dr. Ed. 2017. NASA Space Sciences Data Coordinated Archieve. Accessed March 20,
2017. https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=2007-012A.
148 B. S. OZ
with the satellite in 2010.20 EgyptSat-2 is the second Earth remote-sounding

satellite of Egypt which has been collectively built by NARSS and RKK Energiya
(Russian Company) and launched by Russian Soyuz-U vehicle in 2014.21 The
lifespan of the spacecraft was expected to be 11 years; however, after only one year
in orbit, the spacecraft failed due to complications in the ground station according to
Russian media.22 Industry sources on the other hands claim that the failure caused
by human error in the flight control centre. Despite the failure of these two satel-
lites, Egypt has still been advancing in technology and international cooperation in
developing its space industry. The satellites that are examined indicate the Egypt
Government’s cooperation with other states, private organisations and space
agencies on the international arena. Egypt’s cross-border space affairs with these
bodies will be explained in detail in the later sections of this chapter.
Moreover, Egypt has also launched a number of commercial satellites for
communication purposes. Firstly, Nilesat-101 is the first Egyptian broadcasting
satellite was manufactured by the French firm Matra Marconi Space and launched
in 1998 from French Guyana. It has delivered a large number of TV channels, radio
stations and multimedia services to Northern African, Gulf, Middle Eastern and part
of Southern European countries.23 With Nilesat-101, Egypt has become the first
African country to launch its own broadcasting satellite.24 Nilesat-102 is also a
communication satellite built by Matra Marconi Space and launched from French
Guyana in April 2000. In addition to the first one, Nilesat-102 provides
data-transmission and internet connection for commercial and public purposes.25 A
decade after Nilesat-102’s launch, NileSat and Thales Alenia Space Company have
jointly built NileSat-201 to replace Nilesat-101 which was expected to end its
mission. NileSat-201 was launched by European Ariane-5 rocket in 2001 and it
procures high technological communication services for the countries in the Middle
East and Northern Africa (MENA) region.26
More recently, Egypt has successfully launched EgyptSat-A what was “Africa’s
31st attempt to put satellite in space”.27 EgyptSat-A is a high-resolution Earth
observation satellite built in collaboration between Russian RKK Energia and
20
Michelson, Ruth. 2017. Egypt's Economy in Crisis. So Why Is the Government Spending
Millions on a Fancy Space Agency? Accessed March 20, 2017. http://europe.newsweek.com/
egypts-economy-crisis-government-spending-millions-new-space-agency-561743?rm=eu.
21
Krebs, Dirk. 2017. EgyptSat 2 (MisrSat 2). Accessed March 21, 2017. http://space.skyrocket.de/
doc_sdat/egyptsat-2.htm.
22
Zak, Anatoly. 2015. EgyptSat-2 spy satellite. Accessed March 21, 2017. http://russianspaceweb.
com/egyptsat2.html.
23
EIR. 1999. NILESAT. Accessed March 21, 2017. http://www.medea.be/en/themes/medias/
nilesat/.
24
2016. Nilesat 101, 102. Accessed March 21, 2017. http://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/nilesat-
101.htm.
25
Ibid.
26
2017. NileSat 201. Accessed March 21, 2017. http://www.nilesat.com.eg/Pages/Index/34.
27
Space in Africa, “EgyptSAT-A successfully launched as Egypt begins plan to acquire more
satellites,” February 22, 2019, https://africanews.space/egyptsat-a-successfully-launched-as-egypt-
begins-plan-to-acquire-more-satellites/ (accessed February 27, 2019).
7 Egypt 149
NARSS and is an updated version of EgyptSat-2 which was confirmed unsuccessful

after onboard computer failures.28
A number of Data Receiving and Control Stations are built in order to support,
monitor, control and communicate with the abovementioned satellites. Beginning
with the data receiving stations, Aswan Receiving Station, a state institution,
operates with parallel to satellites in orbit and provides significant data for the
industries in Egypt as well as the states and organisations in the region for the
purpose of peaceful and sustainable developments.29 NileSat Receiving Station, on
the other hand, is a commercial base and provides satellite, communication and
media broadcasting services to its customers.30 Secondly, both NileSat and
Egyptian authorities have control stations in Cairo and Alexandria to maintain their
communication with the satellites.
NARSS has presented several other facilities to improve its infrastructure
including Assembly Integration and Test Facilities (AIT), Special Laboratories
(Payload, Optics, Electric, Design, Engineering, Space Environment and Image
Processing Laboratory). Moreover, NARSS has ongoing collaborations with sev-
eral Egyptian universities, external institutions and international organisations to
improve its human capital. Finally, research and development activities are
increased through cooperation with national universities and other R&D
institutions.31
7.3.4 Egyptian Space Agency
Despite successive announcements from the Egyptian government, the Egyptian

Space Agency cannot be established due to political and regional influences of Arab
Spring. EgyptSat-2 was scheduled for launch in 2013 and the government funded
Desert-Sat in 2017 yet they were rescheduled for another date due to the revolution
and the following military coup.32 After the political ‘stabilisation’ under the
president al-Sisi, the Egyptian cabinet has approved a draft law that allows the
establishment of Egypt’s first national space agency.33 According to the
announcement made by the Higher Education Minister El-Shehihi, the agency is
expected to improve Egypt’s strategy and capacity in science, education, agriculture
28
Graham, W., “Soyuz 2-1b launches EgyptSat-A—suffers apparent issues—but deemed
successful,” NASASpaceflight.com, February 21, 2019, https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2019/
02/russia-2019-campaign-soyuz-2-1b-launch-egyptsat-a/ (accessed February 27, 2019).
29
Ashour, Hamdy A. 2007. “The Egyptian Space Program and Its Role in the Sustainable
Development of Egypt, Middle East and Africa.” Morocco: UNOOSA.
30
Nilesat. 2017. About Us. Accessed March 21, 2017. http://www.nilesat.com.eg/.
31
Ibid., 6.
32
Harding, Robert C. 2013. “Space Policy in Developing Countries.” In Series: Space Powers and
Politics, edited by Robert C. Harding, 166–167. New York: Taylor & Francis Group.
33
Egyptian Streets. 2016. Egypt is Going to Space: Government Approves Law Establishing Space
Agency. Accessed March 21, 2017. https://egyptianstreets.com/2016/08/04/egypt-is-going-to-
space-government-approves-law-establishing-space-agency/.
150 B. S. OZ
and industry.34 However, the government’s policy towards the agency raised many
questions and public objection due to the high cost of space investment and
unsuccessful reputation of previous space missions.
Moreover, according to Newsweek’s report,35 some of the public sectors in
Egypt, such as education and health, are in a need of substantial reform and
investment. Despite the criticism, the government and some local news agencies
stress the importance of space investment for Egypt. The Egyptian Streets, for
instance, supports the cabinet’s decision about the space agency. Further, it states
that the potential outcome of the proposed space investment will eradicate poverty
and will fix education.36
It seems difficult for Egyptians to reach a consensus over the new space agency,
especially for the social and political environment of a country that has undergone a
revolution and military coup. It is also a surprising point that despite the political
and ideological alterations and collisions that change the country’s national policy
aspects; Egyptian Governments’ approach to space sector has always been very
ambitious yet unluckily unsuccessful.
7.4 International Cooperation and Partnership
Robert Harding, in his book, examines Egypt’s principal activities in space under
three main headings.37 Namely, (1) space applications, (2) satellite control,
(3) bilateral/multilateral cooperation. As shown in the third point, in fact, Egypt is
one of the most colourful countries in terms of its cooperation in space with very
different space actors. Egypt has been involved in many different partnerships and
alliances throughout its space adventure.
7.4.1 Cooperation in Manufacturing Launching

and Operating Levels
Historically, it begins with (West) German guidance to build and improve its
missile capacities. In mid-1960s Egypt has started building its first rockets jointly
with Germany. In 1980s Egypt concluded an agreement with Argentina to develop
long-range missiles. In mid-1990s Egypt has extended its missiles range and built
its first national missile with North Korean and Chinese assistance. With the
34
Ahramonline. 2016. Cabinet approves draft bill to establish Egyptian space agency. Accessed
March 21, 2017. http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/238062/Egypt/Politics-/Cabinet-
approves-draft-bill-to-establish-Egyptian-.aspx.
35
Michelson, Ruth. 2017. Egypt's Economy in Crisis. So Why Is the Government Spending
Millions on a Fancy Space Agency? Accessed March 20, 2017. http://europe.newsweek.com/
egypts-economy-crisis-government-spending-millions-new-space-agency-561743?rm=eu.
36
Ibid., 4.
37
Harding, Robert C. 2013. “Space Policy in Developing Countries.” In Series: Space Powers and
Politics, edited by Robert C. Harding, 166–167. New York: Taylor & Francis Group.
7 Egypt 151
foundation of NARSS, Egypt has become more active in regional and international
initiatives. Especially after the end of the Cold War, the high tension between
ideological blocks was decreased. Thus cooperation between international actors
increased to a significant extent.38
First of all, the international tender that was organised by the Egyptian
Government in 1999, to build its first remote sensing satellite (which is won by the
Ukrainian State organisation), is a revealing sample of Egyptian initiative to
advance in space. According to Harding, this is because of the convenience of
purchasing satellites from established companies, like many other developing
countries, rather than pursuing indigenous launch capabilities.39 Nevertheless, the
Ukrainian firm which won the competition triggered Egypt’s cooperation attempts
at the industry level. Since then, Egypt has been involving in partnerships for
scientific satellite manufacturing and launching as well as R&D and human
capacity building. For instance, Ukrainian firm Yuzhnoye and several other
Ukrainian State institutions have not only built the EgyptSat-1 but also carried out a
variety of training programs for Egyptian personnel.40 The EgyptSat-2 project
reflects a similar alliance between Russia and Egypt. Apart from the building and
launching process of the satellite, Russia has also trained Egyptian engineers to
control the space vehicle from the Egypt-based ground stations.41
In contrast, Egypt’s position in the production and operation of commercial
satellite systems is closer to western organisations. Such that, NileSat101, 102 and
201 were built by Egypt’s European partners Matra Marconi and Thales Alenia
Space. European Space Agency (ESA) is also involved in the launches of these
three communication satellites.
7.4.2 Regional and International Cooperation, Initiatives

and Projects
With more than 53 memorandums of understanding in space technology and

research and development fields, NARSS has an extensive network of national,
regional and international organisations and institutions.42 Primarily with ESA,
Canadian Space Agency (CSA) and NASA, NARSS has many other bilateral
agreements with its partners. In recent years, the number of partners has doubled
due to regional space cooperation and organisation agreements across Africa and
Asia.
Especially within the African Union, Egypt has an important role in the for-
malising of the African Space Programme as it is contributing and developing space
technology to the region. Using its communication satellites, and its financial and
38
Ibid., 9.
39
Ibid., 9.
40
NKAU. 2002. Egyptsat-1. Accessed March 21, 2017. http://www.nkau.gov.ua/nsau/
catalogNEW.nsf/proectE/3B41E4935D67F084C2256F2A003356A1?OpenDocument&Lang=E.
41
Ibid., 7.
42
2015. NARSS Cooperations. Accessed March 21, 2017. http://www.narss.sci.eg/cooperations.
152 B. S. OZ
policy supports, Egypt develops the regional market and promotes international
cooperation in Africa, for Africa. On the 7th Space Working Group Meeting of
African Union (AU), NARSS-Egypt presented a framework for African Space
Policy and Strategy.43 In the previous AU meeting which is also hosted by Egypt,
NARSS is particularly prominent in the financing the development of the African
Space Policy and Strategy.44 Moreover, NARSS has participated in Global Mon-
itoring for Environment and Security for Africa meetings (GMES) (an initiative
established in 2007 which aims to utilise the earth observation systems for African
countries).45
In the regional level, NARSS is a member organisation in the Water Information
System Platform (WISP); a proposed project by NASA aims to improve usable
water resources and agricultural management through earth observation for the
MENA region. Alongside Morocco, Jordan and Lebanon, World Bank and United
States Agency of International Development (USAID) and finally Arab Water
Council are also partners of this platform.46 Also, as mentioned earlier, ARABSAT
—satellite services provider founded in 1976—is also an example of regional
cooperation that Egypt has been participating since the foundation.
Moreover, Egypt has invested 10 million dollars in establishing the African
Space Agency.47 African Space Agency is in the Agenda of Africa 2016 and is set
to take part in the transformation of the continent in the upcoming decades.48 With
the advent of a regional space agency, Egypt and other African countries will be
able to actively involve space related scientific researches and projects and to
implement necessary measures in the societal and economic development.
7.4.3 Interstate Cooperation and Partnership
In June 2011, Italian Space Agency and NARSS have signed an agreement that
allowing the information and technology exchange between countries in the field of
earth observation.49 The agreement also established a legal framework for the
collaboration between the agencies and the relevant national institutions for mutual
43
El-Magd, Islam Abou. 2015. “7th Space Working Group Meeting.” Sharm El-Sheikh: African
Leadership Conference.
44
AU. 2014. “Department of HRST Meeting of AU Space Working Group—Report.” Cairo:
African Union.
45
Ibid., 11.
46
Habib, Shahid. 2015. Adressing Water Resources Management thorugh NASA Earth Obser-
vations. Accessed March 21, 2017. http://oas.gsfc.nasa.gov/MenaWisp/index.html.
47
MENA, “Egypt allocates $10 mn to establish African Space Agency,” Egypt Today, February
23, 2019, http://www.egypttoday.com/Article/1/65133/Egypt-allocates-10-mn-to-establish-
African-Space-Agency (accessed February 27, 2019).
48
Eltigani, N., “Egypt to Establish African Space Agency in New Cairo,” Egyptian Streets,
February 24, 2019, https://egyptianstreets.com/2019/02/24/egypt-to-establish-african-space-
agency-in-new-cairo/ (accessed February 27, 2019).
49
Asi, Redazione. 2011. COSMO-SkyMed: agreement with Egypt. Accessed March 21, 2017.
http://www.asi.it/en/news/cosmo-skymed-agreement-egypt.
7 Egypt 153
interest.50 According to NARSS,51 there are several agreements signed with China
in the fields of remote sensing applications, human capacity building, scientific
information exchange and education and training. The purpose of the agreement,
with the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), is to create a legal and practical
framework for partnership in the above mention fields.
As one can see, Egypt has involved and participated to regional, continental and
international levels of cooperation, collaboration, interactions and partnerships
which have contributed an enormous potential to Egypt’s industrial, scientific,
societal and political capabilities and knowledge. In the light of these develop-
ments, one can also predict that further advances for Egypt, within these levels, are
not far away.
7.5 Conclusion
This chapter has attempted to perform a desktop analysis of Egypt’s space activities
from a multi-dimensional perspective. Firstly, it indicated Egypt’s participation
level and type to international treaties. Secondly, it drew attention to its specific
space policy by explaining the aspects of the Egyptian Space program. Finally, the
chapter identified the position of Egypt on the regional and international partici-
pation levels. The primary purpose of this chapter, therefore, was to picture a
specific “space posture” of Egypt. However, there are many aspects that remained
unaddressed primarily due to the specific nature of Egypt’s recent history which
still causes uncertainties in the political and financial spheres.
Notwithstanding, Egypt’s efforts to maintain and improve its space capabilities
and regional cooperation carries significant importance for the continent and the
region. Moreover, it is evident that the new space agency will increase the possi-
bility of utilising Egypt’s available infrastructure and space ambition.
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51
Ibid., 11.
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campaign-soyuz-2-1b-launch-egyptsat-a/ (21 Feb 2019). Accessed 27 Feb 2019
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Author Biography
Besir Suleyman OZ He has recently completed his masters at the University of Cape Town with a
keen interest in pursuing higher education and a carrier in global environmental security and
governance. He is particularly interested in the fields of outer space security and governance.
Currently residing in Bergen—Norway and working on innovation projects on renewable energy
systems particularly focused on off-shore wind turbines.
Kenya
8
Bas Martens
Abstract
Kenya has had a long history in space by hosting the world’s first equatorial
launch platform. Kenya has a good education and information infrastructure, and
acts as an economic hub in the region, thus laying the backbone for a developing
space nation. Slowly, governmental arrangements are made for the establishment
of an own space agency, and the country has recently launched its first satellite.
There are already many collaborative institutions in the country. Although still
dependent on international collaborations, the critical mass needed to sustain an
autonomous space industry has almost been achieved!
Kenya is a geographically diverse country, its landscape defined by high mountains,

savannahs, rainforests, highlands and deserts. With 80% of the population working
in agriculture, it is Kenya’s largest sector. Its main export products are tea, coffee,
flowers and petroleum products. Despite persisting weak governance, Kenya has
experienced high socioeconomic growth in the past years and serves as a hub for
the East African region.1 Although the country’s natural resources are not abundant,
Kenya has attracted many local and international investors. In addition, Kenya has a
1
CIA, ‘The World Factbook—Kenya’, 2017. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-
factbook/geos/ke.html [accessed 4 April 2017].
B. Martens (&)
e-mail: mrtbas004@myuct.ac.za

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05980-4_8
158 B. Martens
good physical and information infrastructure and education is very accessible, thus
laying the backbone for an emerging space-nation.2
The space sector too offers technological solutions to the developmental chal-
lenges of Kenya. Satellites can provide resource, disaster and environmental
management and a cost-effective way of communication, especially in the
sparsely-populated areas.3 Despite all benefits, the ancillary, expensive and
long-term nature of the space industry often inhibits and discourages the Kenyan
government countries to invest.
Kenya has had a quiet but long history concerning space activities due to its
location on the equator west of the Indian Ocean, making it an economic and safe
location to launch satellites from. Although in a slow pace, Kenya has recently
started developing its own space projects and capabilities, and is, together with
Ethiopia, turning into a regional focal point.
8.2 Kenya’s Outer Space Treaties and Policies
Kenya has entered into a number of treaties and policies regarding the use of outer
space. The degree to which this has been adopted in domestic legislation shall be
discussed in this chapter.
8.2.1 United Nations Treaties on Outer Space
In 1967, the United Nations agreed upon a basic legal international framework
regarding activities in space, which has been elaborated by four follow-up agree-
ments. With each new agreement, a decreasing number of countries got involved, as
shown in Table 8.1. The manner of involvement can be signatory, acceptance,
accession of ratification. The number of countries that have acceded or ratified the
treaties, thus implementing them in their domestic legislation, is shown in
brackets.4
The Outer Space Treaty deals in topics such as freedom of exploration,
non-appropriation, weapons of mass destruction in space, responsibilities and
international cooperation, and has been acceded by Kenya in 1984. The Liability
Convention has been acceded by Kenya in 1975.5
2
Beth Muthoni, ‘Kenya Ranked 4th Most Influential Country in Africa; Beats Resource-Rich
Countries’, 2015. http://intelligencebriefs.com/kenya-ranked-4th-most-influential-country-in-
africa-beats-resource-rich-countries/ [accessed 4 April 2017].
3
AU Space Working Group, ‘African Space Strategy Version 4’. https://www.wmo.int/amcomet/
sites/default/files/field/doc/events/african_space_strategy_v4.pdf.
4
UNOOSA, ‘Treaties’, 2017. http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/treaties/treaty-status-search.jspx?view=
list& [accessed 21 March 2017].
5
UNOOSA, United Nations Treaties and Principles on Outer Space, 2008. http://www.unoosa.
org/pdf/publications/st_space_11rev2E.pdf.
8 Kenya 159
Table 8.1 Kenya’s involvement in the five UN space treaties

Year Known as Name Involved Kenya’s
countries involvement
1967 Outer Space Treaty on principles governing the 128 (94) Acceded
Treaty activities of states in the exploration
and use of outer space, including the
moon and other celestial bodies
1968 Rescue Agreement on the rescue of 120 (83) –
Agreement astronauts, the return of astronauts
and the return of objects launched into
outer space
1972 Space Convention on international liability 116 (84) Acceded
Liability for damage caused by space objects
Convention
1976 Registration Convention on registration of objects 69 (56) –
Convention launched into outer space
1979 Moon Agreement governing the activities of 20 (16) –
Treaty states on the moon and other celestial
bodies
The agreements in which Kenya takes part regulate practical matters that can
also be relevant to non-space faring countries. In case of damages to Kenyan
property by third parties, the agreements provide a legislative liability framework.
In addition, the Outer Space Treaty can guide and stimulate cooperation with other
countries, possibly encouraging socioeconomic growth. Although Kenya has little
space activity, these treaties are relevant: due to its geographic location, Kenya is an
ideal space-facilitating country and is therefore often involved.
The treaties that have not (yet) been signed by Kenya deal in matters such as
manned space flight, missions to the moon and an active satellite industry. Because
these missions require a more developed space industry than the one in Kenya,
adhering to this code or adopting it in national legislation would be of little use.
8.2.2 African Space Policy and Strategy
Kenya is one of the ten members of the AU Space Working Group. This has been
the main actor in developing the African Space Policy and Strategy, of which an
almost completed version has been published in 2015.6 The African Space Policy
and Strategy is one of the first concrete steps to an African Outer Space Programme
and is aligned with the AU Agenda 2063 development goals.
According to Munsami, chair of the AU Space Working Group, “of the 40 core
AU objectives an incredible 35 of them require space technology in some form or
6
African Union, African Space Strategy Version 10, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejoc.201200111.
160 B. Martens
other”.7 In addition, the space sector is known to be a driver for socio-economic

growth.8 These two facts emphasize the relevance of a policy and strategy and
justify past and future efforts.
Kenya is a part of the Space Working Group and one of the relatively prosperous
member states of the African Union. In addition, Kenya’s advantageous geographic
location offers a great opportunity for the country to develop its space affairs. These
facts imply an obligation to actively contribute to the development of the African
space sector and the development goals.
In 2007, Kenya’s development policy Vision 2030 was published by the Kenyan
government, but has no mention of the development of the space sector.9 This
implies that there was little political motivation for implementing space applications
for the development of the country at the time. Recently, this motivation was
renewed, as described in the following sections.
8.2.3 Other International Agreements
Kenya has signed a few other international agreements. By signing the Treaty
Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, Outer Space and Under Water,
Kenya condemns the pollution of the environment and space by nuclear weapons.10
Kenya has also signed the Langkawi Declaration of the Environment. Point 4
describes the boundary-transcending nature of some pollution, herewith acknowl-
edging space pollution.11 Kenya also supports the Prevention of an Arms Race in
Outer Space (PAROS) treaty, an agreement currently under discussion that would
prohibit not only nuclear, but any weapon in outer space.12
8.3 Kenyan Space Posture
The treaties and policies serve as international behavioural guidelines and rules, but
they do not determine the actual involvement of a country in the space sector. This
can, however, be determined by looking at the extent to which a country has taken
steps to realize its formal ambitions. In this section, the so-called “space posture” of
Kenya will be analysed.
7
Kathryn Cave, ‘Why Africa Needs a Space Program’, IDGconnect, 2016. http://www.idgconnect.
com/blog-abstract/15612/why-africa-space-program.
8
OECD, ‘The Space Economy at a Glance’, 2011, 1–4. https://www.oecd.org/sti/futures/space/
48301203.pdf.
9
Government of Kenya, ‘Vision 2030’, 2007, pp. 1–32. http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_
upload/drought/docs/Vision%202030-%20Popular%20Version.pdf [accessed 4 April 2017].
10
‘Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere’, Kenya Law. http://kenyalaw.org/
treaties/treaties/177/Treaty-Banning-Nuclear-Weapon-Tests-in-the-Atmosphere [accessed 21
March 2017].
11
‘Langkawi Declaration on the Environment’, Kenya Law. http://kenyalaw.org/treaties/treaties/
26/Langkawi-Declaration-on-the-Environment [accessed 21 March 2017].
12
‘Prevention of Outer Space Arms Race, Mediterranean Security Among Issues, As Disarmament
Committee Approves Seven More Texts’, United Nations, 2005.
8 Kenya 161
8.3.1 National Space Policy, Strategy and Space Agency
Since 1983, there have been discussions about establishing a national space centre
and have been intertwined with the formulation of a national space policy and
strategy, but this never materialized. In 2015, a resumption of these discussions has
been reported. Experts, military and government officials who are assembled in the
National Space Policy, Strategy and Space Agency Order have expressed that the
plans have been included in the cabinet’s agenda and that all necessary legal
instruments are being prepared. This is currently being done under the umbrella of
the Ministry of Defense, although Kenyan scholars are lobbying the shift of the
space centre to the Ministry of Higher Education.13 The space centre, including a
constellation of Earth observation satellites (likely referring to the ARMC), is
estimated to cost 10 billion Kenyan shillings ($98 million).14
Established in 2013, the Kenyan Space Secretariat is the governmental body that
coordinated all space related activities in the country and was placed under the
Ministry of Defence. It conducts technical and policy research, provides capacity
building leadership and lobbies for engagement of legislature, private sector and
international parties in Kenyan space activities. In 2018, the National Space Agency
Board was appointed and inaugurated, which takes over all space-related matters
from the secretariat. Through government funding, around a hundred space tech-
nology experts are expected to be delivered to the space agency by 2025.15,16
According to the Counsel of the Attorney General, currently all legislative prepa-
rations are being made to ensure the conformity of the space centre to laws, con-
ventions and treaties.17,18 Although these developments are slow, these messages
strongly support the credibility of the actual formation of the space agency and
centre.
These optimistic messages, however not unfounded, must be put into perspec-
tive. There are a number of challenges that Kenya faces in the development of an
active space sector, such as a lack of financial resources, technical knowledge,
existing expansible high-tech industry and public and political awareness and
13
Nicholas Komu, ‘Scientists Want Space Centre Shifted From Defense Ministry’, 2016. http://
www.nation.co.ke/news/-/1056/2433098/-/15fj09k/-/index.html%5Cn http://www.nation.co.ke/
news/-/1056/2433098/-/15fj09k/-/index.html [accessed 21 March 2017].
14
Nyambega Gisesa, ‘Kenya-to-Launch-Space-Centre @ Www.Standardmedia.Co.Ke’, Standard
Media, 2015. https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2000167230/kenya-to-launch-space-centre
[accessed 21 March 2017].
15
‘Kenya National Space Secretariat’, International Astronautical Federation. http://www.iafastro.
org/societes/kenya-national-space-secretariat/ [accessed 21 March 2017].
16
Anthony M Mwangudza, Andrew O Nyawade, and John N Kimani, ‘A Perspective of the
Kenyan Space Programme : Past, Present and the Future’, 2013, 1–5. https://www.scitechnol.com/
2327-4581/2327-4581-S1-003.pdf.
17
Elvis Mang’unyi, ‘Kenya to Launch a KSh 10B Space Centre’, Techsavvy, 2015. http://
techsavvy.or.ke/kenya-to-launch-a-ksh-10b-space-centre/#sthash.JZi2BbGG.dpbs [accessed 21
March 2017].
18
Francis Mureithi, ‘Cabinet Greenlights Creation of Space Exploration Agency’, Business Daily,
2016. http://www.businessdailyafrica.com/Cabinet-greenlights-creation-of-space-exploration-
agency/-/539546/3139674/-/gt0n8d/-/index.html [accessed 21 March 2017].
162 B. Martens
motivation.19,20 The slow development is recognised by the Kenyan government

and can be accounted for by the abovementioned challenges and the ancillary,
long-term nature of the space sector.21
8.3.2 Institutional Arrangements
In order for Kenya to develop a lively space sector, regulatory and educational
processes and bodies must be established to create and sustain the necessary critical
mass of knowledge and provide clear handling of space activities. Many of such
arrangements have been made and are still developing.
Universities and other institutions make efforts to develop knowledge in the
country. The University of Nairobi has a department of geospatial and space
technology and offers an astrophysics programme and the Jomo Kenyatta
University of Agriculture and Technology offers a remote sensing programme.22,23
A number of space-associated courses are offered, such as astrophysics and Earth
science studies.24 Of course, space knowledge finds its origin in almost any dis-
cipline, so it can be developed and created by providing training, jobs and
networks.
Amongst many organizations doing this is the Regional Centre for Mapping of
Resources for Development (RCMRD, previously RCSSMRS). Fifteen member
states manage the centre that is based in Nairobi. It has trained around 3000
technical officers from its member states and other African countries, has imple-
mented many projects and helped in capacity building.25 Another large organization
is the Department of Resource Surveys and Remote Sensing (DRSRS). They both
focus on environmental and agricultural management through earth observation, the
former with an emphasis on training.
It should be realized that the efforts to build indigenous knowledge in Kenya are
not always cumulative. Kenya has achieved a fairly critical mass to pursue the next
level of space faring, but better foreign facilities, job opportunities, salaries,
19
Mwangudza, Nyawade, and Kimani.
20
Kenya Space Sector Advocacy, ‘Potential Challenges to Establishing a Space Sector in Kenya’,
2013. https://spacekenya.org/2013/07/17/potential-challenges-to-establishing-a-space-sector-in-
kenya/ [accessed 21 March 2017].
21
Aly Azad Rana, ‘Address By H.E. Dr. Kipkorir Aly Azad Rana, Ambassador Permanent
Representative of Kenya’ (Vienna). http://www.un.org/events/unispace3/speeches/21ken.htm.
22
‘B.SC. in Astronomy and Astrophysics’, University of Nairobi. http://physics.uonbi.ac.ke/uon_
degrees_details/1016 [accessed 21 March 2017].
23
‘Postgraduate Courses’, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology. http://www.
jkuat.ac.ke/postgraduate-courses/ [accessed 21 March 2017].
24
F Onyango, ‘Status of Space Science in Kenya’, Selected Papers on Remote Sensing, Satellite
Communications, and Space Science. Seminars of the United Nations Programme on Space
Applications, Volume 6 (1995), 135–138. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1995UNPSA…6..135O.
25
Harun R Muturi, ‘Space Education and Capacity Building for Sustainable Development’
(Kitakyushu City, 2005). http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/activities/2005/japan/
presentations/P_Muturi.pdf [accessed 4 April 2017].
8 Kenya 163
political stability and safety are among the incentives for well educated people to
move abroad. Although Kenya has the most educated population of Africa, intel-
lectual drain in Kenya and Africa as a whole is high and even labelled as
“frightening”.26,27 The space sector in particular has many foreign employers that
offer these pull-factors, and should be countered by creating attractive working
circumstances in Kenya.
8.3.3 Geopolitics
Because Kenya lies on the equator and west of the Indian Ocean, it has one of the
world’s economically advantageous and safe geographic locations for rocket
launches. It is centrally located on the African continent and neighbours countries
that, except for Ethiopia, are barely involved in space activities.
Kenya is one of the most developed countries in the East African Region. In
2015, Kenya was ranked the fourth most influential African country closely fol-
lowing South Africa, Ethiopia and Egypt.28 Although Kenya experiences great
socio-economic growth, development projects in the country are still partly
dependant on donors and foreign investors, but less so than other African countries.
These externally funded projects provide a basis for autonomous growth and even a
future platform for mutually beneficial investments.29
This also applies to the space sector of Kenya—its space activities are largely
based on cooperation with other countries. As such, Kenya positions itself wel-
coming towards collaborative agreements. Just like in regular development projects,
it often makes them dependant on external aid. When aid is given and infrastructure
has been established, just like regular development projects it can also be beneficial
for the once-aiding countries. In the near future, Kenya could be able to provide a
strategic launching base, other ground infrastructure, knowledge and human
resources, making the trade bilateral. Because of Kenya’s high development
compared to countries in the region, it will be a focal point for regional and global
space activities.
Because of the Italian owned Broglio Space Centre in Kenya, the relation
between the two countries has been of great importance to Kenya’s space activities.
Although mainly used by Italy, the centre has been of mutual benefit to the
countries by providing Italy with a space port and Kenya with capacity building and
26
Beth Muthoni, ‘Kenya Ranked 4th Most Influential Country in Africa; Beats Resource-Rich
Countries’, 2015. http://intelligencebriefs.com/kenya-ranked-4th-most-influential-country-in-
africa-beats-resource-rich-countries/ [accessed 21 March 2017].
27
Scott Firsing, ‘How Severe Is Africa’s Brain Drain?’, Quartz Africa, 2016. https://qz.com/
599140/how-severe-is-africas-brain-drain/ [accessed 21 March 2017].
28
Muthoni, ‘Kenya Ranked 4th Most Influential Country in Africa; Beats Resource-Rich
Countries’.
29
Miriam Gathigah, ‘Africa Begins to Rise Above Aid’, The Guardian, 2012. https://www.
theguardian.com/global-development/2012/jan/19/africa-rising-above-aid-dependency; Wolfgang
Fengler, ‘Three Myths About Aid to Kenya’, 2011. http://blogs.worldbank.org/africacan/three-
myths-about-aid-to-kenya [accessed 21 March 2017].
164 B. Martens
useful relations with the EU. Instead of Italy being the main user and procurer of
space activities, the recent renewing of the agreement stated that the two countries
will be jointly responsible and on equal footing. The Italian government will also
support the establishment of the Kenyan Space Agency and provide infrastructure
and training.30
8.4 Kenyan Space Activities
Among global players, Kenya is a quiet space faring country and is, like most
African countries, dependent on collaboration with other countries and institutions.
Although it has seen many stalled projects, it has also seen many successful and
planned space-endeavors, among which a launch platform, other ground infras-
tructure, and a launched CubeSat satellite.
8.4.1 Broglio Space Centre
In the early years of the space age, Kenya has experienced involvement through the
aspiration of the Italian Space Agency and NASA to economically launch heavy
payloads into orbit from the equator. The newly independent and stably governed
Kenya had only three nautical miles of territorial waters, making it the perfect
candidate for a rent-free sea platform in international waters. Thus, the first equa-
torial, but little known Broglio Space Centre was established.
In 1969, a presidential decree was issued, extending the territorial waters 12
nautical miles into the ocean, which moved the space station into Kenyan internal
waters. Kenya did not grant explicit permission for launching, but remained
cooperative, thus displaying tacit consent. In 1987, an agreement was made that
exchanged Kenyan land, water- and airspace for an annual rent payed by Italy.31
From 1964 until 1988 the space station facilitated 27 launches of which nine
satellites, with a hundred percent success rate. One of the most successful missions
launched from the platform was NASA’s Uhuru X-ray satellite. It mapped X-ray
sources and discovered evidence for the existence of black holes. Uhuru means
“Freedom” in Swahili, named after Kenya’s independence.32
The space centre is composed of a sea segment with three floating and two fixed
platforms, and a land segment with three ground stations for receiving and
30
Agenzia Spaziale Italiana, ‘Space: Italy-Kenya Agreement for the Malindi Base Renewed’,
Research Italy, 2016. https://www.researchitaly.it/en/news/space-italy-kenya-agreement-for-the-
malindi-base-renewed/ [accessed 21 March 2017].
31
Gabriel Lafferranderie and Daphné Crowther, Outlook on Space Law Over the Next 30 Years,
1997. http://books.google.co.za/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Pvsv78xj7UIC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=
vehicle+dynamics+theory+and+applications&ots=1oyxhNjGlq&sig=nVYNjsRoKJ4DUNz00u97Rqig0Lo.
32
Owaahh, ‘The Space Center Kenya Doesn’t Own’, 2016. http://owaahh.com/space-center-
kenya-doesnt/ [accessed 21 March 2017].
8 Kenya 165
Fig. 8.1 The San Marco launch platform of the Broglio Space Centre, just before and during the
launch of the Scout rocket carrying the Ariel V, October 1974 (NASA)
recording satellite, remote sensing and x-ray astronomy data.33 The sea segment
that was built from an old oil rig has fallen in disrepair, but the ground station has
continued to track and communicate with satellites (Fig 8.1).
Before the renewing of the agreement, a ministry-wide committee published a
report on the preceding situation around the space centre. They found that the centre
had been underutilized and not been of great service to Kenyans, due to the lack of
information sharing and unilateral relationship with Italy. The placing of space
activities under the opaque Ministry of Defence would also have contributed to the
lack of access to information by civilians. Furthermore, the lack of a legal space
framework slowed the country’s space science application and the development of
the space policy was too slow.34
In 2016, an equal-footed agreement between Kenya and Italy for responsibility
of the space centre has been set up. This action suggests the revitalizing of Kenyan
space activities and will definitely have positive consequences for the capacity
building in the country.
8.4.2 Space Applications
The main space infrastructure in Kenya at the moment is the Italian Space Agency
and ESA owned Malindi-Broglio Tracking, Telemetry and Command, which is
33
Muturi, ‘Space Education and Capacity Building for Sustainable Development’, 2005,
Kitakyushu City. Available:. http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/activities/2005/japan/
presentations/P_Muturi.pdf/ [accessed 4 April 2017].
34
Joint Committee, ‘How the Italian Government Has Duped Kenya, Continues to Make a Kill
from the San Marco Space Apllication Centre in Malindi as Locals Get a Raw Deal’, 2012. http://
www.cofek.co.ke/index.php/news-and-media/561-how-the-italian-government-has-duped-kenya-
continues-to-make-a-kill-from-the-san-marco-space-application-centre-in-malindi-as-locals-get-a-
raw-deal?showall=1 [accessed 21 March 2017].
166 B. Martens
continually being upgraded. Its original purpose was launch and satellite support,
but after 1988 it has been used for satellite tracking, data acquisition and has also
served as an experience builder for Kenyans.35
The 1KUNS 1U CubeSat is Kenya’s first satellite. It was launched in April 2018
from the Japanese Kibo-module from the ISS, and has an expected lifespan of
between 12 and 18 months.36 The missions of the project that was supported by the
United Nations and Japan were to build capacity in Kenya’s aerospace sector, test
in-house developed and commercial technology, and Earth observation. It was
developed by the University of Nairobi and the Italian Sapienza University, the
latter providing technical support during development and the former operating it
during its lifetime.
In 2008, SERVIR set up a hub in Nairobi. The joint venture between NASA and
the US Agency for International Development is active in earth observation, pro-
viding data and models to support sustainable development and counter droughts,
floods and other natural disasters. The organization cooperates with the regional
RCMRD and provides training and data management.37
There are also a few earth observation ground stations to be found in Kenya.
Among them is the Longonot Earth Station. It is a complex with large parabolic
antennae and is Africa’s first telecommunications satellite port, starting operations
in 1970.38
Although it is not purely a space application, the National Optic Fibre Backbone
project (NOFBI) carries out the same functions as a high speed communication
satellite network would. To date, thousands of kilometers of cable have been laid to
connect all counties of Kenya.39 The project substitutes and complements satellites
to connect the whole country. In the context of space applications, this infras-
tructure could serve as a basis for the distribution of myriad of information-based
services, such as the decentralized application of earth observation data.
8.4.3 Planned Space Applications
The African Resource Management Constellation (ARMC) is a 2009 project cur-

rently being developed by Kenya, South Africa, Nigeria and Algeria. It is an AU
sponsored Microsat earth observation constellation that is set up to monitor
35
Mwangudza, Nyawade, and Kimani; ‘ESOC GNSS Station at Malindi (MAL2)’, ESA. http://
navigation-office.esa.int/activities/network/malindi/ [accessed 21 March 2017].
36
‘Spaienza Collaborates on First Kenyan Satellite’, Sapienza Universita Di Roma, 2016. http://en.
uniroma1.it/notizie/sapienza-collaborates-first-kenyan-satellite [accessed 21 March 2017].
37
‘SERVIR-Eastern and Southern Africa’, NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/servir/
africa.html [accessed 21 March 2017].
38
Morris Kiruga, ‘Teleport at Longonot the First in East Africa’, Daily Nation, 2013. http://mobile.
nation.co.ke/lifestyle/Teleport-at-Longonot-the-first-in-EA/1950774-1959092-format-xhtml-
ulhcnwz/index.html [accessed 21 March 2017].
39
‘National Optic Fibre Backbone (NOFBI)’, ICT Autority. http://icta.go.ke/national-optic-fibre-
backbone-nofbi/ [accessed 21 March 2017].
8 Kenya 167
agriculture, water use, forestry and the environment for the whole of Africa. The
Algerian, Nigerian and Angolan systems have already been implemented.40
The Square Kilometer Array (SKA) will be the largest radio telescope system on
the planet. The Kenyan node, expected to be constructed by 2020, will cost Ksh
170 billion and is funded by foreign countries. Kenya provides land, its fibre optic
infrastructure and labor.41 Because of Kenya’s fibre optic network, some satellite
dishes in the country have become obsolete and are now being repurposed for the
SKA.
8.5 Conclusion
Kenya has signed two of the first five United Nations Treaties on Outer Space and
has adopted them by accession relatively early in the space age. This is likely done
to provide a framework for international cooperation, allowing the country to
exploit its advantageous geographic location and to stimulate socio-economic
growth. Kenya also participates in some other space associated agreements and
contributes to the development of the African Space Policy and Strategy.
Since 1983, there have been discussions about establishing a national space
centre and have been intertwined with the formulation of a national space policy
and strategy, but this never materialized. Recently, the political will for a Kenyan
space program has rekindled. Since 2013, a Space Secretariat and the Kenyan Space
Agency Board have been set up, the establishment of a space program is on the
political agenda and legislative and regulatory preparations are being made to
handle space activities. Meanwhile, universities and other international collabora-
tive institutions are developing the intellectual mass required to support and
advance to an active Kenyan space sector. Although the developments are slow, the
consensus is that this has almost reached its critical level to transition into the next
step.
Like most African countries, the technical and scientific contribution of Kenya to
the global space industry has been very small. In the context of the African con-
tinent, Kenya has had a long history in space activities due to the aspirations of Italy
and the United States, manifested around the Broglio Space Centre. This rela-
tionship has always been practically unilateral and based on their geographic
location, but unlike other countries in the region it has provided them with a chance
to participate in space activities. Recently, a new agreement between Kenya and
Italy has been made, with an emphasis on mutual benefit and support of the Kenyan
space sector. In addition, Kenya has launched its first satellite in 2018—a 1U
40
‘South Africa Targets New Satellites’, Brand South Africa, 2011. https://www.brandsouthafrica.
com/investments-immigration/science-technology/satellite-071011 [accessed 21 March 2017].
41
Joyce Lutomia, ‘Kenya to Host the Largest Radio Telescope Meeting in the World’, Kenya News
Agency, 2014. http://kenyanewsagency.go.ke/en/kenya-to-host-the-largest-radio-telescope-
meeting-in-the-world/ [accessed 21 March 2017].
168 B. Martens
CubeSat named 1KUNS. It is aimed to build capacity, prove technology, and Earth
observation.
There are a number of challenges that Kenya faces in the development of an
active space sector, such as a lack of financial resources, technical knowledge,
existing high-tech industry and public and political awareness and motivation.
However, these hurdles are slowly decreasing in height due to the governmental,
institutional and international collaborative efforts in Kenya. The establishment of
the Kenyan space policy and program is now a matter of years, not decades, and it
will herald the pan-African participation in space.
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Applications 6, 135–138 (1995). http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1995UNPSA…6..135O
31. Owaahh.: The Space Center Kenya Doesn’t Own. http://owaahh.com/space-center-kenya-
doesnt/ (2016). Accessed 21 Mar 2017
32. Postgraduate Courses.: Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology. http://
www.jkuat.ac.ke/postgraduate-courses/. Accessed 21 Mar 2017
33. Prevention of Outer Space Arms Race, Mediterranean Security Among Issues, As
Disarmament Committee Approves Seven More Texts. United Nations (2005)
34. Rana, A.A.: Address By H. E. Dr. Kipkorir Aly Azad Rana, Ambassador Permanent
Representative of Kenya. Vienna. http://www.un.org/events/unispace3/speeches/21ken.htm
35. SERVIR-Eastern and Southern Africa.: NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/servir/
africa.html. Accessed 21 Mar 2017
170 B. Martens
36. South Africa targets new satellites.: Brand South Africa. https://www.brandsouthafrica.com/
investments-immigration/science-technology/satellite-071011 (2011). Accessed 21 Mar 2017
37. Spaienza Collaborates on First Kenyan Satellite.: Sapienza Università di Roma. http://en.
uniroma1.it/notizie/sapienza-collaborates-first-kenyan-satellite (2016). Accessed 21 Mar 2017
38. Treaty banning nuclear weapon tests in the atmosphere.: Kenya Law. http://kenyalaw.org/
treaties/treaties/177/Treaty-Banning-Nuclear-Weapon-Tests-in-the-Atmosphere. Accessed 21
Mar 2017
39. UNOOSA.: Treaties. http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/treaties/treaty-status-search.jspx?view=
list& (2017). Accessed 21 Mar 2017
40. UNOOSA.: United Nations Treaties and Principles on Outer Space. http://www.unoosa.org/
pdf/publications/st_space_11rev2E.pdf (2008)
41. Weigel, A., Wood, D.: The Evolution of Satellite Programs in Developing Countries,
pp. 1–15. http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/bsti/ISU-SSP2011/Wood_IAC_2009_
Satellite_Programs.pdf (2009). Accessed 27 Apr 2017
Author Biography
Bas Martens is a 25 year old mechanical engineer from the Netherlands. He completed his
Bachelor in Engineering, Design and Innovation at the University of Applied Sciences of
Amsterdam where he graduated on spin-stabilized magnetic levitation. He did his MPhil in Space
Studies at the University of Cape Town where he is graduating on the design, verification and
optimization of a spacecraft attitude actuator based on the angular momentum of a fluid. He is
currently working as an engineer in precision mechanics in the Netherlands.
Morocco
9
André Siebrits
Abstract
Morocco is one of the leading emerging space actors in North Africa, with three
satellites placed in orbit since 2001. Two of these, the pair of Mohammed VI
satellites, were launched since 2017 to strengthen the country’s Earth
observation efforts. Morocco has also historically been one of the most active
African states in the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer
Space and is the only one thus far on the continent to ratify all five core outer
space treaties. This chapter will explore the background and context in which
these space activities are taking place, the regulatory and policy aspects of core
concern for the space sector, the Royal Centre for Remote Sensing and national
space activities and infrastructure, as well as vital international relationships in
relation to space. The analysis reveals that Morocco has a clear and robust space
posture that focuses on remote sensing in particular to support national
development objectives, and a clear upward trajectory is visible as the country
ramps up its space-related capabilities and involvement.
This chapter provides an overview of the space activities, and the attendant legal
and policy aspects, of the Kingdom of Morocco. As with Algeria, the focus will be
placed on identifying whether Morocco presents a specific approach, or posture,
towards space, and how it is positioning itself internationally in the space arena. To
this end, the chapter is divided into six main sections. First, the broad background
and context of the country—the backdrop against which space activities take place,
informing and shaping space activities and policies—will be presented. Second, the
regulatory and policy aspects concerning outer space will be discussed in both
international and domestic settings. This is followed, third, by delving into the
leading national space entity, the Royal Centre for Remote Sensing (CRTS).
A. Siebrits (&)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05980-4_9
172 A. Siebrits
The fourth section is dedicated to an analysis of the country’s space activities and
infrastructure, followed by Morocco’s space partnerships and international coop-
eration, fifth. Finally, the findings and conclusion are presented.
It is beneficial to begin the analysis of Morocco’s space activities by reviewing the

particular background and context of the country, through its geography, demo-
graphics, main developmental challenges, and history. The country is situated in the
Maghreb region of Northern Africa with a 1835-km coastline along the Mediter-
ranean and the North Atlantic.1 Morocco shares a 1900-km land border with
Algeria to the east, 18.5 km of land borders with various Spanish exclaves to the
north, while the disputed territory of Western Sahara lies to the south.2 The latter
has been “virtually annexed” by Morocco since the 1970s, but the final status of the
territory has not been determined.3 This is particularly the case since the Sahrawi
Arab Democratic Republic is a member of the African Union.4
The terrain of Morocco is characterised by a mountainous northern coastal
region and interior (marked by the Rif and Atlas Mountains) with vast plateaus and
intermontane valleys, as well as fertile coastal plains.5 The climate is Mediterranean
but harsher towards the interior, and most of the 34.3 million Moroccans are
concentrated along the coast, with scattered “densely populated agglomerations”
throughout the Atlas Mountains.6 Much of the population (42.3%) is under the age
of 24, with a total of 62.5% being urbanised.7 A variety of natural and environ-
mental hazards confront the country, including geologically unstable northern
mountains and consequent earthquakes, droughts, flash floods, landslides, deserti-
fication and land degradation including soil erosion, and water and soil pollution.8
Morocco was ranked 123rd in the 2018 United Nations Development Programme
Human Development Index (10 places behind South Africa at 113th, in the Med-
ium Human Development Category).9 As with Algeria, space technologies can play
a critical role in the development of Morocco, especially given its vast interior
spaces (the country has a total land area of 446,550 km2, roughly the size of
1
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), “The World Factbook: Morocco,” 2019, https://www.cia.gov/
library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mo.html (accessed January 21, 2019).
2
Ibid.
3
CountryWatch, “Morocco: Country Review,” 2019, http://www.countrywatch.com/Intelligence/
CountryReviews?CountryID=119 (accessed January 21, 2019).
4
African Union Commission, “Member State Profiles,” 2019, https://au.int/memberstates
5
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), “The World Factbook: Morocco.”
6
Ibid.
7
Ibid.
8
Ibid.
9
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), “2018 Statistical Update,” 2018, http://hdr.
undp.org/en/2018-update (accessed February 21, 2019).
9 Morocco 173
Sweden or Uzbekistan) and in the context of its particular challenges (including

political challenges vis-à-vis Western Sahara). As will be discussed below, the
country has recognised the potential of space technologies and has been making
strides in this regard.
Morocco was governed by France for much of the 20th century as a protectorate
(established in 1912 following the treaty of Fez).10 This followed decades of
growing Spanish and French influence over Morocco in the 19th century, and it was
only in 1956 that the country regained its independence, although Spain maintains
control of its (disputed) exclaves of Ceuta, Melilla, and Peñón de Vélez de la
Gomera, along with several small islands, which are all claimed by Morocco.11
Apart from this ongoing dispute with Spain, the country also faces a series of
security and political risks, including Jihadist activity which “focuses on small,
independent cells with few members, organised around charismatic individuals who
will likely draw on returning jihadist fighters from Iraq and Syria”, as well as the
ongoing dispute over Western Sahara.12 In the case of the latter, while the United
Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO) has been
operating since 1991 to stabilise the region, “infrequent and limited skirmishes
involving small-arms fire [remain] probable along the border” between Morocco
and the POLISARIO Front (Frente Popular de Liberación de Saguía el Hamra y
Río de Oro) of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic.13 Further complicating
regional relations is the support of the POLISARIO Front by Algeria, although both
Morocco and Algeria “have made continuous efforts to avoid major escalations that
would lead to direct military confrontation”.14 Since 1994, the border between
Morocco and Algeria has remained closed, with both “building more barriers”.15
This has resulted in strongly negative economic consequences—with The Econo-
mist noting that if the countries had pursued their goal of creating an economic
union along with Tunisia, Libya, and Mauritania in 1989, “[t]heir poor border
regions would be booming crossroads”, and “[o]ver the decade to 2015, reckons the
World Bank, their two economies would each have almost have doubled in size”.16
Given this background and context, the next section will consider Morocco’s
regulatory and policy aspects concerning outer space.
10
British Broadcasting Corporation, “Morocco profile—Timeline,” April 24, 2018, https://www.
bbc.com/news/world-africa-14123260 (accessed January 21, 2019).
11
Jamie Trinidad, “An Evaluation of Morocco’s Claims to Spain’s Remaining Territories in
Africa,” The International and Comparative Law Quarterly 61, no. 4 (2012): 961–975.
12
Morocco Country Monitor, “Country Reports—Morocco,” HIS Markit, December 28, 2018, 3,
http://web.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.uct.ac.za/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=2&sid=d5b90b49-
bf30-402e-826a-c1ce9d1cca00%40sessionmgr104 (accessed January 21, 2019).
13
Ibid.
14
Djallil Lounnas and Nizar Messar, “Algeria–Morocco Relations and their Impact on the
Maghrebi Regional System,” MENARA Working Papers No. 20, October, 2018, 2, http://www.iai.
it/sites/default/files/menara_wp_20.pdf (accessed January 21, 2019).
15
Marsa Ben Mhidi, “Open Sesame: Morocco and Algeria keep building more barriers,” The
Economist, July 27, 2017, https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2017/07/27/
morocco-and-algeria-keep-building-more-barriers (accessed January 21, 2019).
16
Ibid.
174 A. Siebrits
9.2 Morocco’s Regulatory and Policy Aspects Concerning

Outer Space
This section is dedicated to an analysis of Morocco’s outer space regulation and

policy. It is organised into two subsections—international and domestic. The first
details Morocco’s status in terms of international treaties on outer space, and its
level of involvement in international fora (further details of specific international
agreements related to space will be provided in a later section, under partnerships).
The second focuses on Morocco’s domestic legislation, space policy, and political
pronouncements. This will also highlight the specific institutions in the country that
are involved in outer space activities.
9.2.1 UN Treaties on Outer Space, and Moroccan

