THE CALCULUS OF DESIGN

Once upon a time, engineers could consider themselves true

alchemists.

Experience was in fact the basis for the consolidated theories that they
planned their projects on. It was the only means of checking the validity
of new hypotheses.

As time went by, especially after the revolution begun by Galileo, the
contribution of mathematicians and physicists was of great importance
to engineering. They supplied equations for better and better
descriptions of physical phenomena while at the same time excellent
measuring instruments were being developed. Unfortunately, the use of
these equations was and still is limited by the fact that, once applied to
real systems, they become much more complex, both in terms of the
difficulty of the problem in question and the precision required. This
means that a precise analytical solution can only be found in a few
simple circumstances.

The easiest way to get around the problem is to reduce the problems
using approximations allowing for the simplification of equations and
therefore making them resolvable with traditional calculations.

The resulting solutions are, by their very nature, approximate. They

often leave unacceptable margins of error. So-called "safety
coefficients" are therefore used to try and compensate for the
uncertainty. These are simply numerical factors used to multiply the
results given by the calculations.
For example, if while planning rear suspension rocker arm for a
motorbike a calculation gave the ideal cross-section as equal to:
Aid
In the construction drawing of our rear suspension the designer would
add a resistant cross-section of
AR=S·Ai
Where S represents precisely a safety coefficient higher than 1.

The possible values are very varied, often by the experience of the
designer who, whenever possible, must attempt to reduce the value to a
minimum.

Using a high safety coefficient S means that the planned component

will be reliable but unfortunately it will also be heavy, cumbersome,
often expensive and perhaps even ugly.

These disadvantages can only be accepted if we are planning parts

whose failure could cause loss of life or property and whose long-term
reliability is essential.

When designing a motorcycle, the dimensions of every single

component has a clear effect on weight and therefore performance,
which obviously can't be as liberal as for a truck!
So the skill of the designers lies in using the smallest possible S
coefficients without impairing safety.

In order to reduce S the maximum external stress (force) that the

components face must be known. In this situation there's no substitute
for experience and it is here that company know-how takes on
fundamental importance.

It is in fact very difficult to use an equation to evaluate the stress on the

headstock created by a 3cm step when confronted by a 90kg rider at
150km/h, with the bike leaning 9.5° to the right, in an outdoor
temperature of 35°C, with a bag on the fuel tank, the tyres a little
deflated because the gauge on his compressor is a bit dodgy and the
fork hydraulics are tight shut because his young son likes to play tricks
on him…

So the engineers have applied other specific corrective coefficients

to the traditional equations. These bring the theoretical treatment and
its indispensable approximations closer to reality.
There are entire books full of these coefficients that have been
determined in laboratory tests, offering a choice according to the
particular case under investigation.

This method is not very versatile however; what do you do for example
if you can't find the right coefficient for your needs?
Nowadays FEM (Finite Element Method) is of great help.
The theory of FEM dates back to the turn of the century but it was only
with the calculating potential of computers from the 1960s that it was
developed and later definitively affirmed.

The strength and effectiveness of this method is not based on the

solution of the equations that are typically applied to the component,
but on its division into numerous small cells ("meshing"). Within each of
these the same equations can be used and more easily resolved without
having to fall back on the simplifications that previously gave too
approximate solutions.

The cells, or more precisely elements, are delimited by points, known

as knots, which are usually shared with the adjacent cells.
After the meshing a rear caliper mounting plate assumes the shape we
can look at in the picture.

In the hypothesis that we want to calculate the deformation of the plate

exposed to a force, using relatively simple equations the FEM will
determine the movements that the said force will impose on the element
to which it is applied. The element, via the knots, transmits these
movements to the adjacent elements that in turn do the same. Once we
have put together all the data, we will be able to determine the global
deformation of the plate.
Conceptually similar procedures enable the determination of many more
measurements. For example the distribution of stress, the trend of a
temperature or an electromagnetic field, or even the speed and direction
of a gas flowing through a pipe, as we can notice in the picture on the
left side.

It is precisely analyses of this kind that allow for example the

performance of an engine to be predicted with some accuracy even
before its first prototype has been built.

The precision of FEM increases with the number of elements used until
absolute accuracy is achieved in the ideal case of an infinite number of
elements.

However, an excessive increase extends the calculating time, which is

not usually justified by the minimal improvements in precision obtained.
For this reason, smaller, denser elements are preferred only in the
"critical" areas of the part being analysed.
The "cell" elements are characterised by different forms (triangular,
rectangular, cubic, tetrahedral…) and properties, chosen according to
the shape of the part and/or the type of analysis to be performed
(deformation, vibrations, thermal stress…).

All these variables are entirely controllable by the designer but if they
are not handled correctly, can become true double-edged swords. An
FEM analysis carried out with an excessive number of elements of the
wrong form will over time lead to incorrect results, or to be precise total
failure.

Bearing this in mind, a preliminary analysis of the problem using

traditional methods is always a useful indication of which direction the
designer should take. As a follow-up a correctly carried out FEM analysis
will allow the project to be "polished" and excellent results to be
obtained.

It is obvious that the advent of the computer and finite elements has
been of enormous help to machine design but it cannot even partially
replace the engineer with his knowledge, creativity and common
sense.

In order to grasp the most interesting aspects of FEM we must enter

into the true complexity of the subject. To do so we'll dedicate another
in-depth feature soon.

Alessio Mancuso CAE Department Ducati Motor

Stefano Fantoni CAE Department Ducati Corse