VELEZ COLLEGE BSN – 1

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

THE HUMAN BODY
OUTLINE  Exercise physiology – focuses on the changes in
 Anatomy and Physiology function and structure caused by exercise
 Structural and Functional Organization of the
Human Body Anatomical Imaging
 Characteristics of Life X-ray  Extremely
 Biomedical Research shortwave
 Homeostasis electromagneti
 Terminology and the Body Plan c radiation that
moves through
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY the body,
 Anatomy – scientific discipline that investigates the exposing a
body’s structures photographic
o Examines the relationship between the plate to form a
structure of a body part and its function radiograph
 Developmental anatomy – structural changes that  Bones and
occur between conception and adulthood radiopaque
 Embryology – subspecialty of developmental dyes absorb
anatomy; considers changes from conception to end the rays and
of 8th week of development create
 Cytology – examines structural features of cells underexposed
 Histology – examines tissues (cells + materials areas that
surrounding them) appear white
 Gross anatomy – study of structures that can be on the
examined without the aid of a microscope; can be photographic
approached systematically or regionally film
o System – group of structures that have one or  Major
more common functions limitation: 2D
o In systemic anatomy, the body is studied Ultrasound  Second oldest
system by system imaging
o In regional anatomy, the body is studied area technique (first
by area (all systems are studied developed in
simultaneously) the early 1950s
 Surface anatomy – involves looking at the exterior of from WW2
the body to visualize structures deeper inside the body sonar
 Anatomical imaging – uses radiographs (x-rays), technology)
ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and  Uses high-
other technologies to create pictures of internal frequency
structures sound waves,
 Anatomical anomalies – physical characteristics that which are
differ from one normal pattern emitted from a
o Can vary in severity from relatively harmless transmitter-
receiver placed
to life-threatening
on the skin
 Physiology – scientific investigation of the processes
over the area
or functions of living things to be scanned
o Major goals: understand and predict the
 Sound waves
body’s responses to stimuli & understand how strike internal
the body maintains conditions within a narrow organs and
range of values in a constantly changing bounce back to
environment a receiver on
o Often examines systems rather than regions the skin
because a particular function can involve  Once a
portions of a system in more than one region computer
o Cell physiology – examines the processes analyzes the
occurring in cells pattern of the
o Systemic physiology – functions of organ soundwaves,
systems the information
o Neurophysiology – focuses on the nervous is transferred to
system a monitor to be
o Cardiovascular physiology – deals with the visualized as a
heart and blood vessels sonogram
 Pathology – medical science dealing with all aspects image
of disease, with an emphasis on the cause and  Commonly
development of abnormal conditions, as well as the used to
structural and functional changes resulting from evaluate the
disease condition of the
fetus during
 pregnancy Magnetic  Directs radio
CT Scan  Computed resonance waves at a
tomographic imaging person lying
scans inside a large
 Originally EM field
called  The magnetic
computerized field causes the
axial protons of
tomographic various atoms
(CAT) scans to align
 Computer-  Because of the
analyzed x-ray large amounts
images of H2O in the
 A low intensity body, the
x-ray tube is alignment of
rotated through hydrogen
a 360o arc atoms is most
around the important in
patient, and the this imaging
images are fed system
into a computer  Radio waves of
 The computer certain
then constructs frequencies
the image of a (which change
“slice” through the alignment
the body at the of the hydrogen
point where the atoms) are
x-ray beam directed at the
was focused patient
and rotated  When the radio
 Some waves are
computers are turned off, the
able to take hydrogen
several scans atoms realign
short distances in accordance
apart and stack with the
the slices to magnetic field
produce a 3D  The time it
image of a takes for H
body part atoms to
Digital  One step realign varies
Subtraction beyond CT for body
Angiography scan tissues; the
(DSA)  3D differences can
radiographic be analyzed by
image of an a computer to
organ is made produce very
and stored in a clear sections
computer through the
 Then a body
radiopaque dye  Very sensitive
is injected into in detecting
the blood, and some forms of
a second cancer far
radiographic more readily
computer than a CT scan
image is made Positron  Can identify the
 The first image Emission metabolic
is subtracted Tomography states of
from the (PET) scan various tissues
second one  Particularly
(enhances useful in
differences analyzing the
revealed by the brain
dye)  When cells are
 Angioplasty is active, they are
performed using energy;
(uses a tiny the energy they
balloon to need is
unclog an supplied by the
artery) breakdown of
glucose
 If radioactively
treated glucose
 is given to a Skeletal  Provides protection and support
patient, the  Allows body movements
active cells  Produces blood cells
take up the  Stores minerals and adipose
labeled glucose  Bones, associated cartilages,