Involvement in International Fora
Morocco was among the first African states to join the United Nations Committee
on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS), having done so in 1961 during
the third expansion of the organisation (only Egypt had joined earlier).17 It has also
been an active participant of the committee and its subsidiaries since 1992.18 As of
1 January 2018, Morocco is one of the few countries to have ratified/acceded to all
five core United Nations outer space treaties19—the 1967 Outer Space Treaty (in
196720), the 1968 Rescue Agreement (in 197021), the 1972 Liability Convention (in
198322), the 1975 Registration Convention (in 201223), and the 1979 Moon
17
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), “Committee on the Peaceful Uses of
Outer Space: Membership Evolution,” 2019, http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/
members/evolution.html (accessed January 21, 2019).
18
Riffi Temsamani, “Space Activities and Space Law situation in Africa,” Royal Center for Remote
Sensing, 2017, 18, https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=1&
cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjU5smfrp7gAhXHAGMBHWhBDLUQFjAAegQIAhAC&url=
%3A%2F%2Fwwwfr.uni.lu%2Fcontent%2Fdownload%2F100990%2F1212682%2Ffile%2FRiffi
%2520-Space%2520Activities%2520and%2520Space%2520Law%2520in%2520Africa.
pdf&usg=AOvVaw1rIJAr2Ppjmen3xNg5TBOt (accessed February 3, 2019).
19
relating to activities in outer space as at 1 January 2018,” 2018, 7, http://www.unoosa.org/
documents/pdf/spacelaw/treatystatus/AC105_C2_2018_CRP03E.pdf (accessed January 21, 2019).
20
United Nations Treaty Collection, “Treaty on principles governing the activities of States in the
exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies,” https://treaties.
un.org/pages/showDetails.aspx?objid=0800000280128cbd (accessed January 23, 2019).
21
United Nations Treaty Collection, “Agreement on the rescue of astronauts, the return of
astronauts and the return of objects launched into outer space,” https://treaties.un.org/pages/
showDetails.aspx?objid=080000028012504f (accessed January 23, 2019).
22
United States State Department, “Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by
Space Objects,” https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/81127.pdf (accessed January 23,
2019).
23
United Nations Treaty Collection, “Outer Space: Convention on registration of objects launched
into outer space,” https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetailsIII.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=
XXIV-1&chapter=24&Temp=mtdsg3&clang=_en (accessed January 23, 2019).
9 Morocco 175
Agreement (in 199324). In addition, Morocco has ratified/acceded to the 1963

Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and
under Water, the 1974 Convention Relating to the Distribution of
Programme-Carrying Signals Transmitted by Satellite, the 1971 Agreement
Relating to the International Telecommunications Satellite Organisation (ITSO), the
1976 Agreement of the Arab Corporation for Space Communications (ARABSAT),
and the 1976 Convention on the International Mobile Satellite Organisation.25 This
makes Morocco one of the most actively involved African space actors, with a
strong focus on participating in international space legislation and dialogue. Mor-
occo has also provided input into the debates surrounding national legislation and
practices relating to the definition and delimitation of outer space, and in this
regard, the country’s official position is that
The communication by member States of information on national legislation or any
national practices that exist or are being developed relating directly or indirectly to the
definition and delimitation of outer space will undoubtedly facilitate the progress of the
Legal Subcommittee and its Working Group in their various areas of work, particularly
with regard to the definition and delimitation of outer space.26
Thus, while the country has not yet committed to a position regarding the
definition and delimitation of outer space, its stance is one of favouring and pro-
moting dialogue and cooperation.
Another avenue for such cooperation is the hosting of a United Nations-affiliated
Regional Centre for Space Science and Technology Education. Two of these
centres operate in Africa, and while Nigeria hosts the English language centre,
Morocco hosts the French language centre—Le Centre Régional Africain des
Sciences et Technologies de l’Espace en Langue Français (CRASTE-LF).27 Hav-
ing been established in 1998 with the participation of 11 African countries,
CRASTE-LF is based at the Mohammadia School of Engineers of Mohammed V
University in Rabat and operates as a research and training institution.28 The centre
is also supported by other Moroccan institutions, including the Royal Centre for
Remote Sensing (CRTS), the Veterinary Agronomic Institute Hassan II, the
National Institute of Posts and Space Telecommunications, and the Directorate of
24
United Nations Treaty Collection, “Outer Space: Agreement governing the Activities of States
on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies,” https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=
IND&mtdsg_no=XXIV-2&chapter=24&clang=_en (accessed January 23, 2019).
25
relating to activities in outer space as at 1 January 2018,” 7.
26
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), “National legislation and practice
relating to definition and delimitation of outer space,” January 27, 2006, http://www.unoosa.org/
pdf/reports/ac105/AC105_865E.pdf (accessed January 21, 2019).
27
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), “Regional Centres for Space Science
and Technology Education (affiliated to the United Nations),” 2019, http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/
en/ourwork/psa/regional-centres/index.html (accessed February 3, 2019).
28
Le Centre Régional Africain des Sciences et Technologies de l’Espace en Langue Français
(CRASTE-LF), “Création,” 2019, http://www.crastelf.org.ma/index.php/2016-02-29-09-08-40/
historique (accessed February 3, 2019). Translated from French.
176 A. Siebrits
National Meteorology.29 The CRTS also acts as a national focal point, nominated
by the government, to represent the country’s disaster management and space
applications communities in the United Nations Platform for Space-based Infor-
mation for Disaster Management and Emergency Response (UN-SPIDER) net-
work.30 It is only one of 15 African countries with such a national focal point for
UN-SPIDER. This reflects Morocco’s commitment to utilising space for disaster
response. UN-SPIDER is a
gateway to space information for disaster management support, by serving as a bridge to
connect the disaster management, risk management and space communities and by being a
facilitator of capacity-building and institutional strengthening, in particular for developing
countries.31
The CRTS is also party to the Regional Centre for Remote Sensing of North
Africa States (CRTEAN), based in Tunisia, which was founded in 1990 to
encourage member institutions to “[u]s[e] remote sensing techniques and upstream
systems in the areas of sustainable development and scientific research”, as well as
to support technology transfer and capacity building.32 The CRTS’ active part-
nership with CRTEAN and UN-SPIDER, and Morocco’s hosting of CRASTE-LF
to serve Francophone Africa situates the country as an important UN partner on the
continent and reflects the country’s commitment to pursuing space activities in
service to remote sensing and disaster response.
9.2.2 Morocco’s Domestic Space Legislation, and Space

Policy
Since no country’s regulatory and policy aspects in the space arena can be analysed
adequately without reference to its legal system, it is worthwhile to investigate the
legal process in Morocco. Morocco’s legal system is evidence of its historical
position at the confluence of several cultural traditions. As such, the legal system
has been shaped by French Civil Law, as well as Muslim and Jewish traditions.33
The country adopted its new constitution after the ‘Arab Spring’ in 2011, and the
king remains an influential figure in that he presides over the Council of Ministers
29
Ibid.
30
UN-SPIDER Knowledge Portal, “National Focal Points,” United Nations Office for Outer Space
Affairs (UNOOSA), 2017, http://www.un-spider.org/network/national-focal-points (accessed
February 3, 2019).
31
UN-SPIDER Knowledge Portal, “What is UN-SPIDER?,” United Nations Office for Outer
Space Affairs (UNOOSA), 2017, http://www.un-spider.org/about/what-is-un-spider (accessed
February 3, 2019).
32
Centre Régional de Télédétection des Etats de l’Afrique du Nord (CRTEAN), “Presentation,”
2014, http://www.crtean.org.tn/en/index.php/the-center/presentation (accessed February 3, 2019).
33
Netty Butera and Kevashine Pillay, “UPDATE: Introduction to the Moroccan Legal System,”
Hauser Global Law School Program New York University School of Law, 2018, http://www.
nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Morocco1.html (accessed February 14, 2019).
9 Morocco 177
and the government is both accountable to the king and parliament.34 The king also
appoints the head of government (Prime Minister) who is also a member of the
Council of Ministers. Parliament, composed of the Chambers of Representatives
(Lower) and Counsellors (upper), holds legislative power and votes on laws. The
lower house is elected by popular vote every five years, while the members of the
upper house are “elected indirectly by local councils, professional organisations,
and labour unions for nine-year terms, with a third being renewed every three
years”.35 While it is reported that “the king [Mohammed VI] takes a less inter-
ventionist approach than his father, Hassan II, … policy formulation and imple-
mentation in Morocco is highly influenced by the king”, with “[r]oyal constraints
placed upon the agendas of official political parties [which] stymie policy change in
any direction not set by the king” facilitated by “the existence of the Makhzen, an
unofficial and non-elected political body that is appointed by the king and functions
as a second layer of the government”.36 As reported in December 2018, the focus of
the government on socio-economic priorities is set to remain for the foreseeable
future:
The Moroccan government will probably prioritise spending on social programmes as
urged by the king in public speeches in the past year, including at the symbolically
important Throne Day on 30 July 2018. The 2019 finance bill, which was adopted by the
parliament on 15 November 2018, places significant attention on these socio-economic
priorities, particularly education, healthcare, and infrastructure development. The focus on
socially orientated policy is most probably aimed at precluding the risk of intensifying
protests in the context of ongoing economically driven protests since 2017, to which the
king has already shown public responsiveness by dismissing government officials in 2017
and 2018.37
This bodes well for the country’s space sector given its role in supporting many
facets of Morocco’s socio-economic development as discussed in the next section.
While the country has not yet produced a space policy—it was reported in 2017 that
“Morocco is currently in the process of setting up a national space law”38—several
pieces of legislation are nevertheless relevant to the analysis in this chapter. The
first of these is the decree issued by the Prime Minister entitled Décret n°2-89-520
du 18 joumada I 1410 on the 18th of December 1989, which modified an earlier
Prime Ministerial decree (Décret n° 2-82-673 du 28 rebia I 1403) of 13 January
1983 regarding the organisation of the administration of national defence. The
decree of 1989 established the Royal Centre for Remote Sensing (CRTS), which
has since been the “main national space entity”.39 It was stipulated that the CRTS
would be “responsible to promote and coordinate the importing, exporting, treat-
ment, the sale of product uses and services under all their forms with the exception
34
Ibid.
35
Morocco Country Monitor, “Country Reports—Morocco,” 26.
36
Morocco Country Monitor, “Country Reports—Morocco,” 5.
37
Ibid.
38
Temsamani, “Space Activities and Space Law situation in Africa,” 18.
39
Space Generation Advisory Council, “Morocco,” 2019, https://spacegeneration.org/regions/
africa/morocco (accessed February 14, 2019).
178 A. Siebrits
of meteorological satellite images, detection techniques by satellite on the territory

of the Kingdom and to preserve it”.40 This established the CRTS as the “national
institution responsible for the use, promotion and development of remote sensing in
Morocco”, being responsible for “coordinating and managing the national remote
sensing programs in partnership with ministries, universities and private opera-
tors”.41 Five particular mandates were assigned to the CRTS by this decree, as listed
in Table 9.1.
Based on the abovementioned decree, the CRTS falls under the jurisdiction of
the Ministry of Defence. This point will become important in the discussion of
Moroccan satellites later in this chapter.
Another noteworthy policy document of interest to the space sector is the
Industrial Acceleration Plan 2014–2020, which introduced targeted sectoral
strategies and placed “openness and progress” at the heart of the Kingdom’s
development plans.42 Three pillars have been identified as underlying the plan,
namely (i) institutional, political, and macroeconomic stability, (ii) proximity,
competitiveness and easy access to markets, and (iii) massive infrastructural
development. A core facet of the plan relies on Small and Medium Enter-
prises (SMEs), and it is recognised that “only a network of efficient, innovative and
responsive industrial SMEs can increase the competitiveness of the Nation and help
absorb new entrants into the labour market”.43 Morocco has also worked to position
itself as a gateway into Africa for Europe, and accordingly, it “has therefore decided
to position itself as a regional hub and platform-relay to Africa”, which “can have
an important impact especially for the strategies of European companies” because
“access to the African market from Europe is costly and difficult in terms of
logistics, labor costs and capital, and Morocco can therefore be used by these
operators as a platform for development towards the continent”.44 Apart from
stronger international positioning, two other main categories or classes of metrics
are identified for the Industrial Acceleration Plan 2014–2020. The first of these
works towards “reducing fragmentation of the sector and building a
better-integrated industry”, to set up “industrial ecosystems with a mission of
creating new dynamics and a new type of relationship between large groups and
40
Bulletin Officiel N° 4029 du 19 joumada II 1410, “Décret n°2-89-520 du 18 joumada I 1410 (18
décembre 1989),” Centre Royal de Télédétection Spatiale (CRTS), https://www.crts.gov.ma/sites/
default/files/docs/DECRETCRTS.pdf (accessed February 14, 2019). Translated from French.
41
FORNET, “Royal Center for Space Remote Sensing CRTS,” 2016, https://www.fornetmaroc.
com/en/achievements/royal-center-space-remote-sensing-crts (accessed February 14, 2019).
42
Ministere de I’lndustrie, de I’lnvestissement, du Commerce et de I’Economie Numerique,
“Industrial Acceleration Plan 2014–2020,” Royaume du Maroc, 2019, http://www.mcinet.gov.ma/
en/content/industrial-acceleration-plan-2014-2020 (accessed February 14, 2019).
43
Mohammed Bouhdoud, “La PME, au cœur de la nouvelle stratégie de développement industriel
marocain,” TheHuffingtonPost International, 19 April 2014, http://www.huffpostmaghreb.com/
mamoune-bouhdoud/la-pme-au-cur-de-la-nouve_b_5174906.html (accessed February 14, 2019).
Translated from French.
44
Ibid.
9 Morocco 179
Table 9.1 Responsibilities (a) To identify, centralise, coordinate the needs of

of the Royal Centre for administrations or organisations dependent on remote sensing to
Remote Sensing (CRTS) as make grouped requests and consistent purchases of services and
per Prime Ministerial decreea to ensure its duplication;
(b) Import, acquire both at Morocco and abroad, keep,
duplicate, treat, distribute, sell or offer to the user the products
and services of remote sensing; imports of these products are
previously targeted by the director of remote sensing when they
do not concern public administrations. However, the thematic
treatment of products of remote sensing can be done by the
ministerial departments or organisations attached to them when
they have adequate means;
(c) Help and assist public or private users, in any form useful, in
order to enable them to make effective use of the products of the
remote sensing;
(d) To control the use of remote sensing products in order to
safeguard peaceful use consistent with the interests of the
Kingdom;
(e) Participate in the representation of the Kingdom of Morocco
abroad with international bodies under public law or private
sector concerned by the remote sensing techniques. The centre
is kept informed by concerned ministerial departments of
conclusions of the work of the international organisations
dealing with remote sensing issues. The number, attributions
and organisation of the divisions and services of the centre are
fixed by order of the governmental authority in charge of
national defence. The centre is entitled to sell, for a fee, the
products and services of remote sensing. It will be erected in
service managed autonomously in accordance with the current
regulations
a
Bulletin Officiel N° 4029 du 19 joumada II 1410, “Décret n°
2-89-520 du 18 joumada I 1410 (18 décembre 1989).” Translated
from French
SMEs”.45 The second is predicated on improving SME competitiveness, through

funding (“a state industrial investment fund (le Fonds de Développement Industriel
—FDI), with a budget of 20 billion dirhams, allows the industrial sector to con-
solidate, modernize, and develop its ability to replace imported products”),
financing (“[a]n integrated and competitive financing offer is implemented, under a
partnership agreement between the state and the banking sector, that is committed
to supporting industrial companies (competitive rates, support for restructuring and
internationalization, etc.) and to provide consultation and support necessary to
project leaders”), and industrial parks (“[r]egarding the preparation of industrial
land, 1000 hectares will be made available for industrial rental parks with turnkey
premises”).46
45
Ministere de l’lndustrie, de l’lnvestissement, du Commerce et de l’Economie Numerique,
“Industrial Acceleration Plan 2014–2020.”
46
Ibid.
180 A. Siebrits
More broadly, the country’s development is driven by the Morocco National

Sustainable Development Strategy (2017–2030), consisting of seven challenges
with 137 specific underlying development objectives.47 These seven main chal-
lenges are (i) consolidate the governance of sustainable development; (ii) succeed in
the transition towards a green economy; (iii) improve the management and devel-
opment of natural resources and strengthen biodiversity conservation; (iv) acceler-
ate the implementation of the national climate change policy; (v) give particular
attention to sensitive areas; (vi) promote human development and reduce social and
territorial inequalities; and (vii) promote a culture of sustainable development.48
While neither remote sensing nor the CRTS are mentioned in the strategy, it is not
difficult to see how space technology can assist in meeting these challenges, par-
ticularly challenges three and five (which includes areas such as improving sus-
tainable coastal management and preserving and enhancing oasis areas and desert
areas49). The alignment of the activities with these goals is explored further in the
next section.
Along with the CRTS, a second space dedicated institution exists in Morocco,
namely the Royal Centre for Space Studies and Research (CRERS). CRERS was
established in 2001 after the launch of the country’s first satellite, with the mandate
to develop Moroccan space technology.50 Like the CRTS, CRERS is a crucial
international partner in Morocco’s space endeavours. In comparison with Algeria,
Morocco has established Peter’s51 first category of governmental institutional
structures to support national space-related efforts in the form of the CRTS and
CRERS, as “agencies devoted more or less exclusively to space”, but has not yet
moved into the second category, “in which space affairs are directly handled by a
ministry … or by an interministerial entity … [of which a] dedicated national space
agency is now the most widespread institutional structure dealing with space
activities”. The next section will delve deeper into the CRTS.
47
Green Growth Knowledge Platform, “Morocco National Sustainable Development Strategy,”
2019, http://www.greengrowthknowledge.org/national-documents/morocco-national-sustainable-
development-strategy (accessed February 15, 2019).
48
Ibid.
49
Royaume de Maroc, “Stratégie Nationale de Développement Durable 2017–2030:
RAPPORT FINAL,” http://www.greengrowthknowledge.org/sites/default/files/downloads/policy-
database/Morocco_Sustainable_Development_Strategy.pdf (accessed February 15, 2019).
50
Riffi Temsamani, “Space activities and space policy in Africa, Social, economic and legal
aspects: Case of Morocco,” Centre Royal de Télédétection Spatiale, November 2017, 16, http://
www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/hlf/HLF2017/presentations/Day1/Session_2/Presentation8.pdf
51
N. Peter, “The Changing Geopolitics of Space Activities,” Space Policy 37, (2016): 146.
9 Morocco 181
9.3 The Royal Centre for Remote Sensing (CRTS)
As stated, despite Morocco’s early participation in UNCOPUOS, the CRTS was

only established in 1989 by decree and became fully operational by January 1990.52
As the primary national space entity, it is responsible for most space activities in the
country, while CRERS focuses on space technology development (further detailed
information on CRERS is scarce). As the responsibilities encapsulated in the 1989
decree (Table 9.1) showed, the core mandate of the CRTS is “to promote the
exploitation and development of remote sensing applications in Morocco”, and to
this end it “coordinates and realizes the national program in remote sensing in
collaboration with the ministerial departments, the private operators and the
Moroccan universities”.53 Apart from the “continuing training program in the field
of space techniques and participat[ion] in research programs and actions in part-
nership with national and foreign research institutions” driven by the CRTS, it also
manages the “acquisition, archiving and dissemination of data and images, the
observation of the Earth, the realization of projects and the development of
methodologies in Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems and related
fields”.54 As mentioned earlier, while the Morocco National Sustainable Devel-
opment Strategy makes no mention of space activities or remote sensing, the
activities of the CRTS are in alignment with the challenges identified. For example,
the CRTS “has implemented several projects integrating remote sensing and GIS to
meet the needs of users in terms of inventory and management of natural resources
and protection of the environment and land use planning” and these projects have
taken several forms, such as pilot projects, national development projects, study
contracts, and others.55 The main areas in which the CRTS has provided strategic
support for decision-makers are agriculture, forestry, land use including regional
planning and urban planning, coastal areas including oceanography and fisheries,
Geographic Information Management, and water resources including desertifica-
tion.56 In support of its work in these areas, the CRTS provides services such as the
distribution of satellite data, consultancy and technical assistance, design and
realisation of information systems, and training and technology transfer. A more
detailed breakdown of the CRTS’ activities is provided in Table 9.2.
While Morocco does not yet have a formal space program on par with Algeria, a
clear outline of a 30-year space programme is visible.57 This programme, identified
by Temsamani, consists of a series of progressive milestones namely: creating
52
Temsamani, “Space activities and space policy in Africa, Social, economic and legal aspects:
Case of Morocco,” 16.
53
Centre Royal de Télédétection Spatiale (CRTS), “Qui sommes nous,” 2019, https://www.crts.
gov.ma/le-crts/qui-sommes-nous (accessed February 15, 2019). Translated from French.
54
Ibid.
55
Centre Royal de Télédétection Spatiale (CRTS), “Domaines d’activité,” 2019, https://www.crts.
gov.ma/le-crts/domaines-activite (accessed February 15, 2019). Translated from French.
56
Ibid.
57
Temsamani, “Space activities and space policy in Africa, Social, economic and legal aspects:
Case of Morocco,” 25.
182 A. Siebrits
Table 9.2 Themes and services addressed by the Royal Centre for Remote Sensinga
Agriculture • The development of up-to-date land use maps at local or regional
scales with adapted nomenclatures
• Assessing the impacts of urbanisation on agricultural lands or
climate impacts such as drought or floods qualitatively and
quantitatively
• Developing forecasts for agricultural production at large scales
• Global monthly monitoring of crop status at national or regional
level
• The development of agricultural information system which offers
the possibility of having a geographical database: maps, surveys,
census, to optimise methods of collecting, processing, monitoring
and management of agricultural information
Forrest area • Mapping and forest inventory to locate and quantify forest stands
at the national, regional or local level
• Monitoring of forest areas and mapping of changes to quantify and
spatially locate the decline and/or reforestation in forests
• The prevention and monitoring of forest fires at the national level
• Local mapping of forest fires and damage assessment
Town and spatial • Urban mapping
planning • The evolution of urbanised spaces
• Monitoring of unhealthy housing
Oceanography • Characterisation and monitoring of the upwelling phenomenon
• The valorisation of areas favourable to aquaculture
• The cartography of the littoral zones
Water resources • Integrated water resources management (project with the Souss
Massa watershed agency under the TIGER initiative)
• Exploration of groundwater in fissured environments (joint SPOT
IMAGE/CRTS/DRPE study in the region of Guelmim)
Desertification • Projects for the definition of indicators for monitoring
desertification (LIFE and FORMA)
• Project for monitoring and management of drought (SMAS)
Natural risks and • Use of spatial techniques, through Earth observation satellites,
disasters telecommunication satellites and positioning satellites
• Guarantee rapid and optimal access to space resources in the event
of a crisis
Geographic • Design and implementation of organisations, the definition of
information system hardware and software configurations, training of users, getting
started and putting progressive systems into operation
Geospatial data and • Official distributor of SPOT, Landsat, ERS, NOAA, and other
information satellite images in Morocco
• Carries out research catalogues and studies for the choice of the
best satellite images adapted (date, zone, type)
• Guidance and research procedures are implemented in the form of
data acquisition sheets to assist users
Expertise and technical • Assembles and implements operational and user-specific
assistance applications: definition of needs, development of methodologies,
selection and acquisition of images, data processing, project
monitoring and evaluation
(continued)
9 Morocco 183
Table 9.2 (continued)

• A team of multidisciplinary specialists, in a specialised hardware
environment, works and develops new tools to best meet the
needs of users and to integrate the latest technological
developments
Training activities • Conducts training, awareness-raising and research activities to:
– Popularise the use of remote sensing and geographic information
systems
– Sensitise the decision-makers to the interest of these techniques
for the socio-economic development
– Create skill kernels in the different user departments of this
technology
– Encourage research and development in the different scientific
disciplines
– Demystify the notion of space for young people and interest them
in these techniques
a
Centre Royal de Télédétection Spatiale (CRTS), “Thématiques” and “Produits & Services,” 2019,
https://www.crts.gov.ma/ (accessed February 15, 2019). Translated from French
CRTS and CRERS, promoting the use of satellite data for decision-making,
value-added services proposal to support the user community, launch of the first
experimental Moroccan satellite in 2001, generalisation of the use of satellite data
and information systems for the socio-economic development of the country,
capacity-building in the field of space techniques, use of high resolution satellite
data by installing a SPOT receiving station, and the Earth observation satellite
launch project in 2017 and 2018.58 To this one can add Morocco’s international
involvement, including joining UNCOPUOS and establishing partnerships with
other countries. The next step in this evolution is the development of a national
space policy/law which, as mentioned earlier, is reported to be under development.
The next section will consider Morocco’s space activities and infrastructure.
9.4 Space Activities and Infrastructure
Three Moroccan satellites have been launched since 2001. The first of these was
Maroc-Tubsat (Zarkae Al Yamama), launched in 2001 as part of the cooperation
between the CRTS and the German Institute für Luft- und Raumfahrttechnik
(ILR) of the Technical University of Berlin (TUB).59 The TUBSAT program is
described as an “educational program including the design, manufacture, testing,
launching and operation of ‘microsatellites’ (<100 kg)”.60 The satellite was
58
Ibid.
59
eoPortal Directory, “TUBSAT (Technical University of Berlin Satellite) Program,” European
Space Agency, 2018, https://directory.eoportal.org/web/eoportal/satellite-missions/t/tubsat (ac-
cessed November 17, 2018).
60
Ibid.
184 A. Siebrits
launched from Russia’s Baikonur Cosmodrome and placed in a sun-synchronous

orbit, as part of a joint venture whereby the CRTS was responsible for payload
development and procuring launch services, while the ILR/TUB provided the
satellite bus.61 Maroc-Tubsat was controlled from CRTS and TUB ground stations,
and focused on both Earth observation and capacity building, with objectives being
“in Earth remote sensing (in particular with regard to vegetation detection at
medium-scale resolutions), and in the field of store-and-forward communications
for mobile localization … [with a] further goal … to develop attitude control
strategies for high-resolution Earth observations”.62 The imaging size was
approximately 190 km 144 km with a resolution of 250 m.
Morocco’s second satellite, named Mohammed VI-A, was built for the country
by Airbus Defence and Space and Thales Alenia Space of France, and was the first
of a pair of related satellites dedicated to “high-resolution optical reconnaissance”.63
It was launched in 2017, while the second of the pair, Mohammed VI-B, was
launched in 2018, both from Kourou, French Guiana, and both placed in
sun-synchronous orbits.64 The satellites can capture over 500 and up to 1000
images per day respectively. Their mission is to support “mapping and land sur-
veying activities, regional development, agricultural monitoring, the prevention and
management of natural disasters, monitoring changes in the environment and
desertification, as well as border and coastal surveillance”.65
This surveillance aspect, in particular, is a response to the regional political
tensions described earlier, with reports that “Moroccan security forces will use the
satellites to help combat insurgent militants in the Sahel, such as al-Qaeda in the
Islamic Maghreb, piracy in the Gulf of Guinea, and for border enforcement”.66
Concerning Algeria too, the pair of Mohammed VI satellites constitute “consid-
erable and unprecedented advances to Morocco in its deep-rooted regional rivalry
61
Ibid.
62
Ibid.
63
Gunter Dirk Krebs, “Mohammed VI A, B (MN35-13),” Gunter’s Space Page, December 11,
2017, https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/mohammed-6.htm (accessed November 20, 2018).
64
Observing Systems Capability Analysis and Review Tool (OSCAR), “Satellite: Mohammed
VI-A,” World Meteorological Organisation, February 22, 2018, https://www.wmo-sat.info/oscar/
satellites/view/736 (accessed November 20, 2018); Space in Africa, “Morocco’s Satellite
Mohammed VI-A is Changing North African Regional Power Balance,” Africa Space News,
May 10, 2018, https://africanews.space/moroccos-satellite-mohammed-vi-a-is-changing-north-
african-regional-power-balance/ (accessed November 20, 2018); Observing Systems Capability
Analysis and Review Tool (OSCAR), “Satellite: Mohammed VI-B,” World Meteorological
Organisation, November 9, 2018, https://www.wmo-sat.info/oscar/satellites/view/737 (accessed
November 20, 2018); Ahlam Ben Saga, “First Photos of Mohammed VI-B Satellite Installation
Emerge Before Launch,” Morocco World News, November 19, 2018, https://www.
moroccoworldnews.com/2018/11/258154/photos-mohammed-vi-b-satellite-installation/ (accessed
November 20, 2018).
65
Krebs, “Mohammed VI A, B (MN35-13).”
66
Stephen Clark, “Morocco’s first high-resolution surveillance satellite launched aboard Vega
rocket,” Spaceflight Now/Pole Star Publications Ltd, November 8, 2017, https://spaceflightnow.
com/2017/11/08/moroccos-first-high-resolution-surveillance-satellite-launched-aboard-vega-
rocket/ (accessed November 20, 2018).
9 Morocco 185
with Algiers”,67 but likewise “could accelerate Spain’s work on its SeoSat/Ingenio
optical Earth-observation satellite, which is expected to launch in late 2019 or early
2020”.68 This follows the Perejil Island crisis of 2002, “when Spain could not
acquire satellite images of the island following reports of its occupation by the
Moroccan Navy”.69 These regional political and security factors are thus strong
drivers of Morocco’s satellite efforts, in addition to high-resolution Earth obser-
vation, but do have the potential to exacerbate “regional tension and regional space
race with neighbouring Algeria and Spain”, especially since—as a dual
civil/military system—these satellites help “Morocco to obtain detailed information
on military installations and troop movements in Spain and Algeria, as well as spy
on the Western Sahara separatist group Polisario Front”.70
Moreover, these advanced satellites did not come cheap, and Mohammed VI-A
alone reportedly cost $500 million.71 Euroconsult reported that in 2016 total gov-
ernment expenditure on space in Morocco was $73 million, second only to Algeria
in Africa.72 Nevertheless, these space investments serve a critical purpose, since
“space imagery operated from Morocco is playing a key role in the implementation
of national strategies for the socio-economic development of the country especially
on those relating to the agricultural sector—an important part of the Moroccan
economy”.73 The services provided by the CRTS as detailed earlier are also of
critical importance to the country’s development plans.
In terms of Morocco’s space sector infrastructure, as was mentioned above, the
country has installed a SPOT receiving station, and it was reported in 2011 that
three satellite ground stations existed, namely the Mohammed V station at Rabat,
and two stations at Laayoune and Dakhla respectively.74 Presumably, the
Mohammed V ground station in Rabat is the same used by CRTS to control the first
Moroccan satellite as reported by Oyewole.75 Additionally, the Oukaïmeden
67
Space in Africa, “Morocco’s Satellite Mohammed VI-A is Changing North African Regional
Power Balance,” Africa Space News, May 10, 2018, https://africanews.space/moroccos-satellite-
mohammed-vi-a-is-changing-north-african-regional-power-balance/ (accessed November 20,
2018).
68
Jaroslaw Adamowski, “Morocco satellite launch could accelerate Spanish space efforts,”
Spacenews, January 5, 2018, https://spacenews.com/morocco-satellite-launch-could-accelerate-
spanish-space-efforts/ (accessed February 15, 2019).
69
Ibid.
70
Shaul Shay, “Morocco Seeks Space Edge over Algeria and Spain,” Israel Defense, February 7,
2018, https://www.israeldefense.co.il/en/node/32980 (accessed November 20, 2018).
71
Space in Africa, “Over $3 billion have been spent on space projects in Africa since 1998,” May
11, 2018, https://africanews.space/over-3-billion-have-been-spent-on-space-projects-in-africa-
since-1998/ (accessed February 15, 2019).
72
Euroconsult, “Government Spending in Space Programs Reaches $62 Billion in 2016,” May 30,
2017, http://euroconsult-ec.com/30_May_2017 (accessed July 5, 2018).
73
Space in Africa, “Overview of the Morocco Space Industry,” May 6, 2018, https://africanews.
space/overview-of-the-morocco-space-industry/ (accessed November 20, 2018).
74
GlobalSecurity.org, “Morocco and Communication Satellite Systems,” 2011, https://www.
globalsecurity.org/space/world/morocco/comm.htm (accessed February 15, 2019).
75
S. Oyewole, “Space Research and Development in Africa,” Astropolitics 15, no. 2 (2017): 190–
192.
186 A. Siebrits
Observatory (0.50 m telescope), located in the Atlas Mountains at an elevation of

2750 m,76 was inaugurated in 2007 and is operated by the Cadi Ayyad Univer-
sity.77 In 2011, a partnership was established by the Laboratoire de Physique des
Hautes Energies et d’Astrophysique (Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech), the
Société jurassienne d’astronomie (Switzerland), and a French amateur astronomer
(Claudine Rinner) to collaborate on the project, and to this end the observatory
building was supplied by Cadi Ayyad University, the 3.2 m dome by the Société
jurassienne d’astronomie, and the 0.50 m F/D = 3.0 telescope by Claudine Rin-
ner.78 Sponsors include the Schoch Foundation (Zurich), the Commission Romande
de Physique (Switzerland), the Edgar Wilson Charitable Trust Fund (SAO, Boston),
and the Planetary Society (California, USA).
At the observatory, the Morocco Oukaïmeden Sky Survey (MOSS), operated by
a team of international amateur astronomers, is studying small solar system bodies
with “more than 1000 asteroids [discovered] during the period … 2011–2017”.79
While MOSS is remotely operated from Switzerland and France, it has made
important discoveries including “4 comets and 5 asteroids, and sent more than 1
million small body observations to the Minor Planet Center, a NASA-funded
clearinghouse for small solar system objects”.80 MOSS was also the first to discover
the potentially hazardous binary asteroids ‘2017 YE5’.81
In addition to the Oukaïmeden Observatory, a private observatory on the edge of
the Sahara named SaharaSky has also been established, “installed atop [a] hotel
building on an area of 400 m2 providing with a full panoramic 360° view” with “a
rich inventory of telescopes and a complete set of accessories, including
Schmidt-Cassegrain and Ritchey Chretien telescopes with up to 16 inches
(400 mm) aperture and the finest eyepieces”.82 This offers the potential to develop
astronomy tourism in Morocco, especially since it is situated in a Dark Sky Zone.
On other fronts too, Morocco has been making steady progress. Its aerospace
industry dates back to the 1950s, and between 2000 and 2015, “more than 110
companies operating in aerospace industry established themselves in Morocco,
employing 11,000 qualified employees”, fostered by a “dedicated industrial zone,
The Aeropole—next to Casablanca International Airport which belongs to ONDA
76
Société Jurassienne d’Astronomie (SJA), “Home,” 2018, http://moss-observatory.org/index.php
77
Société Jurassienne d’Astronomie (SJA), “Partnership,” 2018, http://moss-observatory.org/
index.php?page=obs/enbref (accessed February 18, 2019).
78
Ibid.
79
Société Jurassienne d’Astronomie (SJA), “Home.”
80
Jason Davis, “Planetary Defense in the Moroccan Mountains,” The Planetary Society, July 3,
2018, http://www.planetary.org/blogs/jason-davis/planetary-defense-in-morocco.html (accessed
February 15, 2019).
81
Ahlam Ben Saga, “NASA: Morocco’s Oukaimeden Sky Survey First to Identify Hazardous
Asteroid,” Morocco World News, July 14, 2018, https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2018/07/
250521/morocco-first-identify-azardous-asteroid/ (accessed February 18, 2019).
82
Fritz Gerd Koring, “SaharaSky: The first private observatory at the edge of the Moroccan
Sahara,” Kasbah Hotel SaharaSky, 2019, http://www.saharasky.com/saharasky/ (accessed Febru-
ary 15, 2019).
9 Morocco 187
—the National Airports Organization … [and] [t]he availability of land for com-
panies, and relatively at affordable price, was key to the attractiveness of Morocco
for foreign investors”.83 In the aerospace sector, the
main projects are IMA – the Moroccan Aerospace Institute, the dedicated
training-education center. Midparc, adjacent to IMA and the Aeropole, is the Free Zone
‘Integrated Industrial Platform’ located near Mohamed V Airport in Nouasser-Casablanca
… extend[ing] over 140 hectares and has capacity of 330 plants, dedicated to aerospace
industry, defense, security, on board electronics, and high tech industries.84
GIMAS, or the Groupement des Industries Marocaines Aéronautiques et Spa-

tiales, was founded to “[c]onsolidate and reinforce Morocco’s aerospace industry
competitiveness and contribute to its global exposure”.85 At the 2016 Marrakech
Air Show an agreement was signed between GIMAS and Aerospace Valley, which
is a “French competitive cluster around the aerospace industry under the leadership
of the Airbus Group in Toulouse, [and] it aims to open a new window on the future
in the field of space, develop space research and space applications, allowing inter
alia to create clusters in the domain”.86 This was reported to represent “the modest
entry of Morocco into activities related to space”,87 but is an important step in the
growth of the aerospace sector in the country, and is a clear indication of the
government’s recognition of the value of this sector to the country’s future. Indeed,
as the President of the Aerospace Valley remarked, “Morocco has all the capa-
bilities to embark on the development of space applications, including the use of
signals from satellites to monitor different activities that range from meteorology to
agriculture and the environment”.88
In 2016, this effort was expanded as part of the government’s effort to strengthen
the economy by focusing on a few core sectors like aerospace manufacturing by the
signing of a deal with Boeing Commercial Airlines to create a manufacturing hub in
Tangier, “estimated to create 8700 jobs and generate $1 billion annually in export
revenue”.89 To support the exceptional growth of the sector in the country,
including the estimated 23,000 new jobs that will be created in the aerospace sector
by 2020, the government founded the Institut des métiers de l’aeronautique
(IMA) to teach advanced trade skills to students, related to aerospace manufacturing
and engineering.90 By 2016 Morocco was “home to over 110 aerospace related
83
Groupement des Industries Marocaines Aéronautiques et Spatiales, “Moroccan Eerospace
Industry: the Most Competitive Base at the Gate of Europe,” 2, http://gimas.org/pdf/
brochuregimas.pdf (accessed February 18, 2019).
84
Ibid., 3.
85
Ibid.
86
LesEco.ma, “IMAS 2016: Le Maroc met un pied dans le spatial,” April 19, 2016, Horizon Press
Group, http://www.leseco.ma/economie/45319-imas-2016-le-maroc-met-un-pied-dans-le-spatial.
html (accessed February 18, 2019). Translated from French.
87
Ibid.
88
Ibid.
89
Sarah Fauska, “Morocco Becomes International Hub of the Aerospace Industry,” Morocco
World News, September 29, 2016, https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2016/09/197551/
morocco-becomes-international-hub-of-the-aerospace-industry/ (accessed February 18, 2019).
90
Ibid.
188 A. Siebrits
corporations that specialize in metalworking, electronics and avionics, composite

manufacturing, boiler making, maintenance, repair, technical support, assembly of
sub-structures and manufacturing of auxiliary parts”, laying a strong foundation for
branching out into the space sector as well.91 The sector has only continued to grow
since 2016, and the Moroccan Investment Development Agency (AMDI) expected
the influx of “200 Chinese companies operating in a variety of areas including the
manufacturing of cars, the aeronautics industry, aviation replacement parts, elec-
tronic information, textiles, the manufacturing of machines, and many more” in
2017.92 The training provided by IMA has also increased to keep pace, with a 2017
“medium-term objective … to train 800 persons per year in aviation and aerospace
professions thanks to a tool of international standards, set up as a result of a
partnership between the GIMAS (Group of Moroccan Aviation and Aerospace
Industrialists), the UIMM (Union of Metallurgical Profession Industries) and the
state of Morocco”.93 A variety of economic locations now support the industry,
including Casablanca’s Aéropole Nouaceur and Midparc free zones, and Tangier,
Kenitra, Oujda, and Salé.
9.5 Morocco’s Partnership and International Cooperation
Morocco’s attitude and posture towards space are aptly described as “characterized
by a great attitude in international cooperation, thanks to which it is working on
many projects together with the European Union, the European Space Agency and
other space agencies”.94 As evidenced by the activities of the CRTS and Morocco’s
three satellites, the country “is strongly supporting a policy of [remote] sensation,
promotion and exten[s]ion of the use of space to other domains mainly by
strengthening training and international cooperation programs, by organising
exhibits and information events to make policy makers and other institutions aware
of the contribution of science space and technologies”.95 Much of the motivation
for doing so is derived from the occurrence of natural disasters such as floods and
earthquakes in the country, and in the case of the 2004 earthquake near Al Hoceima
and the 2002 floods in the north, the international “Space and Major Disasters”
charter was activated.96 This helps to explain the importance of remote sensing in
Morocco’s space posture.
91
Ibid.
92
Tarek Bazza, “Morocco Touts Economic Zones for Aerospace Investment,” Morocco World
News, July 18, 2018, https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2018/07/250797/morocco-economic-
zones-aerospace-investment/ (accessed February 18, 2019).
93
Ibid.
94
Silvia Ciccarelli, “Space Cooperation with Developing Countries: The Case of Morocco,” n.d.,
132, https://ojs.uniroma1.it/index.php/JMEG/article/viewFile/3130/3114 (accessed February 18,
2019).
95
Ibid.
96
Ibid.
9 Morocco 189
In terms of bilateral relations, France is a critical partner in space, and an

agreement was signed between the French Centre National d’Études Spatiales
(CNES) on the one hand, and the Moroccan CRTS and CRERS on the other,
“touching on areas such as agriculture, water, oceanography, crisis management, all
topics that are at the heart of the issues of sustainable development”.97 Discussions
also revolved around areas of capacity building, “including the possibility for
Moroccan engineers or researchers to take training courses in space techniques and
to participate in CNES’s technical skills communities”, while Morocco also
expressed interest in “[s]pace education for the benefit of young people and their
awareness of space issues”.98 By 2018, the CNES President “stressed the close ties
that France and Morocco have forged in space since the signature of their frame-
work agreement in 2015”, which included the
joint organization of the meeting of heads of space agencies in Marrakesh during the
COP22 conference a little over a year ago, which highlighted the key role of satellite data in
managing water resources, and to the One Planet Summit held in Paris last December,
where at CNES’s initiative the world’s leading space agencies decided to set up a Space
Climate Observatory (SCO) to pool climate data acquired from space and make them
readily available to the international scientific community over the long term.99
Morocco is the only African country participating in the SCO, which features the
participation of “space agencies from Europe, China, India, Israel, Russia, Mexico,
Morocco and the United Arab Emirates, as well as the United Nations Office for
Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA)”, united by the goal to pool their satellite and field
data with scientific research in order to track climate change and its “impacts at
global-to-local scales”.100 Morocco participates particularly in relation to water
scarcity and drought, and the country “is turning to space-based technologies to
monitor its resources by gauging reserves, measuring agricultural consumption and
detecting the onset of drought conditions” through the development of tools to
assess water resources developed by the CRTS and the LMI-TREMA joint research
laboratory at the University of Marrakesh and France’s IRD development research
institute.101 Interactive platforms to facilitate access to these tools have been
developed to this end. In terms of drought, the CRTS makes use of several satellite
data sources such as MODIS, Proba-V, and TRMM to produce monthly drought
97
Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (CNES), “Coopération spatiale entre la France et le Maroc
Le CNES et les instances spatiales marocaines s’engagent dans des coopérations concrètes,”
October 2, 2015, https://presse.cnes.fr/fr/cooperation-spatiale-entre-la-france-et-le-maroc-le-cnes-
et-les-instances-spatiales-marocaines-0 (accessed February 18, 2019). Translated from French.
98
Ibid.
99
Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (CNES), “France-Morocco space cooperation Copernicus
serving Morocco and Africa,” March 6, 2018, https://presse.cnes.fr/en/france-morocco-space-
cooperation-copernicus-serving-morocco-and-africa (accessed February 18, 2019).
100
Space Climate Observatory (SCO), “Presenting SCO,” 2018, https://www.
spaceclimateobservatory.org/presenting-sco/?lang=en (accessed February 18, 2019).
101
Space Climate Observatory (SCO), “Satellites Optimizing Morocco’s Water Resources,” 2018,
https://www.spaceclimateobservatory.org/scenarios/satellites-optimizing-moroccos-water-
resources/?lang=en (accessed February 18, 2019).
190 A. Siebrits
status maps to assist in early warning and government decision-support.102 The

IRRISAT-Maroc project is another project developed by the CRTS to improve
water resource productivity by giving data on irrigation water consumption to
farmers, compiled from several data sources such as Landsat, MODIS, VIIRS,
Sentinel, and Proba-V.103 This project provides “daily analyses of water con-
sumption and yield at field level, aiding water resource management, while a
platform allows farmers and institutions to keep track of crop water stress through a
website and text messaging”, and is complemented by the SAT-IRR (SATellite for
IRRigation management) tool, “which uses Sentinel-2 data to make recommenda-
tions to farmers on when and how much to irrigate their fields”.104 This is one of the
best examples of how Morocco is leveraging its international partnerships to assist
in national development efforts using space data.
France and Morocco also cooperated by opening “the first international work-
shop prepared together on the benefits and applications of remote-sensing data from
the Copernicus programme’s Sentinel satellites”, held in Rabat, at which the CNES
President made the abovementioned remarks, including the statement that he “stress
[ed] the crucial role that Morocco is playing as a relay for Africa, notably for the
development and dissemination of new applications”.105 In 2017 the President of
CNES issued similar statements, and “hailed Morocco’s aspirations to build a space
programme geared towards meeting its citizens’ needs and stimulating new sci-
entific actions”, stating he was “delighted to see France and Morocco sustaining
such fruitful cooperation in space … [particularly since the] two nations share a
close concern for climate-related issues and CNES is giving its Moroccan partners
the benefit of our agency’s experience to aid Morocco in achieving its ambitious
space policy”.106
In terms of European-Moroccan cooperation, Morocco is the site of Europe’s
“largest rover field test”, where rovers were tested in a “Mars-like part of Mor-
occo”.107 This included the ESA-Roscosmos rover ExoMars.108 The field test,
which “marked the end of the first phase of the strategic research cluster on space
robotics technologies, a scheme funded by the European Union’s Horizon 2020
programme” included a wide range of participants such as Germany’s DFKI and
DLR Institute of Robotics and Mechatronics, Space Application Services in
102
Ibid.
103
Ibid.
104
Ibid.
105
Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales (CNES), “France-Morocco space cooperation Copernicus
serving Morocco and Africa.”
106
African Aerospace Online News Service, “France-Morocco space cooperation,” April 16, 2017,
https://www.africanaerospace.aero/france-morocco-space-cooperation.html (accessed February 18,
2019).
107
European Space Agency (ESA), “Self-Driving Rovers Tested in Mars-Like Morocco,”
December 19, 2018, https://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Engineering_Technology/Self-
driving_rovers_tested_in_Mars-like_Morocco (accessed February 18, 2019).
108
Morocco World News, “European, Russian Space Agencies Test Mars Rover in Eastern
Morocco,” January 7, 2019, https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2019/01/262620/european-
russian-space-mars-morocco/ (accessed February 18, 2019).
9 Morocco 191
Belgium, Magellium and the Laboratory for Analysis and Architecture of Systems,
LAAS, in France, GMV in Spain, as well as Kings College London and Airbus in
the UK.109 The test, served by the Europlanet Ibn Battuta Centre near Erfoud on the
northern edge of the Sahara Desert, was organised by Germany’s DFKI Robotics
Innovation Centre and proved to be a “good match” for Mars.
In terms of cooperation with the United States, at the event of the 2016 Inter-
national Marrakech Air Show, the US ambassador noted that the US has been
participating since 2008, and “Aerospace is an area in which the United States and
Morocco collaborate very closely” and “[t]he US Aerospace industry helps Mor-
occo’s economy by helping it to attract more and more travelers and tourists each
year … [with] [m]any US companies also hav[ing] active and productive joint
ventures in Morocco that hire more than 1500 Moroccan workers”.110 The Scien-
tific Morocco Association, sponsored by the US Embassy in Rabat, is an initiative
that aims to “better communicate science and make the basic scientific knowledge
more accessible to the general public in Morocco”, and it includes a variety of
space-related components, such as a gravity tour in four cities featuring Ameri-
can NASA astronaut Mary Ellen Weber, and a yearly Race to Space video com-
petition for high school students in Morocco to attend Space Camp in Huntsville,
Alabama.111 Algerian students also participated in the Race to Space initiative, and
it was aptly noted in 2016 that such space-related cooperation holds excellent
potential for overcoming political divisions:
Despite recent diplomatic hurdles with the United States, and the long-standing misun-
derstanding between Morocco and Algeria, some of the brightest minds of both nations’
youth will come together for intensive scientific training. Not only will student participants
be leaders in the scientific communities of their native countries, they will also have a more
accurate perception of America and their regional neighbor. Such efforts demonstrate a
unity which supersedes political squabbles through a joint effort to improve human
knowledge.112
In recent times, Morocco also signed Memoranda of Understandings on space

and cyber security cooperation with India in 2018.113 This follows the upgrading of
the countries’ bilateral ties into a Strategic Partnership in 2015. The space-related
MoU was focused on ‘Cooperation in Peaceful Uses of Outer Space’ between the
CRTS and the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). Areas of particular
interest for cooperation are hydrography, peacekeeping, telemedicine, Information
109
European Space Agency (ESA), “Self-Driving Rovers Tested in Mars-Like Morocco.”
110
Morocco World News, “US, Morocco ‘Collaborate Very Closely’ in Aerospace: US
Ambassador,” April 29, 2016, https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2016/04/185378/us-
morocco-collaborate-very-closely-in-aerospace-us-ambassador/ (accessed February 18, 2019).
111
Race to Space, “About,” Scientific Morocco Association, 2018, https://race2space.ma/about
112
Christopher Thomas, “Race to Space: Science Supersedes Political Divisions,” Morocco World
News, June 17, 2016, https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2016/06/189264/race-to-space-
science-supersedes-political-divisions/ (accessed February 18, 2019).
113
Spacewatch, “India and Morocco Sign MoU’s On Space Cooperation and Cyber Security,”
ThorGroup GmbH, 2019, https://spacewatch.global/2018/10/india-and-morocco-sign-mous-on-
space-cooperation-and-cyber-security/ (accessed February 18, 2019).
192 A. Siebrits
and Communications Technology (ICT), and counter-terrorism and

counter-insurgency.114 The MoU was reported to lead to a Joint Working Group
comprised of members from ISRO, the CRTS, and CRERS, to develop cooperation
related to space science, applications, and technology in areas of remote sensing,
satellite communication and navigation, space science, planetary exploration, space
and ground systems, and the application of space technologies.115
In terms of the previously mentioned Oukaïmeden Observatory, Morocco is also
involved in ongoing partnerships, including the TRAPPIST (TRAnsiting Planets
and PlanetesImals Small Telescope) North telescope, which was set up at the
Oukaïmeden Observatory and inaugurated in 2016.116 The TRAPPIST-North
telescope is the twin of the TRAPPIST-South telescope in Chile, and both are
dedicated to “the detection and study of exoplanets, and the study of comets and
other small bodies in the solar system to better understand the genesis of the solar
system and our Earth in particular”.117 While the project is driven by the Origins in
Cosmology and Astrophysics group (OrCA) at the Department of Astrophysics,
Geophysics and Oceanography (AGO) of the University of Liège in Belgium,
Moroccan scientists and astronomers are actively involved.118 As the name sug-
gests, the pair of 60 cm telescopes are behind the discovery of the TRAPPIST-1
star system. In 2018, Masters students from Belgium were joined by five Astro-
physics students from Cadi Ayyad University (which is a partner university with the
University of Liège on this project).119 These students could collaborate and share
their experiences, demonstrating that this project represents another significant
space-related partnership for Morocco. Moroccans are making significant contri-
butions on a scientific level, for example, “without the sophisticated computer
models in Morocco, a 25-year-old doctoral student, Khalid Barkaoui distilled data
captured by the TRAPPIST-North Telescope at the Oukaimeden Observatory that
helped to make available more data of three of the then seven previously uniden-
tified [TRAPPIST-1] planets”.120
114
Ibid.
115
United News of India, “Cabinet nod to MoU b/w India & Morocco for coopn in the peaceful
uses of outer space,” December 6, 2018, http://www.uniindia.com/cabinet-nod-to-mou-b-w-india-
morocco-for-coopn-in-the-peaceful-uses-of-outer-space/india/news/1428669.html (accessed
February 18, 2019).
116
Université de Liège, “October 6, 2016: TRAPPIST-North Inauguration!,” October 5, 2016,
https://www.trappist.uliege.be/cms/c_3300927/en/october-6-2016-trappist-north-inauguration (ac-
117
Ibid.
118
Université de Liège, “Welcome to the TRAPPIST telescope network!,” 2016, https://www.
trappist.uliege.be/cms/c_3300885/en/trappist-portail (accessed February 19, 2019).
119
Université de Liège, “The Master students in Space Sciences to the discovery of the
TRAPPIST-North telescope,” 2018, https://www.enseignement.uliege.be/cms/c_9879122/en/the-
master-students-in-space-sciences-to-the-discovery-of-the-trappist-north-telescope (accessed
February 19, 2018).
120
Space in Africa, “Overview of the Morocco Space Industry,” May 6, 2018, https://africanews.
space/overview-of-the-morocco-space-industry/ (accessed February 19, 2018).
9 Morocco 193
Morocco has also been building closer ties with China, including in the aero-
space sector as mentioned previously, and the two countries engaged in a strategic
partnership in 2016, followed by a 2017 MoU on joint construction of the ‘Belt and
Road’ initiative.121 While space did not feature in this agreement, it is likely the
countries will continue to strengthen their relationship and develop ties in this area
in future. In terms of Russia as well there have been talks regarding efforts to
“acquire equipment enabling … [Morocco] to process data from Russian satellites
in the fields of agriculture, forests and water resources” through a Russian coop-
eration programme for partners in the developing world.122
Beyond the abovementioned initiatives, the CRTS is also participating in a range
of regional and international programmes (such as AFRICOVER, COPINE,
RAMSES, CAMELEO, RICAMARE, and others), international associations and
committees (including the IAF, SA, EURISY, ISU), United Nations organisations
(UNDP, FAO, UNEP, IOC/UNESCO, OOSA, and others), and conferences.123
One such conference is the inaugural Global Conference on Space for Emerging
Countries (GLEC 2019) which is co-organised by the International Astronautical
Federation (IAF) and sponsored by France’s CNES.
More broadly, in what was reported as a sign of Morocco’s credibility in the
field of scientific research and space exploration, a teleconference was held between
astronauts on the International Space Station and Moroccan students at the National
School of Computer Science and Systems Analysis (ENSIAS) in January 2018—a
first for the Arab world.124 Morocco has also recently joined the Arab Group for
Space Collaboration, launched in the United Arab Emirates.125
9.6 Findings and Conclusion
This chapter has focused on two goals concerning Morocco’s space sector, namely
identifying whether the country espouses a specific approach, or posture, towards
space, and how it is positioning itself internationally in the space arena. In this
121
Xinhua, “Morocco, China give new impetus to bilateral partnership in 2017,” Global Times,
December 31, 2017, http://www.globaltimes.cn/content/1082762.shtml (accessed February 19,
2019).
122
Di avec Médias, “Les technologies de l’agence spatiale russe pour le Maroc?,” Internet
Management Group SA, December 30, 2016, https://directinfo.webmanagercenter.com/2016/12/
30/les-technologies-de-lagence-spatiale-russe-pour-le-maroc/ (accessed February 19, 2019). Trans-
lated from French.
123
Centre Royal de Télédétection Spatiale (CRTS), “Royal Centre for Remote Sensing,” 2019,
https://www.crts.gov.ma/Royal%20Centre%20for%20Remote%20Sensing (accessed February 19,
2019).
124
Morocco World News, “‘Morocco Enjoys Great Credibility in Scientific Research’: Interna-
tional Space Station,” January 4, 2018, https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2018/01/237677/
morocco-international-space-station/ (accessed February 19, 2019).
125
Space in Africa, “Egypt, Algeria, Morocco, Sudan join Arab Space Cooperation Group,” March
20, 2019, https://africanews.space/egypt-algeria-morocco-sudan-join-arab-spacecooperation-
group/ (accessed April 25, 2019).
194 A. Siebrits
section, the findings will be collated and presented. First, regarding space posture, it
is clear from the discussion in this chapter that Morocco does indeed have a clear
and robust space posture that focuses on remote sensing in particular to support
national development objectives. In addition to this, the country makes use of its
Earth observation satellites to support military and security objectives due to the
dual use (civil/military) nature of the technology. On both counts, Morocco’s
actions are driven by its geographical challenges, including natural disasters, and its
geopolitical context, including tensions with Algeria and Spain as well as the
POLISARIO Front. As the country’s development plans have shown, there is a
strong focus on supporting core sectors of the economy to boost growth and
employment, and one of these is the aerospace sector, in which Morocco has a long
and successful heritage. The focus on sustainable development as encapsulated in
national policy is a driver for this sector and the country’s space activities.
Second, in terms of Morocco’s international positioning in the space sector, there
is a powerful tendency towards partnership and active participation in space-related
fora, including UNCOPUOS and the Regional Centre for Space Science and
Technology Education. Morocco is also one of the few countries globally (and the
only in Africa) to have ratified all five core outer space treaties, a clear sign of the
country’s desire to be a ‘good actor’ for space internationally. The country has also
cultivated critical relationships with CNES, the European Space Agency, India, and
others, and the activities of the Oukaïmeden Observatory is evidence of partner-
ships in the field of astronomy as well.
In order to analyse the progress Morocco has made in the space sector the Space
Technology Ladder is a useful tool.126 The four main categories of national space
technology achievement are National Space Agency, Satellite in Low Earth Orbit,
Satellite in Geostationary Orbit, and Launch Capacity—each with individual
milestones corresponding to increasing complexity of technical ability and national
autonomy. Thus far, Morocco has met the first criterion of the first category—
establishing an initial national space office—in the form of the CRTS and, as
reported, work is ongoing on national space policy. The country’s first satellite was
representative of the second highest milestone in the Satellite in Low Earth Orbit
category since it was built through mutual international collaboration with
ILR/TUB. The country’s second and third satellites were purchased from foreign
partners. With the strength of the aerospace sector, it can be expected that Morocco
will turn to the manufacturing of space technology domestically in the future.
In the case of Morocco, one important final point can be made. While space
technology and satellites, in particular, have the potential to exacerbate regional
tensions, as was argued could be the case for the Mohammed VI-A and B satellites,
examples have also shown how space can help countries overcome their divisions.
The collaboration of Moroccan and Algerian students in the Race to Space initiative
was an example of this. Another is the idea put forth for a Maghreb Space Agency
serving its five member states (Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco and
D. Wood and A. Weigel, “Charting the Evolution of Satellite Programs in Developing

126
Countries—The Space Technology Ladder,” Space Policy 28, (2012).
9 Morocco 195
Tunisia).127 The practicality of such an agency is uncertain in the context of the

ongoing efforts to establish an African continental space agency, but the suggestion
for closer cooperation in space is sound. As the Space in Africa news portal argues,
[t]he exchange of information at the highest level will create a safer region, thus attracting
more foreign direct investment and more tourists. The region’s backyard is too messy for
the five countries not to cooperate in order to solve their socio-economic problems.
Investors are looking for political stability and security, and the cost of a lack of
intra-regional cooperation is simply too high. It is clear that space science and technology is
an important tool for ensuring the sustainable use of natural resources and the creation of
high-technology industrial sectors. Furthermore, it makes a considerable contribution to the
creation of enabling environments for addressing a wide range of pressing challenges,
including the need to create jobs, reduce poverty, manage resources sustainably, and
develop rural areas. A formal space sector will assist the Maghreb region to realize the
vision of a peaceful, united, and prosperous continent.128
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200 A. Siebrits
Author Biography
Namibia
10
Alexander Gairiseb
Abstract
Namibia is end user of space products as opposed to the producer of space
applications. And just like many African countries the challenges faced by
Namibia in terms of socio-economic conditions are not unique. Therefore, the
country’s developmental goals are economic progression, social transformation.
However, the country recognises the fact that in order to meet these goals, space
applications have to play a crucial role in order to improve socio-economic
conditions within the country. Nevertheless the country is in the process of
developing the national space policy and strategy which will shape the position
of Namibia in the exploration of outer space for sustainable development, as well
as to implement or meet continental goals for space exploration.
The Republic of Namibia is located in Southern Africa, bordering Angola, Bots-

wana, South Africa and Zambia. Furthermore, the limited natural freshwater
resources, desertification, wildlife poaching, land degradation has led to the
establishment of conservancy areas. The country’s economy is heavily dependent
on the extraction and processing of minerals for exports. Hence, mining accounts
for 11.5% of the GDP, but provides more than 50% of foreign exchange earnings.
The country’s mainly exports commodities include diamonds, copper, gold, zinc,
A. Gairiseb (&)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05980-4_10
202 A. Gairiseb
lead, uranium, cattle (meat), white fish, and molluscs. On the other hand, it imports
foodstuffs, petroleum products and fuel, machinery and equipment, and chemicals.1
10.1.1 Relevant Challenges and Development Goals
The Republic of Namibia is an upper-middle-income developing country with rich

natural resources, political and macroeconomic stability, a free press, and an
economy that has grown on average by 4.6% a year between 2012 and 2015.2
However, despite this status Namibia faces some challenges that impact on socio-
economic development.
The economic growth in the country has been substantial according to the
National Planning Commission, but this has not contributed to a reduction in
unemployment as the growth in the labour force was higher than employment
growth. As a result, in terms of income equality, Namibia is the most unequal
nation on Earth. Twenty-eight percent of the nation’s workers are unemployed. In
2016, nearly 18% of the population lived in poverty. Moreover, a large proportion
of the population is vulnerable to communicable and non-communicable diseases.
The prevalence of HIV is particularly high at 16.9% in 2014 from 19% in 2012.3
A lack of industrialisation and infrastructure have contributed to Namibia’s
economic imbalance. In the year 2014, 31% of Namibians worked in agriculture,
which produces only 3.9% of the GDP. While drought and declines in prices on the
global market are partly responsible for agriculture’s relatively small contribution to
Namibia’s GDP, a lack of industrialisation in farming techniques and a lack of
infrastructure in business development have made the agriculture sector less effi-
cient and less profitable than it might otherwise be.4
Consequently, the country’s developmental goals are economic progression,
social transformation, environmental sustainability, and good governance, which
are also referred to as the four pillars of integrated sustainable development.5 In his
opening remarks His Excellency Dr. Hage G. Geingob the President of the
Republic of Namibia stressed that “Namibia is faced with the high levels of poverty
and inequality amongst many. This situation constrains economic growth and
reinforces itself through high levels of unemployment”.6
That being said, how does Namibia address these challenges in the context of
space applications? Alternatively, the use of space applications to address social
and economic challenges in Namibia is significant, because space applications play
a crucial role in sustainable development as whole.
1
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), “The World Factbook,” www.cia.gov/library/publications/
the-world-factbook/geos/wa.html (accessed June 8, 2017).
2
National Planning Commission, “National Development Plan 5,” 2017, xiii, www.npc.com.na
3
See NDP 5, xiii.
4
Ibid.
5
Ibid., xiii.
6
Ibid., ix.
10 Namibia 203
10.1.2 Meeting Challenges with Space Applications
Although Namibia does not own its own satellites, the role of space applications to
address socio-economic challenges for sustainable development has been well
recognised. Therefore, space applications fall under space science as one of the
priority research areas addressing enabling technologies.7 Consequently, even
though space science addresses enabling technologies, it can contribute to
socio-economic development directly or indirectly.
Thus, space science, as the research area addressing enabling technologies, will
provide wide-application solutions and will contribute with solutions to the
economic and social challenges.8 The implication is that space applications are
envisioned to solve economic and social challenges in Namibia.
Consequently, space science has links to many of the aforementioned areas as
across-cutting and interdisciplinary research fields. Obvious links exist to the areas
of agriculture and fisheries and water via earth observations and ICT via satellite
communication. However additionally, strong links exist from basic astronomical
research to the areas of energy (shared design of telescopes and solar concentra-
tors), health (highly efficient light sensors for telescopes and for medical imaging),
tourism (geographical and meteorological preferred place for steadily growing
astro-tourism) and ICT (handling and analysis of ‘Big Data’).9
But, the utilisation of space applications to meet sustainable development goals
and address the socio-economic challenges within Namibia has been on the spin off
basis. This is because we cannot confidently say that Namibia has specific space
applications that it owns. Much of this is related to the fact that Namibia is the end
user of space products and services and not the space actor. However, one of the
area in which Namibia has or will utilise space applications is the maritime and
aviation domain, in particular, on 12 March 2004 it acceded to the International
Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue (SAR) which came into force on 11
April 2004.10 This Convention required contracting parties to ensure that
arrangements are made for the provision of adequate SAR services in their coastal
waters. Thus, parties are encouraged to enter into SAR agreements with neigh-
bouring States involving the establishment of SAR regions.
As per resolutions of the International Maritime Organisation Florence Con-
vention of 2000, the African Continent was split into regions in order to better
manage SAR around Africa. Thus, South Africa was approached to host Regional
Maritime Rescue Coordination Centre (RMRCC) and in January 2007 MRCC Cape
7
National Commission on Research, Science and Technology. The National Programme on
Research, Science, Technology & Innovation 2014/15 to 2016/17, p. 61. Available at: www.ncrst.
na/downloads/ [Accessed: 2017, May 26].
8
Supra, p. 61.
9
Supra, p. 66.
10
International Maritime Organization. 2017. Status of multilateral Conventions and instruments
in respect of which the International Maritime Organization or its Secretary-General performs
depositary or other functions, p. 408. Available at: www.imo.org/en/About/Conventions/
StatusOfConventions/Pages/Default.aspx [2017, May 31].
204 A. Gairiseb
Town was inaugurated as the RMRCC for the Southern African region countries.11
Consequently, Namibia became a signatory to a groundbreaking agreement in
maritime search and rescue (SAR) services with South Africa, Madagascar,
Mozambique and the Comoros.12 Consequently, Namibia will benefit from space
applications as a result of South Africa being a participant in the international
Cospas-Sarsat Programme for Satellite-Aided Search and Rescue.13 Which is a
satellite-based search and rescue (SAR) distress alert detection and information
distribution system, best known for detecting and locating emergency beacons
activated by aircraft, ships and backcountry hikers in distress. The objective of the
Cospas-Sarsat System is to reduce delays in the provision of distress alerts to SAR
services, and the time required to locate a person in distress at sea or on land. Thus,
the distress alert and location data are provided by Cospas-Sarsat participants to the
responsible SAR service.14
In addition, one of the uses of space applications to address developmental
challenges is the Africa Resource Management Satellite (ARMC) Constellation,
which provide real time, unrestricted and affordable access to satellite data to
support effective environmental and resource management in Africa. Thus, Namibia
as end user can gain access to remote sensing and meteorological satellite data.15
However, much of the policy and strategy on the use of space applications to
address socio-economic challenges will be contained in the national space policy
and strategy. The limitations are that these documents are in draft form and were
submitted to the line Ministry for consideration and perusal, hence, not yet
adopted/implemented, at the time of writing this chapter, but, a brief overview of
the content of the national space policy and strategy will be provided below. Hence,
the national space policy and strategy is the cornerstone of meeting development
goals and challenges through space applications in Namibia.
10.1.3 Implementation of Space Treaties/International

Space Law
As at 1 January 2018, Namibia has not signed, ratified or acceded to any of the five
international agreements relating to activities in outer space,16 with the exception of
11
South African Maritime Safety Authority. 2013. Maritime Rescue Coordination Centre.
Available at: www.samsa.org.za/service/rescue-co-ordination/mrcc [2017, May 31].
12
The Namibian Newspaper. 2007. Namibia in groundbreaking agreement, 04 April 2004.
Available at: www.namibia.com.na/index.php?id=29156&page=archive-read [2017, May 31].
13
International Cospas-Sarsat Programm. 2014. Participants. Available at: www.cospas-sarsat.int/
en/about-us/participants [2017, May 31].
14
International Cospas-Sarsat Programme. 2013. International Cospas-Sarsat Programme.
Available at: www.cospas-sarsat.int/en/about-us/about-the-programme [2017, May 31].
15
Adebola, S. 2009. Africa Resource Management Satellite (ARMC) Constellation. Available at:
https://iinitiative.wordpress.com/2009/12/21/african-resource-management-satellite/ [2017, May 31].
16
UN Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. (2017). Status of International Agreements
relating to activities in outer space as at 1 January 2018, p 7. Available at: http://www.unoosa.
org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/status/index.html [2019, January 30].
10 Namibia 205
the Agreement Relating to the International Telecommunications Satellite Orga-

nization (ITSO) of 1971 and International Telecommunication Constitution and
Convention of 1992 that were acceded to by the State. In particular, Namibia
acceded to the ITSO on 11 October 1993 and the Amendments to the Agreement
Relating to the International Telecommunications Satellite Organisation
(INTELSAT/ITSO), was signed on 18 November 2000 and ratified on 8 July 2002,
whereas, the accession to the ITU Constitution and Convention was done on 2
August 1994.17 Since space activities cannot be operated or carried out without
radio frequencies, thus, Namibia should be commended for having ratified or
acceded to the other international agreements that regulate the allocation of radio
spectrum that are equally important for radio communication services in the
exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes.
Therefore, the international conventions regulating radio spectrum are imple-
mented locally through the Communications Act No. 8 of 2009 that establishes the
Communications Regulatory Authority of Namibia (CRAN), for the coordination of
radio frequency allocation in Namibia.
Consequently, Namibia does not have specific national space legislation in order
to implement the international obligations created by the international space
law/treaties. Thus, aspects related to space law/treaties can be found in different
national legislations for example, the Communications Act dealing with spectrum
allocation or assignment in Namibia. In addition, because Namibia is part of the
United Nations the Resolutions adopted by the General Assembly apply to the
country as soft law with the potential to emerge into customary international space
law. However, it is worth commenting that the general rules of public international
space law and international agreements/treaties/conventions relating to space form
part of the law of Namibia or apply automatically in Namibia.18 In particular,
Article 144 of the Constitution provides that:
Unless otherwise provided by this Constitution or Act of Parliament, the general rules of
public international law and international agreements binding upon Namibia under this
Constitution shall form part of the law of Namibia.
Therefore, any general rules of public international law relating to space will
apply automatically in Namibia unless this is expressly excluded by the Constitu-
tion or Act of Parliament. Similarly, if Namibia ratifies any of the five
treaties/conventions relating to space they will apply automatically, therefore,
Namibia can be said to follow the hybrid approach (both monist-dualist) when its
comes to the applicability of international space law in Namibia because the
Constitution of the Republic provides for the automatic applicability of interna-
tional space law and at the same time the Constitution is the supreme law of the
country and all acts, laws including international law, must be in conformity with it.
17
Legal Assistance Centre. 2010. NAMLEX Index to the Laws of Namibia. Available at: www.lac.
org.na/laws/pdf/namlex2010.pdf [2017, May 31].
18
Article 144 of the Constitution of the Republic of Namibia Act No. 1 of 1990.
206 A. Gairiseb
10.2 Space Agency and Space Policy
Namibia does not have a space agency per se, however, the National Commission
on Research, Science and Technology, in short referred to as the NCRST, has
established the National Space Science Council (NSSC) pursuant to Section 19 of
the Research, Science and Technology Act No. 23 of 2004.
The NSSC is mandated to facilitate the development of a national agenda related
to space science in all sectors. Consequently, this mandate may include the
development of the national space policy and provision of strategic direction on
matters related to space science, as well as to assist and advise the government on
national space policy and strategy.19
The nest question posed is whether or not the NSSC has developed the national
space policy and strategy in order to fulfil its mandate? If so, what is the rational for
adopting or formulating the space policy in Namibia? The relevance of the second
question is on the premise that various countries develop or formulate space
policies for different reasons, some do it for political reasons, socio-economic
development, whereas other to it to set national goals in space exploration.
The first question should be answered in the affirmative, but at the time of
writing this chapter the space policy was in the draft form and has not been adopted
or approved by the relevant line Ministry.
In as far as the answer to the second question is concerned, if one look at the
policy statement one could deduce that the rational for formulating space policy is
to move Namibia from the consumer of space products and services provided by
multi-national companies, inter-governmental agencies and through international
collaborations, as well as to coordinate many fragmented space activities in
Namibia and to maintain national security through the use of space technologies.
With the ultimate objective of developing a national space policy framework that
will support local growth and increase interest in space science and technology
programs to contribute towards Namibia’s socio-economic development.20
This is substantiated by the fact that the draft national space policy recognizes
the role that space technologies plays in socio-economic development. In particular,
space data and services have become indispensable in our daily lives and they
provide immediate information for decision making in many areas such as, agri-
culture, natural resource management, healthcare, satellite communications, disaster
management and land use planning and cover management. Space presents a
unique opportunity for cooperation and sharing of enabling infrastructure (includ-
ing data) in proactively managing, among other things, disease outbreaks, natural
resources and the environment, response to natural hazards and disasters, weather
forecasting, climate-change mitigation and adaptation, agriculture and food secu-
rity, peacekeeping missions and conflicts.21
19
NCRST. 2015. National Space Science Council Established. Available at: www.ncrst.na/news/
64-National-Space-Science-Council-Established/ [2017, June 6].
20
Draft Namibian Space Policy 2.
21
Supra, see introductory paragraph of the draft national space policy 2.
10 Namibia 207
In addition, the draft national space policy contains guiding principles amongst
them is the use of outer space for peaceful purposes, thus, the space policy ones
adopted or approved will seek to be guided by the United Nations principles on the
exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies.
Other than guiding principle, the draft national space policy has provisions for
implementation arrangements as well as the monitoring and evaluation of the
policy. Now the implementation arrangements might change slightly taking into
account that the document is still in draft form at the time of writing the chapter.
Consequently, the draft document forecast on the development of a National
Strategy that is aimed at streamlining and implementing space activities and pro-
grammes in all sectors.
As a result, the draft National Strategy for Space Science, will be on five year
plan, with an analysis on strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT).
Other than that, the national strategy for space science will be guided by several
strategic objectives, which will not be mentioned here because they might be
revised.22
Thus, it won’t be a surprise if the national space agency was established within
the set up of the NCRST, this could be the conversion of the NSSC to a fully flesh
agency.
10.3 Space Activities and Space Infrastructure (Satellites,

Launching Sites)
One of the responsibility imposed by the Outer Space Treaty, is that States Parties
bear international responsibility for national activities in outer space, including the
Moon and other celestial bodies, whether such activities are carried on by gov-
ernmental agencies or by non-governmental entities.23 But the downside of the OST
is that is does not define what constitute neither national activities nor space
activities.
Similarly, the OST imposes international liability to each State Party that
launches or procures the launching of an object into outer space, including the
Moon and other celestial bodies, and each State Party from whose territory or
facility an object is launched.24 Thus, the implication is that space activities include
the launching or procuring the launch of a space object into outer space, or allowing
an object to be launch from its territory or facility. The narrow interpretation of that
proviso will mean that there are no space activities taking place in Namibia.
However, a broader approach should be adopted, launching or procuring a launch
alone does not amount to space activities in wider sense, space activities can range
from the deep space exploration, telemetry, tracking and command, astronomy. The
adoption of wider interpretation of space activities results in the investigation of
22
Draft 2 of the National Strategy for Space Science.
23
Article VI of the OST.
24
Article VII of the OST.
208 A. Gairiseb
activities related to the exploration and use of outer space in Namibia, including the
space infrastructures.
The infrastructures in Namibia are not composed of space segments, rather what
we see in practice is ground segments that are established in collaboration with
other countries. For instance, there is a telemetry, tracking and command network
established at Swakopmund in collaboration with the Chinese government, the
main purpose of that ground segment is to support the china manned space engi-
neering programme. Secondly, there is a ground segment in Gamsberg Mountains
for the High Energy Stereoscopic System (HESS) project which is a collaboration
between close 13 countries, which allows scientists to explore gamma rays. Thus,
we can imply that the space infrastructures in Namibia are not your traditional
satellites, launch sites, launch vehicles, manufacturing facilities etc, but what we see
on the ground is part of international cooperative mechanism on space activities as
discussed in 10.5 below. It is not surprising on the lack of space infrastructures
because as noted earlier Namibia is the consumer of space products and services.
Other than, NCRST, the Namibia Institute of Space and Technology (NIST)
under the auspices of the Namibia University of Science and Technology (NUST) is
actively involved in enhancing and strengthening collaborative network in satellite
technology and application. Thus, NIST and SA academics and researchers
installed a Global Positioning System (GPS) antenna at the NUST to allow the
transmission of data that will be used in a collaborative research project to inves-
tigate levels of Earth’s atmosphere.25
In addition, Namibia is very close to building its first satellite through the Bird’s
project. The Joint Global Multi-Nation Birds Satellite project acronym as “Birds
project” is a cross-border interdisciplinary satellite project for non-space faring
countries supported by Japan. Countries like Nigeria and Ghana have previously
participated in the Bird’s project, launching one Nano Satellite each in 2017.26
10.4 Namibia and Its Implementation of the African Space

Policy and Strategy
It is common cause that Namibia is a member of the African Union, and the AU
through the African Union Commission formulated the African Space Policy and
Strategy which was adopted by African leaders in 2016. The President of Namibia
attended the AU summit that took place in January 2016 were the African Space
Policy and Strategy was adopted. Thus, the inference to be drawn is that Namibia is
a signatory to this space policy and strategy. But, with bold letters, the extent to
which the African Space Policy and strategy is implemented in Namibia is yet to be
seen. Because Namibia has not adopted the national space policy and strategy at the
25
Namibia Institute of Space Technology. 2017. GPS antenna installed on campus Research.
Available at: http://nist.nust.na/?q=news/gps-antenna-installed-on-campus [2017, June 8].
26
Space in Africa. 2018. Namibia closer to Space now than ever. Available: https://africanews.
space/namibia-closer-to-space-now-than-ever/ [2019, February 1].
10 Namibia 209
time of writing this chapter. However, the formulation of the draft space policy and
strategy in Namibia is a significant step towards the implementation of the African
Space Policy and strategy. Hence, the fruits of this effort are yet to be realized in
Namibia and Africa at large. However, as part of implementation plans Namibia
was one of the countries who bid to host the headquarters of the African Space
Agency (AfSA), unfortunately Namibia withdrew from the race to host the conti-
nental space agency due to the economic situation the country finds itself in.27
10.5 International Cooperation on Space Activities

in Namibia
10.5.1 Introduction
The National Programme on Research, Science, Technology and Innovation

(NPRSTI) identifies space science as one of the priority areas for investment in
research, science and technology. The programme envisages that space science is
one of the research areas addressing enabling technologies.28 Consequently, space
science has links to many fields as a across-cutting and interdisciplinary research
fields. Clearly, space science is linked to the areas of agriculture and fisheries and
water through earth observation and ICT through satellite communication. In
addition, strong links exist from basic astronomical research to the areas of energy
(shared design of telescopes and solar concentrators), health (highly efficient light
sensors for telescopes and for medical imaging), tourism (geographical and mete-
orological preferred place growing astro-tourism) and ICT (handling and analysis of
Big Data).29
10.5.2 Modes of Cooperation
(a) Regional Mechanism
To begin with, the African Leadership Conference on Space Science and

Technology for Sustainable Development (ALC) is one of the intergovernmental
platforms that can be used to initiate specific cooperation and coordination at
various levels in the region.30 The ALC has been in existence since 2005 and is
aimed at promoting intra-African cooperation in the uses of space science and
27
Space in Africa. 2018. Ghana shows readiness to host African Space Agency. [Online].
Available: https://africanews.space. [Accessed: 30-Jun-2019].
28
National Programme on Research, Science, Technology and Innovation (NPRSTI) of 2014/2015
to 2016/2017, p 63–66.
29
Ibid.
30
Alexander Gairiseb. International Cooperative Mechanisms on Space Activities in Namibia
(Unpublished).
210 A. Gairiseb
technology,31 however, there is no evidence that Namibia is represented at this

platform. Secondly, the African Union presents another platform for Namibia to
enter into space cooperative mechanisms. In particular, the President of the
Republic of Namibia was part of the African Union Heads of States who adopted
the African space policy and strategy in 2016.32 This reflects the continued role that
the African Union is playing in regional cooperation and the fact that Namibia is
member to AU presents an opportunity for space cooperative mechanisms. Though
albeit the nature of the African space policy and strategy being a policy document
that provide an overview of the regional goals in the space arena and how the same
can be achieved in practice, Namibia should be commended for taking part in the
adoption of the African Space Policy which is a first step toward the realisation of
African Space Programme. Consequently, the adoption of the African space policy
has been achieved through cooperative mechanism which is one of the fundamental
principles under international space law.
(b) Bilateral
At bilateral level, Namibia has initiated space cooperative mechanism by

entering into government to government framework agreements. For instance, The
Republic of Namibia and the People’s Republic of China concluded an agreement
on the Establishment of a China Space Tracking, Telemetry and Command Station
in Namibia in 2000, which was renewed.33 Now the areas of cooperation and what
the agreements entail will not be addressed at this stage in the chapter but in the
subsequent sections.
Furthermore, the Department of Innovation and Technology within the NCRST
initiated the process of developing Namibia Space Science and Astronomy Strategy
through a stakeholder’s workshop which was done in collaboration with the
Department of Science and Technology in South as the consequence of the signed
Namibia South Africa Plan of Action 2015/2016.34 This is a reflection of agency to
agency mode of space cooperation, however, it should be noted that neither NCRST
is nor the Department of Science and Technology are space agencies per se but both
are government agencies who have the mandate of promoting research, science and
technology. But in the context of the NCRST it has the power in co-operation with
the Minister and Ministers responsible for foreign affairs and finance, to enter into
agreements on co-operation and maintenance of relationships with similar foreign
institutions in the fields of research, science and technology.35 Consequently,
31
Martinez, P. (2012). The African Leadership Conference on Space Science and Technology
for Sustainable Development. Available at: www.sciencedirect.com/science/articles/pii/
S0265964611001263 [22 March 2017].
32
AU Press Release. (2016). African Union Heads of State and Government Adopts the African
Space Policy and Strategy. Available at www.au.in/en/pressreleases/19677/african-union-heads-
state-and-government-adopts-african-space-policy-and [22 March 2017].
33
National Commission on Research, Science and Technology. Natural Science Research: Space
Science. Available at: www.ncrst.na/abouts–us/natural-science-research-/55/ [22 March 2017].
34
NCRST.
35
Section 5(e) of the Research, Science and Technology Act No. 23 of 2004.
10 Namibia 211
nothing prevents the NCRST to enter into space cooperation mechanism for the
purpose of promoting space science, research and development as longs as there is
consultation with relevant departments of the government of Namibia.
(c) Multilateral
The High Energy Stereoscopic System (H.E.S.S) and the Square Kilometre
Array (SKA) represent the multilateral cooperation mechanism that Namibia is part
of in space related projects. The former is operated by a collaboration of 13 different
countries which include Namibia and South Africa, Germany, France, UK, Ireland,
Austria, the Netherlands, Poland, Sweden, Armenia, Japan and Australia.36 In the
context of Namibia, Namibia has signed a Memorandum of Understanding to
participate in the HESS.
The latter, is an international effort to build the world’s largest radio telescope
with a square kilometre (one million square metres) of collecting area. The SKA
telescope will be co-located in Africa (South Africa) and Australia. Therefore,
Namibia is part of the SKA Africa partners for South Africa.37 But in 2016 the
African Ministers resolved that a governance framework in particular for SKA and
the formal multilateral agreement should be adopted in 2016.38 At the time of
writing this chapter, not multilateral agreement was entered into between the SKA
Africa partner countries, however, sources within the NCRST has revealed that an
Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) relating to the SKA project was forwarded
to the Attorney General’s office for perusal and consideration, but, it is imperative
that at the time of writing the chapter the MoU was not available for the purpose of
this research. Consequently, the MoU concluded by various partner countries form
part of the multilateral cooperation agreements.
Since, multilateral cooperation agreements include international agreements such
as binding international treaties, implementing agreements, memorandums of
understanding and exchanges of letters.39 Therefore, in order for the MoU to
qualify as international agreement in substance, basic elements are to be met,
namely, (a) international agreement, (b) between subjects of international law, (c) in
written form and governed by international law.40
However, mechanism of international cooperation cannot always be clearly
classified either as strictly bilateral or multilateral, and either legally-binding or
legally non-binding. An essentially bilateral cooperative project could be seen also
as a multilateral cooperation when, for example, established within multilateral
cooperation mechanisms.41
36
HESS Collaboration. (2017). High Energy Stereoscopic System. Available at: www.mpi-hd.mpg.
de/hfm/HESS/pages/about [23 March 2017].
37
SKA South Africa. AVN—African VLBI Network. Available at: www.ska.ac.za/science-
engineerin/avn/ [23 March 2017].
38
Ibid.
39
Draft Report of the Working Group on the Review of international Mechanisms for Cooperation
in the Peaceful Exploration and Use of Outer Space, p 7.
40
Article 2 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of 1969.
41
See note 51 above.
212 A. Gairiseb
10.6 Focus Area
In this section, a synopsis of the scope of space cooperation in Namibia will be

provided. For instance, the bilateral agreement between Namibia and China focus
on space exploration, exploration into the deep space human space exploration
because the tracking, telemetry and command station forms an essential element of
the TT and C network of the China Manned Space Engineering Programme for
providing tracking, telemetry and command support to spacecraft. Secondly, the TT
and C station is established with the object of raising the coverage rate of the
tracking, telemetry and command network of the China Manned Space Engineering
Programme. Furthermore, the Namibia-China bilateral agreement indirectly focus
on rendering assistance to developing countries by constructing ground facilities
and providing personnel training.
The collaboration between the NCRST and the DST as per the signed Namibia
South Africa Plan of Action 2015/2016 focused on earth observation, capacity
building on earth observation and space science and technology.
The scope of application for the HESS is to allow scientists to explore
gamma-ray sources with intensities at a level of a few thousandths of the flux of the
Crab nebula (the brightest steady source of gamma rays in the sky).42 Therefore, the
area of focus for the HESS project is on space exploration as well as space research.
The SKA focus area in on earth science, space science, basic space research,
scientific experiments, in particular, deploying thousands of radio telescopes, in
three unique configurations, it will enable astronomers to monitor the sky in
unprecedented detail and survey the entire sky thousands of times faster than any
system currently in existence.43
Finally, the international cooperative mechanisms Namibia has entered into or
adopted are related specifically to the space activities taking place in the country.
10.7 Conclusion
Finally, Namibia faces poverty and inequality as the major challenges whereas
economic progression, social transformation, environmental sustainability, and
good governance are the development goals in the country. However, the National
Development Plan 5 that was recently adopted comes short of addressing these
challenges through space applications. That, being said, there are number of space
activities taking place in the country but such events are limited to telemetry,
tracking and command networks, scientific research or exploration such as gamma
rays, hence, there is no manufacture, launch, operations of spacecraft taking place
in Namibia. Consequently, the space infrastructures in Namibia are mainly the
42
H.E.S.S Collaboration (2017). About the High Energy Stereoscopic System. Available at: https://
www.mpi-hd.mpg.de/hfm/HESS/pages/about [03 April 2017].
43
SKA South Africa. The Project. Available at: https://www.ska.ac.za/about/the-project [03 April
2017].
10 Namibia 213
ground segments for telemetry, tracking and command, gamma rays exploration
just to mention but a few. Hence, there is no launch sites or facility, satellites owned
by Namibia. However, the minimal number of space activities taking place in the
country prompted the formulation of national space policy and strategy which are in
draft form at the time of writing this chapter. Similarly, there is no space agency nor
the ratification or accession to international instruments related to the exploration
and use of outer space except the international radio spectrum regulatory regime.
Thus, this author envisages that the Nation Space Science Council within the
NCRST may be transformed into a fully-fledged space agency by looking at the
current mandate of the NSSC. Thus, in the future the NSSC might be responsible
for licensing space activities conducted by non-governmental entities or private
actors, as well as to carry oversight function through inspections and enforcement
measures.
Bibliography
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National-Space-Science-Council-Established/ (2015). 6 June 2017
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engineerin/avn/ (2017, March)
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Statutes and National Policy Documents: Acts of Parliament
25. Constitution of the Republic of Namibia Act No. 1 of 1990

26. Communications Act No. 28 of 2009
27. Research, Science and Technology Act No. 23 of 2004
10 Namibia 215
Statutes and National Policy Documents: Policy Documents
28. Draft National Space Policy 2

29. Draft National Strategy for Space Science 2
30. National Programme on Research, Science, Technology and Innovation (NPRSTI) of
2014/2015 to 2016/2017
31. National Development Plan 5
Author Biography
Town, and also pursuing the MBA in Aviation Management at the University of Petroleum and
Tunisia
11
André Siebrits
Abstract
While Tunisia’s space sector and activities are not yet on par with other
leading African states such as Algeria, the country is a rapidly rising space actor.
Since 1984 the National Centre for Cartography and Remote Sensing has been
supporting various sectors of the economy through the use of space data, and
more recently agreements have been concluded with international partners to
establish a domestic industrial sector dedicated to space, via the Sfax
Technopole. Plans are also underway for the first Tunisian satellite, aiming for
launch by 2020, while the country also hosts a variety of space-related
organisations such as the Regional Centre for Remote Sensing of North Africa
States, the Sahara and Sahel Observatory (OSS), and most recently the
China-Arab Beidou Centre. Tunisia is thus likely to be one of Africa’s fastest
emerging nations in the space sector in the coming years, given political support
and the recognition of the importance of space in the country’s development
plans.
Tunisia is one of the rapidly rising emerging space actors of North Africa, and in
this chapter, its space activities and policies will be analysed to identify the
country’s specific space posture as well as its international positioning in the field.
The chapter consists of six sections, covering background and context, regulatory
and policy aspects concerning outer space, the National Centre for Cartography and
Remote Sensing (CNCT), space activities and infrastructure, international part-
nerships and cooperation, and findings.
A. Siebrits (&)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05980-4_11
218 A. Siebrits
As was the case with the analyses presented of Algeria and Morocco, a fruitful
discussion of Tunisia’s space activities must necessarily be rooted in an overview of
the national background and context. Factors such as geography, demographics,
developmental and environmental challenges, and history are all crucial influencers
of space activities and policies. In the case of the Republic of Tunisia, the country
occupies the northernmost position on the African continent (in the Maghreb
region), bordering Algeria to the east and Libya to the west, with the Mediterranean
to the north.1 Land borders total 1495 km, with Algeria’s border being 1034 km
long and Libya’s 461 km, while the coastline totals 1148 km. The total area of the
country is 163,610 km2 (comparable to Suriname or roughly comparable to Ban-
gladesh), while the terrain features include a mountainous yet temperate north, a dry
and hot central plain, and semiarid south merging into the Sahara.2 The majority of
Tunisia’s 11.5 million people reside in the north (about 69% are urbanised), with
38.78% of the population under the age of 24.3 Natural hazards and environmental
challenges include flooding, drought, earthquakes, acidification of soil and water,
ineffective hazardous and toxic waste disposal, limited freshwater resources and
water pollution, overgrazing, deforestation, and desertification, with soil erosion
being another challenge.4
Despite centuries of Ottoman rule, European powers had begun to compete over
Tunisia in the nineteenth century with France eventually establishing the country as
a protectorate through the Treaty of Kasser Said from 1881.5 Independence was
only regained in 1956, and after decades of rule by only two leaders (Habib
Bourguiba until 1987, and Zine El-Abidine Ben Ali until 2011), the country was
swept by the ‘Arab Spring’ in 2011, which heralded a process of democratisation
(albeit not without difficulties and challenges).6 Some of these challenges include
the assassination of Mohamed Brahmi (leader of the nationalist Movement of the
People party) in 2013 and jihadist threats. Today the country is a parliamentary
republic under the leadership of President Beji Caid Essebsi (since 2014). It is
against this backdrop that the next section will consider the country’s regulatory
and policy aspects concerning space.
1
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), “The World Factbook: Tunisia,” 2019, https://www.cia.gov/
library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ts.html (accessed February 20, 2019).
2
Ibid.
3
Ibid.
4
Ibid.
5
Denise Youngblood Coleman, “Tunisia Country Review,” CountryWatch Publications, 2018, 7,
http://web.a.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.uct.ac.za/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=2&sid=55dccdbb-
2311-4c6e-8817-025dbfe803b3%40sessionmgr4010 (accessed February 20, 2019).
6
Ibid., pp. 7–59.
11 Tunisia 219
11.2 Tunisia’s Regulatory and Policy Aspects Concerning

Outer Space
The two subsections here will present an analysis of Tunisia’s involvement in

space-related international treaties and fora, with particular emphasis on the United
Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS), as well as
relevant domestic legislation and policy, respectively. Institutions involved in space
activities in Tunisia will also be highlighted.
11.2.1 UN Treaties on Outer Space and Tunisian Involvement

in International Fora
Tunisia has been a member of UNCOPUOS since 20107 and has (as of 1 January
2018) ratified the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, the 1968 Rescue Agreement, and the
1972 Liability Convention.8 It has thus not yet ratified the 1975 Registration
Convention or (like the majority of states) the 1979 Moon Agreement. Other
space-related treaties ratified by Tunisia are the 1963 Treaty Banning Nuclear
Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and under Water, the 1971
Agreement Relating to the International Telecommunications Satellite Organisation
(ITSO), the 1976 Agreement of the Arab Corporation for Space Communications
(ARABSAT), the 1976 Convention on the International Mobile Satellite Organi-
sation, and the 1992 International Telecommunication Constitution and Conven-
tion.9 Tunisia has thus made clear its intent to play an active role in the international
space community and, in line with this, it has also put forth a position on the debate
regarding questions on the definition and delimitation of outer space. In response to
two particular questions, namely “[d]oes your Government consider it necessary to
define outer space and/or to delimit airspace and outer space, given the current level
of space and aviation activities and technological development in space and avia-
tion technologies? Please provide a justification for the answer”, and “[d]oes your
Government consider another approach to solving this issue? Please provide a
justification for the answer”, the following reply was issued in 2009:
Regarding the first question, Tunisia considers it necessary to delimit airspace. The com-
plete and exclusive sovereignty that every State has over the airspace above its territory
should be recognized by all other States in conformity with the principles of international
law. Outer space should be explored and used freely by all States without any form of
discrimination, on equal terms and in conformity with international law. Given the current
7
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), “Members of the Committee on the
Peaceful Uses of Outer Space,” 2019, http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/members/index.html
8
documents/pdf/spacelaw/treatystatus/AC105_C2_2018_CRP03E.pdf (accessed February 21, 2019).
9
Ibid.
220 A. Siebrits
level of development in airspace and outer space, Tunisia believes that it is necessary to
delimit airspace to guarantee national security and that outer space should remain accessible
to all States. In view of the possible development of the space industry in Tunisia, it will be
necessary to delimit outer space. In connection with the second question, in the opinion of
the Tunisian Government there is no other approach to solving this issue.10
Tunisia’s approach can thus be summed up as prioritising national sovereignty

as well as free and equal use of space by all states.
The country also hosts the Regional Centre for Remote Sensing of North Africa
States (CRTEAN), which is in a non-profit international organisation established on
October 6th, 1990, with the mission to (i) use remote sensing techniques and
upstream systems in the areas of sustainable development and scientific research,
(ii) promote technology transfer, and (iii) engage in capacity building for its
member states.11 It currently has six member organisations from North African
countries, namely the Tunisian National Centre for Cartography and Remote
Sensing (CNCT), the Moroccan Royal Centre for Remote Sensing (CRTS), the
Libyan Survey Department (SDL), the Mauritanian Ministry of Transportation
(dep. of DCIG), the Egyptian National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space
Sciences (NARSS), and the Sudanese Sudan National Survey Authority (SNSA).12
Another avenue of international cooperation in space is Tunisia’s participation in
the United Nations Platform for Space-based Information for Disaster Management
and Emergency Response (UN-SPIDER) network, where the National Centre for
Cartography and Remote Sensing (CNCT) is a nominated National Focal Point
institution, which represents the disaster management and space applications
community of Tunisia.13 The CNCT is thus Tunisia’s representative within the
UN-SPIDER network. Tunisia’s other memberships include the Arab Organisation
for Satellite Communication, RASCOM, the International Telecommunications
Satellite Organisation, and the International Telecommunications Union.14 Other
fora of involvement include the International Academy of Astronautics (IAA), the
International Astronautical Federation (IAF), and the International Institute of
Space Law (IISL).15 Tunisia also hosts the Sahara and Sahel Observatory (OSS),
10
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), “Questions on the definition and
delimitation of outer space: replies from Member States,” January 11, 2010, http://www.unoosa.
org/pdf/reports/ac105/AC105_889Add5E.pdf (accessed February 21, 2019).
11
Regional Centre for Remote Sensing of North Africa States (CRTEAN), “Home,” 2014, http://
www.crtean.org.tn/en/ (accessed February 21, 2019); Regional Centre for Remote Sensing of
North Africa States (CRTEAN), “Presentation,” 2014, http://www.crtean.org.tn/en/index.php/the-
center/presentation (accessed February 21, 2019).
12
Regional Centre for Remote Sensing of North Africa States (CRTEAN), “Home”.
13
UN-SPIDER Knowledge Portal, “National Focal Points,” United Nations Office for Outer Space
Affairs (UNOOSA), 2017, http://www.un-spider.org/network/national-focal-points (accessed
February 21, 2019).
14
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), “Committee on the Uses of Outer
Space: 615th Meeting,” June 10, 2010, http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/transcripts/copuos/COPUOS_
T615E.pdf (accessed February 21, 2019).
15
Thouraya Sahli Chahed, “Space Activities in Tunisia,” National Centre for Mapping and Remote
Sensing (CNCT), February 8, 2010, http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/pres/stsc2010/tech-05.pdf (ac-
11 Tunisia 221
which is an international intergovernmental organisation focusing on the

Sahara-Sahel region, and which was founded in 1992.16 OSS has 32 members, of
which 25 are African and seven from outside the continent, and “initiates and
facilitates partnerships around common challenges related to shared water resources
management, implementation of international agreements on desertification, bio-
diversity and climate change in the Sahara and Sahel region”.17
11.2.2 Tunisia’s Domestic Space Legislation and Space Policy
Tunisia’s formal involvement in space began in 1984 with the creation of the
Tunisian National Commission for Outer Space Affairs (NCOSA/CNEEA), dedi-
cated to overseeing the work of various ministries concerning space.18 More
broadly, NCOSA has the role to:
coordinate the activities of the various ministerial departments and organizations concerned
with outer space and to generate media awareness of the benefits to be acquired from
exploiting the opportunities offered by space technologies, the activities of the different
actors involved have been federated by the setting up of five discussion groups, on legal and
regulatory aspects; space techniques and technologies; space telecommunications; Earth
observation and remote sensing; and training and awareness-raising.19
NCOSA was created through decree (décret n° 84-1125 du 24 septembre 1984,20

modified by décret n° 93-1642 du 9 août 199321). Its activities, beyond those listed
already, include proposing national policy on the peaceful use of outer space, the
preservation of Tunisia’s economic social, cultural, and strategic interests in the
field of outer space, and the promotion of science and technology through
the training of persons in specialised and dynamic activities of research.22
The next milestone was the creation of the CNCT through loi n° 88-83 du 11
juillet 1988,23 under which it was known as the National Centre of Remote Sensing,
16
Observatoire du Sahara et du Sahel (OSS), “Members and Partners,” 2018, http://www.oss-
online.org/en/members-partners (accessed February 21, 2019).
17
Ibid.
18
Space in Africa, “Towards a Tunisian National Space Strategy,” March 22, 2018, https://
africanews.space/towards-a-tunisian-national-space-strategy/ (accessed February 21, 2019).
19
GlobalSecurity.org, “National Commission for Outer Space Affairs,” July 21, 2011, https://
www.globalsecurity.org/space/world/tunisia/agency.htm (accessed February 21, 2019).
20
Journal Officiel de la République Tunisienne, “Sommaire,” October 5, 1984, http://www.
legislation.tn/sites/default/files/journal-officiel/1984/1984F/Jo05684.pdf (accessed February 21,
2019).
21
Journal Officiel de la République Tunisienne, “Sommaire,” August 23, 1993, http://193.95.2.
162/sites/default/files/journal-officiel/1993/1993F/Jo06293.pdf (accessed February 21, 2019).
22
Rabi El Majidi, “La legislation tunisienne relative à l’espace,” 2010, http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/
pres/lsc2010/tech-01.pdf (accessed February 21, 2019).
23
Contrôle Démocratique des Forces Armées (DCAF), “Loi n° 88-83 du 11 Juillet 1988, portant
création du centre national de télédétection,” 2017, https://legislation-securite.tn/fr/node/41349
222 A. Siebrits
modified by loi n° 2009-24 du 11 mai 2009,24 after which it became known under
its present name. From these laws, the 11 main responsibilities of the CNCT are
outlined in Table 11.1. According to the 1988 law, the CNCT falls under the
supervision of the Ministry of National Defense.
The third space-related organisation in Tunisia, the National Institute of Mete-
orology, was established through an earlier law, loi n° 74-101 du 25 décembre
1974, modified by loi n° 2009-10 du 16 février 2009.25 The fourth relevant
organisation is the National Office of Broadcasting, created by loi n° 93-8 du 1er
février 1993.26 However, for the discussion here, the focus will primarily be placed
on the CNCT as the leading national space entity in the country.
Currently, Tunisia’s national development is guided by its five year National
Development Plan (2016–2020), with the aim to strengthen the economy in the
aftermath of the revolution of 2011 and to increase the economy’s investment
attractiveness and strengthen the role of the private sector.27 With the goal of
achieving annual growth of 4%, the plan aims to mobilise about $60 billion (about
120 billion dinars), while focusing on five key priority areas, namely good gov-
ernance, reform of the administration and fight against corruption, transition from a
low-cost economy to an economic hub, human development and social inclusion,
and realising regional ambitions and a green economy.28 As part of the plan, 146
projects were identified, including the development of the space industry around a
micro-satellite project (of 120 million Tunisian Dinar, or about $40 million).29
Efforts in this regard will be discussed later in this chapter. It is clear, however, that
space has been prioritised by the government as part of its development plans. The
next section will elaborate further on the CNTC as the leading Tunisian agency
dedicated to space.
24
Presidency of the Government (Republic of Tunisia), “Law n° 2009-24 dated 11 May 2009,
amending law n° 88-83 dated 11 July 1988, forming the national remote detection center,” 2019,
http://www.legislation.tn/en/detailtexte/Loi-num-2009-24-du-11-05-2009-jort-2009-038__
2009038000241 (accessed February 21, 2019).
25
Presidency of the Government (Republic of Tunisia), “Loi n° 2009-10 du 16 février 2009,
relative à l’institut national de la météorologie,” 2019, http://www.legislation.tn/fr/detailtexte/Loi-
num-2009-10-du-16-02-2009-jort-2009-015__2009015000101 (accessed February 21, 2019).
26
Journal Officiel de la République Tunisienne, “loi n° 93-8 du 1er février 1993,” February 5,
1993, http://www.telediffusion.net.tn/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Loi-93-8-du-1-02-1993.pdf
27
WebManagerCenter, “Tunisia 2020: Les 5 grands axes du Plan de développement 2016–2020,”
Internet Management Group SA, November 26, 2016, https://www.webmanagercenter.com/2016/
11/26/399309/tunisia-2020-les-5-grands-axes-du-plan-de-developpement-2016-2020/ (accessed
February 21, 2019). Translated from French.
28
Ibid.
29
Tunis-Afrique Presse, “Tunisia 2020: 146 projects, including smart projects, proposed to
investors,” November 29, 2016, Thomson Reuters Zawya, https://www.zawya.com/mena/en/story/
Tunisia_2020_146_projects_including_smart_projects_proposed_to_investors-
ZAWYA20161129041020/ (accessed February 21, 2019).
11 Tunisia 223
Table 11.1 Responsibilities of the National Centre for Cartography and Remote Sensinga
1. Make basic maps, marine charts, space maps, thematic maps and city plans, gather the relevant
documents with a view to form national archives and ensure their management, publication and
marketing after having the approval of the Ministry of National Defence
2. Make the activities of aerial photography on all the national territory or supervise these
activities when made by others
3. Perform the works necessary to establish and preserve levelling networks, in coordination with
the topography and cadastre office in case of need, and a gravimetric network covering all
national territory. The centre also performs the works related to the geographic information,
notably those of the techniques of satellite geographical location and of remote detection, makes
and updates the geographical data relating to national territory, and performs several
topographical works except those related to the documents on land registration and cadastre
4. Perform works relating to the preservation of frontier limits
5. Collect, technically treat, diffuse and archive data related to remote detection
6. Use space and remote detection techniques to achieve studies relating to national defence and
social and economic development of the country
7. Make technical and scientific studies and research in several scopes of competence of the
centre and ensure training for a valuable consideration
8. Provide services for valuable consideration for the benefit of public institutions, Tunisian or
foreign natural persons and legal entities, and national or international organisations
9. Help the public and private establishments and make the operations of works control achieved
within the scope of their competence with a view to approving their technical compliance with
the criteria and standards set by order of the Minister of National Defence
10. Watch over the organisation of the geomatic sector. In this context, the centre shall:
• take part in forming a national policy and setting up methods necessary for its
implementation,
• take part in forming legislative and regulatory bills relating to the organisation of the geomatic
sector,
• determine the national system of reference in the geomatic field,
• approve the specifications relating to the achievement of systems of geographical information
for the benefit of the state, local collectivities and public enterprises and establishments,
• approve the technical compliance of the geomatic equipment with the national or international
standards per the conditions and procedures set by decree
11. Represent the Republic of Tunisia in the international specialised organisations
a
Presidency of the Government (Republic of Tunisia), “Law n° 2009-24 dated 11 May 2009,
amending law n° 88-83 dated 11 July 1988, forming the national remote detection center,” 2019,
2009038000241 (accessed February 21, 2019). Translated from French
11.3 The National Centre for Cartography and Remote

Sensing (CNCT)
The CNCT is classified as a non-administrative public enterprise supervised by the