 As the ligaments, and joints
radioactivity in Muscular  Produces body movements
the glucose  Maintains posture
decays,
 Produces body heat
positrons are
 Muscles attached to the skeleton
emitted
by tendons
 When positrons
Lymphatic  Removes foreign substances from
collide with
electrons, the the blood and lymph
two particles  Combats disease
annihilate each  Maintains tissue fluid balance
other and  Absorbs dietary fats from the
gamma rays digestive tract
are given off  Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes,
 The gamma and other lymphatic organs
rays can be Respiratory  Exchanges oxygen and carbon
detected, dioxide between the blood and air
pinpointing the  Regulates blood pH
cells that are  Lungs, respiratory passages
metabolically Digestive  Performs mechanical and
active chemical processes of digestion,
nutrient absorption, and waste
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION FOR THE HUMAN elimination
BODY  Mouth, esophagus, stomach,
1. Chemical level – atoms combine to form intestines, and accessory organs
molecules Nervous  Major regulatory system
2. Cell level – molecules form organelles, such
 Detects sensations and controls
as the nucleus and mitochondria, which make
up cells movements, pathological
processes, and intellectual
3. Tissue level – similar cells and surrounding
functions
materials make up tissue
4. Organ level – different tissues combine to  Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and
form organs sensory receptors
5. Organ system level – organs make up an Endocrine  Major regulatory system
organ system  Influences metabolism, growth,
6. Organism level – organisms make up an reproduction, and many other
organism functions
 Glands that secrete hormones
Cardiovascula  Transports nutrients, waste
r products, gases, and hormones
throughout the body
 Plays a role in the immune
response and the regulation of
body temperature
 Heart, blood vessels, blood
Urinary  Removes waste products from
blood
 Regulates blood pH, ion balance,
and water balance
 Kidneys, urinary bladder, ducts
that carry urine
Female  Produces oocytes
Reproductive  Site of fertilization and fetal
development
 Produces milk for newborns
 Produces hormones that influence
sexual function and behaviors
 Ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus,
vagina, mammary glands, and
associated structures
Major Organs of the Body
Male  Produces and transfers sperm
Reproductive cells to the female
Major Organ Systems in the Body  Produces hormones that influence
sexual functions and behaviors
Integumentary  Provides protection
 Testes, accessory structures,
 Regulates temperature
ducts, and penis
 Prevents water loss
 Helps produce vitamin D
 Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands
 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
 Organization – specific interrelationships among the
parts of an organism and how those parts interact to
perform specific functions; disruption of this organized
state can result in loss of functions, or even death
 Metabolism – all chemical reactions taking place in
the cells and internal environment of an organism;
includes organism’s ability to break down food
molecules, which the organism uses as a source of
energy and raw materials to synthesize its own
molecules; necessary for other vital functions, such as
responsiveness, growth, development, and
reproduction
 Responsiveness – organism’s ability to sense
changes in its external or internal environment and
adjust to those changes; include actions; organisms
can make adjustments that maintain their internal
environment
 Growth – increase in the size or number of cells,
which produces an overall enlargement of all or a part
of an organism; an increase in the materials
surrounding cells can also contribute to growth
 Development – changes an organism undergoes
through time (fertilization – death); the greatest
developmental changes occur before birth; usually
involves growth, but also involves:
o Differentiation – changes in a cell’s structure
and function from an immature, generalized
state to a mature, specialized state
o Morphogenesis – change in shape of
tissues, organs, and the entire organism
 Reproduction – formation of new cells or new
organisms; without it, growth and development are not
possible
BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH
 Although much can be learned from studying other
organisms, the ultimate answers to questions about
humans can be obtained only from humans because
other organisms differ from humans in significant ways
 Some current knowledge in molecular biology and
physiology has not been confirmed in humans
HOMEOSTASIS
 Existence and maintenance of a relatively constant
environment within the body
 To achieve homeostasis, the body must actively
regulate conditions that are constantly changing
 Variables – conditions that are constantly changing
 Body temperature – a variable that can increase in a
hot environment or decrease in a cold one
o Homeostatic mechanisms such as sweating
or shivering normally maintain body
temperature near an ideal normal value or set
point
 Mechanisms are not able to maintain
body temperature precisely at the set
point; it increases and decreases
slightly around the set point to
produce a normal range of values
 Disease disrupts homeostasis and sometimes results
in death
Negative Feedback
 Most systems of the body are regulated by negative-
feedback mechanisms, which maintain homeostasis.