Ministry of National Defence, and is responsible for “promoting remote sensing,
research and training in its fields”, with its mission being expanded in 2004 to
“cover the areas of cartography, geodesy, topography and photogrammetry and
224 A. Siebrits
gravimetry”.30 Other missions include “multi-scale cartographic production, aerial

photography activities, validation of GIS specifications, and technical control of
GIS products”.31 The CNCT has seven main divisions—the unit of training and
instruction; the production directorate; the technical directorate; Common Services
Branch; management of the organisation, internal audit and management control;
Directorate of quality control, the referential and technical validation; and Direc-
torate of data analysis.32 The work of the CNCT includes the implementation of
pilot thematic projects in priority sectors, including Environmental Protection (areas
of coastal and marine environment, desertification, and natural risks), agriculture
(areas of forests and hydrology), and urban and rural planning.33 Some projects in
these areas include studies of marine pollution in the Gulf of Gabes and the
dynamics of desertification in the region of Menzel Habib, phyto-ecological map-
ping of Greater Tunis, and the Satellite Watch of Desertification in Southern
Tunisia. The CNCT, under the former leadership of Mohamed Hajam also placed a
strong emphasis on a “great leap forward in the field of digital geographic infor-
mation”, arguing that “[i]t has become urgent for the National Centre for Cartog-
raphy and Remote Sensing to carry out this project because it is a vital necessity”.34
This was because it is “the foundation of most economic, social, environmental and
security development projects”, and needed to “properly manage resources, plan,
and monitor the implementation of economic and social security development
policies”.35
Despite these activities, the country lacks a national space strategy, and in order
to establish such a strategy for Tunisia, a conference was held in March 2018 on the
topic ‘Towards a Tunisian National Space Strategy’ under the coordination of the
Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research.36 International participants
included representatives from UNOOSA, the European Space Agency, the Indian
Space Research Organisation, the Centre National d’Études Spatiales (France), and
the Italian Space Agency, and items under discussion included “[s]pace technolo-
gies and [s]ustainable development, lessons from international experience, emerg-
ing trends in space technologies, emerging trends and prospects for cooperation
30
Centre National de la Cartographie et de la Télédétection, “Présentation,” 2014, http://www.cnct.
defense.tn/index.php/fr/site-map/presentation (accessed November 20, 2018). Translated from
French.
31
Ibid.
32
Ibid.
33
Centre National de la Cartographie et de la Télédétection, “Projets Thématiques,” 2014, http://
www.cnct.defense.tn/index.php/activites/item/179-thematique (accessed February 21, 2019).
Translated from French.
34
Moncef Mahroug, “Le CNCT veut conforter son leadership dans l’information géographique
numérique,” Internet Management Group SA, May 17, 2017, https://www.webmanagercenter.
com/2017/05/17/406265/le-cnct-veut-conforter-son-leadership-dans-linformation-geographique-
numerique/ (accessed February 21, 2019). Translated from French.
35
Ibid.
36
Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research (Tunisia), “Towards a Tunisian National
Space Strategy,” 2018, http://www.isa2m.rnu.tn/TNSS/Schedule-en.pdf (accessed February 21,
2019).
11 Tunisia 225
with Tunisia”.37 Workshops were also held on topics of space technologies and
infrastructure, Earth observation and application areas (needs and priorities), and
space technologies for communications.38 The next section will consider Tunisia’s
space activities and infrastructure.
While Tunisia does not own a satellite at present, plans are in the works based on
reports that “Brigadier Zuhair Al-Jandali [Director General of the CNCT] hinted
that the Centre is currently in the process of joining the National Committee for
Outer Space [Tunisian National Commission for Outer Space Affairs (NCOSA)] on
the completion of a satellite for Tunisia; emphasizing that the new satellite will be
focused on socio-economic areas, especially communications”.39 It was since
reported that “[w]ork is currently ongoing on the development of the first Tunisian
Satellite, the result of cooperation with Japanese and French companies”, and it is to
be named Challenge-1 and launched by 2020.40 This development is the result of
the “first major private space investment” in the country in 2017, whereby a
Tunisian company Sfax Technopole (a public limited company incorporated under
a Public Private Partnership41) partnered with Telnet and Aerospace Valley Tou-
louse to make “the Sfax Technopole a center of space, courtesy of the partnership
between the Telnet Group and the European leader Airbus Safran Launchers”.42
The project is said “include the design and construction of an assembly, integration
and microsatellite testing facility and the implementation of an engineering center
for microsatellites”, with the engineering centre having three main missions of
“engineering and satellite design, research and patents in the field of space and the
development of innovative services in space”.43 This is predicted to create 500
direct and 1000–2000 indirect jobs from 2018. As such the Tunisian space sector is
set to grow. This is seen as evidence of the country’s “deliberate and intentional”
space technology growth and expansion path.44 Tunisia also hosts a “movement for
the official establishment of the Tunisian Space Agency”,45 but while such an
37
Space in Africa, “Overview of the Tunisian Space Industry,” April 19, 2018, https://africanews.
space/overview-of-the-tunisian-space-industry/ (accessed February 21, 2019).
38
Ibid.
39
Ibid.
40
Space in Africa, “Is Tunisia the next space giant from Africa?” December 11, 2018, https://
africanews.space/is-tunisia-the-next-space-giant-from-africa/ (accessed February 21, 2019).
41
Technopole Sfax, “Structure,” 2014, http://www.sfax-icttechnopark.tn/index.php?id=18 (ac-
cessed February 21, 2019). Translated from French.
42
Space in Africa, “Is Tunisia the next space giant from Africa?”
43
Ibid.
44
Space in Africa, “Towards a Tunisian National Space Strategy,” March 22, 2018, https://
africanews.space/towards-a-tunisian-national-space-strategy/ (accessed February 21, 2019).
45
Space in Africa, “List of Space Agencies in Africa,” Africa Space News, June 22, 2018, https://
africanews.space/list-of-space-agencies-in-africa/ (accessed November 20, 2018).
226 A. Siebrits
organisation already exists, it remains “a scientific association in Tunisia created in

June 2012 to promote aerospace field in Tunisia”.46
As part of Tunisia’s core national space ecosystem, academia is also playing an
active role in space research and cooperation. UNISEC-Tunisia, a local chapter of
UNISEC Global (University Space Engineering Consortium), consisting of “labs,
universities and scientific associations to introduce research and training activities
on space technology based on small satellite and applications”47 is comprised of a
variety of universities, including the Universities of Monastir, Sfax, Tunis El
Manar, and Sousse.48 Some of UNISEC-Tunisia’s activities include the promotion
of national and international projects, including prototypes, experiments and launch
operations, imaging, monitoring, ground station, safety methods, Cansat;
fundraising and project support, including designing satellites, water monitoring,
ground station, devices and antennas; promotion of an alliance between research,
education, business, industry, and government; organisation of competitions, con-
ferences, and collaboration; communication and training; and promotion of inter-
national cooperation.49 A variety of courses on graduate level are also provided,
including astrophysics, satellite telecommunication, small satellite design, and
space system engineering.50
There is also a thriving aerospace sector in the country, with about 80 companies
employing over 13,000 people in the sector in 2017.51 Of these, over 85% are
foreign-owned, and with about two-thirds being French, France remains Tunisia’s
largest partner, although partnerships with countries such as Qatar and the United
States are also important. Local companies are also making inroads into the sector.
11.5 Tunisia’s Partnership and International Cooperation
Tunisia is active in a variety of collaborative projects related to space. One such

example is “cooperation with fellow Maghreb states to establish a communication
network that was envisioned to utilize satellite communication and data-sharing to
further develop the region’s educational system” in 2001, and is “playing a sig-
nificant role in launching of the ArabSat satellite enjoying the lattice space
46
Tunisian Space Agency, “Association,” http://tunispacedays.com/association/ (accessed Novem-
ber 20, 2018).
47
Unisec Tunisia, “About,” https://www.facebook.com/pg/UnisecTunisia/about/?ref=page_
internal (accessed February 21, 2019).
48
Kamel Besbes, “Tunisian Capacity Building Experience in Space Technology Engineering
Tunisia/North Africa,” 2017, 8, http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/activities/2017/
SamaraWorkshop/presentations/2-5-1._Kamel_Besbes_Tunisian_Capacity_Building_Experience_
in_Space_Technology_Engineering.pdf (accessed February 21, 2019).
49
Ibid., p. 7.
50
Ibid., p. 9.
51
African Aerospace, “Aerospace's key role in Tunisian economy,” November 24, 2017, https://
www.africanaerospace.aero/aerospace-s-key-role-in-tunisian-economy.html (accessed February
21, 2019).
11 Tunisia 227
telecommunications”.52 Former president Ben Ali also remarked in 2005 at the UN

Summit on the Information Society in Tunis that satellite-based technology as a
way “to reduce disparities between peoples, and ensure a balanced, safe and
equitable information society”.53 More recently in 2018, China opened a BeiDou
Navigation Satellite System Centre in the country, the first such overseas BeiDou
centre.54 The China-Arab Beidou Centre is a pilot project between the
Tunisia-based Arab Information and Communication Technology Organisation
(AICTO) and China, and will provide training (including of satellite navigation
scientists) and research for Arab states, with communication and collaboration
being strengthened with China in both satellite navigation and the provision of
Beidou-based services to Arab states to “enhance social and economic
development”.55
As part of its international partnerships, the CNCT has also established “with the
research centers and laboratories of the Euro-Mediterranean States, partnership
relations focused on the realization of collective scientific research projects through
the programs of scientific and technical cooperation of the European community
with developing countries”.56 Other international memberships include the United
Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names (UNGEGN) and the Compre-
hensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organisation (CTBTO), as part of the centre’s
role as an international representative of Tunisia.57
Based on the previous sections, the initial questions posed regarding Tunisia’s
space posture, and international positioning in the space sector can be answered
here. Firstly, while the country’s domestic space sector is still in relatively early
stages of development, the Sfax Technopole and partnerships with Aerospace
Valley Toulouse and Airbus Safran Launchers place Tunisia on a firm footing to
meet the stated goal of having its first satellite in orbit by 2020. Based on comments
made, it is expected that this satellite will focus on supporting socio-economic
development and especially communications, but further specifications are not yet
available. This is also not likely to be Tunisia’s only satellite given the stated goals
of the development plan to promote the space industry. As such, the national space
posture can be described as robust, and heavily focused on strengthening the
52
Space in Africa, “Towards a Tunisian National Space Strategy”.
53
Ibid.
54
Space in Africa, “BeiDou Navigation Satellite System Centre opens in Tunisia,” April 16, 2018,
https://africanews.space/beidou-navigation-satellite-system-centre-opens-in-tunisia/ (accessed
February 21, 2019).
55
Ibid.
56
Centre National de la Cartographie et de la Télédétection, “Au niveau international,” 2014, http://
www.cnct.defense.tn/index.php/fr/cooperation-et-partenariat/item/195-au-niveau-international (ac-
cessed February 21, 2019). Translated from French.
57
Ibid.
228 A. Siebrits
country’s domestic manufacturing and industrial capabilities, and prioritising the

leveraging of remote sensing to support various economic sectors. The development
of the first national space strategy is likely to further enhance the upward trajectory
of Tunisia in this sector.
In terms of the country’s international positioning, a trend towards partnerships
focusing on building specific capabilities (for instance through the BeiDou centre
and the deals mentioned above with Safran and Aerospace Valley) is clear. It is also
probable that the Registration Convention will be joined as soon as the first satellite
is nearing completion, given the willingness demonstrated to support and join three
of the five major international space treaties in the past.
While Tunisia is not yet comparable to neighbouring Algeria in terms of its
space capabilities, given its establishment of the CNCT in 1984 it has achieved the
first level of the first category of the Space Technology Ladder (Establish First
National Space Office in the category National Space Agency).58 If the plans of
adopting a space strategy and establishing a robust domestic space sector predicated
on manufacturing satellite technology, along with owning its first satellite, come to
fruition, Tunisia is likely to shortly and rapidly climb the Space Technology
Ladder.
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Author Biography
Ghana
12
Mchasisi Gasela
Abstract
Space technology and research offers unique opportunity for African states to
realize their socio-economic and environmental development agendas. Ghana
has always been an ambitious state in achieving her developmental needs
through scientific and technological advancement. Realizing her development
needs in curbing challenges of natural disasters, illegal gold mining, combating
climate change, improving agricultural productivity, enhancing natural resource
management and global connectivity, she entered the space arena. This chapter
seeks to trace the development of Ghana’s space programme and the strides she
has accomplished in her ambition of applying space technologies in realizing her
developmental needs.
Ghana is a West African state that was the first African nation to attain indepen-
dence from Britain in 1957. Since her independence, Ghana has always been an
ambitious state that had centred her developmental agenda on a strong scientific,
technological and innovative base. The fall of the Berlin Wall followed by the
collapse of the USSR, marked the end of the Cold War heralding a paradigm shift in
the space epoch. The space activities changed from that motivated by national
security and technological push for prestigious reasons to that of demand pull for
human security and socio-economic benefits. Specifically, this space epoch was
associated with the entrance of new players. In the month of January 2016, Ghana,
M. Gasela (&)
e-mail: gasellarmc@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05980-4_12
232 M. Gasela
a West African country established a fully-fledged space agency, i.e. Ghana Space
Agency (GhSA). Ghana became the sixth African nation to have a functional space
programme, after Nigeria, Algeria, Egypt, Morocco and South Africa, and also
became the first Sub-Saharan state to successfully launch an educational satellite,
i.e. Ghanasat-1 on the 7th of July 2017.1 The telecommunications technology and
discovery of crude oil are the leading drivers for technology advancement in the
country.2 These, together with the space programme are envisaged as the engines in
the transformation of Ghana’s socio-economic status and a panacea to illegal
mining and climate change challenges.3 The objectives of this work are to trace the
development of GhSA and analyze Ghana’s space activities with the main focus on
the implementation of her international treaty obligations in domestic legislation,
space posture and geopolitical positioning regionally and internationally.
12.2 Outer Space Treaties, United Nation

Declarations/Principles
In the international space arena, Ghana has endorsed the agenda and goals of the
UNCOPUOS and the UNISPACE III. Ghana is a signatory to Outer Space Treaty
(1967), Rescue Agreement (1968) and Liability Convention (1972).4 However, it
has not signed the Registration Convention of 1975 and the Moon Agreement of
1979. Further notable ratifications were on four out of eleven United Nations
Agreements, including Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere,
in Outer Space and Under Water, Agreement relating to the International
Telecommunications Satellite Organization, Convention on the International
Mobile Satellite Organization and International Telecommunication Convention
establishing the International Telecommunications Union (ITU).5 Unfortunately, at
the time of writing, Ghana does not have any domestic legislation to direct her
national space activities. She has to first establish courses in Space Law at academic
institutions in order to achieve this.6
1
The Conversation, Ghana is looking to outer space. It needs law to match. (The Conversation, 13
August 2018) http://theconversation.com/ghana-is-looking-to-outer-space-it-needs-the-law-to-
match-100200 Accessed 24/01/2019.
2
Proven-Adzri, E. and Browne-Klutse, N. A. Building a technology economy in Ghana through
space technology, Ghana Space Science and Technology Institute, (UN/Costa Rica Workshop in
human space technology, San Jose, Costa Rica, 2016). www.unoosa.org Accessed 10/03/2017.
3
Matthews, C. Why Ghana started a space programme. 2016 http://motherboard.vice.com/en_w/
article/why-ghana-started-a-space-program Accessed 07/03/2017.
4
Van-Wyk, J. A. Overview of the implementation status of the five United Nations treaties on outer
space in African countries, (African Skies/Cieux Africains, 12, pp. 20–28, 2008) p. 21.
5
Policy Review—Ghana, 2011, UNCTD, Geneva http://www.ghanaiantimes.com.gh/national-
space-policy-ready-for-cabinets-consideration/ Accessed 07/03/2017.
6
The Conversation, Ghana is looking to outer space. It needs law to match. The Conversation, 13
August 2018. http://theconversation.com/ghana-is-looking-to-outer-space-it-needs-the-law-to-
match-100200 Accessed 24/01/2019.
12 Ghana 233
Ghana is faced with a lot of challenges such as illegal gold mining, climate change,
natural disasters that have resulted in ecosystems degradation and a lag in economic
development. The country needs robust technological applications to curb illegal
gold mining, monitor vegetation, search and rescue for emergency response in case
of natural disasters, hot spot identification, environmental monitoring including
riparian assessment, hydrocarbon spills, utility monitoring such as power-lines and
pipelines.7 To add, Ghana requires space applications to meet her societal needs and
national development agenda in line with the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) and Agenda 2063, such as climate modelling and climate impact assess-
ment particularly on health and gender issues, tele-medicine, satellite communi-
cation and broadcasting, tele-education and international collaboration.8
In order for Ghana to realize her national development plan, she is in the process of
developing a National Policy on Space Science, Technology and Law.9 This policy
will ensure coordination and harmonization of all space-related activities nation-
wide. The main objective of the policy is to serve as a roadmap for promoting
research, development and training in space applications and integration of space
activities into domestic legislation.10 The major goal of the policy is the estab-
lishment of the Ghana Space Agency (GhSA) which was achieved in January 2016
and a full academic bench in space engineering at the All Nations University
(ANU). The mandate of GhSA is to coordinate space programs and set Ghana in the
framework of UNISPACE III and UNCOPUOS. The thrust of the policy rests on
promotion of economic growth in areas of sustainable development, earth obser-
vation, tele-medicine, satellite communication and broadcasting, distance learning
and international collaboration.11
7
GAEC, Ghana Space Science and Technology Institute (GSSTI) 2013/2014 Annual Report. p. 8.
8
Policy Review—(Ghana, UNCTD, Geneva, 2011). http://www.ghanaiantimes.com.gh/national-
9
Amankwah-Amoh, J. The evolution of science, technology and innovation policies: A review of
the Ghanaian experience, (Technological Forecasting and Social Change 110 pp. 134–142, 2016).
10
MEST. National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy, (Ministry of Environment, Science
and Technology, Accra, 2010) p. 11.
11
Foy, H. Moving Towards a Ghana Space Agency. Law and Policy, (Space Safety Magazine,
2014). www.africsis.org Accessed 09/03/2017.
234 M. Gasela
12.5 The Need for Space Programme
Countries undertake space activities for various reasons. Besides, these reasons
greatly depend on the context of national objectives like state security, international
relations strategies, socio-economic development and technological advance-
ments.12 Precisely, Ghana entered space arena to facilitate connection of her pop-
ulation with the entire world, to improve her health delivery system, make
education accessible to all people including those living in the remote rural areas,
collection of critical data through earth observation programmes, as a general
investment for the country. Also, to improve sustainable livelihoods and ensure that
future generations are involved in science, technology and innovation. Ghana also
needs space programme for growth and development and ascertaining her geopo-
litical posture regionally and internationally.13 Navigation satellite systems and
satellite communications are critical to navigate the world and make communica-
tion with people throughout the globe easy and instant. GPS, mobile phones and
television broadcast operate from space. Moreover, the European Space Agency’s
“Satellite African eHealth validation” programme can be an important bridge for
rural people lacking access to doctors, nurses, healthcare professionals and facili-
ties.14 Tele-education offers an opportunity to give access to all levels of students’
cutting-edge educational programmes from leading international institutions to
remote classes. Furthermore, earth observation churns a lot of critical data in var-
ious areas of concern ranging from disaster monitoring to resource management.
Specifically, space technology and its applications are workhorses for achieving
sustainable development and hence Ghana entered the space arena.
12.6 Development of Ghana Space Agency
Ghana’s space activities began in 2009 when the Minister of Environment, Science
and Technology (MEST) pronounced her ambitions of setting up the GhSA through
a three-phase development plan. The first phase was setting up the Ghana Space
Science and Technology Institute (GSSTI) under the Ghana Atomic Energy
Commission (GAEC) in 2011 and as a stand-alone institute in 2012.15 It was
transformed into a fully-fledged space agency in 2016. A number of space related
activities have been started in Ghana to achieve the country’s space ambitions.
12
Foy, H. Moving Towards a Ghana Space Agency. Law and Policy (Space Safety Magazine,
13
Proven-Adzri, E. and Browne-Klutse, N. A. (2016) Building a technology economy in Ghana
through space technology, Ghana Space Science and Technology Institute, UN/Costa Rica http://
www.spacesafetymagazine.com/space-on-earth/national-space-programs/three-phase-development-
plan-emerging-ghana-space-program/ Accessed 07/03/2017.
14
Hauser, M. and John, M. Space Applications for International Development, Solutions from
Space. www.SpaceFoundation.org Accessed 25/02/2017.
15
Matthews, C. (2016) Why Ghana started a space programme. http://motherboard.vice.com/en_
w/article/why-ghana-started-a-space-program Accessed 24/02/2017.
12 Ghana 235
Broad research in space science and technology has been mandated to the GAEC,
GSSTI, GhSA and the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). Some
projects like the TRINET in collaboration with the government of Ireland, the
KESHE Foundation, and the conversion of the 32 m diameter antenna at Kutunse
(Ghana Radio Astronomy Programme) into a Very Long Baseline Interferometry-
Capable Radio Telescope are some of the achievements by Ghana in domestic
space arena.16,17 Ghana has also developed the Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
(UAV) with the aim of monitoring illegal gold mining and other environmental
surveillance. These have also been used by the National Security, Ghana Armed
Forces, Ghana Air Force and the GAEC. Outreach programmes in schools and the
general public for awareness in space activities have also been conducted.
In the first phase, the Ghana Space Science and Technology Centre (GSSTC)
were created on the 1st of January 2011 under the Ghana Atomic Energy Com-
mission (GAEC) operating in the Graduate School of Nuclear and Allied Sciences
of the University of Ghana. The aim of this was to run research and training so as to
produce aerospace scientists and engineers, advocacy and outreach programmes
that would stimulate student and public interest, corral support from policy makers
so as to uncover and exploit the capabilities of space science and technology for the
benefit of humanity, national socio-technological advancement and development
through education and cutting-edge research and training.18,19 The main functions
of the GSSTC were centred around the feasibility studies through investigations on
the existing and needed institutional infrastructures for training in space science and
engineering, human scientific and technical capabilities and nurture the nation’s
emerging space sector.20 This led to the recommendations of introducing under-
graduate and graduate programmes in astronomy and astrophysics and resuscitation
of the Ghana Radio Astronomy project.21 All these were projects aimed at the
promotion of Ghana’s space activities. In January 2013, the centre was transformed
into a Ghana Space Science and Technology Institute (GSSTI) which marked the
second phase of the space science plan. This institute was charge with coordinating
and leading Ghana’s space activities and programmes. Of particular interest was the
government support through budget in 2014, where an equivalent of US $10 m was
allocated and full organizational and administrative staff appointed under the
16
Rose, F. Why Space Matters for Africa, United States Department of State, Foundation for Space
Development, 2014. http://www.state.gov/t/avc/rls/2014/231644.htm. Accessed 14/03/2017.
17
the Ghanaian experience (Technological Forecasting and Social Change 110 pp. 134–142, 2016).
18
Amankwah-Amoh, J. (2016) The evolution of science, technology and innovation policies: A
review of the Ghanaian experience (Technological Forecasting and Social Change 110 pp. 134–
142, 2016).
19
Foy, H. (2014) Moving Towards a Ghana Space Agency. Law and Policy, Space Safety
Magazine. www.africsis.org Accessed 28/02/2017.
20
MEST, National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy, (Ministry of Environment, Science
and Technology, Accra, 2011) p. 12.
21
GAEC (2014), Ghana Space Science and Technology Institute (GSSTI) 2013/2014 Annual
Report. p. 8.
236 M. Gasela
leadership of an astute space scientist Dr. Prosper Ashilevi.22 The third phase
entailed the elevation of Ghana Space Science and Technology Institute to a
fully-fledged Ghana Space Agency. This was done in January 2016, making Ghana
the sixth country in Africa to have a fully-fledged space agency. This agency is
charged with utilizing space applications to enable natural resources to meet the
country’s socio-economic needs.23,24
12.7 Ghana’s National Space Policy
Most space policies in the African continent are not stand alone policies.25 In
Ghana, the national space policy is embedded in their National Science, Technol-
ogy and Innovation Policy and Development Plan (NSTIP). This policy strategy
was envisaged in the development plan of 2011–2015. It was a nation’s policy
strategy aimed at transforming Ghana’s economy from traditional exports of gold,
cocoa and timber to that driven by technological advancement and innovation. The
policy was prepared in a consultative manner, with expertise from the country’s
scientific, academic and business communities and with attention to the views of
Ghanaian citizens.26,27 The aim of Ghana’s space science and technology policy is
to create a strong Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) base that facilitate
social and economic development. It also envisions the migration of Ghana from
low science and technology-poor practices to science, technology, innovation and
knowledge-based society. Specifically, Ghana’s science, technology and innovation
seeks to integrate space science with national development strategy which fully
harnesses the nation’s total science and technology to achieve national objectives
for wealth creation, poverty reduction, competitiveness of enterprises, sustainable
environmental management and industrial growth.28
22
Munsami, V. and Nicolaides, A. Investigation of a governance framework for an African space
programme (Space Policy, pp. 1–27, 2017).
23
MEST (2010) National Science, Technology and Innovation Policy, Ministry of Environment,
Science and Technology, Accra. p. 12.
24
Foy, H. Moving Towards a Ghana Space Agency. Law and Policy, Space Safety Magazine,
2014. www.africsis.org Accessed 28/02/2017.
25
Munsami, V. and Nicolaides, A. Investigation of a governance framework for an African space
programme (Space Policy, pp. 1–27, 2017) p. 15.
26
Science and Technology, Accra. p. 4.
27
Amankwah-Amoh, J. (2016) The evolution of science, technology and innovation policies: A
review of the Ghanaian experience, Technological Forecasting and Social Change. 110 pp. 134–142
28
Aduro-Marfo, S. Towards a National Innovation Strategy: A critique of Ghana’s Science,
Technology and Innovation Policy, (The Innovation Journal: The Public Sector Innovation
Journal, Vol. 20 (3), article 5, 2015). pp. 1-11.
12 Ghana 237
12.8 Short, Medium and Long Term Goals of the Space

Agency
GhSA set up short, medium and long term policy strategies. GhSA endeavours to
undertake policy reforms and accelerate development and integration of space
infrastructure such as communications and earth observation satellites and appli-
cations.29 Among the advantages of satellites, synoptic views and access to areas
that may be inaccessible because of constraints such as climatic conditions, terrain
problems and where terrestrial fiber and coaxial cable are difficult to install, offer a
viable option. In the short term goals (up to 5 years), GhSA, will develop and put in
place information and communication technology assets to facilitate provision of
affordable and cost effective solutions for Ghana’s needs such as national security,
defence, broadcast and telecommunications.30 Meanwhile, earth observation will go
a long way to promote economic development through putting a price to natural
resources. In the medium term (5–10 years), GhSA plans to create a National Space
Data Infrastructure that will be a repository and an archive for satellite imagery to
serve both public and private sectors. This will also be supported by a Ghana
Photographic Interpretation Centre responsible for analysis and interpretation of
photography and video tapes for Ghanaians and the military. In the long term (over
10 years), the main aim is to create an endogenous science and technology capa-
bilities approximate to national needs, priorities and resources and create a science
and technology culture whereby solutions to socio-cultural and economic problems
of the individual, the community and the nation as a whole, could be found,31
GhSA planned to put into space a CubeSat satellite build in Ghana and launched in
Ghana by 2020. However, her first educational CubeSat Ghanasat-1 was success-
fully launched into space on 7 July 2017 from John Kennedy launching site. This
Ghanasat-1 was designed locally from ANU by three aerospace engineers.
12.9 Ghana and the International Space Law
Very few African states joined this UNCOPUOS committee and those that joined
rarely attend its meetings.32 UNCOPUOS facilitated the United Nations treaties on
outer space. Ghana signed three of these space treaties but none of them have been
ratified. Ghana signed the Outer Space Treaty in Washington (27/01/1967), Mos-
cow (15/02/1967) and London (03/03/1967). It also signed the Rescue Agreement
on the 22nd of April 1968 in Moscow and Washington and 5th of June 1968 in
London. Both the Registration Convention of 1975 and the Moon Agreement of
29
Ibid., p. 7.
30
Peter, N. The changing geopolitics of space activities (Space Policy, 37, pp 145–153, 2016)
p. 147.
31
Ibid., p. 148.
32
Van-Wyk, J. A. Overview of the implementation status of the five United Nations treaties on
outer space in African countries (African Skies/Cieux Africains, 12, pp. 20–28, 2008).
238 M. Gasela
1979 have not been signed.33 In Africa this is not only peculiar to Ghana as none of
the African countries have signed and ratified these two treaties. This makes it
difficult for Ghana to implement these outer space laws in her domestic legislation
and her participation in outer space treaties is summarized in Table 12.1.
Non-participation of African states in space affairs is dangerous since it will
further alienate and marginalize the African states in the space affairs.34 Among
other reasons for non-participation is lack of aerospace industries in Africa,
improved national space policies, African space law which is likely to be a
springboard for national space policies. There is need to restructure the UNCO-
PUOS and international space law for universal acceptance.35
12.10 Support Given by the Government of Ghana
12.10.1 Institutional Support
In order to achieve their national goals, African states involved in space activities
have created varying institutional and structural support systems for their space
programmes.36 For the grounding and success of GhSA, the government of Ghana
has supported the agency through establishing institutions to complement and assist
in its programmes. Firstly, the GSSTI which was a predecessor of the GhSA was
rooted in the institutions of higher education and training. The University of Ghana,
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) and All Nations
University of College were tasked with facilitating and developing the intellectual
capacity for the emerging space industry. It offered academic degrees (undergrad-
uate and post graduate) in the fields of Engineering, Astrophysics, Astronomy
Mathematics and Science all aimed at producing the human capital (aerospace
scientists and engineers) to facilitate the space programmes.37 Besides, it was so
strategic to house this institute within an academic research school with already
existing organizational and administrative structure, which made the establishing of
GhSA very easy. These higher education and training institutions gave the neces-
sary stamina and weight behind needed by the GhSA to be fully-fledged and
functional unit.
Furthermore, institutions like Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
(CSIR) through its policy arm on Science and Technology Policy Research Institute
33
Ibid., p. 23.
34
Ibid., p. 25.
35
Ibid., p. 25.
36
Ibid., p. 24.
37
space technology, (Ghana Space Science and Technology Institute, UN/Costa Rica Workshop in
human space technology, San Jose, Costa Rica, 2016). www.unoosa.org Accessed 28/02/2017.
12 Ghana 239
Table 12.1 Ghana’s participation in International space treaties

Outer space Rescue Liability Registration Moon
treaty agreement convention convention agreement
(1967) (1968) (1972) (1975) (1979)
Ghana Signed but Signed but Signed but Neither signed Neither
not ratified not ratified not ratified nor ratified signed nor
ratified
(STEPRI) plays a role in space science and technology studies in Ghana.38,39 It

facilitates and conducts innovation studies at the same time assessing and moni-
toring the implementation of science, technology and innovation policies. Other
institutions that support Ghana’s space activities include Ghana Atomic Energy
Commission (GAEC), Ports Harbour Authority, Environmental Protection Agency,
Forestry Commission and Ghana Marine Authority.40 These state companies have
joint operations with a company Ghanasat supported by MENASAT Group charged
with demonstrations of the capability of Radar satellite in their operations. Also,
Public Research and Development Institution and Funding and Research and
Development in Ghana, all working closely with transnational organizations like
the Department for International Development (DFID) of the United Kingdom to
implement space science, technology and innovation are a testimony of the gov-
ernment endeavours in making GhSA a functional unit and set Ghana on the stage
as a space actor.41
To add, political support also plays an important role in Ghana’s efforts in taking
up a position as a space actor. Government ministries like Ministry of Trade and
Industry, Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, Ministry of Food and
Agriculture, Ministry of Education and the National Development Planning
Commission have defined tasks to perform so as to make GhSA operational. For
example, the Ministry of Trade and Industry is charged with formulating and
overseeing the implementation of the industrial policy with the aim of adding value
to natural resources and promoting industrial share in the Gross Domestic Product
(GDP), while the National Development Planning Commission is responsible for
advising on strategies dealing with government’s agendas of meeting sustainable
development goals, such as poverty reduction.42 The Ministry of Finance and
Economic Planning has a vital role of providing budgetary support. The parliament
has also thrown weight behind the GhSA efforts through setting an Environment,
Science and Technology Parliamentary Committee mandated with policy making
38
STEPRI (2015) About Us http://www.csir-stepri.org/aboutusphp Accessed 07/03/2017.
39
Science and Technology, Accra.
40
Ibid., p. 17.
41
Policy Review (Ghana, UNCTD, Geneva, 2011). http://www.ghanaiantimes.com.gh/national-
42
Ibid.
240 M. Gasela
and monitoring for the success of science, technology and innovations of which a
greater part is space science and technology.43 However, the major setback on the
work of this committee is lack of technical knowledge and failure to effectively
report to the parliament on the important role space science can play in meeting
societal needs.44
12.10.2 Budgetary Support
Furthermore, to counter financial constraints that have always hindered progress in

the space programme, the government of Ghana gives budgetary support to the
Nuclear and Space science technology. In the 2014 financial year, the space pro-
gram was allocated GHC $38.5 million, equivalent to US $10 m.45 Although this
sounds paltry, it shows the government’s commitment to making the GhSA a
success. Apart from seeking financial support from the government of Ghana,
GhSA is seeking a total of US $5 billion financial support over the period 2013–
2024, for the development of the agency’s infrastructure and the nation’s space
talents, from Brentwood institutions, British banking and financial services, bilat-
eral and multilateral agreements.46
12.11 Regional and International Collaboration
GhSA engages with various regional and international collaborators in order for
Ghana to benefit from the leading space actors in the world. To begin with, setting
up of GSSTI and its successor GhSA, would not have been a success without
assistance of regional and international cooperation. The GhSA is modelled along
the lines of South African National Space Agency (SANSA) and Nigeria’s National
Space Research and Development Agency (NARSDA).47 It was not only the
modeling along these space agencies that GhSA benefited, but technological
transfer and training in special space areas was sought from space faring nations
and other emerging ones. Of particular note were South Africa, Nigeria and Algeria
among the emerging space nations while United States of America and Japan whose
expertise and experience in space activities was sought by Ghana through
43
GAEC (2014), Ghana Space Science and Technology Institute (GSSTI) 2013/2014 Annual
Report. pp. 7-9.
44
Martinez, P. (2012) Is there need for an African space agency? Space Policy, 28, pp. 142–145.
p. 143.
45
space technology, Ghana Space Science and Technology Institute, (UN/Costa Rica Workshop in
human space technology, San Jose, Costa Rica, 2016) www.unoosa.org Accessed 28/02/2017.
46
Ibid.
47
Foy, H. Moving Towards a Ghana Space Agency. Law and Policy, (Space Safety Magazine,
12 Ghana 241
international collaboration, for her Space Agency to stand on feet.48 For example,
the abandoned Vodafone Earth satellite station at Kuntunse, near Accra was con-
verted into the famous Ghana Radio Astronomy Project, with the help of South
African scientists and engineers.49
Ghana has also participated in international programmes such as the Southern
Africa Largest Telescope project (SALT) and the Square Kilometre Array
(SKA). Besides regional and international collaboration, GhSA, conducts some
supportive activities within the country and through exchange programmes, all
directed towards creating awareness in space science and technology and its
potential in unlocking possible solutions to societal challenges. GhSA conducts
training workshops so as to create a pool of human capital that understands space
science. Also, radio astronomy outreach and training programmes have been used
in capacity building. In other instances, projects and advice has been given as an
attempt to conscientize the public on space science.50
In short, it can be said that the development of GhSA into a fully-fledged space
agency under gruelling circumstances can be applauded as the nation is poised for
an economy that has a scientific, technical and innovative support base. Moreover
her bid to host the African Space Policy and Strategy must be supported. The
approach used by the government of Ghana in establishing the GhSA was well
calculated considering the financial challenges that could have hindered her.
Moreover, the GhSA as seen to be engine of socio-economic development and
solving other challenges ranging from illegal mining with its environmental impacts
to climate change is a great leap forward to make Ghana achieve her ambition of
creating a middle-class economy.
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Author Biography
Mchasisi Gasela holds a Master of Science Degree in Environmental Management (UNISA),

Bachelor of Science (Hons) Environmental Management (UNISA); Bachelor of Science Degree in
Geography and Environmental Studies (ZOU); Bachelor of Education (UZ). Currently, he is a
consultant in private practice on environmental management in Mpumalanga Province of South
Africa. His interest is in space applications technologies, environment, water, land and air quality
management, vegetation, forest ecosystems modeling and management, resource conservation and
management, environmental impact assessment and mitigation, environmental modeling, ecolog-
ical monitoring, remote sensing applications, water quality monitoring, land degradation,
ecosystem and hydrological processes, biodiversity, climate change, land-use and land cover
management, environmental management, environmental education, climate change adaptation,
ecological modeling, vegetation mapping. He is a member of the African Association Remote
Sensing of the Environment (AARSE).
Angola
13
Sean Woodgate
Abstract
The rapid economic and political growth of Angola has sparked a recent and
most vested interest in space activities. Against a backdrop of civil-war and
self-determination, the country has become a leading entity in the telecommu-
nications market in central Africa. Whilst attendance to council meetings and the
signing and ratification of UN Space treaties has been lacklustre; partnerships
with the likes of Russia and China has brought about the AngoSat Project; the
launching of cutting-edge satellites to provide technical independence and
prestige for the country, as well as support the development goals set by the AU.
Commanding a fully functional satellite control station and trained personnel,
the country is in a unique position to assist others in advancing their own
infrastructure.
13.1 Angola’s Country Profile
Whilst one of Africa’s major oil producers and rich in mineral resources, Angola
still remains one of its poorest and least developed countries. Ravaged by a 27-year
civil war, it strains against its history to grow and compete in the regional and
global economies. Having received various interventions by the UN on a military
and political level, and earning a bad reputation for the illegal “blood diamond”
trade, only in the last 15 years has the government been stable enough to operate
without considerable military opposition hindering its growth.
S. Woodgate (&)
e-mail: swoodgate4@gmail.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05980-4_13
244 S. Woodgate
Taking the above into account, the Angolan government has taken great strides
towards strengthening the country, as it emerges a strong global oil competitor and
extends its international relations to that of Russia and China. Whilst corruption
within the government is still a major factor towards the effectiveness of its national
budget, international partnerships with more developed nations have ensured a
boom in infrastructure and tech-based advancements over the past decade. This
report aims to discuss the various aspects in which Angola, in spite of it’s difficult
past, has progressed and advanced it’s space capabilities and international relations.
Various overviews will be presented with regards to the historical, political, eco-
nomic and most importantly—policy implications presented by the Angolan gov-
ernment with relation to its space capability, up until present day.
With limited resources online and the lack of digitalised documentation by the
government from the past, the information provided in this report draws predom-
inantly from national new outlets, public announcements and economic journals
reflecting upon Angola’s various actions as an entity.
13.2 International Posture on Space in Terms of Treaties

and Policy
As recently as February 2017 the Angolan government approved a newly formed

strategy for space-related activities. This strategy focuses on the objectives and
guidelines that Angola will follow in their soon-approaching space endeavours. It
encompasses a view on the importance of space in its role towards socioeconomic
development and the strategic positioning of the country.
This strategy focuses directly towards aspects such as the development of spatial
infrastructure, training of specialists and the promotion of space-related activities
for the growth of industry and exploration technologies. It outlines goals towards
the creation of organisational structures to manage and coordinate space-related
activities as well as to found a strong platform from which all future space-related
projects can be directed.1
It is unfortunate to note then that Angola has neither signed nor ratified any of
the UN Space Treaties, and has shown little interest or participation towards the
changing of this. This is reinforced by how it is not a member of the UNCOPUOS
or applied as of yet to join.2 What has been signed however are two other
agreements, namely: ITSO (1971), “Agreement Relating to the International
Telecommunications Satellite Organization” and ITU (1992), “International
Telecommunication Constitution and Convention”. These agreements represent a
1
ANGOP 2017. “Strategy for space-related activities approved.” ANGOP. 02 23.
2
UNCOPUOS. n.d. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space: 2016. Accessed 03.21.2017.
http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/2016/index.html.
13 Angola 245
willingness to collaborate and deal with other countries specifically in the

telecommunications sector, remaining neutral and following a standardised per-
ception of law on such matters.3
The apparent lack of cooperation by Angola with regards to the UN treaties is
given some explanation through its historical situation: During the rise of the
space-race and the formation of the space treaties, Angola was in the midst of a
“cold-war fuelled” civil war between the USSR-backed MPLA and the US and
South African-backed UNITA, starting in 1975 and continuing up until 2002. This
war was fought between two former liberation movements, who had been previ-
ously engaged in a power struggle during the Angolan War of Independence over a
decade prior to the civil war. The signing of the Lusaka Protocol in 1993 sought to
initiate a ceasefire between the forces, however this fell through under a year later
and fighting continued up until 2002.4
It would therefore appear that the country has had more important goals on its
agenda, however given the past decade of peace and the upcoming launch of
Angosat-1, one wonders when it’s policies and representation will materialise to
represent their new hardware.
13.3 International Cooperation and Dependency
The historical complexity of Angola has led to a wide web of political ties and
cooperation, displayed most heavily in the military and mineral resource sectors.
From its booming oil industry to the opportunistic telecom growth in the country;
there is no shortage of foreign investors and international contracts at play. The
Chinese alone are currently involved in hydro-electric dam construction, railway
repair and mining operations within the country.5 Russia has provided technical
services in the form of off-shore gas drilling and the below-mentioned AngoSat
project, whilst the Portuguese have delved into many civil projects regarding
government and state-owned structures, as well as their financial interests in the oil
prospects of the country.6
The unfortunate reality is that the interest displayed by foreign powers towards
Angola has often been incredibly one-sided in terms of the distribution of wealth
and development. This trend has continued to current times, where in return for
wealth and political gain, Angola has been exploiting its resources. Historically the
3
UNCOPUOS Legal Subcommittee. 2015. Status of International Agreements relating to activities
in. Status and Application, Vienna: UN. http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/limited/c2/AC105_C2_2015_
CRP08E.pdf.
4
South African History Online. 2017. The Angolan Civil War: A Brief History. 02 15. Accessed
03.21.2017. http://www.sahistory.org.za/article/angolan-civil-war-1975-2002-brief-history.
5
Sonangol. 2015. “Fuelling Angolas Growth.” Universo, 07: 4.
6
Alves, Ana, Alexandra Arkhangelskaya, and Vladimir Shubin. 2013. “Russia and Angola: The
Rebirth of a Strategic Partnership?” OCCASIONAL PAPER, October: 14–15. http://osf.org.za/wp-
content/uploads/2015/08/Russia-and-Angola-The-rebirth-of-a-strategic-partnership.pdf.
246 S. Woodgate
country has had military alliances with the governments of the DRC to the north
and Namibia to the south. Positive relations with many post-cold-war “Eastern
Bloc” states such as China, Russia, Cuba, Vietnam and Zimbabwe have remained
throughout the years. More recently countries such as South Africa, USA, Portugal
and Nigeria have become close economic and aid partners, boosting Angola’s GDP
significantly.7 The politics of Angola reflect a primarily introspective approach, due
to its low infrastructural development and high poverty which still presents a major
challenge. That being said, it has carved itself a seat at the table by leveraging
contracts with the Chinese to become its top oil supplier, surpassing Saudi Arabia in
the process.8
13.4 Existing Space-Related Activities and Infrastructure
The uses of satellites in the country are limited predominantly to television

broadcasting. The table below depicts the satellites that are present to provide
channels available for what can be subscribed to in Angola. They share channels
and providers as a result of limited (but competitive) subscription brands, such as
TPA and DSTv.9
Satellite Operating Launched by Built by

utilised country
Intelsat 28 Luxemburg Ariane 5 (ESA) Orbital (USA)
Eutelsat 70B France Zenit 3 (Sea Astrium (France)
Launch)
Yamal-402 Russia Proton-M (Russia) Thales Alenia Space
(France)
LyngSat. 2017. LyngSat. 03 21. https://www.lyngsat.com/Eutelsat-70B.html
Whilst the Angolan Government owns three channels which are broadcasted by
the above satellites, the satellites themselves are controlled by foreign entities and
were manufactured completely separate from the government’s range of influence.
Therefore the country is merely a consumer in the technology and has to follow the
lead of the operator companies and countries.
7
Vines, Alex. 2016. WHY FIDEL CASTRO’S GREATEST LEGACY IN AFRICA IS IN ANGOLA.
11 30. http://europe.newsweek.com/fidel-castro-greatest-legacy-africa-angola-526321?rm=eu.
8
Durden, Tyler. 2016. “Angola Becomes China's Largest Oil Supplier As Beijing Stockpiles
Record Amounts Of Crude.” ZeroHedge. 09 24. http://www.zerohedge.com/news/2016-10-24/
angola-becomes-chinas-largest-oil-supplier-beijing-stockpiles-record-amounts-crude.
9
CIA. 2017. The World Factbook. 01 12. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-
factbook/geos/ao.html.
13 Angola 247
13.5 AngoSat-1: Proposed Process and Launch
Almost a decade in the making, the AngoSat-1 satellite was launched in December
2017, coinciding with the 20th anniversary of the introduction of the internet in the
country. The launch was unsuccessful however with communications failing to
initiate. A second satellite, AngoSat-2 is planned for launch in late 2019. Under the
guidance of Minister da Rocha and support of President dos Santos, the project was
initially planned to reach maturity by 2016, however financial and technical diffi-
culties delayed the process. The Angolan Government approved contracts for the
building, launching and operation of the satellite in mid-2008, with the total cost an
estimated US $320 million. Financed primarily by a combined loan syndicated by
Eximbank of Russia; Vnesheconombank, VTB Bank (Austria) AG, Gazprombank
and Eximbank extended the loan to the Ministry of Finance of the Republic of
Angola—to be paid back within 13 years.10 The project involves contracts with a
Russian consortium comprising of RSC (Rocket Space Corporation) Energy,
Telecom-Project 5 and Rosoboronexport, which both heads the group and is
responsible for the construction of the satellite itself.11
This contract, besides the supply of technical resources and infrastructure,
provides training and experience to the Angolan personnel who will be involved in
the operation and management of the satellite. Two satellite control stations have
been built, near Luanda (Angola) and Korolev (Russia). Given the high level of
technology used in the control and management of satellites, this sheds a positive
light upon the prospects of Angola’s space proficiency in the future. With trained
personnel and its own ground station, the country has made incredible headway into
the international space community.12
The purpose of AngoSat-1 was to support the national infrastructure of
telecommunications and digital terrestrial television across the country; equipped to
provide sixteen C-band and six Ku-band transponders.13 With an estimated lifespan
of 15 years, Minister da Rocha has publicly announced that more satellites will be
launched prior to the end of AngoSat-1’s functionality. Minister of Telecommu-
nications and Information Technology, José Carvalho da Rocha, one of the few
top-academically qualified ministers in the government, has headed the department
since 2008 and spearheaded the AngoSat project for nearly a decade. Has a degree
10
Eximbank of Russia. 2011. “Creation of a Satellite Communications System in Angola.”
Eximbank of Russia. 03 31. http://eximbank.ru/eng/about/press/news.php?page=34254.
11
ANGOP. 2015. “Minister calls for engagement in ANGOSAT1 implementation.” ANGOP. 07
29. http://cdn2.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/ciencia-e-tecnologia/2015/5/27/Minister-
calls-for-engagement-ANGOSAT1-implementation,c73d7535-464d-433c-8245-d88189315f94.
html.
12
satnews. 2017. “Angola's First Satellite Could Launch During Q3 of this Year.” satnews. 02 6.
http://www.satnews.com/story.php?number=1758928346.
13
SAPO24. 2015. “First Angolan satellite with control center in Luanda.” SAPO24. 06 28. http://
24.sapo.pt/article/lusa-sapo-pt_2015_06_28_1830264379_primeiro-satelite-angolano-com-centro-
de-controlo-em-luanda.
248 S. Woodgate
Fig. 13.1 The design of the AngoSat-1, launched November 2017. Source: BOREAL SPACE.
2017. “Russia Loses Contact With AngoSat-1”. http://www.borealspace.com/news/2017/12/29/
russia-loses-contact-with-angosat-1-update
in Physics from UAN and is the former director of ITEL, a telecom provider based
in Luanda.14
13.6 Angola and the African Space Policy and Strategy
With the adoption of the African Space Policy and Strategy by the AU, Angola is in
a unique position to avail itself towards both promoting and implementing the
policy effectively. The AngoSat project has so far provided the country with both a
functional ground control station as well as a team of personnel trained in the use of
satellite technology. The project has provided the platform from which Angola can
effectively engage with the proposed strategy and contribute, even on a limited
scale, towards the growth of fellow developing nations (Fig. 13.1).
13.7 The Space Policy
The AngoSat project encompasses a wide range of achievables outlined in the

Space Policy, these include:
• “Addressing user needs—harnessing the potential of space science and tech-

nology to address Africa’s socio-economic opportunities and challenges.”
• “Accessing space services—strengthening space technology applications on the
continent in order to ensure optimal access to space-derived data, information
services and products.”
14
ANGOP. 2015. “Minister calls for engagement in ANGOSAT1 implementation.” ANGOP. 07
29. http://cdn2.portalangop.co.ao/angola/en_us/noticias/ciencia-e-tecnologia/2015/5/27/Minister-
calls-for-engagement-ANGOSAT1-implementation,c73d7535-464d-433c-8245-d88189315f94.html.
13 Angola 249
• “Developing the regional and international market—developing a sustainable

and vibrant indigenous space industry that promotes and responds to the needs of
the African continent.”
• “Adopting good governance and management—adopting good corporate
governance and best practices for the coordinated management of continental
space activities.”15
The aspects of the policy with which Angola would be most involved would be
that of satellite telecommunication and data transfer services; allowing it to adopt
data sharing protocols and promote capacity-building for the development of space
services on the continent. How this will influence diplomatic relations within the
continent is still uncertain, yet can only have positive results if it offers support
towards the policy outcomes.
13.8 The Space Strategy
The supporting “African Space Strategy” describes various factors which any
African-led space activity should follow to achieve maximum effect towards
meeting the policy goals. The steps taken by the Angolan government not only
coincide with many of the deliverables seen within the strategy but seem to have
pre-empted the AU’s decision altogether. The strategy outlines a development
framework, namely 1, 5 and 10 year outcome goals.
Whilst the goals are for the continent as a whole, successful completion of the
AngoSat project would bring Angola close to assisting the stipulated 5-year out-
comes. Specifically with respect to having:
• “Appropriate technology platforms in place to support the building blocks of a

continental space programme.”
• “Operational and on-going developments of space application services.”
• “Advances in human capital development that supports the continental space
programme.”16
Whilst the efforts of Angola are no doubt aimed towards self-sufficiency and
international prestige, it has the opportunity to extent this mandate to assist the AU
in achieving its short and long-term goals.
15
African Union. 2014. “African Space Policy (Draft V7).” Policy. https://www.wmo.int/
amcomet/sites/default/files/field/doc/events/african_space_policy-v7.pdf.
16
African Union. 2015. “African Space Strategy V10.” Addis Ababa.
250 S. Woodgate
13.9 Financial Performance and Spending
The financial capabilities of Angola are vast, with incredible mineral wealth, cen-
tralised trading location and tourism capabilities—it’s GDP growth went from 3%
in 1990 to just over 23% in 2014.17 Whilst it’s economy still fluctuates from the
post-civil-war implications, it commands more financial power than most countries
on the continent. The country’s budget and spending reports are rarely released and
have been speculated to be highly inaccurate, according to local journalists. That
being said, with the current GDP sitting at an estimated $100 billion, and the
AngoSat project costing $300 million; since the project is the only space-related
project the country is currently involved in, the percentage GDP is 0.003% of
government spending. Which is surprisingly low when compared to other
space-oriented countries.
13.10 Future Prospects and Goals: Commercial Rise

in Telecommunications
With Angolan state-owned operator Angola Telecom (AT) and private operator’s
vastly expanding mobile and internet penetration, the inclusion of AngoSat-2 reflects
a positive future for the country’s goals towards becoming a leading telecom entity
on the continent. Investments are flooding into the country to ride the growing rise of
telecom business opportunities, which is no doubt fuelled by the president’s
daughter, Isabel dos Santos, part-owning Unitel—one of the biggest mobile oper-
ators in the region.18 The current construction of the South Atlantic Cable System
(SACS), the first subsea fibre-optic cable system to connect Africa and South
America, will connect Luanda with Fortaleza in Brazil allowing for a capacity of
40 Tbs in data transfer. This also forms part of a further planned project named
South Atlantic Express (SAex) where SACS is further joined to South Africa,
linking them both directly with the American continent (Figs 13.2 and 13.3).19
With regards to Angola’s space policies and diplomacy, it is expected that in the
coming years it will apply for UNCOPUOS and enter the space arena with a greater
deal of interest. This is simply due to the gravity of the African Space Policy and
Angola’s own satellite requiring it to move forward on the diplomatic front, to
ensure its interests are protected. The widely undeveloped infrastructure in the
country and the array of challenges it faces involving poverty, citizen reinstatement,
refugees and post-war reconstruction leaves it at a disadvantage in terms of its
short-term future space capabilities and goals.
17
Trading Economics. 2017. “Angola GDP.” Trading Economics. http://www.tradingeconomics.
com/angola/gdp.
18
Meaney, Jonathan. 2015. “Angola Telecoms: Moving at high speed.” The Worldfolio. http://
www.theworldfolio.com/news/angola-telecoms-moving-at-high-speed/3465/.
19
2016. “SACS Construction.” SUBSEA World news. http://subseaworldnews.com/2016/04/06/
sacs-construction-starts-on-angola-brazil-subsea-link/.
13 Angola 251
Fig. 13.2 The existing undersea cable connections. Source: mybroadband. 2011. “International
fibre and local systems.” https://mybroadband.co.za/vb/showthread.php/351232-International-
fibre-and-local-systems
Fig. 13.3 The path of SACS, crossing the Atlantic between the two continents. Source: SACS
Construction. SUBSEA World News. http://subseaworldnews.com/2016/04/06/sacs-construction-
starts-on-angola-brazil-subsea-link/ (2016)
252 S. Woodgate
A single satellite is not enough to change the country’s economy overnight, yet it
is one which will empower a variety of sectors to become more competitive
regionally and internationally. Minister da Rocha commented that the introduction
of AngoSat will allow the country to pay for satellite services with “Local cur-
rency”, meaning the costs for satellite services will be locally provided and paid for;
representing one aspect of the financial and social benefits of the project.
Bibliography
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default/files/field/doc/events/african_space_policy-v7.pdf (2014)
2. African Union: African Space Strategy V10. Addis Ababa (2015)
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6d8e-4b02-8c54-64a49635a25b.html (2017)
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geos/ao.html (2017)
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africa-the-case-of-angola-analysis/ (2015)
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Amounts Of Crude. ZeroHedge. 09 24. http://www.zerohedge.com/news/2016-10-24/angola-
becomes-chinas-largest-oil-supplier-beijing-stockpiles-record-amounts-crude (2016)
11. Eximbank of Russia: Creation of a Satellite Communications System in Angola. Eximbank of
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13. Meaney, J.: Angola Telecoms: Moving at high speed. The Worldfolio. http://www.
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14. MyBroadband: International Fibre and Local Systems. MyBroadband. 7 2. https://mybroadband.
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15. Pearce, J.: Angola: Demonstrations and Presidential Succession. African Arguments. 12 5.
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Mar 2017
Author Biography
Sean Woodgate is a Mechatronics Engineer by trade who has been academically involved in
space studies since early 2016. He currently works in the field of intelligent security drone
development and is the lead engineer on several projects under Intellisec Site Management
Systems involving machine learning, control systems and robotic design.
Completing matric in 2012 at Kearsney College, South Africa, he went on to complete a B.Sc.
in Mechatronic Engineering at the University of Cape Town, South Africa, where he undertook
courses pertaining towards robotics and space studies. He achieved a distinction in his
undergraduate thesis “On-board power supply and control system for an autonomous satellite
deorbiting device” under Professor Peter Martinez at the UCT Space Laboratory.
His upcoming developments in drone security have goals towards rejuvenating the effectiveness
of South African surveillance and guarding technologies. He currently resides in Durban, South
Africa.
Ethiopia
14
Adebayo Olutumbi Ogunyinka
Abstract
Being a sovereignty nation that remain uncolonized by European and one of first
independent Africa member of the first 20th-century, Ethiopia became mother of
Africa nations whose flag’s colour were adopted, with a population of 90 million,
she relies on agricultures as major source of income with 41% of GDP. Ethiopia
became a party to the treaty with United Nation in 1945, and entered an agreement
governing the activities of states in the exploration and use of outer space including
the moon and other celestial’s bodies in January 1967. Her commitment was
demonstrated when it established an Observatory and Research Centre, 2011,
while her reliance on derived data made her to construct a dam project that could
generate 6000 MW of hydropower however, it proposed to launch a weather
monitoring satellite with Chinese company in 2019.
Counting 90 million people, Ethiopia is the second most populous country on the
African continent. It is also one of the few countries in Africa that has retained its
sovereignty during the colonisation period. Subsequently, many African nations
adopted the colours of the Ethiopian flag following their independence. It was also
the first independent African member of the 20th-century. Ethiopia has a tropical
climate and covers an area of 1,104,300 km2. Its economy relies on the agricultural
A. O. Ogunyinka (&)
e-mail: ognade007@myuct.ac.za

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05980-4_14
256 A. O. Ogunyinka
sector, which accounts for 85% of the total employment and 41% of its GDP. It is
also rich in natural resources such as, gold, copper and platinum and tantalum.1
Ethiopia’s space activities are largely based on the development of its human
resources in space applications and the hosting of many regional and international
space-related conferences, utilising the infrastructure and facilities provided by the
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. In addition, the Ethiopian Space
Science Society (ESSS) built a privately funded, $3 million astronomical obser-
vatory,2 stimulating the nation to establish its own space program.3 The Observa-
tory and Research Centre was built on top of the 3200-meter-tall Mount Entoto; it is
comprised of two large, metal dome-enclosed telescopes and a spectrograph that
measures wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation. This project was established in
2013 by 32 public universities to provide eight positions for training local
astronomers, scientists, and engineers, thereby establishing a local innovation
culture. There are several other observatories and space-related research centres
scattered across the nation.4
The Ethiopian government has not fully domesticated the policy and regulations
regarding the launch and registration of a space object but is nonetheless preparing
the launch of a satellite and aims to join the International Space Station (ISS) by
2025, as announced at the Ethiopia Observatory Research Centre.
The sovereign Ethiopia became one of the member states of United Nation in
1945 and signed the Outer Space Treaty in 1967. Furthermore, it has signed the
Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and
under Water,5 ratified the Agreement Relating to the International Telecommuni-
cations Satellite Organization and the International Telecommunication Conven-
tion establishing the International Telecommunications Union (ITU).6
1
Azo Mining. 2012. Ethiopia: Mining, Minerals and Fuel Resources. Available: http://www.
azomining.com/Article.aspx?ArticleID=161 [2017, March 5].
2
Stevens, J. Poverty-stricken Ethiopia launches $3 million SPACE programme… despite taking
£300 million in aid from the UK. Mail Online. Available at: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/
sciencetech/article-321013/Poverty/stricken-ethiopia-launches-3million-space-programme-
Astronomers-claim-scheme-country-technologica [Accessed 20 March 2017].
3
Ethiopian Space Science Society. 2011. East Africa Regional Workshop of Astronomy Addis
Ababa. Available: www.ethiosss.org.et [2017, March 20].
4
EORC Workshop (2017). The International School for Young Astronomers (ISYA) & Fourth
Middle-East and Africa Regional IAU Meeting (MEARIM IV) (2017) http://www.eorcworkshop.
com [Accessed 20 March 2017].
5
Space Law Treaties and Principles (2013). United Nations Treaties and Principles on Outer
Space, including related General Assembly resolutions and other documents. [ONLINE]
Available at: http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/status/index.html
[Accessed 20 March 2017].
6
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA). 2016. Status of International
Agreements Relating to Activities in Outer Space as at 1 January 2016. Available: http://www.
unoosa.org/documents/pdf/spacelaw/treatystatus/AC105_C2_2016_CRP03E.pdf [2017, March
15].
14 Ethiopia 257
Ethiopia has experienced several challenges, such as refugee streams, natural dis-
asters, environmental and climate change, extreme poverty and illiteracy. This has
affected Ethiopia’s agricultural development and socio-economic welfare. There-
fore, a science-based approach is needed to increase crop and livestock production
in the region.
Space technology will assist in this way by providing essential data on critical areas
for the country’s economy. Remote sensing satellites will be used in disaster
management, vulnerability analysis, risk modelling, early warning and damage
assessment. In addition, improvement in education, training and innovation and
creating awareness and provision of medical care will ameliorate the lives of the
people.
14.2 Country Profile
Ethiopia signed an agreement that governing the activities of states in the explo-
ration and use of outer space including the moon and other celestial’s bodies in
January 1967, in addition she became a state Party to the Treaty and as at 1st of
January 2016, she still maintained her status to international agreements relating to
activities in outer space.7 Below is the list of agreements.
United Nation Treaties
1. 1967 OST Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the

Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial
Bodies (Outer Space Treaty). Adoption by the General Assembly: 19 December
1966 (resolution 2222 (XXI)). Opened for signature: 27th January 1967 Lon-
don, Moscow and Washington, D.C. Entry into force: 10 October 1967.
Depositaries: Russian Federation, United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland and United States of America.
7
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA). 2016. Status of International
Agreements Relating to Activities in Outer Space as at 1 January 2016. Available: http://www.
unoosa.org/documents/pdf/spacelaw/treatystatus/AC105_C2_2016_CRP03E.pdf [2017, March
15].
258 A. O. Ogunyinka
2. 1963 NTB Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer
Space and under Water. Opened for signature: 5 August 1963 in Moscow. Entry
into force: 10 October 1963. Depositaries: Russian Federation, United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and United States of America.
Institutions
3. 1971 ITSO Agreement relating to the International Telecommunications

Satellite Organization (ITSO), with annexes. Opened for signature: 20 August
1971 in Washington, D.C. Entry into force: 12 February 1973. Depositary:
United States of America. Ratified as at 1st January 2016.
4. 1992 ITU International Telecommunication Constitution and Convention.
Opened for signature: 22 December 1992 in Geneva Entry into force: 1 July
1994. Depositary: Secretary-General of the International Telecommunication
Union and Convention (Source: ITU Secretariat, Place des Nations, 1211
Geneva Switzerland). Ratified as at 1st January 2016.
However, only two of the agreements have been ratified which are Agreement
Relating to the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (ITSO),
1971 and International Telecommunication Constitution and Convention (ITU),
1992. Under the Registration Convention, at domestic level, Ethiopia government
have not fully implemented the policy and regulation of launching space object into
outer space but preparing to launch a satellite and aims to join international space
station by 2025, this was made known by Entoto Space Observatory and Research
Centre.
14.3 Implementation of Space Treaty
Ethiopia’s space endeavour’s draws largely from the development of its human
resources, particularly in space applications and hosting of many regional and
international space-related conferences thereby taking advantage of the infrastruc-
ture and facilities provided by the United Nations Economic Commission for
Africa. The country held many conference, seminar and workshop such as East
Africa regional workshop of astronomy8 at Addis Ababa, 2011. The aim of this
workshop was to, provide participants with the recent developments and knowledge
in astronomical sciences, providing forum for exchanging ideas, research findings,
technology and applications of astronomy for sustainable development, establishing
international and regional collaboration in research and teaching with Ethiopian
Universities and developing a regional astronomy research and teaching hub in East
Africa.
8
Ethiopia Hosts East African Regional Office of Astronomy for Development 2011 https://www.
iau.org/news/pressreleases/detail/iau1401/ [Accessed 20 March 2017].
14 Ethiopia 259
14.4 Space Posture and Evidence of National Space Policy
Ethiopian Space Science Society (ESSS)9 has built a privately funded astronomical
observatory with the sum of US $3 million thereby enable the nation to have its
own space program. The Observatory and Research Centre was about
3200-metre-tall and it has two large telescopes (enclose in a two metal domes) and a
spectrograph that measures wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation. This project
was established by 32 public universities in 2013. Other observatories and research
centres were also scattered across the nation related to space studies. The project
provides facility for training local astronomers, scientists, and engineers thereby
establish a local culture of innovation.
The Establishment of a national space agency, building of a gigantic observa-
tory, launching of a rocket are effort made to place the Ethiopian satellite into Low
Earth Orbit within the next five years. engaged in building a rocket launching
station—“Alpha Meles”,10 in simultaneous with two underground stations. The
Alpha Meles station will be using to launch rockets up to 30 km into space while
the underground station will be use as a testing based.
But there have been no reports of any subsequent launches of the rocket. On
January 3rd, 2017, the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST) announced to
build its own medium-sized space launch vehicle (SLV) and satellites locally with
minimum reliance on foreign partners. To facilitate this, the government created a
Space Science Council and Ethiopian Space Science and Technology Institute,
considering the benefit this proposed project to the nation especially in national
security, disaster management and response and land management.
Human capacity development programmes
Ethiopian Space Science Society (ESSS) research and education team in collaboration
with Entoto Observatory Research Centre (EORC) conducted summer school training
for youth in primary and secondary level on 18–20 July 2014. The objective of this is to
educate, transfer knowledge and skill and creating awareness on astronomy and space
science application. The training was specifically focus on Astronomy and Astrophysics,
Earth Observation and Space Sciences and this will inspire their interest and promote
more researcher and scientist in future. No wonder, Ethiopian, Leoul Mesfin became
award winner in DStv Eutelsat Star Awards,11 a Pan-African competition organized for
young learner between the ages of 14–19 years. The essay competition was carried out
across 20 Africa nations where, over 1000 entries applied and this was done in
encouraging them to envision the role played by satellite technology in the Africa future.
9
Ethiopian Space Science Society. (2011). “East Africa Regional Workshop of Astronomy Addis
Ababa” www.ethiosss.org.et [Accessed 20 March 2017].
10
Ethiopia—building a rocket launching station in Tigrai state 2014/ http://www.tigraionline.com/
articles/tigrai-space-station.html [Accessed 20 March 2017].
11
Adesulu D. DStv Eutelsat Star Awards: Nigeria, Ethiopia lead Africa (2017) [ONLINE],
Available at: http://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/02/dstv-eutelsat-star-awards-nigeria-ethiopia-
lead-africa/ [Accessed 20 March 2017].
260 A. O. Ogunyinka
More of expansion program needs to be carried out to meet the need of the rate
of growth in youth population according to an Ethiopia Central Statistical Agency
report which stated that Ethiopia, with nearly 90 million inhabitants is projected to
exceed 127 million by 2037 out of which 71% are under age 30. Introducing the
youth at an early age during pre-school and primary school in the science of space
could trigger a keen interest in later years.
14.5 Ethiopia Alliances and Partnership
The Ethiopia enters a partnership agreement with Korea in 2011 for human resource
development, business exchange and industrial cooperation. This Memorandum of
Understanding (MOU) mark the beginning of partnership that allowed Korea to
share its ICT (Information and communication Technology) capabilities with
Ethiopia S&T (Science and Technology) through the series of training programmes
and research where space science deliberate upon especially on EORC.
In addition, an International conference for young Astronomers ISYA which will
be organized by Ethiopian Space Science and Technology Institute (ESSTI) and in
collaboration with Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters (NASL) for two
weeks (8–19th May 2017) in Addis Ababa. This programme will focus on a series
of lectures on astronomy and astrophysics, along with relevant observational, data
reduction techniques and hand on practices.
Furthermore, the fourth Middle East and African IAU Regional meeting
(MEARIM) that will be hosted by Entoto Observatory and Research Centre
(EORC) and East African Regional Office of Astronomy for Development
(ROAD-IAU) on 22–25 May 2017 in Addis Ababa with the theme: “Exploring our
Universe for the benefit of Humankind”.
The Ethiopian government has concluded its plan to launch a weather moni-
toring satellite “Earth Observatory satellite” by 2019 in conjunction with China
Head Aerospace Technology Co. The launching will take place in china while the
command and control centre will be built in Ethiopia and the project will be
executed at the rate of $8.00 million dollars where the Chinese company will
provide $6.00 million dollars. This project will allow the country to receive the
satellite data that will help in agriculture, land use management and environmental
monitoring.12
The objectives of the above forum, MOU, workshops, seminars, lectures and
conferences are to generate project ideas and practical research projects on high
priority issues in space science, to plan and implement professional development
and capacity building and to provide information necessary for policy maker in
taken good decisions that will bringing a great benefit to the nation.
12
Abdi Latif Dahir, (2018). Ethiopia space agency to launch first satellite in 2019 https://qz.com/
africa/1474369/china-to-help-launch-ethiopias-first-satellite-in-2019/ [Accessed February 02,
2019].
14 Ethiopia 261
14.6 Budget Allocation for Space Programmes
Establishment of Ethiopian Space Science and Technology development requires a

clear funding commitment from the government. Although the Ministry of Science
and Technology policy stipulates that the government will be committed to allocate
up to 1.5% of the GDP annually for space activities, however, no mechanism has
been developed to earmark a national budget chapter for the implementation of
national space programmes and projects, therefore, the absence of any system to
prioritise and allocate resources for space activities at national level can hinder
effectiveness of policy implementation.
Science needs political visibility especially in the decision making of space
policy and its implementation as well as budget allocation of scarce resources.
Therefore, the limited financial capital coupled with the relatively weak industrial
sector could pose a great challenge to the long-term sustainability of space
initiatives.
Therefore, adequate public awareness campaign must be made, even, for
politicians to recognise the role space science can play in helping Ethiopia’s
development and generating investment in the country.
14.7 Reliance on Derived Data and Geopolitics

by Ethiopia
For Ethiopia to come out from rapidly slowing economy, maintained its leadership
role in East Africa also meets the requirement with other African nations in
launching her satellite within the next decade. It must increase her commitment in
space science and limit its reliance on support outside of the continent.
The construction of renaissance millennium dam13 project has become a major
controversy regarding its potential environmental impact in the region since its
inception 2011 Ethiopia was able to carry out this project by using foreign—owned
satellite in accessing the space derived data and information and this is not healthy
enough.
Egyptian government, a neighbouring country which relies heavily on the waters
of the14 Nile, has demanded that Ethiopia should stopped the construction of the
dam as a precondition for negotiations, in a regional conflict, thereby, sought
regional support for its position, and some political leaders have discussed methods
of how to sabotage it. However, other nations in the Nile Basin Initiative have
expressed support for the dam, including Sudan. The Dam was designed to generate
13
The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam and the Blue Nile: Implications for transboundary water
governance, 2013 http://www.globalwaterforum.org/2013/02/18/the-grand-ethiopian-renaissance-
dam-and-the-blue-nile-implications-for-transboundary-water-governance/ (accessed March 20,
2017).
14
Thomas L. (2013) Egypt and Sudan outraged by Ethiopia's Blue Nile Dam. Retrieved 19
February 2013 http://www.hydroworldt.com/news [Accessed 20 March 2017].
262 A. O. Ogunyinka
6000 MW of hydropower and will be funded by government bonds and private

donation and this will bring huge investment for Ethiopia.
Lastly, Ethiopia has space interest but without a satellite its level of participation
in space activities is still at the policy level. The Establishment of Entoto Obser-
vatory and Research Centre has brought infrastructural transformations to the host
community by given them access to electricity power and clean water supplies
which are basic requirements for any society livelihood.
14.8 Findings
“Given the enormous benefits derived from the exploration and exploitation of
outer space by space faring nations, African continent (where Ethiopia belongs) is
the least involved in space activities among all the continents. Thus, the level of
adherence of African countries to space treaties is very low.
The African continent has 54 states but only twenty-one (21) states ratified the
Outer Space Treaty, while twelve (12) states have signed but have not ratified it;
fourteen (14) states have ratified the Liability Convention, while ten (10) states
signed without ratification; three (3) states have ratified the Registration Conven-
tion; while only one (1) has ratified the Moon Agreement196 in the same vein, only
sixteen (16) African states are members of UNCOPUOS.
Furthermore, of all the African states, only Nigeria, South Africa, Algeria,
Morocco, Egypt and Kenya are active in space.
In the light of the above, the participation of most African nations in outer space
activities is likely to be futuristic. Thus, the provisions of Article I of the Outer
Space Treaty which states that outer space, including the Moon and other Celestial
Bodies shall be free for exploration and use by all states without discrimination of
any kind or based on equality and in accordance with international law is a wel-
comed idea to all African States”.
14.9 Conclusion
If the Ethiopia government makes effort in developing the strengths and addressing
the weaknesses all the proposed projects above will be achieved within a space of
time. Should Addis Ababa manage to establish a practical space programme cap-
able to improve Ethiopia’s national security and economic development prospects,
then it will be the first in the Horn of East Africa to become a space power.
14 Ethiopia 263
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15 Mar 2017
Author Biography
Adebayo Olutumbi Ogunyinka received B.Eng and MSc degree in Materials Engineering from
the Federal University of Technology Akure and University of Lagos, Nigeria. He obtained an
IGCE Certificate in Occupational Safety and Health (NEBOSH) and became a technical member
of the Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, London. He worked with Shell Petroleum
Development Company Nigeria, as a Safety and Security officer for ten years and is currently a
full-time MPhil Space Studies student at the University of Cape Town, South Africa.
Sudan and South Sudan
15
Barbara Ojur
Abstract
A study was conducted into Sudan and South Sudan to uncover their space
reach. Research into both of the countries showed that Sudan was ahead of South
Sudan in terms of education, natural resources and space technology. This is
attributed to the fact that Sudan, prior to 2011, suffered two civil wars. Sudan
split, in 2011, into two different nations resulted in an economic disparity
between the two countries. Sudan has managed to build and launch a CubeSat,
and they have notable relations to space-faring nations and organisations. South
Sudan, on the other hand, is yet to put forth a notable space application. Even
though Sudan is better developed in an array of areas, both Sudan and South
Sudan have not ratified or signed any international space treaties to date.
15.1 Introduction
In January 2016 the African Union, AU, approved the African Space Policy and
Strategy.1 The aim of this body of writing is to provide information about the
current space regulations and policies in Sudan and in South Sudan in light of the
AU’s decision. The provided information will then be used to draw conclusions
about the opportunities and challenges that come with adopting the African Space
Policy and Strategy in Sudan and in South Sudan.
1
Bachir, S. (2017). African Space Policy and Strategy.
B. Ojur (&)
e-mail: ojrbar001@myuct.ac.za

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05980-4_15
266 B. Ojur
The African Space Policy and Strategy is spoken about first. Next some insight
into the history of Sudan and South Sudan is provided followed by their current
affairs. Some insight is then given into what both countries space postures are
followed by a series of current or past space programs. With the insight from the
above mentioned sections conclusions are then drawn with relation to the African
Space Policy and Strategy.
15.2 African Space Policy and Strategy and Sudan
In order to find the opportunities and challenges of the African Space Policy and
Strategy in Sudan and in South Sudan the goals are presented below2:
1. To use space science and technology to derive optimal socio-economic benefits

that both improves the quality of life and creates wealth for Africans and in
addition contribute to the international body of knowledge and the knowledge
economy.
2. To develop and maintain indigenous infrastructure, human capital and capa-
bilities that service an African market and that cater for the geospatial and space
information needs of the African continent.
15.3 History
In order to present a holistic view about Sudan and Southern Sudan’s space
regulations and policies it is important to understand the history of these regions.
Their history provides possible clues as to why Sudan’s and South Sudan’s space
arena is what it is.
Sudan and South Sudan prior to 2011 were one country known as Sudan. Sudan
suffered two civil wars. The first civil war begun in 18 August 1955 and ended in 27
March 1972.3 The Southern rebels were at war with the Sudanese government
because they wanted to make South Sudan an autonomous state. In 1972 the Addis
Ababa Agreement was signed and this gave the rebels a great amount of regional
autonomy when it came to internal issues in Sudan. The second civil war broke out
in 1983. This war was between the then president, President Jaafar Nimeiri and the
Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A). The president wanted to
implement Sharia Law, traditional Islamic laws, into the constitution and this
angered the SPLM/A. In 1989 negotiations began between both parties to try and
resolve the conflict. However, in 1989, the negotiations were halted because
General Omar al-Bashir, post 2011, took control of the military coup. As a result of
2
Ibid.
3
En.wikipedia.org. (2019). First Sudanese Civil War. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/First_Sudanese_Civil_War [Accessed 19 Feb. 2019].
15 Sudan and South Sudan 267
this event the internal war in Sudan continued for more than two decades. In 2005,
Inter-Governmental Authority on Development (IGAD) and US diplomacy, helped
to restore peace through mediation in Sudan.4
A Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), was signed in 2005. The agreement
was designed for a six year period in which it would be assessed if Sudan could
work together as a cohesive unit. However in 2010 after fraudulent elections the
two sides, President Omar al-Bashir’s military and the SPLM/A, began to feud. In
consequence of the elections the southern part of Sudan voted to become an
independent state on 9 January 2011 and this became effective in 9 July 2011 when
the CPA’s duration ended. The current president of South Sudan is President Salva
Kirr Mayardit.5
There are still major issues in Sudan. There seems to be a rapid growth of
militias; violence between communities and armies continue to threaten civil
population.6
15.4 Current Affairs in Sudan and South Sudan
Discussing the current affairs in Sudan and South Sudan will provide insight into
how the African Space Policy and Strategy will function or fail in both countries.
Certain current affairs will be pointed out in this section so that the information can
be used in the conclusion section of this body of writing. Sudan and South Sudan
will be spoken about simultaneously in order to provide immediate comparisons.
15.4.1 Education
In South Sudan’s constitution it states in 38(1)(b) 38(2)(a) that they aim to7:
mobilize public, private and communal resources and capabilities for education and pro-
motion of scientific research geared towards development;
guarantee academic freedom in institutions of higher education and protect the freedom of
scientific research within the ethical parameters of research and as shall be regulated by law.
In Sudan’s constitution it states in 13(2) and in 13(6) that8:

The State shall mobilize public, private and popular resources and capabilities for education
and development of scientific research, especially Research and Development.
4
The Enough Project. (2017). South Sudan—The Enough Project. [online] Available at: https://
enoughproject.org/conflicts/south-sudan [Accessed 19 Feb. 2019].
5
Ibid.
6
Ibid.
7
Sudan South. (2015). Intl Business Pubns USA, p. 72.
8
Refworld.org. (2005). THE INTERIM NATIONAL CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF
THE SUDAN, 2005. [online] Available at: https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4ba749762.pdf
[Accessed 19 Feb. 2019].
268 B. Ojur
The State shall guarantee academic freedom in institutions of higher education and shall
protect the freedom of scientific research within the ethical parameters of research.
Both the Sudan and South of Sudan have similar laws pertaining to scientific
education and scientific advancements. There seems to be a strong emphasis on
education however in South Sudan 94% of people enter the work environment
without any qualifications. In addition to that there is about a 27% rate of literacy.9
Sudan is said to have better, but still low, figures when compared to South Sudan
since the University of Khartoum is located in the Sudan.10
15.4.2 Infrastructure and Natural Resources
Roads throughout Sudan are few and are not in good condition. In South Sudan
some of the roads are not accessible during rainy seasons. There are more roads in
use in the Sudan then they are in the South Sudan due to the fact that not all the
roads are tarred or in good condition in both areas.11
Sudan has three working power stations which are not all working to full
capacity.12 About 87% of the total electricity produced is used by Khartoum in the
Sudan. Electricity supply is not stable and can be switched off by opposition groups
in South Sudan at random times to infuriate the Sudan.13
Both countries supply oil to many different countries. Oil is one of their biggest
exports and when the US placed sanctions on them in 1997 it really put a halt on
business. The sanctions were lifted in 2009 and subsequently investment and
business picked up. Both countries are also good for agriculture and mining,
because of the way it is geographically positioned. Many Middle Eastern countries,
for example Saudi Arabia, cultivate in both countries. In light of this, Sudan and
South Sudan as a whole still import most of their food because a large majority of
their own grown food is exported abroad.14
9
Hardinger M. 2015 Investment Climate Statement—South Sudan [Internet]. U.S. Department of
State. 2014 [cited 18 February 2019]. Available from: https://www.state.gov/e/eb/rls/othr/ics/2015/
241746.htm.
10
Metz, H. (1991). Sudan: A Country Study. Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division.
11
241746.htm.
12
Sudan Infrastructure, power, and communications [Internet]. Nationsencyclopedia.com. [cited 18
February 2019]. Available from: https://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Africa/Sudan-
INFRASTRUCTURE-POWER-AND-COMMUNICATIONS.html.
13
Ibid.
14
Malik, N. (2017). Sudan Is Open for Business—For Now. [online] Foreign Policy. Available at:
https://foreignpolicy.com/2017/03/07/sudan-is-open-for-business-for-now/ [Accessed 18 Feb.
2019].
15.4.3 Business and Investment
South Sudan has one of the fastest growing economies in the world. South Sudan
has a large quantity of natural resources and the country is open to foreign
investments. The only requirement for a foreigners who want to open up businesses
in South Sudan is for them to have a Sudanese person as a shareholder. Even with
the country being willing to welcome in foreigners for business it can be difficult to
run a company in South Sudan because of unexpected violent acts and corruption.15
Sudan is said to have good new investment laws however they are not being
implemented correctly. They are open to investment but the World Bank rated them
as one of the toughest places to do business in. It is said that their financial and legal
sectors are, “opaque”, due to corruption. However, regardless of this challenging
environment the UK accounts for roughly 20% of all business in Sudan.16
15.4.4 International Space Treaties, Domestic Legislation
There are 5 International space treaties. Table 15.1 shows Sudan and South Sudan’s
position in terms of each them.
It can be seen in Table 15.1 that neither Sudan nor South Sudan has signed or
ratified any of the international treaties. It is also notable to know that South Sudan
has ratified the ITU agreement and Sudan has ratified the NTB, ITSO, ARB and
ITU agreements.17 All the space treaties were introduced at a time when Sudan and
South Sudan were one nation. In order to reflect what was going on the previously
undivided nation, Table 15.2 shows what was happening in Sudan during the,
“Open to Signature”, and, “Entered into force”, dates. The red shaded cells indicate,
“war”, and the green shaded cells indicate, peace.
Sudan was at peace for 12 years after its first Civil war ended on 27 March 1972.
One can deduce that within this relatively short space of time that Sudan was
preoccupied with other matters such as keeping the peace amongst all political
powers, securing food, rebuilding homes and increasing employment to mention a
few. It was probably one of the last areas of concern for the country to sign and
ratify space treaties like other African countries while they were at war or during
their short peaceful period between the two civil wars.
15
241746.htm.
16
Ibid.
17
Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (2018). Status of International Agreements
relating to activities in outer space as at 1 January 2018. Legal Subcommittee Fifty-seventh
session. [online] Vienna: United Nations, pp. 8, 9. Available at: http://www.unoosa.org/
documents/pdf/spacelaw/treatystatus/AC105_C2_2018_CRP03E.pdf [Accessed 18 Feb. 2019].
270 B. Ojur
Table 15.1 A signed and ratified international space treaties in Sudan and in South Sudan.
International Space Law: United Nations Instruments. (2017). [online] New York: United Nations,
pp.1–114. Available at: http://www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2017/stspace/
stspace61rev_2_0_html/V1605998-ENGLISH.pdf [Accessed 19 Feb. 2019]
Open to Entered Treaty Sudan Sudan South South
Signature into force signed ratified Sudan Sudan
signed ratified
27 January 10 October Outer Space No No No No
1967 1967
22 April 3 Rescue No No No No
1968 December Agreement
1968
29 March 1 Liability No No No No
1972 September Convention
1972
14 January 15 Registration No No No No
1975 September Convention
1976
18 11 July Moon No No No No
December 1984 Agreement
1979
Table 15.2 Periods of war and peace in Sudan with respect to international space treaties
Open to Signature Date Entered into force Date Treaty

27 January 1967 10 October 1967 Outer Space
22 April 1968 3 December 1968 Rescue Agreement
29 March 1972 1 September 1972 Liability Convention
14 January 1975 15 September 1976 Registration Convention
18 December 1979 11 July 1984 Moon Agreement
If one investigates further into why the Sudan and South Sudan still haven’t
signed or ratified any space treaties to this date it can be deduced that both countries
are still trying to recover from a turbulent war period. Consequently, both of these
countries have not implemented any space related laws into their domestic
legislature.
15.5 Space Posture
South Sudan has not stated their space posture so this paragraph will be dedicated to
Sudan. In 2012, President Omar al-Bashir, called for Africa to create its own space
agency. He stated that having such an agency would help liberate Africa from the
minority that are currently heading space related technology. Sarah Wild, a South
African scientific journalist, commented about this statement saying that it was a,
“pie in the sky”, idea because it took South Africa such a long time to get where it is
in space terms. However absurd this idea is to experts in this field Sudan has made
it clear that they see a use for an African space agency because the space technology
governs many areas of everyday life.18
15.6 Space Programs
Three examples will be discussed in this section. Information about each program
will be given and then the following questions will be answered under each
program. The questions are listed below:
1. Is/Was there any international involvement?

2. Is the data locally or internationally sourced?
3. Does the program have any partnerships?
4. What is the geopolitical implication of having the partnership/s for the:
a. Country?
b. Region (East Africa) and continental cooperation?
15.6.1 Satellite Sentinel Project
The Satellite Sentinel Project was founded on 29 December 2010 by American

actor and co-founder of Not On Our Watch George Clooney and John Prendergast,
the co-founder of the Enough Project and member of Not On Our Watch. The
project was started in order to hinder another civil war breaking out between Sudan
and South Sudan. It used satellites to monitor what was going on in Sudan. The
satellites captured images related to civilian safety which allowed the project to
identify bombed and razed villages in addition to detecting impending violent
outbreak.19
The Satellite Sentinel Project, as of 2015, stopped collecting and analysing
satellite imagery specifically in Sudan and South Sudan. Together with its founding
organisations the Enough Project and Not On Our Watch the Satellite Sentinel
Project is now collaborating with The Sentry. The Sentry is an investigative ini-
tiative that aims to disassemble the many networks of perpetrators and architects
who are involved and who profit from conflicts in Africa.20
18
Smith, D. (2012). Sudan wants Africa to reach for the stars. [online] The M&G Online.
Available at: https://mg.co.za/article/2012-09-13-sudan-wants-africa-to-reach-for-the-stars
[Accessed 19 Feb. 2019].
19
Satsentinel.org. (n.d.). Our Story | Satellite Sentinel Project. [online] Available at: http://
satsentinel.org/our-story [Accessed 19 Feb. 2019].
20
Satsentinel.org. (n.d.). Home | Satellite Sentinel Project. [online] Available at: http://www.
satsentinel.org/ [Accessed 19 Feb. 2019].
272 B. Ojur
15.6.1.1 Is/Was There Any International Involvement?

Yes there was. Firstly, the founders were both American and secondly the satellites
they used were from a company called DigitalGlobe with headquarters located in
America. DigitalGlobe was founded in 1992 by Walter Scott and the company
specialises in satellite imagery. The Satellite Sentinel Project partnered with them to
have access to the imagery DigitalGlobe was able to provide.21
15.6.1.2 Is the Data Locally or Internationally Sourced?

The information was sourced from Sudan and South Sudan via satellites. Decoding
and processing of the data was done by DigitalGlobe. After the company had
decoded and processed the satellite data the data was then compiled into a report to
document their findings to the needed officials.22,23
15.6.1.3 Does the Program Have Any Partnerships?

Yes it did. The company partnered with big news broadcasting agencies and policy
makers across the world in addition to DigitalGlobe. The reports, that DigitalGlobe
produced, were given to news agencies and policy makers. The news agencies were
then able to broadcast their findings in order to create awareness. As mentioned
before the reports were also given to policy makers, who have political power, so
that they could use their reports to create or modify policies.24,25
15.6.1.4 What Is the Geopolitical Implication

of the Partnership/s for the
Country?
The partnership that Satellite Sentinel had could make other countries think that
Sudan had lost its power because foreigners were constantly watching to see if
violent acts were being perpetrated. If other countries were supplying Sudan with
weapons to aid their violent acts such countries might have begun to pull back in
order to not implicate themselves or their countries.
21
Digitalglobe.com. (2019). DigitalGlobe—See a Better World With High-Resolution Satellite
Imagery. [online] Available at: https://www.digitalglobe.com/ [Accessed 19 Feb. 2019].
22
23
24
25
Regional (East Africa) and Continental Cooperation?
As mentioned before in 2015 Satellite Sentinel morphed into a new agency, The
Sentry, that now looks to find the funders and perpetrators that gain from conflicts in
Africa.26 This means that a broader spectrum of countries are now being watched not
just Sudan. Therefore this put African countries in the same situation as Sudan. If any
of them were to be found aiding violent atrocities then their relationships with the US,
for instance, could be tainted and sanctions could be imposed amongst other things.
15.6.2 Sudanese Remote Sensing Authority (RSA)
The RSA is located in Sudan in the capital city, Khartoum. The RSA was founded
in 1977. They specialize in27:
1. Remote sensing geo-informatics.

2. GPS technology applications for natural resources, environment and disasters.
Their objectives as listed on the UN website are28:
1. Proposes space science and technology policies for the government.

2. Coordinate the efforts and activities related to space technology making use of
local and foreign expertise.
3. Conduct a scientific research in the application of space technologies.
4. Provide training in space technology applications.
5. Provide consultations.

Yes there is. They are closely linked with the General Organization of Remote
Sensing (GORS). GORS is a Syrian entity founded in 1986 in Damascus. The
organization works with all Arab countries and a select group governmental bodies,
foreign countries and international bodies.29
15.6.2.2 Is/Was the Data Locally or Internationally Sourced?

Some of the data is sourced locally and some internationally from GORS.
26
27
Hamid, A. (2017). Sudanese Remote Sensing Authority (RSA). [online] UN-SPIDER
Knowledge Portal. Available at: http://www.un-spider.org/links-and-resources/institutions/
sudanese-remote-sensing-authority-rsa [Accessed 19 Feb. 2019].
28
Ibid.
29
General Organization of Remote Sensing (n.d.). A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE GENERAL
ORGANIZATION OF REMOTE SENSING AND ITS ACTIVITIES. [online] Damascus,
pp. 157–159. Available at: http://www.isprs.org/proceedings/XXIX/congress/part6/157_XXIX-
part6.pdf [Accessed 19 Feb. 2019].
274 B. Ojur
15.6.2.3 Does the Program Have Any Partnerships?

Yes they are connected to GORS.

of the Partnership/s for the?
Country?
GORS is a Syrian organization therefore Sudan is ultimately linked to Syria. This

connection is not a new one because Sudan has been a part of the Arab league since
1956.30
Geopolitically this partnership has not changed Sudan’s powers or relationships
with other countries.
Regional (East Africa) and Continental Cooperation?
The work that the RSA is doing in GORS allows East African countries to have
gateway into international remote sensing technology or services through Sudan.
Thereby increasing regional cooperation and interaction. This same narrative is true
for the continent. If countries on the continent work with the RSA then it would be
seen that Africa has strong ties to the Arab states which could either encourage or
discourage future partnerships with international countries in the space arena.
15.6.3 Cubesat, KN-SAT1
The Cubesat, KN-SAT1, was made in Sudan in the engineering faculty at the
University of Khartoum between 2012 and 2013. It was designed in order to give
students at the university a practical space experience in order to encourage topics
such as space engineering and education in other institutions; to compile their
techniques so other students and engineers could use them; to track and monitor the
KN-SAT1; to command the satellite and to also collect data for analysing and
evaluation purposes. The team of engineers were able to design, test and experi-
mentally launch their prototype. During their project they also developed a ground
station called, ST2UOK.31,32

No, the University of Khartoum worked on this project.
30
En.wikipedia.org. (2019). Member states of the Arab League. [online] Available at: https://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_states_of_the_Arab_League [Accessed 19 Feb. 2019].
31
Heck, J. (2012). KN-SAT1 Prototype Subsystems Design and Testing. [online] AMSAT-UK.
Available at: https://amsat-uk.org/2012/11/20/kn-sat1-prototype-subsystems-design-and-testing/
#more-11550 [Accessed 18 Feb. 2019].
32
Krebs, G. (n.d.). KN-Sat 1. [online] Space.skyrocket.de. Available at: https://space.skyrocket.de/
doc_sdat/kn-sat-1.htm [Accessed 19 Feb. 2019].
15.6.3.2 Is/Was the Data Locally or Internationally Sourced?

The data came from the University of Khartoum.
15.6.3.3 Does the Program Have Any Partnership/s?

There were no partnerships.

of the Partnership/s for the?
No partnerships were formed during the project therefore there were no geopolitical
implications regarding an associated partner. However, the university has now
opened up doors for partnerships between other universities, schools and businesses
with itself. Sudan has positioned themselves as a state in Africa that has the
capabilities to create space related technology without the help of international
countries. This could bring about regional and continental interaction in order to
improve space education and activity on the continent and consequently improve
the world’s view of Africa in space.
15.7 Conclusion
The aim of this research was to look at the opportunities and challenges that come
with adopting the African Space Policy and Strategy in Sudan. This question will be
answered by looking at the two goals, of the African Space Policy and Strategy,
individually while using the information acquired through this research.
15.7.1 Goal 1
To use space science and technology to derive optimal socio-economic benefits that both
improves the quality of life and creates wealth for Africans and in addition contribute to the
international body of knowledge and the knowledge economy.
Two different criteria make up Goal 1. They are spoken about separately in order
to highlight what possible opportunities and challenges each holds in relation to
Sudan and South Sudan. The first criteria is:
To use space science and technology to derive optimal socio-economic benefits that both
improves the quality of life and creates wealth.
15.7.1.1 Possible Opportunities

Sudan and South Sudan have laws that promote scientific education and freedom
into scientific design. These laws stipulate that they want to gather up support to
help such endeavours. This part of Goal 1 could be realised by both governments if
they support projects similar to KN-SAT1. In this way young professionals in
university-like institutions could get exposed to space technology. Such people
276 B. Ojur
could then be used to steer both countries into space related areas that secure
foreign investment. Products such as the KN-SAT1 could be sold to other countries
in the world. If space technology can be used to help local residents in agriculture
then that could help improve the quality of their yield and encourage people to buy
from local suppliers. Space related technology could be used in the oil, road and
energy sectors. Industries such as the, RSA, could provide internships at their
institutions. In this way the interns could get exposed to remote sensing and work
with foreign countries such as Syria.
15.7.1.2 Possible Challenges

There is disparity in education between Sudan and South Sudan. Sudan has the
main university in Khartoum and the RSA is situated in the Khartoum as well. They
have better access to roads and therefore travelling to institutions is easier as
compared to South Sudan where the rainy season inhibits traveling. Khartoum also
uses the majority of the produced electricity so South Sudan will find it hard to
compete on the same level with a limited amount of electricity when it comes to
technological designs.
The second criteria in Goal 1 is:
contribute to the international body of knowledge and the knowledge economy.

Looking at current activities, in Sudan, related to space it could be possible for them to
collaborate and contribute knowledge internationally through their connection with
GORS and the Arab league. Work done at the RSA and higher level institutions could
be supplied to countries associated with South Sudan. The US and the UK have
investments in Sudan and in South Sudan so other forms, for instance educational
investments, could be opened up if they barter with such countries with commodities
such as oil and agriculture in exchange for educational investments. Both Sudan and
South Sudan encourage foreign investment. If foreign space/science related institu-
tions establish themselves in either country their works, such as publications, produced
from these institutions could be seen to be attributed to Sudan or South Sudan. In that
way they could contribute to the international body of knowledge and economy.

The percentage of educated people in South Sudan is relatively low as compared to
the Sudan. The lack of professionals could inhibit their ability to contribute infor-
mation to international bodies. In addition to this, foreign companies need to be aware
of the political climate in both countries. The violence could make institutions hold
back and not want to invest in them. If either country were to be sanctioned again by
the US, for example, this might decrease investment from international institutions.
15.7.2 Goal 2
To develop and maintain indigenous infrastructure, human capital and capabilities that
service an African market and that cater for the geospatial and space information needs of
the African continent.
Again two different criteria make up Goal 2. They are spoken about separately in
order to highlight what possible opportunities and challenges each holds in relation
to Sudan and South Sudan. The first criteria is:
To develop and maintain indigenous infrastructure…that service an African market and that
cater for the geospatial and space information needs of the African continent.

The whole of Sudan can develop institutions that focus their efforts on the
geospatial and space needs of African. They can do this by collaborating with
neighbouring countries, for instance Kenya. North Sudan could also maintain the
RSA and engineering faculty associated with producing the KN-SAT1 Cubesat.
There is also an opportunity for both North and South work together and share
space related structures.

South Sudan is the youngest country in the world so pouring money into building
institutions could be something they’re not financially ready to do. In addition to
this basic infrastructure, for instance the roads, are not in a good condition in Sudan.
This just shows that the whole of Sudan might need to develop other basic
infrastructure before venturing into space related activity.
The second criteria in Goal 2 is:
To develop and maintain… human capital and capabilities that service an African market
and that cater for the geospatial and space information needs of the African continent.

There is a low skill level in Sudan as a whole. Developing skilled individuals in the
space and geospatial sector could be beneficial to advancing The African Space
Policy and Strategy. The educators and workers in space related sectors should be
incentivised and supported by the government, public and private entities. People
should be encouraged to enter scientific related fields in order to improve the
scientific work produced by North and South Sudan. If Sudan has professionals
then they can work independently or collaboratively with other countries to address
African needs.

It should be noted here that financial constraints might be a problem when it comes
to developing and maintaining human capital. The amount of educated people in
South Sudan will be at a disadvantage when compared to Sudan.
278 B. Ojur
15.8 Conclusion
Now that both goals are discussed it is evident that with the turbulent period of war
behind that Sudan prior to its spit suffered; political uncertainty; financial restraints;
a poorly educated society and a lack of basic services being met that it will be a
challenge for Sudan to implement The African Space Policy and Strategy. Realising
the two goals would mean that Sudan needs puts space before other necessities
which might not be beneficial. Furthermore the split of the countries means that the
resources are now unequally distributed between the two parts. Most countries
around the world can access all of their resources regardless of location but Sudan
cannot access resources in South Sudan and the same is true for Sudan. Therefore,
this could mean that the rate of space development of Sudan and South Sudan will
be slower when compared to other African states. President Omar al-Bashir is very
keen to develop and African space institution however neither state has signed or
ratified any outer space treaty. Signing and ratifying the treaties might be the first
step for Sudan and South Sudan to make towards realising The African Space
Policy and Strategy.
Bibliography
1. Bachir, S.: African Space Policy and Strategy (2017)
2. En.wikipedia.org: First Sudanese Civil War [online]. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/First_Sudanese_Civil_War (2019). Accessed 19 Feb 2019
3. The Enough Project: South Sudan—The Enough Project [online]. Available at: https://
enoughproject.org/conflicts/south-sudan (2017). Accessed 19 Feb 2019
4. Sudan South: Intl Business Pubns USA, p. 72 (2015)
5. Refworld.org: The Interim National Constitution of the Republic of the Sudan, 2005 [online].
Available at: https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4ba749762.pdf (2005). Accessed 19 Feb 2019
6. Hardinger, M.: 2015 Investment Climate Statement—South Sudan [Internet]. U.S. Depart-
ment of State. Available from: https://www.state.gov/e/eb/rls/othr/ics/2015/241746.htm
(2014). Cited 18 Feb 2019
7. Metz, H.: Sudan: A Country Study. Federal Research Division, Washington, DC (1991)
8. Sudan—Infrastructure, Power, and Communications [Internet]. Nationsencyclopedia.com.
Available from: https://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Africa/Sudan-
INFRASTRUCTURE-POWER-AND-COMMUNICATIONS.html. Cited 18 Feb 2019
9. Malik, N.: Sudan Is Open for Business—for Now [online]. Foreign Policy. Available at:
https://foreignpolicy.com/2017/03/07/sudan-is-open-for-business-for-now/ (2017). Accessed
18 Feb 2019
10. International Space Law: United Nations Instruments [online], pp. 1–114. United Nations,
New York. Available at: http://www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2017/stspace/
stspace61rev_2_0_html/V1605998-ENGLISH.pdf (2017). Accessed 19 Feb 2019
11. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space: Status of International Agreements Relating
to Activities in Outer Space as at 1 January 2018. Legal Subcommittee Fifty-Seventh Session
[online], pp. 8, 9. United Nations, Vienna. Available at: http://www.unoosa.org/documents/
pdf/spacelaw/treatystatus/AC105_C2_2018_CRP03E.pdf (2018). Accessed 18 Feb 2019
12. Smith, D.: Sudan Wants Africa to Reach for the Stars [online]. The M&G Online. Available
at: https://mg.co.za/article/2012-09-13-sudan-wants-africa-to-reach-for-the-stars (2012).
13. Satsentinel.org: Our Story | Satellite Sentinel Project [online]. Available at: http://satsentinel.
org/our-story (n.d.). Accessed 19 Feb 2019
14. Satsentinel.org: Home | Satellite Sentinel Project [online]. Available at: http://www.
satsentinel.org/ (n.d.). Accessed 19 Feb 2019
15. Digitalglobe.com: DigitalGlobe—See a Better World With High-Resolution Satellite Imagery
[online]. Available at: https://www.digitalglobe.com/ (2019). Accessed 19 Feb 2019
16. Hamid, A.: Sudanese Remote Sensing Authority (RSA) [online]. UN-SPIDER Knowledge
Portal. Available at: http://www.un-spider.org/links-and-resources/institutions/sudanese-
remote-sensing-authority-rsa (2017). Accessed 19 Feb 2019
17. General Organization of Remote Sensing: A Brief Account of the General Organization of
Remote Sensing and its Activities [online], pp. 157–159. Damascus. Available at: http://www.
isprs.org/proceedings/XXIX/congress/part6/157_XXIX-part6.pdf (n.d.). Accessed 19 Feb
2019
18. En.wikipedia.org: Member States of the Arab League [online]. Available at: https://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_states_of_the_Arab_League (2019). Accessed 19 Feb 2019
19. Heck, J.: KN-SAT1 Prototype Subsystems Design and Testing [online]. AMSAT-UK.
Available at: https://amsat-uk.org/2012/11/20/kn-sat1-prototype-subsystems-design-and-
testing/#more-11550 (2012). Accessed 18 Feb 2019
20. Krebs, G.: KN-Sat 1 [online]. Space.skyrocket.de. Available at: https://space.skyrocket.de/
doc_sdat/kn-sat-1.htm (n.d.). Accessed 19 Feb 2019
Author Biography
Barbara Ojur is a South African and Ugandan citizen currently residing in South Africa. She
completed her first degree, a BSc in Electrical and Computer Engineering, at the University of
Cape Town. In 2017 she enrolled in the SpaceLab located at the University of Cape Town to study
towards getting a MPhil in Space Studies. Her thesis for her Master’s was centred on developing a
low cost, portable and extendable software defined ground station to communicate with small
satellites operating in the 70-cm band in LEO. Her project aimed to increase information sharing
and partnerships inter and intra continentally. She aims to carry on with her research and peruse
her doctorate degree in the coming future.
Tanzania
16
Anton Alberts
Abstract
The United Republic of Tanzania is a developing state with challenges relating
to poverty and maternal mortality rates. The country has very little connections
to space technology and activity and only indirectly so. As a signatory to the
African Space Policy and Strategy it is positioned to expand its connections to
space technology, services and activities in general to enhance its developmental
initiatives.
The United Republic of Tanzania (Tanzania) was formed in 1964 when Tanganyika
and Zanzibar merged shortly after their independence. Tanzania is an African state
situated just above Mozambique and underneath Kenya with the Indian Ocean
bordering on the East. Tanzania is known for its highest mountain peak in Africa,
Kilimanjaro, abundant wildlife and its holiday destinations on the Zanzibar coast.1
1
Central Intelligence Agency, “The World Factbook Africa: Tanzania”, n.d., https://www.cia.gov/
library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tz.html (accessed on February 03, 2019).
A. Alberts (&)
Parliamentary Portfolio Committee, Cape Town, South Africa

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05980-4_16
282 A. Alberts
16.1.1 Space Applications, Treaties, United Nation

Declarations/Principles
Tanzania has no national space activities, save for the availability of information,
communication and telecommunication technologies (ICT) and broadcast services.
In 2015 it had a cell phone penetration rate of 75.9 per 100 inhabitants, only 5.4%
of inhabitants use the Internet, and it had no mobile satellite services available, but
Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) services are available.2 Tanzania has no
regional or international collaborations related to space applications, save that it
also benefits from the Africa Regional Data Cube (ARDC) that harnesses the latest
earth observation data to address food security.3
Its connection to space applications are, therefore, indirect, but filled with pos-
sibility based on its space law connections. Of the five major space treaties Tan-
zania has signed only one, namely the Convention on International Liability for
Damage Caused by Space Objects (Liability Convention). No treaties have been
ratified, including the Liability Convention.4 In terms of International Law Tan-
zania can therefore not be held bound to the Liability Convention until it has been
ratified, but it is obliged to refrain from conduct that may defeat the purpose of the
Liability Convention.5 Tanzania has signed and ratified five other space-related
treaties: Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space
and under Water of 1963 (Space Nuclear Ban Treaty); Agreement Relating to the
International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (ITSO Treaty); Conven-
tion on the International Mobile Satellite Organization (IMSO Treaty); the Inter-
national Telecommunication Union Constitution and Convention (ITU Treaty), and
the Constitutive Act of the African Union (AU Treaty).6 In terms of the Space
Nuclear Ban Treaty Tanzania has committed itself not to test nuclear weapons in
the atmosphere, outer space and atmosphere. This is currently an academic matter
as Tanzania does not have access to nuclear weapons. The other four treaties are
accessions to international organisations with space-related objectives. Membership
of these organisations are practical in nature.
In brief, Tanzania has also supported the following notable space-related UN
declarations/principles and resolutions: Principles Governing Use by States of
Artificial Earth Satellites for International Direct Television Broadcasting; The
Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space; The Prin-
ciples Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space Nuclear
2
International Telecommunications Union, “ICTEYE”, 2019, http://www.itu.int/net4/ITU-D/
icteye/CountryProfile.aspx?ISO=TZA (accessed on April 21, 2017).
3
Africa News, “Africa Regional Data Cube Initiative—Providing solutions to Africa’s major
problems”, December 14, 2016, https://africanews.space/africa-regional-data-cube-initiative-
providing-solutions-to-africas-major-problems/ (accessed on February 03, 2019).
4
United Nations Office of Outer Space Affairs, “Status of International Agreements relating to
activities in outer space as at 01 January 2018”, April, 09, 2018, http://www.unoosa.org/
documents/pdf/spacelaw/treatystatus/AC105_C2_2018_CRP03E.pdf (accessed on February 03,
2019).
5
Dugard, J. 2012. International Law. A South African Perspective. Cape Town: Juta.
6
Ibid., 4.
16 Tanzania 283
Power Sources Principles; and the Declaration on International Cooperation in the