o Negative means that any deviation from the
set point is made smaller or is resisted
 The response to the original stimulus results in
deviation from the set point, becoming smaller
 Most negative-feedback mechanisms have three
components: receptor, control center, effector
o Receptor – monitors the value of a variable
such as body temperature
o Control center – establishes the set point
around which the variable is maintained
through communication with the receptors and
effectors
o Effector – adjust the value of variable, usually
back toward the set point
 Stimulus – a changed variable; initiates homeostatic
mechanism
Positive Feedback
 Occur when a response to the original stimulus results
in the deviation from the set point becoming even
greater
 This type of response is required to re-achieve
homeostasis
1. Many disease states result from the failure of
negative-feedback mechanisms to maintain
homeostasis
2. Some positive-feedback mechanisms can be
detrimental instead of helpful
TERMINOLOGY AND THE BODY PLAN
Body Positions
 Anatomical position – person standing erect with the
face directed forward, the upper limbs hanging to the
sides, and the palms of the hands facing forward
 Supine – person lying face upward
 Prone – person lying face downward
Directional Term
 Superior – higher/ structure above another
o Cephalic – closer to the head than another
structure
 Inferior – lower/ structure below another
o Caudal – closer to the tail than another
structure
 Anterior – towards the front of the body
o Ventral – towards the belly
 Posterior – towards the back of the body
o Dorsal – towards the back
 Proximal – closer to the point of attachment to the
body than another structure
 Distal – farther from the point of attachment to the
body than another structure
 Lateral – away from the midline of the body
 Medial – toward the midline of the body
 Superficial – toward or on the surface
 Deep – away from the surface; internal
Body Parts and Regions

 Central region – head, neck, and trunk
o Trunk – thorax, abdomen, and pelvis
 Thorax – chest cavity where heart
and lungs are located
 Abdomen – contains liver, stomach,
intestines; subdivided superficially
into quadrants by 2 imaginary lines
(one horizontal, one vertical) that
intersect at the navel and regions by
four imaginary lines (two horizontal,
two vertical)
 Pelvis – contains bladder and
reproductive organs
 Upper limb – arm, forearm, wrist, hand
o Arm – extends from shoulder to elbow
o Forearm – extends from elbow to wrist
 Lower limb – thigh, leg, ankle, foot
o Thigh – extends from hip to knee
o Leg – extends from knee to ankle
Planes
 Sagittal plane – runs vertically through the body,
separating it into right and left portions
o Median plane – sagittal plane that passes
through the midline of the body dividing it into
equal right and left halves
 Transverse (horizontal) plane – runs parallel to the
ground, dividing the body into superior and inferior
portions
 Frontal (coronal) plane – runs vertically to divide the
body into anterior and posterior parts
Body Cavities
 Some open to the outside of the body, some do not
 The trunk contains three large cavities that do not
open to the outside of the body: thoracic, abdominal,
pelvic cavities
o Thoracic cavity – surrounded by the rib
cage; muscular diaphragm separates it from
the abdominal cavity; divided into right and left
parts by a middle section called the
mediastinum
 Mediastinum – contains heart,
thymus, trachea, esophagus, and
other structures such as blood
vessels and nerve; two lungs are
located on each side of the
mediastinum
o Abdominal cavity – primary enclosed by the
abdominal muscles; contain stomach,
intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas, and
kidneys
o Pelvic cavity – encased by pelvic bones;
contains urinary bladder and internal
reproductive organs
 The abdominal and pelvic cavities are not physically
separated and sometimes called the abdominopelvic
cavity
Serous Membranes
 Line the trunk cavities and cover the organs within
these cavities
 Parietal membranes – found against the outer wall of
a body cavity
 Visceral membranes – found covering the organs in
a body cavity (in contact with organ)
 The cavity between the visceral and parietal serous
membrane is normally filled with a thin, lubricating film
of serous fluid produced by the membranes
 As organs rub against the body wall or against
another organ, the combination of serous fluid and
smooth serous membranes reduces friction
 The thoracic cavity contains 3 serous membrane-lined
cavities: pericardial, pleural
o Pericardial cavity – a cavity for the heart
o Pleural cavities – two lung cavities