Exploration and Use of Outer Space for the Benefit and in the Interests of All
States, taking into Particular Account the Needs of Developing Countries.7
The mentioned space-related UN Principles/Declarations and Resolutions do not
have the status of International Law but provide insight into Tanzania’s government
positioning. Tanzania acceded to most instruments without a vote having taken
place as there was consensus on the various UN decisions.8 Tanzania hereby seems
to have taken a position of aligning it with the main stream position of space
regulation. This is especially borne out by its support for the most important and
first UN space declaration, namely the Declaration of Legal Principles Governing
the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space (Outer Space
Declaration). In terms of international law, the Outer Space Declaration is regar-
ded as international customary law.9 Therefore, without having acceded to and
ratified the Outer Space Treaty (that is itself deemed a codification of the Outer
Space Declaration), it can be argued that Tanzania deems itself bound to the
principles contained in the Outer Space Treaty by virtue of its support of the Outer
Space Declaration.
It is important to note that Tanzania’s membership of the African Union
(AU) binds it into the African Space Policy and Strategy (ASPS) as well. It is also
important to note that Tanzania served on the AU’s Space Working Group that
drafted the ASPS.10
Tanzania is a developing state with many economic challenges. It is one of the

poorest states measured against its per capita income.11 Its two salient challenges
are reduction of poverty and maternal mortality rates.12 Agriculture still provides
25% of Tanzania’s gross domestic product (GDP), provides 85% of exports and
employs more or less 80% of the workforce. Economically it forms part of the
Southern African Development Community (SADC).
7
Ibid., 4.
8
United Nations Dag Hammarskjöld Library, “General Assembly Voting”, October 01, 2018,
http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/voting (accessed on February 02, 2019).
9
Ibid., 5.
10
African Union, Press Releases”, January 31, 2016, https://au.int/en/pressreleases/20160131-3
(accessed on February 03, 2019).
11
Ibid., 1.
12
United Nations Development Sustainable Development Goals, “Tanzania”, 2019, http://www.tz.
undp.org/content/tanzania/en/home.html (accessed on February 03, 2019).
284 A. Alberts
Tanzania devised a policy document, Vision 2025, wherein it acknowledges that

economic development policy must be aligned to a market-led economy and the
harnessing of technology.13 At the very least this document signals an implicit
acknowledgment of the value of space technology if read against the background of
Tanzania’s membership on the AU’s Space Working Group that drafted the ASPS.
Tanzania has by virtue of being a party to various space-related treaties, espe-
cially the organisational versions [that created the International Telecommunica-
tions Satellite Organisation (ITSO), the International Mobile Satellite Organization
(IMSO), the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), and the African Union
(AU)], access to various space-related services and developmental assets that it can
use as leverage to enhance its own space capabilities and economic development.
Even more so, the ASPS will be able to allow for a continent-wide collaboration
that can strengthen Tanzania’s endeavours in this regard.
Bibliography
1. Africa News: Africa Regional Data Cube Initiative—Providing solutions to Africa’s major
problems, December 14, 2016. https://africanews.space/africa-regional-data-cube-initiative-
providing-solutions-to-africas-major-problems/. Accessed on 03 Feb 2019
2. African Union: Press releases, January 31, 2016. https://au.int/en/pressreleases/20160131-3.
Accessed on 03 Feb 2019
3. Central Intelligence Agency: The World Factbook Africa: Tanzania. https://www.cia.gov/
library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/tz.html (n.d.). Accessed on 03 Feb 2019
4. Dugard, J.: International Law. A South African Perspective. Juta, Cape Town (2012)
5. International Telecommunications Union: ICTEYE. http://www.itu.int/net4/ITU-D/icteye/
CountryProfile.aspx?ISO=TZA (2019). Accessed on 21 Apr 2017
6. Tanzania: The Tanzania Development Vision 2015. http://www.tanzania.go.tz/egov_uploads/
documents/Vision_2025_en.pdf (n.d.). Accessed on 03 Feb 2019
7. United Nations Dag Hammarskjöld Library: General Assembly Voting, October 01, 2018.
http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/voting. Accessed on 02 Feb 2019
8. United Nations Development Sustainable Development Goals: Tanzania. http://www.tz.undp.
org/content/tanzania/en/home.html (2019). Accessed on 03 Feb 2019
9. United Nations Office of Outer Space Affairs: Status of International Agreements relating to
activities in outer space as at 01 January 2018, April, 09, 2018. http://www.unoosa.org/
documents/pdf/spacelaw/treatystatus/AC105_C2_2018_CRP03E.pdf. Accessed on 03 Feb
2019
Author Biography
Tanzania, “The Tanzania Development Vision 2015”, n.d., http://www.tanzania.go.tz/egov_

13
uploads/documents/Vision_2025_en.pdf (accessed on February 03, 2019).
16 Tanzania 285
(Law), LLB, and LLM (International Law (Cum Laude)), as well as an MPhil in Futures Studies
Uganda
17
Okeletsang Mookeletsi
Abstract
This chapter reviews the extent of Uganda’s participation in space activities. We
also review Uganda’s history, economic activities, geographic location and its
participation in space related treaties. Uganda faces many challenges as a
country in the eastern region of Africa—including but not limited to refugee spill
over and old technology and infrastructure that is used in their agricultural
sector. We dissect its socio-economic status and the various laws currently in
place which are a fulfilment of its international obligations. Uganda has managed
to localise international laws in order to advance their economic activities. The
most visible of these economic activities stem from the promulgation of the
Uganda Communications Act. Activities such as radio and telecommunications
plays an important role in the country’s economy.
Uganda gained independence on 9 October 1962, breaking away from the British
colonial rule.1 Uganda is a landlocked country surrounded by five countries.2 It has
a variety of natural resources including small deposits of copper, gold and other
minerals, it has fertile soil and regular rainfalls. Agriculture is a vital vein in the
country’s economy as it employs a third of the country’s work force. Coffee brings
1
Uganda High Commission Pretoria, Uganda’s Political History http://www.ugandahighcommission
pretoria.com/Political-History-of-Uganda.html.
2
Wikipedia, Geography of Uganda https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Uganda.
O. Mookeletsi (&)
e-mail: o_mookeletsi@yahoo.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05980-4_17
288 O. Mookeletsi
in the bulk of export revenue.3 Uganda has been an international player in space
affairs since the inception of the first treaty—the Outer Space Treaty of 1967.
Uganda ratified this treaty as a newly established sovereign state. Subsequent to the
latter treaty, there were four other treaties formed: Rescue Agreement, Liability
Convention, Registration Convention and the Moon Agreement.4 Uganda did not
ratify any of them. Apart from the five treaties, there were eleven other agreements
which the United Nations member states had to consider in relation to space affairs.
Out of the eleven agreements mentioned above in relation to other countries,
Uganda ratified three of them, namely the NTB, ITSO and ITU.5 As a member of
the AU Uganda is also a party to the ASPS.
There are several pieces of national legislation which Uganda has promulgated,
some of which cascades down from Uganda’s international law commitments. The
Uganda Communications Act of 2000 has the objective of developing a modern
communications sector and infrastructure by, among other things—minimizing
government’s direct role in the operation of the sector, diversifying its communi-
cations services by introducing more modern and innovative postal and telecom-
munications services in Uganda.6 Uganda has also created regulations under the
Uganda Communications Act, the main objective of which is to regulate the proper
use and management of radio spectrum resources.7
The Uganda Space Generation Advisory Council (SGAC) is a forum of indi-
viduals who share knowledge and information about space activities in Uganda.
There is an increasing use of satellite devices and applications in Uganda. These
applications assist Uganda to detect hazardous weather conditions in time, they
assist people to find their locations using the GPS and assist in agricultural appli-
cations.8 There is little to no evidence of core space laws in Uganda save for
communications laws. Apart from forums such as the SGAC, Uganda is not as
active as it could be when it comes to participating in space activities.
Apart from SGAC, Uganda is also home to the African Space Research Program
(ASRP). The latter is an agency with core representation in Dallas in the United
States. The agency conducts space sciences on African soil including but not
3
Forbes Best countries for business https://www.forbes.com/places/uganda/.
4
Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space Legal Committee 55th session, “Status of
International Agreements relating to activities in outer space as at 1 January 2016,”
A/AC.105/C.2/2016/CRP.3, 4 April 2016 http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/spacelaw/
treatystatus/AC105_C2_2016_CRP03E.pdf.
5
6
Uganda Communications Act Chapter 106, section 2 http://www.ulii.org/ug/legislation/
consolidated-act/106.
7
Uganda legal information institute, Income Tax Amendment Act, 2008, section 86 http://www.
ulii.org/ug/legislation/act/2015/4-0.
8
Space Generation Advisory Council (SGAC) Uganda http://spacegeneration.org/sgac-regions/
africa/uganda.html.
17 Uganda 289
limited to manufacturing satellites and space crafts. They train pilots and astronauts
however they are not yet qualified to certify pilots. These pilots will need to go to a
pilot training school to qualify to become a pilot. The agency boasts two projects
which they have executed: the manufacturing of a military space craft and Pro-
ject X. The agency does not divulge much information about what Project X
entails.9 Even though the council and the agency mentioned in this paragraph are
still not mature as players in the Ugandan space affairs, they profess to be on their
way to participating with the best in the world. The two organizations are paving
the way for more space projects in the future.
In its region, Uganda is slightly behind in its space activities and it has been
surpassed by Ethiopia in developing a globally recognized competitive space
agency. There are only three other space agencies in Africa at the moment, South
Africa, Nigeria and Egypt.10 Out of 54 countries, only four have space agencies
which are in existence.
The country has its own problems despite the vast natural resources at its disposal.
There are infrastructural challenges that hinder the growth of the agricultural sector
as the workforce is currently using old machinery and old technology which hinder
effective production. The country’s gross domestic product is growing due to the
increasing urban consumer population. Due to its geographical position, it is having
to deal with the refugee spill-over of Sudanese nationals into its borders as a result
of the ongoing conflict in that country. Other challenges include poor infrastructure
for transportation and energy. The country’s debt is increasing due to loan repay-
ments and the currency is depreciating against the dollar.11 In light of the above,
Uganda’s geopolitical stance is not as stable as it should be, with a politically
unstable neighbour (South Sudan) to help manage its refugee problems, and with an
unstable currency among other things, the government is forced to prioritize and
direct its budgets and resources where they are most needed. Against this back-
ground space applications and capability is not a political priority.
One way that Uganda, and Africa as a whole can take advantage of space appli-
cations towards their advancement is to use geospatial technologies to improve their
daily socio-economic activities. Geo spatial technologies includes remote sensing,
Global Positioning System (GPS) and Geographic Information System (GIS).
9
African Research Space Program http://www.ugandanway.com/asrp/news.php.
10
Science alert, F. Macdonald, “Ethiopia has launched the first space program in East Africa”
http://www.sciencealert.com/ethiopia-has-launched-the-first-space-program-in-east-africa.
11
290 O. Mookeletsi
Africa, as a developing region has a food security concern. Geospatial technology12

is a technology which allows one to monitor diseases in the production of
crop. This technology gives the farming sector detailed information about where
and how diseases and pests are spread over large parts of farmland. Developing
countries can take advantage of this type of technology as it is fairly low in cost.13
Remote sensing as a space technology, can be used in the managing of land the
planning thereof. The results of a remote sensing exercise can provide the physical
features of the land to enable the authorities to manage each parcel of land
accordingly. The physical features are affected by the environmental conditions
which continue to change. These changes need to be monitored in order to map out
the land properly.14 Mapping the land allows authorities to understand their land-
scape to plan current and future activities such as residential areas, agricultural
areas, water sources and woodland areas.
17.4 Treaties, Agreements and Principles
Uganda gained independence on 9 October 1962, breaking away from the British
colonial rule (Uganda High Commission Pretoria).15 Uganda has been an interna-
tional player in space affairs since the inception of the first treaty—the Treaty on
Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer
Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (Outer Space Treaty) of
1967. Uganda ratified this treaty as a newly established sovereign state. Subsequent
to the latter treaty, there were four other treaties formed including the Agreement on
the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects
Launched into Outer Space (Rescue Agreement) of 1968, Convention on Interna-
tional Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (Liability Convention) of
1972, Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space (Regis-
tration Convention) of 1975 and the Agreement Governing the Activities of States
on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (Moon Agreement) of 1979
(UNCOPUOS).16 Uganda did not ratify any of the four treaties. It was during this
period between 1971 and 1979 when the president of Uganda was Idi Amin.
12
Geospatial technologies are systems that acquire and handle location-specific data about Earth.
L. Gilman, Water Encyclopedia http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/Ge-Hy/Geospatial-
Technologies.html.
13
Ibid.
14
Woodcock, C. E., Strahler, A. H. and Franklin, J. Environmental Management (1983) 7: 223,
Remote sensing for land Management and Planning, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/
BF01871537.
15
Uganda High Commission Pretoria, Uganda’s Political History http://www.ugandahighcommission
pretoria.com/Political-History-of-Uganda.html.
16
17 Uganda 291
President Amin rose to power by staging a military coup against the then president
Milton Obote. During his tenure as president, Idi Amin led the country in a typical
military fashion by attacking neighbouring countries including Tanzania. In 1979
Idi Amin was defeated and he fled to Libya and thereafter to Saudi Arabia (State
house of Uganda)17. In light of this history it stands to reason why Uganda did not
ratify the remaining four treaties, its president was more concerned with military
activities and remaining in power—than international space activities.
Apart from the five treaties, there were eleven other agreements which the
United Nations member states had to consider in relation to space affairs. There is
the Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and
under Water (NTB 1963), Convention Relating to the Distribution of
Programme-Carrying Signals Transmitted by Satellite (BRS 1974), Agreement
Relating to the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (ITSO
1971)—with annexes, Agreement on the Establishment of the INTERSPUTNIK
International System and Organization of Space Communications (INTR 1971),
Convention for the establishment of a European Space Agency (ESA 1975),
Convention for the Establishment of a European Space Agency (ARB 1976),
Agreement on Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful
Purposes (INTC 1976), Convention on the International Mobile Satellite Organi-
zation (IMSO 1976), Convention Establishing the European Telecommunications
Satellite Organization (EUTELSAT) (EUTL 1982), Convention for the Establish-
ment of a European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites
(EUMETSAT) (EUM 1983), and the International Telecommunication Constitution
and Convention (ITU 1992). Out of the eleven agreements stated above, Uganda
ratified three of them—the NTB, ITSO and ITU (UNCOPUOS).18 Even though
Uganda has not signed many agreements initiated by the United Nations, it has been
active in space affairs until 1992 when it signed the ITU agreement.
17.5 Uganda and African Union
Uganda has been active in the international affairs relating to space up until 1992
when it signed the ITU Agreement.19 As a member state in the African Union
(“AU”), it is important for it to also play a role nationally and closer to home.
As part of the AU, Uganda is affected by these activities which the AU Com-
mission has embarked upon to improve the lives of Africans.
17
The Statehouse of Uganda, “Past presidents of Uganda—President Idi Amin Dada (Field
Marshall)” http://www.statehouse.go.ug/past-presidents/president-idi-amin-dada-field-marshall.
18
19
Ibid.
292 O. Mookeletsi
17.6 Space Activities in Uganda
Uganda is fairly active in space activities as it has been exposed to the international
space affairs through its participation in the international activities and treaties of
the United Nations. There are several pieces of national legislation which Uganda
has promulgated—which pieces of legislation are cascaded down from the inter-
national laws. The Uganda Communications Act of 2000 (chapter 106) has the
objective of developing a modern communications sector and infrastructure by,
among other things—minimizing government’s direct role in the operation of the
sector, diversifying its communications services by introducing more modern and
innovative postal and telecommunications services in Uganda and also by attracting
private investors to invest in developing the sector.20 Since Uganda had already
signed international agreements including the ITSO in 1971 and the ITU in 1992,
the process in the normal course and scope of legislation, is that the country should
have its own national legislation. Even though there is a 13 year gap between
signing the ITU and the promulgation of the Uganda Communications Act, the act
would stem from the international laws to which the country is a signatory. At a
national level, it is evident that Uganda is moving towards improving its activities
in the communications sector. The government sees it fit to further include the
private sector in this space to give big business an opportunity to thrive in the
country and to allow the government to take a back seat in the operational side of
this sector. This relegation of power to the private sector shows that the government
understands the importance of the collaboration between big business and gov-
ernment in order to attract investors.
Communications (Radio) Regulations, 2005—under section 94 of the Uganda
Communications Act Cap 106.21 This regulation applies to, among other things,
persons who are within Uganda and are involved in communication or transmission
of energy by radio, transmission of communication, energy or signal by radio or
any radio emission or communication which originates or is received in Uganda, or
is intended to be used in Uganda.22 The main objective of this regulation is to
regulate the proper use and management of radio spectrum resources.23 In this local
regulation, Uganda has made provision for the application of the International
Radio Regulations, 1995 which it has modified to fit its local requirements. The
classification of frequency and wavelength will be in accordance with the
20
Uganda Communications Act Chapter 106, section 2 http://www.ulii.org/ug/legislation/
consolidated-act/106.
21
Uganda legal info institute, Communications (Radio) Regulations, 2005, promulgated in 6
January 2005, number of SL 2005/23 http://www.ulii.org/ug/legislation/statutory-instrument/2005/
200523.
22
January 2005, number of SL 2005/23, Section 2(1)(a-b) http://www.ulii.org/ug/legislation/
statutory-instrument/2005/200523.
23
January 2005, number of SL 2005/23, section 3 http://www.ulii.org/ug/legislation/statutory-
instrument/2005/200523.
17 Uganda 293
International Radio Regulations, 1995.24 Section 4 of the regulation goes to the

extent of defining the hierarchy of use of spectrum within Uganda, it says that
where there are commercial radio station interferences with the government’s radio
station (because of their close proximity), then preference shall be given to the
government radio station.
Uganda’s Finance Act chapter 181 of 1993 is also a piece of legislation which
takes into account its participation in space activities. Section 4 of the latter act
indicates that “A person owning a satellite receiver equipment shall pay a fee of
three hundred thousand shillings to the Ministry responsible for information before
a licence is issued to the owner.25” Although this law shows the fact that there are
activities around satellites in the country, the fee could be a hindrance to other new
players or potential players in the market. Section 86 (4) of the principal act is
amended in the Income Tax Amendment Act of 2008. This amendment says:
“Where a non resident person carries on the business of transmitting messages by
cable, radio, optical fibre, or satellite communication, the tax payable by the person
on the gross income derived from the transmission of messages by apparatus
established in Uganda, whether or not such messages originated in Uganda, or from
providing direct-to-home pay television services to subscribers in Uganda, shall be
five per cent of the gross amount derived by the person in respect of the trans-
mission.26” Once again, this five percent tax seems a bit steep if it is per trans-
mission, and this could have the potential of dissuading investors into this market.
Quick facts
Population Unemployment
41.1 million 2.3%
GDP (PPP) Inflation (CPI)
$85.0 billion 5.5%
4.7% growth in 2016; 5-year compound annual growth of 4.3% FDI inflow
$2068 per capita $541.2 million
Public debt
36.9% of GDP
Having a population of 41.1 million people and a 5 year compound annual

growth of 4.3%, Uganda should be doing more to attract investors by reducing their
tax in activities around communications. The table above provides some facts about
Uganda’s economy.27 Taking into account the population in the table, there is a lot
24
Uganda legal information institute, Communications (Radio) Regulations, 2005, promulgated in
6 January 2005, number of SL 2005/23, Section 5(1-2) http://www.ulii.org/ug/legislation/
statutory-instrument/2005/200523.
25
Uganda legal information institute, Finance Act chapter 181, 1993, section 4 http://www.ulii.
org/ug/legislation/consolidated-act/181.
26
Uganda legal information institute, Income Tax Amendment Act, 2008, section 86 http://www.
ulii.org/ug/legislation/act/2015/4-0.
27
Index of Economic Freedom, 2018 https://www.heritage.org/index/pdf/2018/countries/uganda.
pdf.
294 O. Mookeletsi
of potential for growth in the communication space, telecommunications companies

tend to thrive in countries where there is a decent population because they would
already have a customer base of 41.1 million people. If the government improves
on the infrastructure of communications then it can better service its people and
then improve the gross domestic product of the country.
In light of the above economic outlook of Uganda, one can see that there is still
much more improvement to be done, the foreign direct investment is at 541.2
million US dollars. This is a small amount considering the small growth in the gross
domestic product (GDP). Perhaps if Uganda were to be less stringent on its tax
laws, just until the economy shows steady growth, then it can impose more
favourable tax laws—favourable to the country. Relaxing some of the laws could be
beneficial to Uganda in the long term because if more space activities (especially in
the communication sector) occur whether through Ugandans or foreign entities,
then Uganda may have a steadily growing communications sector (as envisaged by
the objectives of its own Uganda Communications Act) which would attract big
telecommunications companies to invest in the country. This type of investment can
have the effect of reducing unemployment and allowing universal access of com-
munications services to improve the lives of ordinary people.
The Telecommunications (Licensing) Regulations of 2005 (under section 94 of
the Uganda Communications Act, Cap 106), regulate telecommunications operators
in Uganda and provide telecommunications services.28 Its objectives are to promote
equal competition and to make the licensing procedures transparent, to expand
networks and services by promoting infrastructure roll out and to fulfill the
socio-economic interest of the public by developing a nation-wide viable
telecommunications network to provide universal telecommunications services.29
The telecommunications commission, is a body which implements this regulation
and ensures that there is compliance among telecommunications operators. This
piece of legislation allows telecommunications companies to trade in Uganda. By
implication, this law enables foreign investments because potential investors can at
least have open communications in Uganda and can access information via the
various telecommunications services available. By way of example, telecommu-
nications giant MTN Group has opened MTN Uganda, this type of foreign
investment opens up Uganda to the rest of Africa because MTN trades in many
African countries. Ugandans can enjoy roaming services, internet services and
telephony services. There are five main players in the Ugandan telecommunications
sector: namely MTN Uganda, Warid Telecom, Bharti Airtel, Hits Telecom and
Uganda Telecom (Africa and Middle East telecom).30 There are other players in the
market and this is good for competition to assist the subscribers to have options and
28
Uganda legal information institute, Telecommunications (Licensing) Regulations, 2005,
section 2(a) and (b) http://www.ulii.org/ug/legislation/statutory-instrument/2005/20.
29
Uganda legal information institute, Telecommunications (Licensing) Regulations 2005,
section 1(a)(d) and (f) http://www.ulii.org/ug/legislation/statutory-instrument/2005/20.
30
Africa and middle eat telecom-week, Uganda—Telecoms, Mobile, Broadband and Forecasts
http://www.africantelecomsnews.com/Products/Uganda-Telecoms_Mobile_Broadband_Forecasts.
shtml.
17 Uganda 295
take advantage of competitive pricing and quality service. The competition in the
telecommunications market is healthy for Uganda’s economy in that sector. Uganda
is indeed performing its duties to the agreements that it signed to provide universal
access to its people. These activities support the dualist school of thought for the
application of international law to national and local laws. The Ugandan laws in
communication are mature and stable enough to attract investors into the country.
17.7 Uganda’s Involvement in Space
The Uganda Space Generation Advisory Council (SGAC) is a forum of individuals

who share knowledge and information about space activities in Uganda. There is an
increasing use of satellite devices and applications in Uganda. These applications
assist Uganda to detect hazardous weather conditions in time, they assist people to
find their locations using the GPS and assist in agricultural applications.31 There is
little to no evidence of core space laws in Uganda save for communications laws.
Apart from forums such as the SGAC, Uganda is not as active as it could be when it
comes to participating in space activities. The east African region consists of Uganda,
Rwanda, Burundi, Kenya, Tanzania and Ethiopia. Academics and professionals of
this eastern region, who have a knowledge and skill in the subject matter of space all
meet to exchange ideas and plan the prospects of making space widely known. They
hold workshops at research centres to gather information and discuss ways to use
space innovation to better the lives of people in particular in the eastern region of
Africa. Apart from the Ugandan Space Advisory Council, Uganda is also home to the
African Space Research Program. The latter is an agency with core representation in
Dallas/FT in the United States. The agency conducts space sciences on African soil
including but not limited to manufacturing satellites and space crafts. They train pilots
and astronauts however they are not yet qualified to certify pilots. These pilots will
need to go to a pilot training school to qualify to become a pilot. The agency boasts
two projects which they have done, the manufacturing of a military space craft and
Project X. The agency does not go into further detail about what Project X entails.32
Even though the council and the agency mentioned in this paragraph are still not
mature as players in the Ugandan space affairs, they are well on their way to par-
ticipating with the best in the world. The two organizations are paving the way for
more space projects in the future. In the east African region, Ethiopia is in the
forefront of developing space activities by establishing its own space agency called
the Ethiopian Space Science Society (ESSS). This ESSS was privately funded with a
3 million dollar investment.33 In its region, Uganda is slightly behind in its space
31
Space Generation Advisory Council (SGAC) Uganda http://spacegeneration.org/sgac-regions/
africa/uganda.html.
32
African Research Space Program http://www.ugandanway.com/asrp/news.php.
33
296 O. Mookeletsi
activities and it has been surpassed by Ethiopia in developing a globally recognized

competitive space agency. There are only three other space agencies in Africa at the
moment, South Africa, Nigeria and Egypt.34 Out of 54 countries, only four have
space agencies to speak of.
17.8 Geopolitical Positioning of Uganda
Uganda is a landlocked country surrounded by five countries including Kenya, South

Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda and Tanzania.35 It has a variety of
natural resources including small deposits of copper, gold and other minerals, it has
fertile soil and regular rainfalls. Agriculture is a vital vein in the country’s economy
as it employs a third of the country’s work force. Coffee brings in the bulk of export
revenue. The country has its own problems despite the vast natural resources at its
disposal. There are infrastructural challenges that hinder the growth of the agricultural
sector as the workforce is currently using old machinery and old technology which
hinder effective production. The country’s gross domestic product is growing due to
the increasing urban consumer population. Uganda is not without its share of chal-
lenges, because of its geographical position, it is having to deal with the refugee
spill-over of Sudanese nationals into its borders—due to the ongoing conflict in that
country. Other challenges include poor infrastructure of transportation and energy.
The country’s debt is increasing due to loan repayments and the currency is depre-
ciating against the dollar.36 In light of the above, Uganda’s geopolitical stance is not
as stable as it should be, with a politically unstable neighbour (South Sudan) to help
manage its refugee problems, and an unstable currency among other things, gov-
ernment is forced to prioritize and direct its budgets and resources where they are
most needed. Space activities have to in this case take a back seat because resources
need to be pulled together to solve the more urgent and immediate challenges. In
order to explore any space activities, Uganda needs to work with its neighbouring
countries to be able to give its space activities a chance to thrive. By way of example,
Uganda may need a sparsely populated area to launch space crafts, if it does not have
this type of terrain then it may need its neighbouring countries to help launch its space
craft. In the world of space, players cannot participate in isolation, they need each
other to be able to successfully participate in that sector.
In the 2015/2016 budget speech, under the heading international agreements, the
government seeks to impose strict laws relating to taxation. Companies plan and
find ways to try to evade taxes in the country. As a result, Uganda has ratified the
following agreements: the East African Community Agreement for the Avoidance
of Double Taxation and Prevention of Fiscal Evasion in respect to Taxes, the
Agreement for the Establishment of the African Tax Administration Forum (ATAF)
34
35
Wikipedia, Geography of Uganda https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Uganda.
36
17 Uganda 297
on Mutual Assistance in Tax Matters, and the OECD (Organization for Economic
Co-operation and Development) Convention on Mutual Administrative Assis-
tance.37 The first agreement mentioned above is evidence that the eastern region
countries are working together to protect their countries’ interests. This means that
they have the capability to co-operate with each other to position themselves as
active players in the African agenda on space activities.
Uganda and the AU at large, can take a chapter out of Europe’s vast experiences in
space activities. Africa already has a blueprint from Europe and other major players of
how to establish a successful and lasting African space programme. The only thing
that needs to be done is to customize the programme to suit Africa’s unique needs.
There are several major players in the world of space including the United States,
Russia, China, Europe, India, Japan, and Israel. Each country has a long track record
of operating satellites. During the Cold War, Russia and the United States were the
first countries at the forefront of introducing the space age to the world. The United
States has the largest budget and the largest space companies in the world.
The above map of the world, shows all the countries which have space activities.
The countries in red are those with independent launch capabilities, the ones in blue
are those that have operated or are operating satellites on their own.38 In Africa,
only four countries have satellite activities and Uganda is not one of them. These
four include South Africa, Nigeria, Egypt and Algeria. Even small islands in the far
east are more active than Africa. This map shows that most of the world has been
participating in space activities while most of Africa is left behind. Europe is clearly
a major player in space and even though it does not have the biggest budget in the
world it certainly has the biggest footprint in space activities.
37
The state house of Uganda, Uganda budget speech 2015/2016, 11 June 2015, fifth session of the
9th parliament of Uganda http://www.statehouse.go.ug/media/speeches/2015/06/11/uganda-
budget-20152016.
38
Secure World Foundation, “The Global Nature of Space Activities” https://swfound.org/space-
sustainability-101/the-global-nature-of-space-activities/.
298 O. Mookeletsi
17.9 Conclusion
A country’s willingness to build a stronger footprint towards its own improvement

and improvement in the lives of the ordinary people is first shown in the trans-
formation of its laws. In this case, Uganda’s laws have been revised or initiated to
better fit in with the ever-changing international world. There is still more room to
improve on these laws in order to better attract capital producing sources into the
country. Uganda has elected to apply international laws into its own national laws,
we see this in the communications laws which stem from the international com-
munication laws. It is not surprising that Uganda does not have more space related
laws because it is not a significant player in space affairs whether in Africa and in
the world. It may be a member of various organizations whose sole objective is to
be active in space affairs in Africa—however it has not taken direct steps to be
involved in space affairs. The latter is evident in the 2015/2016 budget speech
where there was no mention of a budget for space related activities. It is however
understandable that the government does not allocate funds for space activities
because there are other more pressing priorities which needs to be catered for by the
budget. It is not just Uganda which has prioritized and directed its budget towards
its immediate domestic challenges, the rest of Africa generally has similar
socio-economic challenges as well. Any government with the choice between
providing electricity for its people as opposed to purchasing space equipment must
choose the former for obvious reasons. Africa is still experiencing the consequences
of colonialism and its independence as a continent is marred by civil unrest, poverty
and unemployment among other things.
There are seemingly no records of other laws about space activities apart from
communications and telecommunications in Uganda. In its east African region,
Ethiopia has surpassed Uganda as the first in its region to establish a space agency.
Even though this agency is privately owned, it is worth mentioning as a step in the
right direction for Ethiopia. In order to speed up its space activity ambitions,
Uganda must look into partnering, at a government level, with strong players who
already have a decent footprint in space affairs. We now know that Israel is one of
the major players in the space sector. Geographically, Israel and Uganda are in
close proximity to work with each other and create synergies to further each other’s
space activities and to try and catch up with their European counterparts if it’s at all
possible. Uganda can use its vast natural resources as a bartering tool to offer to
Israel in exchange for a partnership in the space activities which Israel have already
entered. Furthermore, like any other state in the world, Israel needs safe alliances
from neighbouring countries in order to further its security agenda. It has been well
reported that Israel and Palestine are not the best of friends and with their ongoing
tensions, Israel needs strategic alliance partners geographically and otherwise to
protect its borders. Apart from Israel, Uganda can also look into partnering with the
likes of Japan or India to further its space agenda. It would need to look at which
partner would be strategic in this venture and where are the synergies between the
countries.
17 Uganda 299
Uganda and the AU must do extensive research when developing its footprint
into space affairs and activities. The Secure World Foundation has published a book
called the Handbook for New Actors in Space. This book is designed specifically
for countries which want to regulate and oversee their own satellites and those
which want to develop space programmes, also for the universities and start-up
companies which want to participate in space activities.39 In order to create a
successful African space agency, Africa would not need to re-invent the wheel,
there are many examples of countries which have successful space activities
especially in the developed world. The AU must look into creating and enabling
environment for an African ASD. We have seen in previous paragraphs how the
ASD is making good revenue out of the manufacturing of space related equipment,
systems and vehicles. The revenue streams are increasing annually and this is
leading to job creation in the European region. The AU must look closely at ASD’s
model to be able to create one which would be specifically designed for Africa and
by Africans. There is a huge gap in the African market for companies like ASD to
enter in Africa because there is currently no competitive private company of that
stature in Africa. There is need on the African continent to teach governments about
the importance of space activities and deriving space information for the good of
the people on the ground. Education around space activities should not be taken for
granted because people who are in leadership positions cannot be expected to know
everything. Uganda can create its own opportunities within Africa to become and
active player in space activities. It can craft its laws to be able to attract private
businesses to invest in its space activities. There are many opportunities in the
African continent to do business in relation to space. Even though Africa is still in
its infancy stages as a participant in space, Uganda can use this as an opportunity to
improve its infrastructure in the mean time so that when the time is ripe for foreign
investors to come into Africa, it will be ready to service the investors accordingly. If
it invests properly in space related infrastructure, Uganda can in future be known as
the gateway to modern and innovative space systems and equipment in Africa. It
just needs to position itself accordingly and have foresight that Africa’s infancy will
not be forever. Regional co-operation is also an important opportunity for Uganda’s
space related ambitions. European countries have come together to form forums
which focus on various space related activities. Uganda and the rest of its neigh-
bours in the eastern region can also form a forum or organization to co-operate with
each other to further the region’s space ambitions. On the international stage,
Uganda has not entrenched itself to the largest extent possible. Of notable impor-
tance, Uganda is not a member of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful
Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS).40 Therefore when opportunities arise for
African member states in the UNCOPUOS, Uganda will not be able to access such
opportunities. Even though there are many challenges which Uganda and the rest of
Secure World Foundation, “Handbook for New Actors in Space” https://swfound.org/handbook/.

39
40
United Nations office for outer space affairs, Members of the Committee of the Peaceful uses of
outer space http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/members/index.html.
300 O. Mookeletsi
Africa face regarding being active members in the space arena, there are also many
opportunities which each country can take advantage of.
References
1. Tuinder, P.H.: Basic Principles of International Space Law, 12-4
4. Uganda High Commission Pretoria: Uganda’s Political History. http://www.
ugandahighcommissionpretoria.com/Political-History-of-Uganda.html
5. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space Legal Committee 55th session: Status of
International Agreements relating to activities in outer space as at 1 January 2016.
A/AC.105/C.2/2016/CRP.3. http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/spacelaw/treatystatus/
AC105_C2_2016_CRP03E.pdf. 4 Apr 2016
6. The Statehouse of Uganda: Past presidents of Uganda—President Idi Amin Dada (Field Marshall).
http://www.statehouse.go.ug/past-presidents/president-idi-amin-dada-field-marshall
7. African Union Commission: Agenda 2063 Final edition, p. 12. ISBN 978-92-95104-23-5.
https://www.au.int/web/sites/default/files/pages/3657-file-agenda2063_popular_version_en.
pdf (2015)
8. African Union: What is Agenda 2063. https://www.au.int/web/en/agenda2063
9. AU Commission Holds an Experts’ Workshop on Designing an African Space Strategy. Press
release No. 255/2013. https://www.au.int/web/en/newsevents/27619/au-commission-holds-
experts%E2%80%99-workshop-designing-african-space-strategy. 19 Dec 2013
10. African Union 26th Summit press release. https://www.au.int/en/pressreleases/19677/african-
union-heads-state-and-government-adopts-african-space-policy-and. 31 Jan 2016
11. African Union 26 Summit press release. https://www.au.int/web/en/pressreleases/19677/
african-union-heads-state-and-government-adopts-african-space-policy-and. 31 Jan 2016
12. South African Journal of Science: The growth of space science in African countries for Earth
observation in the 21st century. http://www.sajs.co.za/sites/default/files/publications/pdf/
Ngcofe%20-%20commentary_DOI.pdf
13. Uganda Communications Act Chapter 106, section 2. http://www.ulii.org/ug/legislation/
consolidated-act/106
14. Uganda legal info institute: Communications (Radio) Regulations, 2005, promulgated in 6
January 2005, number of SL 2005/23. http://www.ulii.org/ug/legislation/statutory-instrument/
2005/200523
January 2005, number of SL 2005/23, section 2 (1)(a-b). http://www.ulii.org/ug/legislation/
statutory-instrument/2005/200523
January 2005, number of SL 2005/23, section 3. http://www.ulii.org/ug/legislation/statutory-
instrument/2005/200523
17. Uganda legal information institute: Communications (Radio) Regulations, 2005, promulgated
in 6 January 2005, number of SL 2005/23, section 5 (1-2). http://www.ulii.org/ug/legislation/
statutory-instrument/2005/200523
18. Uganda legal information institute: Finance Act chapter 181, 1993, section 4. http://www.ulii.
org/ug/legislation/consolidated-act/181
19. Uganda legal information institute: Income Tax Amendment Act, 2008, section 86. http://
www.ulii.org/ug/legislation/act/2015/4-0
20. Index of Economic Freedom. http://www.heritage.org/index/pdf/2017/countries/uganda.pdf
(2017)
17 Uganda 301
21. Uganda legal information institute: Telecommunications (Licensing) Regulations, 2005,

section 2 (a) and (b). http://www.ulii.org/ug/legislation/statutory-instrument/2005/20
22. Uganda legal information institute: Telecommunications (Licensing) Regulations 2005,
section 1 (a)(d) and (f). http://www.ulii.org/ug/legislation/statutory-instrument/2005/20
23. Africa and middle east telecom-week. Uganda—Telecoms, Mobile, Broadband and Forecasts.
http://www.africantelecomsnews.com/Products/Uganda-Telecoms_Mobile_Broadband_
Forecasts.shtml
24. Space Generation Advisory Council Uganda. http://spacegeneration.org/sgac-regions/africa/
uganda.html
25. African Research Space Program. http://www.ugandanway.com/asrp/news.php
26. Macdonald, F.: Ethiopia has launched the first space program in East Africa. Science Alert.
http://www.sciencealert.com/ethiopia-has-launched-the-first-space-program-in-east-africa
27. Wikipedia: Geography of Uganda. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Uganda
28. Forbes, Best countries for business. https://www.forbes.com/places/uganda/
29. The state house of Uganda, Uganda budget speech 2015/2016, 11 June 2015, fifth session of
the 9th parliament of Uganda. http://www.statehouse.go.ug/media/speeches/2015/06/11/
uganda-budget-20152016
30. Secure World Foundation: The Global Nature of Space Activities. https://swfound.org/space-
sustainability-101/the-global-nature-of-space-activities/
31. ASD Eurospace: Facts and figures press release. The state of the European Space Industry in
2015. http://www.eurospace.org/Data/Sites/1/pdf/eurospacefactsandfigures2016pressrelease.
pdf (2016, June)
32. Secure World Foundation: Handbook for New Actors in Space. https://swfound.org/
handbook/
33. United Nations office for outer space affairs, Members of the Committee of the Peaceful uses
of outer space. http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/members/index.html
Author Biography
Okeletsang Mookeletsi is an attorney managing the Africa region for SAS Institute Proprietary
Limited located in Johannesburg, South Africa. She obtained her LLB degree in 2006 from Wits
University and obtained a dispute resolution diploma with the Arbitration Foundation of Southern
Africa in 2013. She is now underway with a Master degree in the philosophy of space studies at
UCT. She has been a corporate attorney for eleven years working in big companies including
Mobile Telephone Networks (telecommunications), Nedbank Limited (Banking), British
Petroleum (Petrochemicals) and now SAS Institute which is a data analytics company. She is a
member of Corporate Counsel Association of South Africa (CCASA), Mandela Washington
Young African leaders Initiative (YALI) and a member of the National Council of African
Women. She currently resides in Johannesburg, South Africa.
Zambia
18
Alexander Gairiseb
Abstract
The Republic of Zambia is a State Party to several international agreements
relating to space activities through accession. However, being a state party alone
is not suffice, therefore, Zambia has to fulfil the fundamental principles
enshrined in the various international agreements relating to outer space through
a domestication process. Consequently, an analysis will be made on the
international agreements relating to outer space acceded to by Zambia, and the
extent to which Zambia domesticated them into domestic law. Furthermore,
Zambia has adopted some institutional and policy framework at national level in
order to implement the continental efforts to promote African Space Programme
and implement international agreements.
18.1 About Zambia
The territory of Northern Rhodesia was administered by the former British South
Africa Company from 1891 until it was taken over by the UK in 1923. During the
1920s and 1930s, advances in mining spurred development and immigration. The
name was changed to Zambia upon independence in 1964. In the 1980s and 1990s,
declining copper prices, economic mismanagement, and a prolonged drought hurt
the economy. Zambia is located in Southern Africa, east of Angola, south of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo.1
1
Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook: Zambia. Available: https://www.cia.gov/
library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/za.html [2019, January 28].
A. Gairiseb (&)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05980-4_18
304 A. Gairiseb
From the outset, it is imperative to iron out the challenges faced by Zambia in its
endeavour to take part in space related activities, before addressing these challenges
as presenting a perfect opportunity to promote space science and astronomy in
Zambia. Initially just like many countries in Sub-Sahara Africa education system is
a challenge in Zambia. In particular the curriculum system is much centralised and
the introduction of new fields such as space science is very complex. Secondly,
space science is not on the priority list of the government agenda.2 This is evident
from the stance that government took during the independence year for not sup-
porting the initiative of the then school teacher who aspired to develop the Zambian
space program. Furthermore, closely related to the education challenge is the lack of
skills in space science and technology among Zambian scientists as the interests in
space science grew.3 It is worth to take note that the challenges faced in Zambia are
similarly experienced or common in many African countries, the following is a
synopsis of some of those challenges in addition to what has been stated above.
There is limited financial capital coupled with the relatively weak industrial sector,
which poses a challenge to the long-term sustainability of space initiatives. Sec-
ondly, there is lack of political will for continental level space initiatives, due to
pressing national socio-economic priorities. Language barriers, immigration issues,
and cross border taxes and tariffs poses a significant challenge for coordination.4
The political commitment for space and satellite applications remains lacking,
which seems largely to be due to the fact that there is insufficient understanding of
the benefits, and a lack of communication of the success stories. Further, there are
insufficient links generally between the space initiatives and policies and other
policy areas, including agriculture, environment, health, transport, and security, and
a broad understanding of how space can assist in achieving policy objectives is
missing.5
The limited number of space related activities taking place in Zambia has pre-
sented some opportunities for the country. Thus, international cooperation is one of
the opportunities open to Zambia to address the issue of lack of skills. At this
juncture, informal international collaboration and networking links which later
became formal were established between the Physics Department at the University
of Zambia and the South African Astronomical Observatory (SAAO), the Her-
manus Magnetic Observatory (HMO) through the National Astrophysics and Space
Science Programme at the University of Cape Town.6 Consequently, Zambia relies
on South African counterparts to gain training and experience in space science as
well as to gain exposure to the international space community. Therefore, this
2
Sibanda and McKinnell, p. 51.
3
Ibid.
4
African Union. (2016). African Space Strategy: towards economic, political and social
integration, p. 9.
5
Giannopapa, C. (2012). The European-African Partnership in Space Applications, European
Space Policy Institute, p. 274.
6
Sibanda and McKinnell.
18 Zambia 305
presents an opportunity to strengthen cooperation in space science at SADC level

and the transfer of skills within the region. In the context of the African continent, it
provides a significant socio-economic growth potential, and the existing space
initiatives provide a foundation on which future space initiatives could be expand or
built upon in Africa. Furthermore, sharing of capacity among various African
countries will assist in minimising duplication and strengthening coordination.7
We are aware of the challenges experienced and the opportunities available as

discussed above. Therefore, Zambia has to review is education policy in order to
ascertain whether it adequately address space science and technology, if not, the
education policy should be reformed in order to accommodate space science in
schools and universities’ curriculums.
Secondly, the mandate of the National Science and Technology Council should
be extended to space science in order to create certainty, this can be achieved by
amending the Science and Technology Act of 1997. Thirdly, an entity has to be
designated that is in charge of coordinating space research and development in
Zambia, that entity can be none other than the National Science and Technology
Council in order to avoid duplications, alternatively, research institutes focusing on
space research and development can be established pursuant to Section 7 of the
Science and Technology Act. Fourthly, once NSTC’s function is clear on space
science, there is the need to formulate a space policy and strategy, such can be
achieved through international cooperation.
Fifthly, Zambia should build on the current international partnerships or col-
laborative initiatives at local, regional and international level. Thus, Zambia should
be actively involved in efforts aimed at promoting space science in Africa through
the African Leadership Conference on Space Science and Technology for Sus-
tainable Development held biannually, African Union Commission that spear-
headed the adoption of the African Space Policy and Strategy. Actively
participating or being represented in the events of the United Nations Committee on
Peaceful Uses of Outer Space.
Further, as part of capacity building or human resource development Zambia
should make use of the Pan-African University Space Science Institute in the future,
and continue its participation in the African Regional Centre for Space and Tech-
nology Education—in English Language. Furthermore, Zambia should continue to
create public awareness on issues concerning space science and technology edu-
cation. The universities in Zambia should continue their collaborative efforts on
space science research and development with other partner institutions, as well as to
consider reviewing curriculum to incorporate the space science related subjects.
7
African Union. (2016). African Space Strategy: Towards economic, political and social
integration, p. 10.
306 A. Gairiseb
In order to attract foreign direct investment in space science and technology,

there is the need to adopt legislative and regulatory framework to promote foreign
funding. Zambia has acceded to the international instruments relating to space
activities but similar has not been domesticated in local law, therefore, Zambia
should domestic the international instruments. Private sector should be involved in
funding space science and technology.
In addition, Zambia will host one of the four projects from Africa that won the
IAU100 grant to implement astronomy initiatives. In particular, the Astronomy
Roadshow-Trans Zambia project (Zambia) aims to inspire and educate youth and to
train science educators to teach astronomy through the organisation of a workshop
and star parties.8
18.2 International Space Law
The activities of States in the exploration of outer space are regulated by a special
branch of international law. In particular, this is known as the international space
law which is referred to as the corpus juris spatialis—body of law that regulates the
relations of states in outer space including the moon and other celestial bodies.
Thus, international space law is mostly comprised of treaties entered into between
State Parties. Therefore, only States have rights and obligations under international
space law, however, intergovernmental organisations such as the European Space
Agency can declare acceptance of rights and obligations contained in international
space related treaties. Thus, the first treaty to be adopted at international level is the
Treaty Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space
including the Moon and Other Celestial bodies,9 this is referred to as the Magna
Carta. It is a Magna Carta because it laid down the fundamental principles gov-
erning the activities of States in the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful
purposes. Furthermore it laid down the foundation for the development of future
space law treaties. The most fundamental principles governing outer space are the
freedom of exploration and use,10 non appropriation,11 demilitarisation of nuclear
weapons or mass destruction,12 international responsibility,13 international liabil-
ity,14 and state of registry15 just to mention but a few.
8
Space in Africa. 2018. Four projects from Africa win IAU100 grant to implement astronomy
initiatives. Available: https://africanews.space/four-projects-from-africa-win-iau100-grant-to-
implement-astronomy-initiatives/ [2019, February 1].
9
Adopted on 19 December 1966, open for signature on 27 January 1967, entered into force on 10
October 1967.
10
Article I of the Outer Space Treaty.
11
Article II of the OST.
12
Article IV of OST.
13
Article VI of OST.
14
Article VII of OST.
15
Article VIII of OST.
18 Zambia 307
The Republic of Zambia is a State Party to the Outer Space Treaty16 (herein
called OST), in particular it acceded to the OST on the 20th August 1973.17 Thus,
in terms of the OST, Zambia has obligations that it needs to fulfil as part of
international obligations owed to other State Parties. The next two treaties relevant
to this discussion is the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of
Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space of 1968 (herein
called ARRA) and the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by
Objects Launched into Outer Space of 1972 (herein called LIAB)18 which are a
development or continuation on the fundamental principles laid down in the Outer
Space Treaty. On the one hand the Rescue Agreement imposes an obligation on
states to notify the launching authority or the Secretary General of the United
Nations of information about astronauts who experience accidents, or made
emergency landing into their territory.19 Furthermore, States are “urged to rescue
and render all necessary assistance to astronauts who are involved in accidence,
distress, emergency or unintended landing on the territory of another state or high
seas or territory not under the control of any state”.20 The concept of return has also
been extended to cover or include objects or components parts found in the territory
of another state or high seas to be returned to the launching authority.21
On the other hand, the Liability Convention define the terms damage and
launching state which “means (i) a State which launches or procures the launching
of a space object; (ii) a State from whose territory or facility a space object is
launched”.22 Whenever damage is caused by a space object on the surface of earth
or to aircraft in flight the launching state is absolutely liable.23 Whereas, if damage
is caused elsewhere than on the surface of the Earth to a space object of one
launching State or to persons or property on board such a space object by a space
object of another launching State, the latter shall be liable only if the damage is due
to its fault or the fault of persons for whom it is responsible.24 Furthermore, the
Liability convention introduces the concept of joint and several liability.25 But the
notion of international liability is derived from the Outer Space Treaty which paved
the way for future development.26 However, in the context of this chapter the
16
Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. (2016). Status of international agreements related
to activities in outer space as at 1 January 2016.
17
US Department of State. (n.d). Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the
Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies. Available at
www.state.gov/t/isn/5181.htm [14 March 2017].
18
The Rescue Agreement was adopted on 19 December 1967, opened for signature on 22 April
1968, entered into force on 3 December 1968, whereas the Liability Convention was adopted on
29 November 1971, opened for signature on 29 March 1972, entered into force on 1 September
1972.
19
Article 1 of the ARRA.
20
Article 2 of ARRA.
21
Article 5 of ARRA.
22
Article I of LIAB.
23
Article II of LIAB.
24
Article III of LIAB.
25
Article IV of LIAB.
26
Article VII of the OST.
308 A. Gairiseb
Rescue Agreement and the Liability Convention are two of the three treaties
relating to activities in outer space acceded to by Zambia.27 In particular, Zambia
acceded to the ARRA on the 28 August 1973,28 and the Liability Convention on the
same date (28 August 1973), however, it can be inferred that Zambia deposited its
instrument of accession with all three depositary governments hence the discrep-
ancy or different dates of accession.29
18.3 Space Activities in Zambia
At the outset, the sovereignty of Zambia dates back to early 60s, in particular
Zambia gained independence on 24 October 1964.30 Despite being autonomous for
more than half a century, Zambia has very little experience in space science and
astronomy although the practice of amateur astronomy by indigenous and tradi-
tional Zambian communities dates back to time immemorial.31 This included the
observation of the motions and positions of the sun, moon and stars,32 and ancient
stories were told by ancestors which were passed on from one generation to
another. However, the existence of such indigenous practice on space science and
astronomy received little attention due to the fact that it was never recorded.33 But
the role that ancient space science and astronomy played in the current development
of space no matter how small and at what pace such developments occurred in
Zambia cannot be brushed aside just because it was never documented. Because
science and technology was given birth by ancient practices that exist in many
African countries.
However, there has been progress in initiating space activities in Zambia. For
instance, in 1991 an idea was conceived to form the Zambian Space Administration
which died a natural death,34 maybe due to some of the challenges which have
been discussed above, experienced in many developing countries when it comes to
engaging in space related activities. The late nineties saw the establishment of the
Working Group on Space Science and Technology in Zambia on 27 May 1999,
27
See footnote 8.
28
UK Treaties Online. (n.d). Treaty record: Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of
Astronauts and the Return of Objects launched into Outer Space. Available at http://treaties.fco.
gov.uk/treaties/treatyrecord.html [14 March 2017].
29
UN Treaty Collection. (n.d). Available at https://treaties.un.org/pages/showDetails.aspx [14
March 2017].
30
Habanyama, A. and Munyeme, G. (1999). Basic Space Science Education and Research in
Zambia, Cieux Africains/African Skies, No. 4, pp. 20–21.
31
Sibanda, P. and McKinnell, L. A. (2008). Space Science and Development in Zambia: Recent
Developments, Cieux Africains/African Skies, No. 12, pp. 50–52.
32
Sibanda and McKinnell at p. 50.
33
Ibid.
34
Ibid.
18 Zambia 309
which was affiliated to the Working Group on Space Science in Africa (WGSSA),
the Zambia Astronomical Association as an amateur astronomical organisation.35
It is paradoxical not to think that the recent interest in space related activities in
the nineties in Zambia is not somehow linked to the audacious dream that a school
teacher aspired to put Zambian astronauts on the moon and to Mars in the space
race during Zambia’s celebration of independence in 1964.36 He envisioned using
catapult-inspired firing system to send a 10 6 aluminum and cooper rocket
holding ten Zambians and a 17 year old African girl to mars. Thus as part of
preparation he used unorthodox methods to train his astronauts, for instance, the
trainees had to roll downhill in a 44-gallon oil drum to simulate the sensation of
rushing through space. He further, went ahead to seek for funding of the project
from UNESCO. To the extend that he approached the government to intervene and
help with the cause of putting Zambians into space. But the Zambian government
never took the matter seriously and the programme died a natural death as per the
official response from the Zambian Government to a concerned citizen.37 Now what
could have been Zambia’s position in space arena had the government taken serious
steps towards realising the dreams of a grade-school teacher? Would Zambia’s
space program been a success had the teacher received funding from UNESCO?
I’m afraid these are questions that will remain unanswered for the history of
Zambia, taking into account that the event occurred right at the same time that
Zambia gained its independence.
Probably the reason why space related activities are few in Zambia is associated
with the challenges faced, and the notion that space science has no direct bearing on
future employment needs is one of them.38
The current situation in Zambia is that there is a growing understanding that
space science is an important tool for development due to the fact that Zambia has
learned from the experiences of other countries and therefore there is significant
progress in introducing space science related activities many of which date back to
the 90s.39
Now that we know that several space related activities have taken place in
Zambia although very few and at an inexperience level, in the next section we need
to explore the policies put in place to address Zambia’s goal on space exploration,
research and development, if any, and how Zambia will internalise its international
obligations pertaining to space related activities in its domestic laws, if any.
35
Ibid.
36
Lusaka Times. (2011). Zambia’s forgotten Space Program. Available at www.lusakatimes.com/
2011/01/28/sace-program [13 March 2017].
37
Ibid.
38
Sibanda, P. (2012). Scientific & Societal Opportunities of AISR: the Story of Zambia,
Presentation at AMISR in Africa Workshop, Boston College, Brighton, Massachusetts, USA, 1–3
March, 2012.
39
Ibid.
310 A. Gairiseb
18.4 Space Law and Policy
18.4.1 Legislative Framework
It is common cause that Zambia has acceded to the Outer Space Treaty, Rescue
Agreement and the Liability Convention as alluded to earlier. However, these
treaties impose obligations on Zambia that need to be internalised or domesticated
in municipal or national laws. For instance, the Outer Space Treaty imposes
international responsibility for national activities in outer space, including the Moon
and other celestial bodies, whether such activities are carried on by governmental
agencies or by non-governmental entities, and for assuring that national activities
are carried out in conformity with the provisions set forth in the Treaty. The
activities of non-governmental entities in outer space, including the Moon and other
celestial bodies, shall require authorization and continuing supervision by the
appropriate State Party to the Treaty.40
The implications of article VI is that private actors should be licensed in carrying
out space related activities, and such must be subjected to monitoring or oversight
for compliance. Now, how did Zambia implement its treaty obligations in domestic
laws?
Zambia has acceded to the first three treaties relating to outer space activities
more than four decades ago, however, there is no existing domestic legislation that
Zambia promulgated in order to incorporate the treaty obligations into local laws. It
is common knowledge that the applicability of international law in general, and in
this case international space law is depending on the two schools of thought, viz,
the monism and dualism. The former content that international law does not need to
be incorporated into municipal law through an Act of Parliament, thus, international
law and municipal law are not separate. The later content that international law does
not apply automatically therefore there is need for domestication through an Act of
Parliament. Now it is not the purpose of this chapter to extrapolate on which school
of thought should be followed but to give an idea of Zambia’s position in as far as
international space law is concerned, as a special branch of international law.
In the context of Zambia, the domestication process of international law, which
include treaties meaning an international agreement concluded between States in
written form and governed by international law, whether embodied in a single
instrument or in two or more related instruments and whatever its particular des-
ignation,41 is initiated firstly through an Act that sets out the international agree-
ment in a schedule, secondly, by setting out salient provisions of the international
agreement in the substantive part of an Act that will require specific interventions or
measures to be undertaken and annexing the international agreement to the Act,
thirdly, rephrasing the terms of the international agreement in an Act and annexing
the agreement to the Act, fourthly, adopting in an Act the terms of the international
agreement in its entirety or the use of any other enforceable means, where
40
Article VI of OST.
41
Art 2 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of 1969.
18 Zambia 311
applicable.42 Prior to the promulgation of the Ratification of International Agree-

ments Act of 2016, Zambia belonged to the dualist tradition, thus it viewed
international law and domestic law as two separate systems. Hence, domestication
of international law by an Act of Parliament is necessary before international law
can be applied.43
Consequently, the promulgation of the Ratification of International Agreements
Act of 2016 confirmed the position of international law in Zambia. As the result,
international treaties relating to outer space activities have to be preceded by an Act
of Parliament before they can be applicable in Zambia. Furthermore, the registry of
international agreements should be established and maintained by the Ministry
responsible for foreign affairs in Zambia.44
From the above analysis there is no record of the existence of an Act of Par-
liament domesticating the international agreements relating to activities in outer
space.
18.4.2 Institutional and Policy Framework
At the time of writing this chapter, nothing much can be said about Zambia’s space
policy framework because it’s yet to be seen. Whether or not Zambia has initiated
efforts for policy formulation is unclear or not documented. Probably, the rationale
for such a slow pace of formulating policy aimed at addressing Zambia’s vision on
space exploration is associated with the low number of space related activities
taking place in the country since independence. In addition, Zambia does not have
an agency responsible for space activities, which include the licensing, monitoring
of private space actors and development of space policies. But we cannot com-
pletely rule out the existence of policies aimed at addressing space science and
astronomy because such may form part of other institutional arrangements such as
the education sector or science and technology sector.
Consequently, the development of Zambia’s National Policy on Science and
Technology date back to 1996, it was formulated and adopted by the Ministry of
Science, Technology and Vocational Training in May 1996.45 This policy paved
the way for the strategy to establish National Science and Technology Council and
autonomous research institutes. The rationale for the formulation of the policy is
closely linked to the history of Zambia, firstly, between 1970 and 1980, Zambia
experienced stagnation in economic and industrial performance. In addition,
between 1980 and 1991 economic and industrial performance further deteriorated,
followed by a devastating decline in social infrastructure, dwindling financial
reserves, uncontrolled inflation, rising debt obligation and declining productivity
42
Section 12 (2) of the Ratification of International Agreements Act No. 34 of 2016.
43
Magagula, A. S. (2009). The Law and Legal Research in Zambia. Available at www.
nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Zambia.html [15 March 2017].
44
Section 13 of the Act of 2016.
45
National Science and Technology Council. (n.d). National Policy on Science and Technology.
Available at www.nstc.org.za [09 March 2017].
312 A. Gairiseb
and export capacity. Since 1991 Government of the Republic of Zambia has
transformed Zambia’s economic policy framework from a central State controlled
to a free market and liberalized economy, with greater emphasis on private sector
participation in the economy. Some of the policies included the privatisation, lib-
eralization of the financial sector, freeing of interest rates and removal of price
controls and subsidies.46 Secondly, the National Council for Scientific Research
had been mandated to carry out both advisory function and research activities in
science and technology. It has, however, failed in the advisory function because of
weakness in its statutory linkages with other research institutions in the country.47
As a result, the Science and Technology Act No. 26 of 1997 was promulgated,
the Act established the National Science and Technology Council (NSTC).48 The
mandate of the NSTC amongst others include: regulate research in science and
technology,49 advise the Government on science and technology policies and
activities in Zambia,50 promote and publicise broad national priorities in science
and technology research,51 collect and disseminate science and technology infor-
mation including publication of scientific reports, journals and other such docu-
ments and literature,52 establish and maintain a relationship with corresponding
scientific organizations in other countries,53 take all measures that are necessary to
popularise science and technology,54 identify and determine national research and
development priorities in science and technology.55
The inference, to be drawn from the above mandate of the NSTC is that science
and technology as referred to in the Act, include space science though the latter is
not stated explicitly. Secondly, if one looks at the composition of the council56 one
would conclude that space science is indirectly incorporated in science and tech-
nology. But the mandate of the NSTC is so broad that there is uncertainty as to
whether or not space science falls under it or whether space science is part of the
national research and development priorities in science and technology. Unless the
contrary is provided the mandate of NSTC is widely cast to include space science.
However, the strategy initiated at the NSTC to promote space science is not doc-
umented at the time of writing this chapter. And that will also make it difficult to
break down the share of space science on national budget allocations though it
forms part of the general scope of science and technology. But in considering the
2017 national budget of Zambia57 as addressed there is no explicit amount allocated
46
National Policy on Science and Technology, Section 1.1.
47
National Policy on Science and Technology, p. 6.
48
Section 3 (1) of the Act.
49
Section 3 (2) (b) of the Act.
50
Section 3 (2) (d).
51
Section 3 (2) (f).
52
Section 3 (2) (l).
53
Section 3 (2) (m).
54
Section 3 (2) (n).
55
Section 3 (2) (o).
56
Section 5 (1).
57
2017 Budget Address by Honourable Felix C. Mutati, MP Minister of Finance Delivered to the
National Assembly on Friday, 11th November, 2016.
18 Zambia 313
to science and technology in general and space science in particular, therefore, the
inference to be drawn is that the budget allocation for science and technology is in
patches i.e. forming part of other sectors for instance education and skills
development.
This brings me to the next question, what is the education policy on space
science in Zambia? Some scholars in Zambia opined that the education system of
Zambia addresses very few elements of basic space science at both primary and
secondary school level. The scope of such curriculum introduces simple ideas of the
sun and how it interacts with its planets and highlights some features of the earth,
moon and stars.58
Albeit there is few space related activities in Zambia this has presented some
opportunities and challenges. The subsequent section will analyse the opportunities
and challenges faced in Zambia in the context of space related activities.
18.5 Conclusion
In conclusion, international space law comprising of treaties regulate the activities

of States in the exploration and use of outer space. Zambia has acceded to the OST,
ARRA and the LIAB treaties in 1973. However, Zambia has not domesticated the
international instruments relating space. Though the country should be commended
for taking the initiative to accede to international instruments considering the fact
that many African countries have not acceded or ratified the international instru-
ments on space activities. Zambia does not have a policy on space activities
probably because the space related activities are very few in the country based on
the challenges faced by the country. However, Zambia should endeavour to make
use of the present opportunities despite the challenges, and initiate policy formu-
lation in order to lay down the national goals on space related activities and the
manner in which such goals can be achieved.
Bibliography
Articles
1. African Union Commission: African Space Strategy: Towards Economic, Political and Social
Integration. African Union (2016)
2. Giannopapa, C.: The European-African Partnership in Space Applications. European Space
Policy Institute (2012)
58
Sibanda and McKinnell, p. 51.
314 A. Gairiseb
3. Habanyama, A., Munyeme, G.: Basic space science education and research in Zambia. Cieux
Africains/African Skies (4), 20–21 (1999)
4. Sibanda, P., McKinnell, L.A.: Space science and development in Zambia: recent develop-
ments. Cieux Africains/African Skies (12), 50–52 (2008)
Conference Paper
5. Sibanda, P.: Scientific & societal opportunities of AISR: the story of Zambia. Presentation at
AMISR in Africa Workshop, Boston College, Brighton, Massachusetts, USA, 1–3 March
2012
Internet Sources
6. Central Intelligence Agency: The World Factbook: Zambia. Available: https://www.cia.gov/

library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/za.html. 28 Jan 2019
7. Lusaka Times: Zambia’s Forgotten Space Program. Available at www.lusakatimes.com/2011/
01/28/sace-program (2011). 13 Mar 2017
8. Magagula, A.S.: The Law and Legal Research in Zambia. Available at www.nyulawglobal.
org/globalex/Zambia.html (2009). 15 Mar 2017
9. Space in Africa: Four projects from Africa win IAU100 grant to implement astronomy
initiatives. Available: https://africanews.space/four-projects-from-africa-win-iau100-grant-to-
implement-astronomy-initiatives/ (2018). 1 Feb 2019
10. UK Treaties Online: Treaty Record: Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of
Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space. Available at http://treaties.
fco.gov.uk/treaties/treatyrecord.html (n.d). 14 Mar 2017
11. UN Treaty Collection: Available at https://treaties.un.org/pages/showDetails.aspx (n.d).
14 Mar 2017
12. US Department of State: Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the
Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies.
Available at www.state.gov/t/isn/5181.htm (n.d). 14 Mar 2017
UN Treaties
13. Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer
Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies of 1967
14. Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects
Launched into Outer Space of 1968
15. Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects of 1972. Vienna
Convention on the Law of Treaties of 1969
18 Zambia 315
Legislation
16. The Ratification of International Agreements Act No. 34 of 2016

17. The Science and Technology Act No. 26 of 1997
Policy
18. National Science and Technology Policy of 1996
Author Biography
Zimbabwe
19
André Siebrits
Abstract
This chapter provides an analysis of the Republic of Zimbabwe’s space activities
and policies, in order to identify the country’s specific space posture as well as
its international positioning in the field. While the country has only very recently
embarked on the promotion and use of space in service of its Transitional
Stabilisation Programme Reforms Agenda (adopted in 2018), it has already
established the Zimbabwe National Geospatial and Space Agency (ZINGSA),
and embarked on geospatial, aeronautical, and space science capacity build-
ing priority programmes. Interest has also been generated by potential foreign
partners and investors, while an agreement has already been signed with South
Africa’s Space Advisory Group to assist the country with satellite manufacturing
and space sector knowledge. Space has been recognised as an essential
competent of Zimbabwe’s economic and social ‘rebirth’, and it is poised to
shortly become one of the continent’s rising stars in space.
The Republic of Zimbabwe may seem like an unlikely candidate for an emerging
space actor, and yet as part of the government’s vision under President Emmerson
Mnangagwa, this is what the country is rapidly becoming. In 2018 the Zimbabwe
National Geospatial and Space Agency (ZINGSA) was founded to harness space
science and technology in support of the Transitional Stabilisation Programme
Reforms Agenda, which seeks to turn Zimbabwe into an upper-middle-income
economy by 2030. As such, this chapter will present an analysis of Zimbabwe’s
space activities and policies, in order to identify the country’s specific space posture
as well as its international positioning in the field. The chapter consists of six
sections, covering background and context, regulatory and policy aspects con-
cerning outer space, ZINGSA, space activities and infrastructure, international
A. Siebrits (&)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05980-4_19
318 A. Siebrits
partnerships and cooperation, and findings. While Zimbabwe’s space efforts are a
recent phenomenon, several developments have already occurred that suggest the
country will be one of the continent’s rising stars in space in the near future.
This section will consider an overview of Zimbabwe, providing background and

context for the analysis of its fledgeling space sector. Zimbabwe is located in
Southern Africa and is landlocked considering it shares borders with South Africa
(230 km) to the south, Botswana (834 km) to the west, Zambia (763 km) to the
north, and Mozambique (1402 km) to the east.1 With a total area of 390,757 km2,
the country is slightly larger than Japan or Germany. The July 2018 population
estimate was 14,030,368 with 59.04% under the age of 24 and with an urbanisation
rate of 32.2%.2 Apart from concentrations around the urban areas of Harare and
Bulawayo, the population distribution is fairly even across the country but with
slightly larger numbers in the east.
The country faces a range of serious challenges. Natural hazards include
recurring droughts, floods, and rarely, severe storms (like the recent cyclone Idai),
while environmental issues include acidification of soil and water, soil erosion, land
degradation, deforestation, air and water pollution, poor mining practices with
attendant toxic waste and heavy metal pollution, as well as declining wildlife
populations.3 Also, the political and economic turmoil of recent decades have taken
their toll. During the long rule of former President Robert Mugabe, a chaotic land
distribution programme was undertaken beginning in 1997, which subsequently
crippled the Zimbabwean economy and led to basic commodity shortages and
hyperinflation.4 Electoral irregularities, violence, and intimidation, as well as
international condemnation, was also widespread. By November 2017, following
military intervention, President Mugabe resigned and was replaced by President
Emmerson Mnangagwa. Since then, the country has begun to grapple with
repairing the damaged economy, but severe challenges remain. Among these is the
country’s very high HIV prevalence rate (although down from about 29% to 15%
since 1997 it remains a major obstacle), stagnation in reproductive, maternal, and
child health progress, very large outward migration compounding the ‘brain drain’,
as well as related illegal migration, and human smuggling and trafficking.5
1
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), “The World Factbook: Zimbabwe,” 2019, https://www.cia.
gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/zi.html (accessed February 28, 2019).
2
Ibid.
3
Ibid.
4
Ibid.
5
Ibid.
19 Zimbabwe 319
It is in this context that the country has recently—and, perhaps to some, sur-
prisingly—begun exploring space as a means of supporting its renewed develop-
ment efforts. The next section will determine the extent to which Zimbabwe has
participated in space in international and domestic regulatory and policy domains.
19.2 Zimbabwe’s Regulatory and Policy Aspects

Concerning Outer Space
This section will begin by exploring Zimbabwe’s participation in international

treaties concerning outer space, as well as participation in the United Nations
Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS) and the broader
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA). This will be followed
by an analysis of domestic policy and legislative developments of pertinence to
space. Zimbabwean institutions involved in the space sector will also be
highlighted.
19.2.1 UN Treaties on Outer Space and Zimbabwean

Involvement in International Fora
Zimbabwe is not a member of UNCOPUOS.6 However, it has attended

UNCOPUOS sessions as an observer, for instance the Scientific and Technical
Subcommittee session in 20117 and the main UNCOPUOS session in 2010.8 As of
January 1, 2018, Zimbabwe had neither signed nor ratified any of the five core UN
outer space treaties but had ratified the 1971 Agreement Relating to the Interna-
tional Telecommunications Satellite Organisation (ITSO) and the 1992 Interna-
tional Telecommunication Constitution and Convention (ITU).9 In the United
Nations Programme on Space Applications Draft Report of the UNCOPUOS
Scientific and Technical Subcommittee session of February 2019, Zimbabwe
appears twice. First, it was reported that UN-SPIDER (United Nations Platform for
6
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), “Members of the Committee on the
Peaceful Uses of Outer Space,” 2019, http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/members/index.html
7
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), “Scientific and Technical
Subcommittee: Forty-eighth session, Vienna, 7–18 February 2011—PROVISIONAL LIST OF
PARTICIPANTS,” February 9, 2011, http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/limited/c1/AC105_C1_2011_
CRP02E.pdf (accessed February 28, 2019).
8
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), “Committee on the Peaceful Uses of
Outer Space: Fifty-third session Vienna, 9–18 June 2010—LIST OF PARTICIPANTS,” June 17,
2010, http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/limited/l/AC105_2010_INF01E.pdf (accessed February 28,
2019).
9
documents/pdf/spacelaw/treatystatus/AC105_C2_2018_CRP03E.pdf (accessed February 28,
2019).
320 A. Siebrits
Space-based Information for Disaster Management and Emergency Response) had

carried out a technical advisory mission to Zimbabwe (the country does not pre-
sently host either a Regional Support Office or a National Focal Point relating to
UN-SPIDER), and second, it was noted that Zimbabwe had submitted an appli-
cation to the Charter on Cooperation to Achieve the Coordinated Use of Space
Facilities in the Event of Natural or Technological Disasters (the International
Charter on Space and Major Disasters).10 This is a possible confirmation that
Zimbabwe is moving towards greater integration into the broader international
space community.
Closer to home, Zimbabwe is a contracting member state of the Regional Centre
for Mapping of Resources for Development (RCMRD), a Kenya-based
inter-governmental organisation.11 The mission of the RCMRD is to “promote
sustainable development in the member States through generation, application and
dissemination of geo-information and allied ICT technologies, products and ser-
vices”.12 Other Zimbabwean memberships include the Regional African Satellite
Communication Organisation (RASCOM)13 and based on the abovementioned
ratifications, the International Telecommunications Satellite Organisation and the
International Telecommunication Union. Zimbabwe is also a member of Afri-
GEOSS, which is the African Earth Observation community within the Group on
Earth Observations,14 as well as the African Centre of Meteorological Applications
for Development (ACMAD).15
In the domestic sphere, Zimbabwe has made great strides, particularly in 2018,
with the launching of the Zimbabwe National Geospatial and Space Agency
(ZINGSA). The next section will reflect on these developments.
19.2.2 Zimbabwe’s Domestic Space Legislation

and Space Policy
According to the Minister of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science and Tech-
nology Development, Professor Amon Murwira, ZINGSA was established in terms
10
United Nations General Assembly, “Draft report: United Nations Programme on Space
Applications,” February 20, 2019, 7, http://www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2019/
aac_105c_1l/aac_105c_1l_374add_4_0_html/AC105_C1_L374Add04E.pdf (accessed February
28, 2019).
11
Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for Development (RCMRD), “Our Member States,”
https://www.rcmrd.org/about-us/our-member-states (accessed February 28, 2019).
12
Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for Development (RCMRD), “About Us,” https://
www.rcmrd.org/about-us/organization (accessed February 28, 2019).
13
Regional African Satellite Communication Organisation (RASCOM), “Members,” http://www.
rascom.org/info_detail.php?langue_id=2&id_r=25&id_sr=0&id_gr=2 (accessed February 28,
2019).
14
Group on Earth Observations (GEO), “About AfriGEOSS,” http://www.earthobservations.org/
afrigeoss.php (accessed February 28, 2019).
15
African Centre of Meteorological Applications for Development (ACMAD), “African Regional
Climate Centre,” 2014, http://acmad.net/rcc/index.php (accessed February 28, 2019).
19 Zimbabwe 321
of the Research Act of Zimbabwe Chapter 10:22 (most recently amended in 2001),
specifically section 24 as read with sections 25 and 26.16 These sections, as
encapsulated in Table 19.1, pertain to the powers of a Minister (defined in the Act
as “a Vice-President or any Minister to whom the President may, from time to time,
assign the administration of this Act”) to establish research councils and institutes.17
As such, ZINGSA is positioned from its inception as a research body in service to
the people of Zimbabwe.
Minister Murwira also commented expressly on the nature of ZINGSA, by
saying that its objectives include the promotion of the peaceful use of outer space,
the creation of a conducive environment for industrial development and space
technology, and the fostering of research as well as Earth observation and
geospatial science.18 Apart from taking the lead in terms of Zimbabwe’s
space-related international cooperation and activities, it also seeks to enhance space
engineering and science, navigation, communications, and space physics, while it
also has a “duty to advance scientific engineering and technological competences
and capabilities through human capital, outreach programmes and infrastructure
development”.19
This turn towards space technologies and capabilities is fuelled by President
Mnangagwa’s vision to undo the economic damage done under his predecessor’s
rule and develop Zimbabwe into an upper-middle-income economy by 2030.20 In
support of such an effort, President Mnangagwa has pledged to “tackle mass
unemployment, which hovers above 80%, by luring back foreign investment and
investing in infrastructure”.21 These efforts are underpinned by the newly intro-
duced Transitional Stabilisation Programme Reforms Agenda (October 2018–
December 2020), which has the vision “Towards a Prosperous and Empowered
Upper Middle Income Society by 2030”.22 This vision is underpinned by five
strategic clusters, namely governance, macro-economic stability and
re-engagement, inclusive growth, infrastructure and utilities, and social develop-
ment.23 While space is not mentioned in this agenda, it is not difficult to see how it
can support efforts in these five areas. This is particularly the case for areas of smart
16
Leeroy Dzenga, “Space Technology Not About Grandeur,” The Herald (Zimbabwe), July 14,
2018, https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&cad=rja&uact=
8&ved=2ahUKEwjtit-Ght_gAhWhSxUIHb4fC_QQFjACegQIAxAB&url=https%3A%2F%2Fww
w.pressreader.com%2Fzimbabwe%2Fthe-herald-zimbabwe%2F20180714%2F281612421172452&usg=
AOvVaw2faoxbBvXW1YfbVh-9_q4A (accessed March 1, 2019).
17
Republic of Zimbabwe, “Chapter 10:22: RESEARCH ACT,” http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/
pdf/zim93551.pdf (accessed March 1, 2019).
18
Leeroy Dzenga, “Space Technology Not About Grandeur”.
19
Ibid.
20
Agence France-Presse, “Zimbabwe launches space agency,” Daily Nation, July 11, 2018, https://
www.nation.co.ke/news/africa/Zimbabwe-launches-space-agency/1066-4656916-5i1p98z/index.
html (accessed March 1, 2019).
21
Ibid.
22
Republic of Zimbabwe, “Transitional Stabilisation Programme Reforms Agenda (October 2018–
December 2020),” October 5, 2018, 1, https://t3n9sm.c2.acecdn.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/
Abridged_Transitional_-programme.pdf (accessed March 1, 2019).
23
Ibid., p. 5.
322 A. Siebrits
Table 19.1 Relevant sections of research act pertaining to ZINGSAa

Research councils and research institutes
24 Establishment of research councils and research institutes
(1) Whenever the Minister responsible considers it necessary or desirable to establish a research
council or research institute for the purposes of facilitating the carrying out of research, he shall
submit his proposal to the council and shall include the suggested constitution of the research
council or research institute concerned
(2) The council shall consider any proposal received by it in terms of subsection (1) and shall
thereafter submit its own recommendations thereon to the Minister
(3) Where the Minister has received any proposal and the recommendations of the Council in
terms of subsection (2), he may—
(a) approve the proposal with or without such qualifications or amendments as he may direct in
writing; or
(b) decline to approve the proposal
(4) Where the Minister has approved a proposal in terms of subsection (3), the Minister
responsible may establish the research council or research institute concerned in accordance with
the approval granted by the Minister and shall cause notice of the establishment of the research
council or research institute to be given in the Gazette
25 Provisions to be contained in constitution of research council or research institute
(1) The constitution of a research council or research institute which is intended to be a body
corporate shall contain provision for the following matters—
(a) the name of the research council or research institute
(b) the composition of the research council or research institute and the tenure and conditions of
office of members thereof
(c) the disqualifications for appointment as a member of the research council or research institute
(d) the circumstances in which the Minister responsible may require a member of the research
council or research institute to vacate his office and in which the Minister responsible may
suspend such member from the exercise of his functions as a member
(e) the circumstances in which a member of the research council or research institute shall vacate
his office
(f) the filling of vacancies on the research council or research institute
(g) meetings and the procedure at meetings of the research council or research institute
(h) minutes of proceedings of the research council or research institute
(i) the transaction of business of an urgent nature by the research council or research institute
(j) the validity of the decisions and acts of the research council or research institute
(k) the execution of contracts and instruments by the research council or research institute
(l) the appointment of an executive committee and other committees of the research council or
research institute and the powers to delegate functions to such committees
(m) the funds of the research council or research institute
(n) the keeping of accounts, audit and reports of the research council or research institute
(o) the corporate powers which shall be exercised by the research council or research institute
and the conditions or limitations upon which or within which such corporate powers shall be
exercised
(p) the nature and scope of the research to be carried out by the research council or research
institute
(q) the dissolution of the research council or research institute and the proper and effective
winding-up of its affairs, including the transfer of employees, if any, and the disposition of any
assets and liabilities
(r) such other matters as may be considered necessary or desirable
(2) The Minister responsible may, after consultation with the council and with the approval of the
Minister, amend the constitution of a research council or research institute
(continued)
19 Zimbabwe 323

Research councils and research institutes
26 Functions and research programmes of research council or research institute
(1) Subject to section twenty-eight, the functions of a research council or research institute shall
be to carry out research within Zimbabwe in accordance with its constitution and a research
programme approved by the council in terms of subsection (1) of section twenty-eight
(2) A research council or research institute, as the case may be, shall, as often as the Council may
direct, prepare and submit to the council—
(a) a research programme showing its proposals with respect to—
(i) the research to be carried out by the research council or research institute, as the case may be;
and
(ii) the priorities to be observed in carrying out such research; and
(iii) such other matters as the Council may require; and
(b) reports on the implementation by it of research programmes approved or funded, whether
wholly or in part, by the Council
a
Republic of Zimbabwe, “Chapter 10:22: RESEARCH ACT,” pp. 8–10
agriculture, mining exploration and development, resuscitating industry and

industry development, protecting the environment, digital economy, investing in
public infrastructure (particularly the priority areas of energy, water and sanitation,
transport and communication, environmental protection and reclamation, health,
education, ICT, housing, and irrigation development). Again, while space is not
mentioned, it is easy to recognise how it can assist, for example, the priority area of
health (under public investment): “Health infrastructure will be upgraded to enable
provision of comprehensive health services and re-establishment of the referral
system”.24
Fortunately, the government has recognised this, and it is worth repeating at
length what Minister Murwira commented on these issues:
We want to use space knowledge for developing our agriculture sector, using satellite
technology we are able to assess crop condition, crop diseases, we are also able to have
databases on soil conditions also on fertilizer requirements of different soils … a country is
a map and in order to manage it we need to know where everything is, in what condition it
is and what we can do with it … we always say Zimbabwe is rich in mineral resources but if
you ask a person ‘where are the minerals?’ ‘How much are they? And in what condition are
the minerals?’ No one can give you an answer … So, satellite technology enables us to be
able to do explorations. We are sometimes in an unfortunate situation whereby even with
investors when you are negotiating, you are negotiating from a weak point because they
would have used satellite technology to see what we have … So, this is about knowing your
country better and knowing its potential as well as negotiating on its behalf based on
knowledge. All this knowledge can come through the geospatial and space science capa-
bility … We also have a lot of energy investments in this country like solar energy, wind
energy, biomass energy. We need to be able to plan for these things using geospatial
technology. The energy future of this country will be determined very well through
ZINGSA … There is also disaster management, every year between January and March, we
are having floods and you know our meteorological services issues warnings based on
satellite imagery and that’s space. Right now we are using technologies that other countries
24
Ibid., p. 40.
324 A. Siebrits
are developing to do disaster management, there is no problem in doing that but there is
importance for recognition so that we begin to be able to participate meaningfully in these
issues. All these things are now being done on space, the national impact of ZINGSA is for
us to have appropriate sector policy advice which will be timeous. We are also going to
have high end skills in Zimbabwe based on this.25
It is thus clear that the government has recognised the ability of space tech-
nology and data to address a wide range of issues encapsulated in the Transitional
Stabilisation Programme Reforms Agenda, and that space can assist the develop-
ment of the country. The next section will delve further into ZINGSA itself.
19.3 The Zimbabwe National Geospatial and Space

Agency
As ZINGSA was launched in July 2018, it was accompanied by the launch of two
other initiatives, the Zimbabwe National Critical Skills Audit (ZNCSA), and the
Zimbabwe National Qualifications Framework (ZNQF), signalling the country’s
intention to improve its skills and qualifications outlook, and also illustrating how
critically interlinked these are with ZINGSA itself.26 President Mnangagwa also
said at the launch that the Zimbabwean government would “set aside one percent of
GDP to support innovation, research and development and establishment of incu-
bation hubs”.27 ZINGSA was also tasked with enhancing “Zimbabwe’s capabilities
in global policy discourses on generation, access, use and regulation of the appli-
cation of space technologies and innovations for sustainable development”.28 Thus,
ZINGSA’s involvement in global policy discourse could signal closer cooperation
and integration with UNOOSA and UNCOPUOS, with the country possibly rati-
fying the space treaties and joining UNCOPUOS in future.
ZINGSA’s structure, as summarised in Table 19.2, consists of five departments.
This structure follows the comments made by Minister Murwira, in that ZINGSA is
organised into four founding technical departments plus an administrative depart-
ment. Focus areas already identified include renewable energy mapping, geological
minerals mapping, wildlife surveillance including counting of wildlife populations,
rapid detection of deforestation, and illegal mining, as well as health.29 These
closely echo the comments above made by Minister Murwira.
When asked about the early priorities for ZINGSA, Minister Murwira stated that:
25
26
Felex Share, “Zimbabwe into space!… President launches National Geospatial and Space
Agency,” The Chronicle, July 11, 2018, https://www.chronicle.co.zw/zimbabwe-into-space-
president-launches-national-geospatial-and-space-agency/ (accessed March 1, 2019).
27
Ibid.
28
Ibid.
29
Space in Africa, “Zimbabwe Space Agency is launching tomorrow—all you need to know,” July
9, 2018, https://africanews.space/zimbabwe-space-agency-is-launching-tomorrow-all-you-need-to-
know/ (accessed March 1, 2019).
19 Zimbabwe 325
Table 19.2 Departments and associated responsibilities of ZINGSAa

1. Space operations and launch • Preparation and implementation of earth observation
services department missions
• Satellite command and control
• Managing communication between spacecraft, ground
stations and control centres
• Linking various complex operating processes
• Incorporating new technologies to space operations as the
technologies become available
• Strategic planning of space operations; specifically
developing future plans for ZINGSA systems, facilities
and personnel
• Launch services facilitating access to space for ZINGSA
missions
• Ensure that critical infrastructure to access and use space
meets expectations of ZINGSA
2. Space science department • Space physics
• Astrophysics
• Space weather, and planetary science
3. Space engineering • ZINGSA programmes and projects
department • ZINGSA innovations for space; from concept to
applications
• Educate scientists and engineers as well as inspire space
research to better understand the earth, our solar system
and beyond
4. Geospatial and earth • Geoinformation science and earth observation
observation department • Geospatial analytics and remote sensing
• Mining and mineral exploration
• Disaster management
• Weather and climate
• Geospatial intelligence
• Agriculture intelligence
• Water, energy, health and any other nationally strategic
applications
5. Finance and administration • Developing business plans, timelines and budgets to
department perform financial projects
• Developing and maintaining standard financial and
administrative procedures
• Monitoring and managing expenditures within allotted
budget
• Ensuring the preparation and maintenance of all financial
records
• Identification and resolution of financial and
administrative issues
a
Space in Africa, “Zimbabwe Space Agency is launching tomorrow—all you need to know”
We are going to set up the geospatial capabilities, which are very easy to set up, the
administration branch and board are also going to be set up very quickly. We already have
got some financial allocations in excess of $3 million to start building. We have seven
priority activities which are; geospatial capabilities for mapping land for 99-year leases,
geospatial capabilities for detecting and quantifying mineral resources, geospatial
326 A. Siebrits
capabilities for matching fertiliser recommendations to soil types, geospatial capabilities for
revising Zimbabwe’s agro-ecological regions, geospatial capabilities for wildlife monitor-
ing, geospatial capabilities for disease surveillance and geospatial capabilities for quanti-
fying energy resources.30
A phased approach is also being adopted with respect to mobilising the financial
and human resources to sustain ZINGSA. In this respect, Minister Murwira argued
that “His Excellency President Mnangagwa always says that we will build this
country, brick by brick but we have to start”, and private industry is to play a part in
this, with the Minister stipulating that South African investors are already on board
who are “willing to do satellite manufacturing in Zimbabwe thus creating jobs”.31
These investors are presumably South Africa’s Space Advisory Group which has
signed a non-financial agreement to assist Zimbabwe, and Minister Murwira
commented that “[w]hat Space Advisory Group are bringing is capability because
they have satellite manufacturing knowledge and know how to run a space
agency”.32
As the Minister pointed out, the ambitions of Zimbabwe concerning space are
realistic: “I have to make it clear that ZINGSA is aimed at solving Zimbabwean
problems and things like sending a man to space is one of our least priorities”.33
Moreover, ZINGSA has an educational mandate as well, to increase public
awareness and knowledge. While Zimbabwe’s space activities are only in the
nascent stage at this point, the next section will provide an overview of some moves
being made in this regard.
While Zimbabwe has no satellite as yet, at the launch of the agency President
Mnangagwa made it clear that this is one of the future ambitions of ZINGSA, and
said that the “Zimbabwe National Geospatial and Space Agency will deploy earth
observation satellites, global navigation satellite systems, [and] unmanned aerial
vehicles” in support of farming, mining, wildlife conservation, management of
infrastructure, and disease surveillance.34 This is also echoed by Minister Murwira,
who said that “[w]e want to send observing instruments to space so that they help us
with our communication and resource management. It is not for grandeur and glory,
this is for serious national development”.35
30
31
Ibid.
32
Space in Africa, “ZINGSA signs MoU with Space Advisory Group,” November 18, 2018,
https://africanews.space/zingsa-signs-mou-with-space-advisory-group/ (accessed March 1, 2019).
33
34
Agence France-Presse, “Zimbabwe launches space agency”.
35
19 Zimbabwe 327
The country has already been making use of satellite internet to bridge con-
nection gaps, and according to the state-run fixed phone and internet company,
TelOne, “satellite internet was the best solution for areas not covered by broadband
internet in the country”.36 This connectivity was particularly deployed in sectors
such as mining, national parks, schools, clinics and hospitals.
As of January 2019, the Zimbabwean government had already begun to
implement geospatial, aeronautical, and space science capacity programmes as part
of the 100 days priority projects approved by Cabinet.37 These space science
programmes were being implemented through the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary
Education, Science and Technology Development “to foster scientific research in
the country”, and as part of this effort these programmes are “said to rope in
universities through innovation hubs and teachers will be capacitated to run science
laboratories in the country” while “both ‘A’ and ‘O’ Level students are set to be
included in apprenticeship programmes which commence this month to reduce
unemployment in the country”.38 Teachers are also being “capacitated in the
teaching of science with the objective of starting with at least 1000 science grad-
uates and equipping of 10 science laboratories”.39 As part of the government’s
phased approach, skills and human capital development have thus received top
priority.
One suggested initiative is for Zimbabwe to begin generating satellite experience
by using “small and simple” CanSat technology which, while having a mass below
350 g, can still “perform a number of functions and their missions can be taking
pictures, transmitting telemetry, atmospheric missions, video capture, imaging,
communication and or navigation”.40 It is not clear whether the government will
pursue CanSat technology, but it has potential benefits in that “CanSat provides an
affordable opportunity for educators and students to acquire basic knowledge of
space engineering and to experience engineering challenges in building a
satellite”.41
The next section will consider the partnerships ZINGSA and Zimbabwe are
undertaking in the pursuit of space technology and capability.
36
Tawanda Karombo, “Satellite internet plugging Zim's infrastructure gap,” IT Web Africa, April
24, 2015, http://www.itwebafrica.com/networks/276-zimbabwe/234538-satellite-internet-
plugging-zims-infrastructure-gap (accessed March 1, 2019).
37
Space in Africa, “Zimbabwe Govt embarks on implementation of Geospatial, Aeronautical and
Space Science Capacity Programmes as a priority project,” January 2, 2019, https://africanews.
space/zimbabwe-govt-embarks-on-implementation-of-geospatial-aeronautical-and-space-science-
capacity-programmes-as-a-priority-project/ (accessed March 1, 2019).
38
Ibid.
39
Ibid.
40
Timothy Kuhamba, “Overview of CanSat technology in Zimbabwe,” Space in Africa, October
21, 2018, https://africanews.space/overview-of-cansat-technology-in-zimbabwe/ (accessed March
1, 2019).
41
Ibid.
328 A. Siebrits
19.5 Zimbabwe’s Partnership and International

Cooperation
Because the country’s space efforts are very recent, international cooperation in this
field is also a new phenomenon for Zimbabwe. Nevertheless, in the very short time
that has elapsed since ZINGSA was founded, Kazakhstan has already “confirmed
an interest in investing in Zimbabwe”, with “President Mnangagwa’s clarity of
vision on attracting investment” being lauded.42 As part of Kazakhstan’s interest,
the deputy chair of the Aerospace Committee of Kazakhstan’s Ministry of Defence
and Aerospace Industry “offered to run a one-month pilot programme for any sector
of Government’s choice for it to appreciate the services offered by satellite tech-
nologies”, and the “Chamber of International Commerce of Kazakhstan invited
President Emmerson Mnangagwa to a working lunch in Astana”.43 There was also
a broader interest to expand Kazakh investment in Zimbabwe, with the Eurasian
Resources Group (ERG) already having invested US$100 million in Zimbabwean
platinum and coal projects (and with new negotiations under way in relation to
chrome extraction and the construction of a ferro-alloy facility), while the Alageum
Group expressed interest in cooperating in the energy sector, and with pharma-
ceutical company Chimfarm also being interested in partnering with Zimbabwe. It
is thus clear that space forms a core component for a variety of economic sectors,
and given Zimbabwe’s new hopeful economic direction interest is being generated
in renewed investments.
Three further partnerships are in the works, one with Russian space company
Geoscan, with which the Zimbabwean government is in talks regarding a joint
venture in drone manufacturing, and another with China regarding the possibility
for Zimbabwe to access images taken by Chinese satellites.44 Finally, Belgian
investors are also reported to be in talks with the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary
Education, Science and Technology Development.45
Given the recent developments in the Zimbabwean space sector, this section will
answer the initial questions posed regarding Zimbabwe’s space posture, and
international positioning. Regarding the country’s space posture, it is clear that
while Zimbabwe’s space sector is in its foundational stage, the government has
expressed keen interest in, and commitment to, utilising space technology and data
to support the country’s ‘rebirth’ after the reign of former President Robert Mugabe.
In a very short time, ZINGSA has been established, and the first steps have been
42
Space in Africa, “Kazakhstan to invest in Zimbabwe Space Program,” January 21, 2019, https://
africanews.space/kazakhstan-to-invest-in-zimbabwe-space-program/ (accessed March 1, 2019).
43
Ibid.
44
Space in Africa, “ZINGSA signs MoU with Space Advisory Group”.
45
Ibid.
19 Zimbabwe 329
taken to build a skills base to support the growth of the sector. Ambitious plans
regarding eventual satellites have also been expressed, although it is not yet clear if
and how these will be realised.
Regarding the country’s international positioning, despite the initial deals made
with South Africa’s Space Advisory Group, and the interest expressed by Khaz-
akstan and the potential agreements with Geoscan and China, the lack of engage-
ment with core international space treaties is a potential obstacle. In order to
confirm the country’s commitment to space, it is strongly recommended that these
treaties, especially the Outer Space Treaty and the Registration Convention are
signed to pave the way for the realisation of the stated goals. Membership in
UNCOPUOS is also recommended to give weight to the stated goal of ZINGSA to
engage in global policy discourses. Nevertheless, the strong support of the gov-
ernment is a reassuring sign that Zimbabwe will unlock its development potential
through space technology, science, and data.
Finally, the response of Minister Murwira to a question regarding the justifi-
cation for the launch of ZINGSA is worth repeating at length here, since it
encapsulates the reason why so many African countries are now turning to space
despite severe challenges on Earth. It also reflects the pragmatic stance of Zim-
babwe’s government and the importance of space in unlocking economic and social
development:
Cash crisis is a symptom of a non-productive economy, the priority is to look at institu-
tional frameworks that make sure that this country is on a productive path. Space and
geospatial technologies are technologies that will enable us to enhance our agriculture,
manage our health properly, our weather and climate prediction capabilities our mineral
discovery, manage our water resources and therefore it’s of national strategic importance.
When you have these technologies and you are capable, it basically means your economy
grows. If you look at countries that have very good economies you would find that these
countries have geospatial and space capabilities which means those are the capabilities that
you need first for productivity. So, ZINGSA is not a luxury. How do you make cash
available if your agriculture is not productive? How do you make cash available when your
mining is not productive? How do you make cash available when you don`t have capa-
bilities that make productivity possible? What we are attacking, we are attacking the basis
upon which this nation will grow. We are not trying to patch symptoms we are trying to
really focus on the fundamentals of national industrial growth, which is innovation.46
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46
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19 Zimbabwe 331
28 Feb 2019
Author Biography
Part III
Integrated Space for African Society
Embedding Space in Society
20
Bas Martens, Alexander Gairiseb and Carl Eriksen
Abstract
This chapter provides an examination of embedding space applications in
African societies, and the analysis is linked directly or indirectly to the legal and
policy aspects of space activities in African countries that provide for the
environment of any embedding exercise. Therefore, the outcome of the analysis
of legal and policy frameworks of individual countries presents an opportunity to
provide mechanisms for entrenching space applications in African societies.
Consequently, some of the recommendations made in relation to legal and policy
aspects of space in individual African countries form an integral part of the
means to embed space application in African society. However, embedding
space in society requires some fundamental requirements or prerequisite to exist
within the society, and these prerequisites are informed by reviewing the African
space activities. The chapter then creates a graphic overview of how space is
embedded throughout the African continent, by looking at their involvement
through space-related treaties, institutions, government engagement, and tech-
nology development. These findings reveal, for instance, regional focal points
for the space industry, and the strengths and weaknesses of various countries. An
overview of all African satellites and their functions is also given, and how they
fulfil the user needs over the whole continent.
B. Martens A. Gairiseb (&) C. Eriksen

B. Martens
C. Eriksen

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05980-4_20
336 B. Martens et al.
20.1 Embedding
The term embedding is derived from the verb “embed” which means “to fix firmly
and deeply in a surrounding mass”. In other words, “to implant (an idea or feeling)
so that it becomes ingrained within a particular context or design and build as an
integral part of a system or device”.1 For example, “microcontrollers are the main
processing unit in many applications such as robotics applications, propulsion
system control, radiation environment monitors etc.”2 But, in the context of space
and society there does not seem to be a clear definition of what the concept denotes.
However, the inference to be drawn from the above definition is that there are
several space applications implanted in African society. For instance, one can say
that the navigation and position applications are embedded in society, because the
technology of this application is accessible to everyone, for instance via smart cell
phones, and that broadcast systems are embedded due to the well-established
satellite television channels across the continent. This fact has been recognised in
the ASPS.
There is, however, no clear rule to determine whether or not a specific space
application is embedded in a society because, these applications are interrelated in
the sense that a component found in earth observation/remote sensing applications
may be used in navigation and positioning applications i.e. disaster monitoring.
However, if we take the example of South Africa as one of the leading space
actors in Africa, we can deduce that earth observation/remote sensing applications
are imbedded in society as it is supported by the fact that South Africa’s National
Space Science and Technology Strategy (NSSTS) features earth observation
applications as a cross-cutting tool in key priority areas such as environment
resource management including, environmental and geospatial monitoring, ocean,
coastal and marine management, land management, rural development and urban
planning, topographic mapping, climate change mitigation and adaptation,3 just to
mention but a few. This is supported by the fact that the satellites owned by the
Republic of South Africa, namely, Sumbandila and Sunsat perform earth obser-
vation functions, amongst others.
From the regional perspective, Africa has initiated the African Resource Man-
agement Satellite Constellation (ARMC), which is a collaboration currently
involving Nigeria, South Africa, Kenya and Algeria. This planned constellation will
assist to provide easy access to satellite data for end users in the fields of disaster
management, food security, public health, infrastructure, land use, and water
resources management. Thus, it supports activities such as urban development, land
1
Oxford University Press. 2017. Embed v. Available: www.en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/
embed [2017, April 6].
2
European Space Agency. n.d. MESA Roundtable on Microcontrollers for Embedded Space
Applications. Available: http://microelectronics.esa.int/conferences/mesa2010/00_MESA-
introduction.pdf [2017, April 7].
3
South African National Space Agency. 2012. National Space Strategy. Available: www.sansa.
org.za/publications [2017, April 6].
20 Embedding Space in Society 337
use monitoring, and mapping for the surveillance of climate change effects.4 As a
result, earth observation/remote sensing satellites or applications are the major
applications currently implanted or in the process of being implanted in African
society because many of the agenda points in the leading space actors in Africa
address earth observation/remote sensing which is linked to data needs to properly
and effectively manage many challenges faced in Africa, as identified above.
This begs the question what are the pre-conditions that must exist for space
applications to be embedded in society? The next section will endeavour to answer
this question.
20.2 Prerequisites
Before we can address the mechanisms for embedding space applications in African
societies we need to understand the basic or fundamental requirements that need to
exist in the society. In other words, there are prerequisites that play an integral role
in entrenching space applications in African societies. These prerequisites include
return on investment, availability, communication demand, political will, social
acceptance, and technological readiness level. Some of these prerequisites will
broadly be discussed below. Firstly, the precondition for return on investment is an
integral part of economic factors that play a role in the progress of space appli-
cations in African environment. The African space market is mostly dominated by
government activities largely because low income levels and limited economies of
scale make Africa unattractive for foreign direct investment. License fees for
satellite systems are generally high, and coupled with the high cost of satellites, this
makes it difficult for companies to survive in a limited market environment. Hence,
there is a need for low cost systems to facilitate improved access to expand the
market for African entrepreneurs and non-African companies.5
Secondly, Giannopapa stressed that:
the benefits of space applications are not sufficiently understood by decision makers as well
as the wider population, and there are few people educated in the management and oper-
ation of space-based assets. Various space projects in different areas have been developed
for Africa but very few are sustainable beyond the pilot phase because often the local
community of the end users is not involved from the beginning and does not have the
feeling of ownership.6
Consequently, the sense of ownership or social acceptance by local community

is a crucial factor in order to implant space applications in African society.
4
Adebola, S. 2009. African Resource Management Satellite (ARMC) Constellation. Available: www.
iinitiative.wordpress.com/2009/12/21/african-resource-management-satellite/ [2017, April 7].
5
Giannopapa, C. 2012. The European-African Partnership in Space Applications, European Space
Policy Institute, p. 274.
6
Ibid., p. 275.
Thirdly, the technological readiness precondition is dependent on infrastructure

development and capacity building.7 In other words, Africa needs the infrastruc-
tures to develop and utilise space technology, and the human resource capability
with technical skills to handle the technology.
Some authors opine that the political commitment for space and satellite
applications remains lacking, which seems largely to be due to the fact that there is
insufficient understanding of the benefits, and a lack of communication of the
success stories.8 But, we can disagree with such suggestion, because the prereq-
uisite of political will is there in Africa for all to see. In particular, one of the
strengths of Africa, and we will see this in the SWOT analysis below, is that there is
a growing political will that provides significant growth potential through the
development of high-tech sectors, including the space sector. Consequently, if there
was lack of political will African Heads of States wouldn’t have adopted the
African Space Policy and Strategy in 2016, and this has been translated into various
initiatives at national level in some African countries—as set out above—to for-
mulate national space policies and strategies.
However, the communication demand to enhance awareness of the social ben-
efits that space applications can bring cannot be overemphasised. Appropriate
information mechanisms need to be set up to communicate the benefits at the local
level, and education regarding space and its applications should be enhanced in
schools and universities, supported by learning materials on the benefits of space
and its contributions to development.9
20.3 Reviewing African Space Activity
This section gives an overview of the space activity of all African countries, by
looking at various indicators of the development of the space sector. Then, all
African satellites and their functions are summarized and compared to the user
needs.
20.3.1 The African Space Ranking Matrix
The African Space Ranking Matrix looks at a country’s participation in the space
sector on five areas: the status of (1) outer space treaties, (2) space-related treaties,
the presence of (3) international and collaborative space institutions, (4) govern-
ment engagement, and (5) the state of space technology development. Table 20.1
gives an overview of all African countries and their participation in the space sector.
To compare the degree of space activity between countries, the indicators are
weighed based on their impact on and importance for the space sector in the
7
Ibid., p. 275.
8
Ibid., p. 274.
9
Ibid., p. 277.
20
Table 20.1 African countries and their participation in the space sector, measured by space-related treaty status, institution membership, government
engagement, and technology development
Outer space treaties Related treaties
Country Outer space Rescue Liability Registration Moon 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
treaty agreement convention convention agreement NTB BTS ITSO INTR ESA ARB INTC OMSO EUTL EUM ITU
Algeria R R R S R R R R
Angola R R
Berlin R R R R R R
Botswana S R R R R R
Burkina Faso R S R R
Burundi S S S S R R
Cape Verde R R R
Cameroon S R S R R R
CAR S S R R R
Chad R R R
Comoros R R R
Cote d’lvoire R S R R
DRC S S S R R R
Djibouti R R
Egypt R R S R R R R R
Eq. Guinea R R R R
Eritrea R
Ethiopia S S R R
(continued)
339
340

Gabon R R R R R R
Gambia S R S R R R
Ghana S S S R R R R
Guinea R R
Guinea-Bissau R R R R R
Kenya R R R R R R R
Lesotho S S R
Liberia R R R
Libya R R R R R R R R R
Madagascar R R R R R M M
Malawi R R R CM M
Mali R R R R R M M
Mauritania R R R R M
Mauritius R R R R R R CM M M
Morocco R R R R R R R R R R R M
Mozambique R R R M
Namibia R R CM M
Niger R R R R R R R M M
(continued)
B. Martens et al.
20
Nigeria R R R R R R R R M
Rwanda S S S R R R R CM M
Sao Tome P. R
Senega S R R S R R R M M
Seychelles R R R R R R CM M M
Sierra Leone R S S R R
Somalia S S S R R R R CM M M
South Africa R R R R R R R R CM M M
S. Sudan R CM M
Sudan R R R R CM M M
Swaziland R R R R CM M
Tanzania S CM M
Togo R R R R R R M
Tunisia R R R R R R R R M
Uganda R R R R CM M M
Zambia R R R R R R CM M
Zimbabwe R R CM M M
(continued)
341
342
(Collaborative) institutions Government Technology

Country RCMRD GEO SERVIR E SERVIR W ARMC SKA Academic UNCOPUOS National Space Space Tech Number Number
and S Africa Africa (CILSS space space administration ladder (wood of of active
(RCMRD) and programmes policy and weigel) satellites satillite
AGRHYMET
Algeria M M Y M Y Y 8 6 5
Angola M Y Y 8 1 1
Berlin M M M
Botswana CM M Y
Burkina Faso M M M
Burundi CM M
Cape Verde M
Cameroon M M
CAR M
Chad M M
Comoros CM M
Cote d’lvoire M M
DRC M
Djibouti M
Egypt M Y M Y Y 8 6 2
Eq. Guinea
Eritrea M
Ethiopia CM M M Y M Y Y 1
Gabon M Y 1
Gambia M
Ghana M M Y M Y Y 5 1 1
Guinea M M
Guinea-Bissau M M
B. Martens et al.
(continued)
20
AGRHYMET
Kenya CM M M M M Y M Y Y 5 1 1
Lesotho CM M
Liberia
Libya M
Madagascar M
Malawi
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius M M
Morocco y M Y 6 3
Mozambique M y
Namibia M y
Niger M
Nigeria M Y M Y Y 8 6
Rwanda y
Sao Tome P.
Senega M
Seychelles
Sierra Leone M
Somalia
South Africa M M Y M Y Y 7 7
S. Sudan
Sudan Y Y 1
343
(continued)
344

AGRHYMET
Swaziland
Tanzania Y
Togo
Tunisia M Y 1
Uganda Y
Zambia H Y
Zimbabwe Y Y 1
B. Martens et al.
country. This will be compiled in a matrix that “ranks” the overall or area-specific
space activity of a country. This is further visualized in a colour coded map of
Africa and radar diagrams. Although giving weighted scores is sensitive to sub-
jective bias, the weights have been discussed thoroughly and have not resulted in
any discrepant outcomes. The weights can be seen in Table 20.2. A brief expla-
nation is given below.
The extent of integration of a space treaty in a country is an indicator of the
deemed relevance of space activities in a country and it can provide the required
international framework for an emerging space sector. Space-related treaties that
have been ratified are weighed twice as heavy as signed treaties. The UN Outer
Space Treaties will be scored twice as much as other space-related treaties. The
space institutions in a country directly show the local space activity and provide the
basis for the intelligent mass required for a space sector, through facilities, training
and academic programmes. The scoring for academic university programmes is not
corrected for the amount of degrees offered per country, due to the amount of work
required for a complete mapping of all African universities. A country’s govern-
ment is an important enabler of local space activities through its space programmes,
regulations and funding. A distinction has been made between a direct govern-
mental policy or programme and a separate government institution such as an
administration or agency. The space technology that has been procured is the most
Table 20.2 An overview of the scoring system used to produce the African Space Ranking
Matrix
Item Status or comment Abbrev. Score
Outer space treaties Ratified/signed R/S 2/1
Related treaties Ratified/signed R/S 1/0.5
(Collaborative) institutions
RCMRD Contracting member/member CM/M 1/0.5
GEO Member M 1
SERVIR E&S Africa (RCMRD) Member M 0.5
SERVIR W Africa (CILSS & Member M 0.5
AGRHYMET)
ARMC Member M 2
SKA Member/host M/H 2/1
Academic space programmes At least one space related university Y 3
programme
Government engagement
UNCOPUOS Member M 3
National space policy/programme Yes M 3
Space administration/agency Yes M 3
Technology
Space technology ladder level Level on ladder, 8 becomes 6 Number
Number of satellites Number 1 per
sat
Number of active satellites Number 2 per
sat
Table 20.3 The scores of all African countries on their participation in the space industry, ranked
by total score
Area-specific Area-specific
Score (0 – 100 %) Score (0 – 100 %)
Related TreaƟes
Related TreaƟes
(CollaboraƟve)
(CollaboraƟve)
Government
Government
Engagement
Engagement
Outer Space
Outer Space
Technology
Technology
InsƟtuƟons
InsƟtuƟons
Total Score
Total Score
TreaƟes
TreaƟes
Country
Country
South Africa 54.5 80 67 100 100 100 Somalia 9 20 75 26 0 0
Algeria 47.5 60 75 63 100 92 Guinea-
8.5 40 50 16 0 0
Nigeria 47 80 67 63 100 83 Bissau
Egypt 39 50 83 42 100 67 Mali 8.5 40 50 16 0 0
Morocco 39 100 100 42 67 54 Mozamb. 8.5 0 50 58 0 0
Kenya 35.5 40 83 100 100 33 Namibia 8.5 0 33 68 0 0
Ghana 30 30 67 63 100 33 Togo 8.5 40 67 5 0 0
Ethiopia 19 10 42 58 100 4 Gambia 7.5 40 50 5 0 0
Libya 19 80 83 0 67 0 Malawi 7.5 0 50 47 0 0
Tunisia 19 60 83 11 67 4 Burundi 6.5 30 33 16 0 0
MauriƟus 15.5 40 67 47 33 0 Chad 6.5 0 50 5 33 0
Niger 15.5 80 50 16 33 0 Swaziland 6.5 20 50 16 0 0
Angola 14.5 0 33 5 33 38 CAR 6 20 50 11 0 0
Zambia 14.5 60 50 58 0 0 DRC 6 30 50 0 0 0
Madagascar 13.5 40 50 68 0 0 Cote d'Ivoire 5 0 58 16 0 0
Sudan 13.5 0 67 58 33 4 Eq. Guinea 5 20 50 0 0 0
Benin 12.5 40 50 26 33 0 Comoros 4.5 0 50 16 0 0
Botswana 12.5 50 50 47 0 0 Lesotho 4.5 20 17 16 0 0
Seychelles 12.5 80 33 26 0 0 Mauritania 4.5 0 67 5 0 0
Gabon 12 40 67 11 33 0 Tanzania 4.5 0 0 47 0 0
Senegal 12 30 75 16 33 0 Cape Verde 3.5 0 50 5 0 0
Rwanda 11.5 30 67 47 0 0 Guinea 3.5 0 33 16 0 0
Zimbabwe 11.5 0 33 58 33 4 Congo 3 0 33 11 0 0
Cameroon 10.5 30 58 11 33 0 Liberia 3 0 50 0 0 0
Uganda 10.5 20 50 58 0 0 DjibouƟ 2.5 0 33 5 0 0
Burkina South Sudan 2.5 0 17 16 0 0
9 20 42 16 33 0
Faso Eritrea 1.5 0 17 5 0 0
Sierra Leone 9 40 33 0 33 0 Sao Tome P 1 0 17 0 0 0
The area-specific scores are normalized to 0–100% for easy comparison
direct indicator of space activities. The so called Space Technology Ladder helps us
with scoring10. Because the autonomous procurement of a LEO satellite is deemed
more valuable to the development of an indigenous space industry of an African
country than the purchase of a GEO satellite, the latter has been devalued 2 points
(Table 20.3).
The technology scoring in this matrix is somewhat limited, because it does not
take into account other important indicators of the space technology development,
such as satellite ground infrastructure (telemetry, tracking, data handling capabili-
ties, etc.), and most importantly, a participating industry. However, in this analysis
they are not included, because (1) either topic is too ubiquitous for this analysis, and
(2), ground infrastructure or industry participation cannot be defined and compared
discretely (Table 20.4).
10
Weigel and Wood, ‘The Evolution of Satellite Programs in Developing Countries’, 2009, pp. 1–
15 http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/bsti/ISU-SSP2011/Wood_IAC_2009_Satellite_
Programs.pdf [accessed 27 April 2017].
Table 20.4 Summary of Africa’s participation in the space sector and associated scores
Wood and Wiegel Technology Level

National Space Policy/ Programme
SERVIR W (CILSS & AGRHYMET)
Space Administration/ Agency

Academic Space Programmes
(Collaborative) Institutions
Number of active satellites

Government Engagement
SERVIR E&S (RC0,5RD)
Outer Space Treaties
Number of satellites
UN Space Treaty 1
UN Space Treaty 2
UN Space Treaty 3
UN Space Treaty 4
UN Space Treaty 5
Related Treaties
Technology
COPUOS
13 IMSO
Country
14 EUTL
15 EUM
12 INTC
RCMRD
11 ARB
10 ESA
9 INTR
16 ITU
8 ITSO
ARMC
6 NTB
7 BTS
GEO
SKA
Algeria 2 2 2 6 0.5 1 1 1 1 4.5 1 2 3 6 3 3 3 9 6 6 10 22
Angola 0 1 1 2 0.5 0.5 3 3 6 1 2 9
Benin 2 2 4 1 1 1 3 0.5 2 2.5 3 3 0
Botswana 1 2 2 5 1 1 1 3 1 0.5 3 4.5 0 0
Burkina Faso 2 2 0.5 1 1 2.5 1 0.5 1.5 3 3 0
Burundi 1 1 1 3 0.5 0.5 1 2 1 0.5 1.5 0 0
Cape Verde 0 1 1 1 3 0.5 0.5 s 0 0
Cameroon 1 2 3 0.5 1 1 1 3.5 1 1 3 3 0
Central African
1 1 2 1 1 1 3 1 1 0 0
Republic
Chad 0 1 1 1 3 0.5 0.5 3 3 0
Comoros 0 1 1 1 3 1 0.5 1.5 0 0
Congo 0 1 1 2 1 1 0 0
Cote d'Ivoire 0 1 0.5 1 1 3.5 1 0.5 1.5 0 0
Democratic Republic
1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 0 0 0
of the Congo
Djibouti 0 1 1 2 0.5 0.5 0 0
Egypt 2 2 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 3 4 3 3 3 9 6 6 4 16
Equatorial Guinea 2 2 1 1 1 3 0 0 0
Eritrea 0 1 1 0.5 0.5 0 0
Ethiopia 1 1 0.5 1 1 2.5 1 1 0.5 3 5.5 3 3 3 9 1 1
Gabon 2 2 4 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 3 3 0
Gambia 1 2 1 4 1 1 1 3 0.5 0.5 0 0
Ghana 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 4 1 2 3 6 3 3 3 9 5 1 2 8
Guinea 0 1 1 2 1 0.5 1.5 0 0
Guinea-Bissau 2 2 4 1 1 1 3 1 0.5 1.5 0 0
Kenya 2 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 0.5 2 2 3 9.5 3 3 3 9 5 1 2 8
Lesotho 1 1 2 1 1 1 0.5 1.5 0 0
Liberia 0 1 1 1 3 0 0 0
Libya 2 2 2 2 8 1 1 1 1 1 5 0 3 3 6 0
Madagascar 2 2 4 1 1 1 3 0.5 1 2 3 6.5 0 0
Malawi 0 1 1 1 3 1 0.5 3 4.5 0 0
Mali 2 2 4 1 1 1 3 1 0.5 1.5 0 0
Mauritania 0 1 1 1 1 4 0.5 0.5 0 0
Mauritius 2 2 4 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 0.5 2 4.5 3 3 0
Morocco 2 2 2 2 2 10 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 1 3 4 3 3 6 6 3 4 13
Mozambique 0 1 1 1 3 0.5 2 3 5.5 0 0
Namibia 0 1 1 2 1 0.5 2 3 6.5 0 0
Niger 2 2 2 2 8 1 1 1 3 1 0.5 1.5 3 3 0
Nigeria 2 2 2 2 8 1 1 1 1 4 1 2 3 6 3 3 3 9 6 6 8 20
Rwanda 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 4 1 0.5 3 4.5 0 0
Sao Tome and
0 1 1 0 0 0
Principe
Senegal 1 2 3 1 0.5 1 1 1 4.5 1 0.5 1.5 3 3 0
Seychelles 2 2 2 2 8 1 1 2 1 1 0.5 2.5 0 0
Sierra Leone 2 1 1 4 1 1 2 0 3 3 0
Somalia 1 1 2 0.5 1 1 1 1 4.5 1 1 0.5 2.5 0 0
South Africa 2 2 2 2 8 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 0.5 2 2 3 9.5 3 3 3 9 7 7 10 24
South Sudan 0 1 1 1 0.5 1.5 0 0
Sudan 0 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 0.5 3 5.5 3 3 1 1
Swaziland 2 2 1 1 1 3 1 0.5 1.5 0 0
Tanzania 0 0 1 0.5 3 4.5 0 0
Togo 2 2 4 1 1 1 1 4 0.5 0.5 0 0
Tunisia 2 2 2 6 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 3 3 6 1 1
Uganda 2 2 1 1 1 3 1 1 0.5 3 5.5 0 0
Zambia 2 2 2 6 1 1 1 3 1 0.5 1 3 5.5 0 0
Zimbabwe 0 1 1 2 1 1 0.5 3 5.5 3 3 1 1
Fig. 20.1 A geographic overview of Africa’s participation in the space sector, as a result of the
Space Ranking Matrix. Countries are scored on various areas: Outer space treaties, Other
space-related treaties, Institutions, Government, and Technology. This map shows the total score
ranking. Table 20.3 shows the total and component scores
The results can be seen in the subsequent figures. They are visualised in a
colour-coded map, table and radar diagram, to allow for a good overview and
comparisons to be made (Figs. 20.1 and 20.2).
20.3.2 Satellites, Technical Requirements and User Need

Gaps
In Africa, a satellite generally has one of three main purposes: Earth observation,
communication, or as an education, science and technology demonstration. Those
main purposes can be fulfilled through many different functions, so in order to
compare them we will write them in a common terminology given by EUMATSAT
in Table 20.5. The user needs in this table are all intertwined with the African and
international sustainable development goals. Then, Table 20.5 shows all satellites
that are owned by African countries, their year of launch and end-of-life (if appli-
cable), their orbits, functions and resolutions. Comparing the two tables shows what
development areas are being supported by African satellites, and where they are not.
20
Fig. 20.2 Radar diagrams that allow for comparing the score of the most participating countries on the five
areas of space involvement
349
Table 20.5 The user needs of space applications and their respective required spatial and temporal resolutions
350
User needs Earth observation Navigation and Satellite Space science

Spatial resolution Temporal resolution positioning communications and astronomy
<50 cm 50 cm − l cm − 2.5 m – 5 m – 10 m – 20 m 30 m >30 m Daily Seasonal Annual
1 cm 2.5 m 5 m 10 m 20 m
Disasters ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Health ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Energy ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Climate ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Water ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Weather ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Ecosystems ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Agriculture ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Biodiversity ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Peace, safety and ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
security
Human Migration ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
and Settlements
Education and ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Human Resources
Communications ✓ ✓ ✓
Trade and Industry ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Transport ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Infrastructure ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Modified from AU Space Working Group, ‘African Space Policy and Strategy Presentation’, 2016 http://ufa.eumetsat.int/userfiles/file/African%20Space%20Policy%20and%20Strategy.pdf
[accessed 27 April 2017]
B. Martens et al.
20
Table 20.6 An overview of African satellites and their applications and capabilities
Country Name Launch End Orbit Purpose Functions Functions in terms Panchromatic Multispectral
of EUMETSAT, 2016 resolution (m) resolution (m)
Algeria ALCOMSAT 2017 – GEO Communication Broadcasting, internet, strategic stateand military Communications, peace, safety and security – –
(5/6) relay/tracking
ALSAT IN 2016 – LEO Edu/science Radio Education and human resources – –
98
ALSAT 2B 2016 – LEO Earth Cartography, agriculture/resource management, Disasters, climate, weather, ecosystems, 2 8
98 observation environmental monitoring, disaster response biodiversity, agriculture, infrastructure
ALSAT 1B 2016 – LEO Earth Agricultural/resource monitoring, disaster, land use Disasters, climate, weather, ecosystems, 12 24
98 observation mapping, urban planning biodiversity, agriculture, infrastructure
ALSAT 2A 2010 – LEO Earth Cartography, agriculture/forestry management, Disasters, agriculture, trade and industry, 2.5 9.1
98 observation mineral/oil, crop, disaster management infrastructure

ALSAT 1 2002 2010 LEO Earth Disaster, earth resources Disasters, agriculture, trade and industry – 32
98 observation
ANG AngoSat-1 2017 2018 GEO Communications Broadcasting, TV, radio, internet Communications – –
EGYPTSAT A 2019 – LEO Earth Reconnaissance Infrastructure, safety and security 1 4
98 observation
EGYPTSAT 2 2014 2015 LEO Earth Environmental, scientific, military Infrastructure, agriculture, climate, 1 4
52 observation ecosystems, peace, safety and security
Egypt NILESAT 201 2010 – Communication TV, radio, broadband to Africa and Middle East Communications – –
(2/6) EGYPTSAT 1 2007 2010 LEO Earth Construction, cultivation, desertification Infrastructure, agriculture, climate, – 8
98 observation ecosystems
NI LESAT 102 2000 2015 GEO Communication TV for Arab, Middle East, north and central Africa, Communications – –
southern Europe
NI LESAT 101 1998 2013 GEO Communication TV for Arab, Middle East, north and central Africa, Communications, peace, safety and security – –
southern Europe
GHA GhanaSat-1 2017 – LEO Demo/edu/Eo Monitor water pollution, illegal mining, deforestation Water, ecosystems, trade and industry, – –
98 education and human resources
(continued)
351
352
KEN 1KUNS-PF 2018 – LEO Edu/demo Capacity building, technology demo Education and human resources – –
Morocco Mohammed VI B 2018 – LEO Earth Mapping, agriculture, disasters, border control Disasters, climate, ecosystems, agriculture, 0.7 2.8
(2/3) 98 observation peace, safety and security, infrastructure
Mohammed VI A 2017 – LEO Earth Mapping, agriculture, disasters, border control Disasters, ecosystems, agriculture, peace, 0.7 2.8
98 observation safety and security
MAROC-TUBSAT 2001 ? LEO Earth Vegetation detection, remote sensing Biodiversity, ecosystems 300
99 observation
NIGERIA Nigeria EduSat 2017 LEO Edu/science Capacity building, amateur radio, atmospheric Education and human resources, climate – –
(4/6) (BIRD NN) 52 measurement
MGCOMSAT 1R 2011 – GEO Communication Communication Africa, Europe, Central Asia and links Communications – –
Nigeria-China
NIGERIASAT 2 2011 LEO Earth HR mapping of Nigeria, crop monitoring, urban Agriculture, infrastructure 2.5 5
99 observation planning
NIGERIASAT X 2011 LEO Edu/science Education and training, Agriculture Education and human resources, agriculture – 22
98
MGCOMSAT 1 2007 2008 GEO Communication Communications services for Africa, Middle East, Communications – –
south Europe
NIGERIASAT 1 2003 2012 LEO Earth Disaster monitoring and plasma research Disasters, education and human resources – 32
97 observation
ZACUBE-2 2018 – LEO Edu/demo Human resource development, Tech demo, Maritime Education and human resources, Transport – –
97 awareness
South nSight-1 2017 – LEO EO/demo Atmospheric measurements, flight heritage Climate, ecosystems, trade and industry 39
Africa 52
(5/7) ZA-Aerosat 2017 – LEO Demo/science Upper atmospheric science, technology development Education and human resources, climate, – –
52 ecosystems
KONDOR E 2014 – LEO Earth Military, SAR surveillance Peace, safety and security – 1-30
75 observation
(SAR)
ZACUBE-1 2013 – LEO Edu/science Ionosphere research and auroral radar calibration Education and human resources – –
98
(continued)
B. Martens et al.
20
SUMBAMDILA 2009 2011 LEO Earth Disasters in southern Africa, affordable space Education and human resources, agriculture, – 6.3
97 observation technology research disaster, climate, ecosystems
SUN SAT 1999 2001 LEO Edu/science NASA and attitude control experiments, radio, Education and human resources, – 15
97 imaging communications
GHA GhanaSat-1 2017 – LEO Demo/edu/EO Monitor water pollution, illegal mining, deforestation Water, ecosystems, trade and industry, – –
52 education and human resources
ANG AngoSat-1 2017 2018 GEO Communications Broadcasting, TV, radio, internet Communications – –
KEN 1KUNS-PF 2018 LEO Edu/demo Capacity building, technology demo Education and human resources – –
Data obtained from EOportal, Gunter’s Space Page, Wikipedia, N2YO and Spaceflight 101
353
Many user needs (primarily weather, climate, education and communications)

are supported by dedicated satellites owned by individual African countries.
However, the coordination and the number of satellites for continent-wide appli-
cation is still far too low. For instance, Algerian satellites cover the largest part of
the earth observation user needs. Although their polar orbits allow them to cover the
whole of Africa on a daily basis, this does not automatically mean that the whole of
Africa is helped by them. Firstly, non-physical obstacles between countries and
institutions often inhibit an effective spread of knowledge. A few examples are:
language, institutional regulations, geopolitical relations, high prices for data or the
absence of a relation or data sharing agreement between institutions. Secondly,
Algerian satellites and analysts focus their attention on Algeria and its specific
needs. Without a clear incentive, they will not be instructed to capture or analyse
the needs for a remote Kenyan village. Technical requirements also differ strongly
per user need. Thirdly, unilateral social and economic dependency for satellite data
on third parties may not be desired when autonomy in operation is required.
From Tables 20.5 and 20.6 it becomes clear that domestically sustained space
coverage of a nation’s user needs is a near impossible task on the short or medium
term, especially for those without an active space sector. Only a few African
countries can hope to achieve this. This implies that near-future coverage can only be
effectively achieved through international political and institutional collaborations.
However, this does not dismiss the need for long-term growing of the domestic space
capabilities. Some initiatives for collaboration will be proposed in this Chapter.
20.4 SWOT Analysis
The analysis of strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threats is largely based on

the results of the ASPS, due to the fact that the ASPS itself outlined the SWOT
analysis of the space sector in Africa, which includes space applications.
20.4.1 Strengths
At the onset, there is a couple of space applications owned by leading space actors
in Africa. In other words, the existence of a number of satellite assembly, inte-
gration and testing facilities together with a growing expertise in space engineering
is a strong point for space applications in Africa.
Secondly, space applications are being designed in some institutions in Africa,
typical examples being NigeriaSat-X11 and Sumbandilasat.12 And, there is a
growing set of intra-continental partnerships, such as the African Resources
11
VOA News. 2011. Nigeria Launches an African Built Satellite. Available: http://learningenglish.
voanews.com/a/nigeria-launches-first-african-built-satellite-130966598/116911.html [2017, April 6].
12
Denel SpaceTeq. n.d. Sumbandila. Available: www.spaceteq.co.za/home/about-sumbandila
[2017, April 03].
Management Constellation (ARMC), that fosters space science collaboration, as

alluded to above. Furthermore, Africa’s strategic location with a unique landmass
and latitude coverage that is suitable for astronomical and space physics facilities
provide potency for embedding space applications.
In addition, there is a growing human resource capability, seconded by a young
population that provides a pipeline for postgraduate students that could easily serve
the requirements of an indigenous space sector. The strength also lies in the con-
tinuation of African regional centre to provide postgraduate education in space
science and technology. And the experience gained through the manufacture and/or
operation of satellites that are owned by a number of African countries. The fact
that the political will that is growing, coupled with the increase realisation of the
benefits of space applications cannot be overemphasised.
20.4.2 Weaknesses
The majority in rural areas speak indigenous languages, thus resulting in a language
barrier on public awareness to understand the benefits of space applications.
Governments are the main actors in space sectors and most do not have the financial
ability to engage in space resource building or even use of space-originated services
such as data, while private participation and opportunity for investment is even
lower.
20.4.3 Opportunities
The increasing international partnerships provide opportunities for the

co-development of space platforms, products, services and skills transfer. Fur-
thermore, existing space initiatives in many African countries provide a foundation
on which space applications could be implanted in society. As stipulated in the
ASPS, the learning from indigenous satellite programmes and Regional African
Satellite Communication Organisation could assist in strengthening the future
satellite expertise and capacity on the continent.
20.4.4 Threats
Political instability and the weak financial base could detract attention away from
future investments in the space sector. Furthermore, brain drain is a factor that can
threaten the implantation of space applications in society. Further, ironically the
rapid technological advancements could reduce the effectiveness and competitive-
ness of the space technology base in Africa. Lastly, there is a high degree of
illiteracy in Africa which will hinder initiatives aimed at imposing the culture of
space applications.
Bibliography
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definition/embed. 6 April 2017
2. Adebola, S.: African Resource Management Satellite (ARMC) Constellation. Available www.
iinitiative.wordpress.com/2009/12/21/african-resource-management-satellite/ (2009). 7 Apr 2017
3. Denel SpaceTeq: Sumbandila. Available www.spaceteq.co.za/home/about-sumbandila (n.d.).
3 Apr 2017
4. European Space Agency: MESA Roundtable on Microcontrollers for Embedded Space
Applications. Available http://microelectronics.esa.int/conferences/mesa2010/00_MESA-
introduction.pdf (n.d.). 7 Apr 2017
5. Giannopapa, C.: The European-African Partnership in Space Applications. European Space
Policy Institute (2012)
6. South African National Space Agency: National Space Strategy. Available www.sansa.org.za/
publications (2012). 6 Apr 2017
7. VOA News: Nigeria Launches an African Built Satellite. Available http://learningenglish.
voanews.com/a/nigeria-launches-first-african-built-satellite-130966598/116911.html (2011).
6 Apr 2017
8. Weigel and Wood: The Evolution of Satellite Programs in Developing Countries. http://www.
unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/bsti/ISU-SSP2011/Wood_IAC_2009_Satellite_Programs.pdf
(2009). Accessed 27 Apr 2017
Author Biographies
viable.
Initiatives for Embedding Space
Applications in African Societies 21
André Siebrits , Bas Martens and Carl Eriksen
Abstract
Based on the preceding analysis in this book, this chapter provides a series of
suggested initiatives to stimulate the embedding of space applications within
African societies further. These have been arranged into the African Space
Application Infusion Framework, and include themes of policy availability,
academic expertise and awareness sharing, using regional economic communi-
ties for academic collaboration, university space start-up incubators, African
coordination at space fora, and the example of a free, user-friendly farming
application. These initiatives respond to observed challenges; for example, a lack
of sufficient, meaningful collaboration was observed between academic insti-
tutions in Africa. In response to this, the initiative is proposed to use Regional
Economic Communities (RECs) as a source of commonality for structured
cooperation with common, focused goals, particularly given the lack of
effectiveness of larger academic networks, to be supplemented with more
effective localised versions. While far from exhaustive, these initiatives suggest
ways in which the embedding of space applications in African societies can be
enhanced in line with an appreciation of the needs existing on the ground, and
prompt further urgent efforts to put space to work serving the needs of Africans.
A. Siebrits (&) B. Martens C. Eriksen

B. Martens
C. Eriksen

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05980-4_21
21.1 Introduction
The central aim of this chapter is to provide informed suggestions to further

stimulate the embedding of space applications within African societies, in service of
the continent’s developmental objectives, and in line with the goals stated in the
Agenda 2063 First Ten-Year Implementation Plan and African Space Policy and
Strategy. These suggested initiatives must be grounded within an appreciation of
the needs existing on the ground, within the context of the fundamental require-
ments and SWOT analysis as discussed in the previous chapter. It was also first
necessary to establish how selected African states are currently utilising space
applications, and which goals these serve, as presented in the African country space
profiles in this volume, as well as how this link up with the significant challenges
and trends discussed in the introductory chapter.
To this end, the suggested initiatives have been arranged into an African Space
Application Infusion Framework. This is presented in Table 21.1, which sum-
marises the suggested initiatives. In addition to time-frame and approach (top-down
or bottom-up), these initiatives are organised according to the goals they support, in
line with the prerequisites previously discussed. In this way, it is made clear pre-
cisely in what way these initiatives would enhance the embedding of space
applications in African societies.
At this point, an initial overview and explanation of the most promising sug-
gestions are presented. When relevant, these initiatives are open to amendments to
fit their context. It is encouraged to further develop this Infusion Framework in
follow-up research. Those initiatives highlighted in the table are discussed in
greater detail in the following sections.
Table 21.1 The African Space Application Infusion Framework is presented here showcasing a
bottom-up and top-down approach to achieving goalsa
Time-frame and approach ! Short-term (1 year)
Goals supported # Top-down Bottom-up
Commercialising
Increasing productivity
Data sharing Make full versions of space Liaising with international
policies/documentation organisations that provide free
available online more rapidly space-originated data
Promoting political support African states to indicate
support for existing UN and
AU declarations/principles and
resolutions, including ASPS
UCT or other university design
alone or in collaboration with
other tertiary institutions in
Africa and/or worldwide a:
(1) Model African space treaty
(2) Model Regional African
Space treaty
(continued)
21 Initiatives for Embedding Space Applications in African Societies 359

Time-frame and approach ! Short-term (1 year)
(3) Model African Continental
and/or African Regional Space
Policy, Legislation and
Strategy in relation to this
analysis or further work if
needed. Model legislation can
include country or
African/regional model laws
(4) Lobby the AU and/or
regional blocks to use the work
linked to benefits of space apps
(5) Lobby the RSA to bring the
model treaty into the AU and
regional blocks
(6) Expose the work to various
African states (governments
and opposition/possible
governments in waiting) to
work towards adoption on a
continental level
Human space capacity and One of the methods for Leverage student exchange
awareness entrenching space applications programmes and graduates to
in society is by enhancing create awareness of existing
communications about the space curricula across Africa
benefits of space to society.b Create public awareness in
The enhancement in space science and space
communications is linked to applications, e.g. through the
creating public space integration of space science in
awareness. Thus, televised science fairs/weeks/festivals, as
broadcasting of educational well as the organisation of
programs can be arranged to space science stakeholder
inform the masses on space engagements platforms such as
applications seminars, conferences, lectures,
workshops etc.
Time-frame and Medium-term (5 years)
approach !
Goals supported Top-down Bottom-up
#
Commercialising Building an African constellation of Setting up small-scale space
satellites for various developmental technology start-up incubators at
applications and selling of universities
space-related services and data. To be
performed by way of an intra-African
partnership with minor roles for
international partners in the form of
universities, companies and countries
Increasing Free, user-friendly farming
productivity application
Data sharing
(continued)

Time-frame and Medium-term (5 years)
approach !
Promoting African states to sign applicable
political support treaties (remote sensing; broadcast
etc.) as promoted by UN, AU and
regional blocks
Regional Blocks to design and ensure
ratification of regional space treaty
by member states, as necessary,
and/or even inter-regional treaties
broadly based on ASPS
Regional Blocks to design
model-space policy, legislation, and
strategy or adapt UNOOSA or
AU-versions for members’ use based
on regional and/or inter-regional
needs
Building policy and strategy ideas
into the UN’s Economic Commission
of Africa’s (ECA) African Institute
for Economic Development and
Planning (IDEP) “Strategic and
Programme Directions 2010–2015”
when further developed
Human space Share expertise and
capacity and awareness regarding space curricula
awareness between academic institutions;
leverage existing partnership
agreements
The continuation of capacity building
through regional education centres
such as the African Regional Centres
on Space Science and Education
Technology, the Pan African
University Institute of Space Science
This can be supported by the
contribution of the private sector to
the funding of postgraduate studies in
space science and technology
Time-frame and Long-term (10 years)
approach !
Goals supported Top-down Bottom-up
#
Commercialising
Increasing
Productivity
Data sharing
(continued)

Time-frame and Long-term (10 years)
approach !
Promoting Closer regional/continental African African states to design and
political support coordination at global space fora implement space policy. For this
Major space player countries in purpose, UNOOSA or the AU
Africa should support, promote and should design a model-space policy,
assist the least regional/sub-regional legislation, and strategy that can be
countries space players in competing adapted by African countries
so that it will not hinder Africa in
meeting their Agenda 2063 goals by
technology/science research,
information and data sharing, aids or
grants
There should be a bilateral relation or
memorandum of understanding in
space-related profit sharing between
two regions or countries. It may
inform of tax reduction or other
indirect payment
Africa should use Space technology
to know their Cultural Heritage, i.e.
used to study archaeology with the
aid of Earth observation satellite and
link them up to all member state to
form an Africa museum centre where
a source of revenue can be generated,
in addition, space archaeology can be
used to uncover the whole civilisation
and used to rewriting history books
and study our preindustrial past
Human space
capacity and
awareness
The short, medium, and long-term time-frames are defined by the African Space Policy and
Strategy’s time-frames: immediate/short-term (one year), intermediate/medium-term (five years),
and long-term (ten years)
a
These suggested initiatives benefitted from inputs by all authors in this volume, particularly Anton
Alberts. Readers are also encouraged to contribute to this debate around reaching the goals set out
in the African Space Policy and Strategy
b
Christina Giannopapa, “European-African Partnership in Satellite Applications for Sustainable
Development: A Comprehensive Mapping of European–African Actors and Activities,” European
Space Policy Institute (ESPI), Report 26, 2010, 18, https://espi.or.at/publications/espi-public-
reports/send/2-public-espi-reports/128-european-african-partnership-in-satellite-applications-for-
sustainable-development-a-comprehensive-mapping-of-european-african-actors-and-activities
(accessed February 3, 2019)
21.2 Suggested Initiatives
21.2.1 Policy Availability
One of the most immediate initiatives that can be undertaken relates to the
communication and information dissemination regarding space applications and
African space efforts. During the production of this volume it was observed that
despite having adopted the African Space Policy and Strategy (ASPS) in January
2016, the full and final version of the document was not available online for more
than a year. Thus, in line with the ASPS’ own stated goal of promoting information
sharing (under the objective of adopting good governance and management),
making final policy documents available in the shortest time possible should be a
priority. The same could apply to national space policies and documentation. This
will also facilitate an enhanced engagement with the content of such documents
within the public and scholarly spheres. This is a top-down initiative since it falls
within the purview of the African Union Commission and national governments.
21.2.2 Academic Expertise and Awareness Sharing
In order to meet the space-related Agenda 2063 national targets for 2023, namely
(i) “[n]ational infrastructure for African networked space research and exploration
in place”, and (ii) “[n]ational systems/infrastructure for research and development
that will contribute to the stock of global intellectual property rights is fully
functional”, it is critical to operationalise the continental-level initiative to “[d]
evelop/implement frameworks for the facilitation of adoption of curricula in space
technology in member states universities/polytechniques”.1 Such an operationali-
sation can be approached from the bottom-up over the medium-term by universities
with existing space technology curricula and centres of excellence in space tech-
nology. This could also leverage the existing partnership agreements between
universities on the African continent.
As an example, the SpaceLab at the University of Cape Town (UCT) was set up
with the aim “to train graduate students to strengthen the South African and African
skills base in the development and applications of space systems”.2 The SpaceLab
has existing space technology curricula, for instance in space mission analysis and
design, and this expertise could be shared with the academic institutions in Africa
with which UCT has existing partnership agreements. Related to this, to further
enhance existing student exchange programmes, past or current graduates of the
SpaceLab can raise awareness of the curricula on offer there when they return to
1
Plan 2014–2023,” 2015, 80–81, http://www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/pdf/au/agenda2063-
first10yearimplementation.pdf (accessed March 4, 2017).
2
SpaceLab, “Aims and Vision of SpaceLab,” University of Cape Town, 2019, http://www.
spacelab.uct.ac.za/spacelab (accessed February 3, 2019).
their home institutions. In this way, more professionals can be trained in space
technologies and space in general, and can, in future, pass this knowledge on to
others, thus helping to facilitate further space curricula adoption. This will also help
to stimulate further public support for space applications, since the value and uses
thereof will become better known, and hopefully, more of Africa’s youth will
consider pursuing studies in the space field. Moreover, students should be
encouraged and assisted to publish as widely as possible to engage in scholarly
debate in the field.
Table 21.2 in the next section highlights some of the prominent academic
association agreements in Africa and the membership of African universities with
space programs.
21.2.3 Using Regional Economic Communities for Academic

Collaboration
Africa has several Regional Economic Communities that form building blocks of
economic integration within the continent and the African Union. They have the
common goal of raising the standard of living within their member states through
socioeconomic development. They can be used as a platform to raise the effec-
tiveness of space applications to achieve this with the further advantage of geo-
graphical similarities. There are eight African REC’s: the Arab Maghreb Union
(AMU/UMA) in the north, the Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS) in the west, the East African Community (EAC in the east, the
Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) also in the east, the Southern
African Development Community (SADC) in the south, the Common Market for
Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) in the southeast, the Economic
Community of Central African States (ECCAS) in the centre, and the Community
of Sahel-Saharan States (CENSAD) in the north.3
If we examine the graphical portrayal of the REC’s in the image (Fig. 21.1) and
compare it with the African Space Ranking Matrix, we find in most instances that
there is a consistency of ranking within the REC’s with one or two outliers either
above or below the remainder. This can be viewed as an obstacle towards collab-
oration, as the outcomes would be largely dependent on the higher ranked nations.
Academic collaboration can be used as a tool to promote growth within the RECs as
a precursor to more practical endeavours. Through the sharing of knowledge, the
nations that are ranked highest in the African Space Ranking Matrix can assist the
other nations with human resource development.
Table 21.2 highlights some of the prominent academic association agreements in
Africa and the membership of African universities with space programs. These
include the Alliance of African Universities (AAU), Southern African Regional
3
United Nations, “The Regional Economic Communities (RECs) of the African Union,” accessed
April 27, 2017, http://www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/peace/recs.shtml.
Table 21.2 A list of African Universities with space-related programs and show their
membership of larger African academic networks/associations (M member)
Country University AAU SARUA ARUA AAUN Ushepia
Algeria Saâd-Dahleb University of Blida
University of Science and M
Technology of Oran—Mohamed
Boudiaf
University of Sciences and M
Technology Houari Boumediene
Botswana University of Botswana M M M
Egypt Cairo University M
Zagazig University M
Nile University
Ghana All Nations University College M
Kenya University of Nairobi M M M
Morocco Al Akhawayn University
Université Internationale de Rabat
Mozambique Technical University of
Mozambique
Namibia Namibia University Of Science
And Technology
University of Namibia M
Nigeria University of Nigeria Nsukka M
Rwanda University of Rwanda M M
South Africa University of Cape Town M M M M
University of the Witwatersrand M
Stellenbosch University M
Cape Peninsula University of M
Technology
University of the Western Cape
Durban University of Technology
Sudan Future University M
Sudan Academy of Science M
Tanzania University of Dar es Salaam M M M M
Uganda Mbarara University of Science and
Technology
Makerere University M M M M
Zambia University of Zambia M M M M
Universities Association (SARUA), African Research Universities Alliance

(ARUA), Australia-Africa Universities Network and Ushepia.
There is an apparent lack of collaboration within the African academic space
program community. While a large number is a part of the 367 Association of
African Universities members, it is difficult to promote effective collaboration
Fig. 21.1 An overview of the locations and membership of the various African Regional
Economic Communities (RECs)
within such a large network. We return then to the initiative of using the RECs as a
basis for the formation of academic collaboration networks. These smaller more
focused networks can be used to train individuals with specific attention towards
assisting their respective nations’ elevation towards the next tier of the African
Space Ranking Matrix. Countries that have no space policy should promote the
training of policy makers, and those that have the institutional framework in place
should focus on the technical human resource requirements of advancing their
capabilities.
Once the nations are on a more level status of human capital, a strategic decision
can be made regarding the academic focus of each nation. An excellent example of
this is Argentina’s strategy when developing their first LEO satellite—the SAC-B.
By recognising the lack of skills in critical areas, the decision was made to source
instruments and solar cells from other countries.4 We could potentially see the
4
Danielle Wood and Annalisa Weigel, “Charting the Evolution of Satellite Programs in
Developing Countries—The Space Technology Ladder,” Space Policy, 2012, 1–10, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.spacepol.2011.11.001.
higher ranked countries focusing on creating modular missions where certain

modules with less human resource and economic requirements could be outsourced
to lower ranked nations within their REC.
SARUA is comprised of universities from the SADC region and is the type of
alliance that we are recommending. There is however limited collaboration within
space applications at present. We urge the other universities with space programs
within the region to join SARUA and use it as an example to showcase how an
arrangement such as this can be used to develop space capabilities with a region.
21.2.4 University Space Start-Up Incubators
Closely related to the leveraging of existing space curricula and training is the
suggestion to lobby, at both university and government level, for the availability of
financial support for small student start-ups in the space arena. Since there is
already existing graduate training in the space arena in Africa (the SpaceLab at
UCT is again an excellent example), including in small satellite applications,
supporting and tapping into this pool of graduates can provide a strong growth
impetus towards African space entrepreneurship. Given that relatively low-cost
systems already exist, and that small start-ups can carve out a niche for themselves
successfully,5 it is entirely possible that such an initiative could contribute to
generating solutions to African information needs. If started on a very small scale
with necessary university and government support, such start-ups could, over the
longer-term provide a return on investment (albeit with an element of risk—hence
the very small scale initially) and help to diversify the space sector in Africa away
from government-driven initiatives, and create further opportunities for the com-
mercialisation and diversification of space technology and services. With the sup-
port of government (for example the local space agency), universities are ideal
platforms for setting up small-scale space entrepreneurship incubators precisely
because they bring together the necessary expertise and skills, and both create and
can tap into, the next generation of space professionals. Indeed, as part of their
curricula, graduate students could be tasked with formulating proposals for specific
space applications, as well as business plans (another critical skill). The most
promising ones, as rated by national space agencies or other space-related bodies,
can be considered for support. As the AU Agenda 2063 First Ten-Year Imple-
mentation Plan emphasises: “Africa’s access to space technology products is no
longer a matter of luxury and there is a need to speed up access to these
technologies and products. New developments in satellite technologies make these
very accessible to African countries”.6
5
A good example is Spire, see https://spire.com/.
6
Plan 2014–2023,” 16.
21.2.5 African Coordination at Space Fora
As noted by Van Wyk,7 the overall level of “participation and activism” on the part
of African states in UN outer space fora, especially the UNCOPUOS, is very low.
Dennerley outlines in clear terms the risks for emerging space nations of not
development of international space standards.8
Accordingly, on a regional and continental governmental level, another initiative

that could be undertaken that would advance Agenda 2063 Aspiration 7 (“Africa as
a strong, united, resilient and influential global partner and player/Africa Speaks
with One Voice on Global Affairs”9) is a closer coordination at global space fora,
especially UNCOPUOS. The following 19 African states are members of
UNCOPUOS: South Africa, Kenya, Cameroon, Nigeria, Benin, Ghana, Sierra
Leone, Senegal, Burkina Faso, Niger, Chad, Sudan, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria,
Ethiopia, Mauritius, and Morocco.10 African membership is far from universal, and
there are great divides regarding resources and capabilities. Political initiatives,
either at regional level (for example in the Southern African Development
Community—where South Africa and Mauritius are the only UNCOPUOS
members) or continentally in the AU, could encourage further membership and
attendance at international space fora, or potentially provide some level of support
for those members states willing to attend but that lack the funds or required
expertise. Unless the majority of African states actively participate in space fora,
Africa will have great difficulty speaking with one voice or breaking down the
impression that space applications are a luxury for only a few states. Such an
endeavour will undoubtedly be a long-term one, but short-term steps such as
encouraging states to attend UNCOPUOS when they are already members can be
undertaken. This can go some way towards promoting further political support of
space activities across the continent.
7
J. A. Van Wyk, “Overview of the Implementation Status of the Five United Nations Treaties on
Outer Space in African Countries,” African Skies/Cieux Africains 12, (2008): 93.
8
J. A. Dennerley, “Emerging Space Nations and the Development of International Regulatory
Regimes,” Space Policy 35, (2016): 29.
9
Plan 2014-2023,” 33.
10
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, “Members of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses
of Outer Space,” 2019, http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/members/index.html (accessed February 3,
2019).
21.2.6 Free, User-Friendly Farming Application
The pressure on the agricultural sector in Africa will become increasingly higher,
considering the high anticipated population growth on the African continent. This
pressure is increased even further by the adverse effects of climate change, to which
African countries are especially vulnerable.11 Satellite imagery can be used to
mitigate this pressure by providing valuable information to farmers throughout
Africa about how to efficiently increase their crop production.
21.2.6.1 Problem
Earth observation satellite images can be used to quickly map important farmland
characteristics, such as crop production, water and nutrient content in the soil,
weeds, pests or plant disease. By analysing these images, farmers can be advised on
their actions to increase food production: when and where to sow, harvest, apply
water, fertilizer or pesticides. This is especially important in a resource-scarce
environment like Africa.12
Analysing satellite data (the crucial step between observation and application) is
a complicated business, especially for the low educated small and medium scale
farmers who make up a large part of the agricultural sector. It is a process which
requires the understanding of many environmental variables, spectral bands,
satellite instruments, orbits, and so on. This means that a wealth of information
remains mostly unavailable to the people that have to put increasingly more food on
our plates every day. Also, through the natural ways of supply and demand,
developing Africa will be the last place where such advanced techniques will be
widely used.
21.2.6.2 Opportunities
The earth observation satellite industry is growing rapidly. There are some
free-of-charge satellite services, such as NASA’s Landsat and ESA’s Copernicus
programme. The spatial, temporal and spectral resolution (sharpness, frequency and
variety) of images have recently grown to the point that they can be used for
in-season farming decision aid. An even higher frequency and variety of imaging
can be obtained by combining multiple free satellite services.13
Although space technology is not abundant in Africa, almost every African
country is a member of either the RCMRD, GEO or SERVIR (refer to the previous
chapter). The common agenda of these large and experienced organisations is the
enhancement of agriculture through space applications in their member states. They
11
Mendelsohn, R. 2008. The Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture in Developing Countries,
Journal of Natural Resources Policy Research. Available: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/
10.1080/19390450802495882 [2017, April 27].
12
Luccio, M. 2014. Satellite Imagery for Precision Agriculture, xyht.com. Available: http://www.
xyht.com/enviroag/satellite-imagery-precision-agriculture/ [2017, April 27].
13
Hest, D. 2014. Satellite Imagery Boom for Farming. Available: http://www.farmindustrynews.
com/precision-farming/satellite-imagery-boom-farming [2017, April 27].
Fig. 21.2 A proposed easy-to-use, action-based graphical user interface for a farming application.
The top half is a simplified example of what the user interface would look like; the bottom is a
simplified list of actions for the application developers. Crucial to the success of the application
would be simplicity and user-driven communication
could provide the (basis for) human resources to translate free satellite imagery to
easily accessible advice for farmers.
Due to a lack of fixed internet infrastructure and decreasing mobile phone prices,
internet use on mobile phones in Africa was predicted to increase 20-fold over five
years.14 This quick rise holds the opportunity to skip regular lengthy infrastructure
development and get high-level information to all rural corners of Africa—provided
that there is sufficient (satellite) internet coverage.
21.2.6.3 Application
Figure 21.2 is an example of how satellite data could be decentralised and trans-
lated to user needs. Although this image shows a highly simplified version of the
process behind such an application, it is but an example of how free earth obser-
vation imagery can be made accessible to African farmers.
Current satellite data lacks accessibility, readability and simplicity. To ensure
adoption by as many farmers as possible, these attributes should be the primary
concern of the developers and should be a focus in their marketing and commu-
nication strategy. The fact that highly centralized data and knowledge exists on an
area that is inherently spread out (i.e. agriculture) implies that an extra emphasis
must be laid on implementation and the seamless adjustment to user needs.
14
Smith, D. 2014. Internet Use on Mobile Phones in Africa Predicted to Increase 20-fold, The
Guardian. Available: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/05/internet-use-mobile-
phones-africa-predicted-increase-20-fold [2017, April 27].
The gap between highly useful, unused data and a large, growing market offers
many opportunities to application developers, especially in the African electronics
market that will be dominated by mobile phones. These developers must, however,
be supported by agronomists and remote sensing experts that can be found at
institutions such as RCMRD or GEO. This medium-term, bottom-up initiative is
low hanging fruit for a potentially massive impact on food production on a con-
tinental scale.
21.3 Conclusion
In order to identify how space applications can be (and are) integrated into the
African continent’s development agenda, this book began by reflecting on some of
the significant trends and challenges that Africa is currently dealing with and will
have to continue grappling with in the coming decades. Three, in particular, were
singled out due to their cross-cutting and transnational nature, namely climate
change and the environment, population growth and rapid urbanisation, and
security. While it is clear that Africa is not alone in having to face these challenges,
and cannot resolve them alone either (for instance, Africa has been a relatively
minor contributor to greenhouse gas emissions), it is equally evident that if the
nations of the continent are to achieve their individual and collective development
goals, all efforts must be made to respond to these challenges and trends in inno-
vative and effective ways. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and
the African Union Agenda 2063 will be critical measures of the continent’s success
in this regard, and in building a sustainable future. Space technologies and appli-
cations have a unique role to play in this regard, and examples of how space
applications are already embedded within African societies were showcased. The
African Space Policy and Strategy is a critical foundation for the continent’s space
activities and provides critical goals and milestones in realising the full potential of
space applications for African societies.
Following this discussion, the space activities of the selected African countries
were analysed and presented in individual chapters. The space backgrounds of the
individual countries were discussed, along with their relevant challenges and
development goals, and how they have thus far set out to meet those challenges and
goals with space applications. It is clear that space applications can only contribute
to Africa if they speak to the national goals and needs of African countries and if
they build on and expand national capabilities. This is also how the African Space
Policy and Strategy can make the most substantial impact—if ownership and buy-in
are promoted within all societies.
Importantly, this policy and strategy must account for, and help to rectify the
unevenness of space capabilities on the continent. On this point, Abiodun offers an
insightful comment: “Participation in the space enterprise also does not necessarily
mean a physical presence in space with satellites and space vehicles, nor does it
necessarily mean that a given country should be able to deploy payloads in space
with its roaring rockets”.15 Indeed, Abiodun cautions against attempting to “jump
over” the critical steps of developing indigenous scientific and technological
capabilities and infrastructure.16 Accordingly, the foundation of space capabilities
must lie in the adequate funding and support of training and education initiatives
that produce capable African mathematicians, engineers, and scientists. This is what
Abiodun means when he calls for a “practical approach” to space utilisation: “a
nation does not have to have assets in space before it can gainfully use Earth
observation data or communication transponders to power its socioeconomic
development”.17
Space activities across Africa were subsequently summarised, including status in
outer space and related treaties, (collaborative) institutions, government engage-
ment, and technology. These indicators were then quantified, based on the impact
on, and importance for, the space sector in each respective country. The African
Space Ranking Matrix was then created to rank the overall and area-specific space
activities of African countries. The benefit of this ranking is that it identified
strengths and weaknesses across Africa by assigning a ‘space score’ to all African
countries which can aid in the identification of vulnerabilities that may hamper
progress towards Agenda 2063, as well as the ambitions of the African Space
Policy and Strategy. It also aids in the identification of potential new areas for
strategic partnerships. This information was then supplemented with a database of
African-owned satellites, technical requirements, and user needs gaps.
The future embedding of space applications in African societies was then
explored in more detail, especially concerning the necessary prerequisites, and a
SWOT analysis was performed to identify areas of strengths, weaknesses, oppor-
tunities, and threats. This was followed by the identification of a range of potential
initiatives that can be undertaken to promote this embedding. These were presented
in the African Space Application Infusion Framework and ranged from focusing on
policy availability, promoting academic expertise and awareness sharing, estab-
lishing university space start-up incubators, and further promoting African coor-
dination at international space fora. A specific application, relating to farming (a
critical area for Africa) was also presented. This serves as an example of the myriad
opportunities originating in already existing satellite data.
It is up to all Africans to find the best ways to address the challenges we all face.
It is only when ordinary Africans, not merely policy-makers, begin to see the value
and promise of space science, applications, technologies and technical expertise that
we will begin to unlock the full potential of space for African development. Space,
and all the promise it holds, is not the exclusive domain of the wealthy and the
15
A. A. Abiodun, “Trends in the Global Space Arena—Impact on Africa and Africa’s Response,”
Space Policy 28, (2012): 288.
16
Ibid., 285–288.
17
Ibid., 289.
powerful. Indeed, it is already clear that African societies are utilising space
technologies in innovative ways. Now is the time for expanding these. Space is
African. The future is African. Harambee!18
Bibliography
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Framework for Inclusive Growth and Sustainable Development, First Ten Year Implemen-
tation Plan 2014–2023. http://www.un.org/en/africa/osaa/pdf/au/agenda2063-first10year
implementation.pdf (2015). Accessed 4 Mar 2017
4. Giannopapa, C.: European-African partnership in satellite applications for sustainable
development: a comprehensive mapping of European–African actors and activities. European
Space Policy Institute (ESPI), Report 26. https://espi.or.at/publications/espi-public-reports/
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dictionaries.com/definition/harambee (2019). Accessed 3 Feb 2019
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2011.11.001
18
Harambee is a Swahili word meaning ‘pulling or working together’; Oxford Living Dictionaries,
“Harambee,” Oxford University Press, 2019, https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/
harambee (accessed February 3, 2019).
Author Biographies
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Southern Space Studies

Series Editor: Annette Froehlich

Annette Froehlich Editor

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/16025

ISSN 2523-3718 ISSN 2523-3726 (electronic)

Cape Town taken from space/ISS. Credits NASA

Princeton, USA Greg Olsen

utmost importance, and it is a given that space-originated information allows for

identiﬁed, amongst others, as return on investment, availability, communication

Part I Sustainable Development Goals and Space in Africa

Part II Country Reports

Part III Integrated Space for African Society

A. Siebrits (&) M. Gasela

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 3

1.2 African Challenges and Trends

1.2.1 Climate Change and Environment

1.2.2 Population Growth and Urbanisation

However, while representing a severe challenge, Africa’s burgeoning young

Africa’s security challenges present a serious risk to the continent’s development

1.3 SDGs and AGENDA 2063

Broadly, as noted in UN Resolution A/RES/70/1, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable

Table 1.1 17 Sustainable Development Goals

operationalisation of the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda within Africa is of

1.4 Supportive Space Applications

programmes.61 Access to the internet, which is an important part of information and

In Mali, the International Institution for Communication and Development

would go a long way assisting in achieving sustainable development agendas such

endowed with natural resources, mapping of such resources becomes extremely

Mchasisi Gasela holds a Master of Science Degree in Environmental Management (UNISA),

A. Siebrits (&) A. Gairiseb

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 27

2.1 Introduction and Overview

Regionally, Aganaba-Jeanty reflects on some of the initiatives undertaken in Africa,

2.2 The African Space Policy and Strategy

disasters, weather forecasting, climate-change mitigation and adaptation, agriculture

1. To create a well-coordinated and integrated African space programme that is

manage continental-level space activities”; (iii) “Disjointed continental efforts

2.3 High-Level Policy Goals Identified by the African

programme and the fragmented nature thereof needs to be consolidated and

• Addressing User Needs23: The purpose of this principle is to “…harness the

– Improving Africa’s economy and quality of life of its people by focusing on

• Accessing Space Services26: The purpose of this principle is to “strengthen space

– Using existing space infrastructure on which to build further capacity.

– Developing a globally competitive African space programme by meeting the

– Promoting R&D-led industrial development to create an innovative indigenous

– Establishing an organisational framework that “will coordinate all African

– Committing funds to optimise and improve effectiveness whereby the African

– Regulating space activities so as to ensure the attainment of the

• Promoting Regional and International Cooperation31: The objective is to

– Promoting intra-continental partnerships to leverage national strengths, activi-

The African Space Strategy focuses on the following space applications:

2.4 The African Union and Space

2.5 Embedding Space Law in National Law of African

2.5.1 Monist-Dualist Approach in African Countries

2.5.2 International Law

custom53; (c) general principles of law recognized by civilized nations54; and

2.5.3 International Space Law

2.5.3.1 Core Treaties

• The UN General Assembly (UNGA) adopted a resolution in 1958 to create the

2.5.3.2 Other Treaties65

• Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the

2.5.3.4 Further UN Resolutions

• International cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space—Resolutions 1721