Juliana Mariz N.
Aliswag
GENERAL PHYSICS 2
Module 1: Electrostatics
* Higher affnity = attract more electrons
* Atom, electric charges:
- proton (positive charge)
- electron (negative charge; can transfer during electrostatic charging)
- neutron (chargeless particle, when same amounts of + & - charges are
present, neutralizing each other)
* neutral object gains electrons = negatively charged
* neutral object loses electrons = positively charged
* Charges – formed by combinations of electrons & protons
* Coulomb (C) – SI unit of charge
* Q – symbol of charge
ELECTROSTATICS – study of electric charges
- electric phenomena, temporarily stationary
- only electrons can move during electrostatic charging
processes
* “Like charges repel, opposite charges attract”
- summarizes the attraction & repulsion of 2 charged objects
FREE ELECTRONS – electrons that leave one material to reside in another
object
CONDUCTOR – substance that has free electrons & allows charge to move
relatively freely through
INSULATORS – don’t allow charges to move through them (e.g.: glass)
• Magnitude of basic charges: 𝒒𝒆 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒔
qe = charge of single electron
* proton # needed to make a charge of 1.00 C:
CONSERVATION OF CHARGE – the # of electrons lost by one material is equal
to the # of electrons gained by the other
- electrons can only be transferred, but the total # of charges
doesn’t change
- fundamental law of nature
* Charging by rubbing – objects can become charged by contact or by rubbing
them
* CHARGING BY CONDUCTION – direct contact between 2 objects
* CHARGING BY INDUCTION – no direct touching
- happens when a now charged object is introduced that induces the
momentum of electrons in the objects
COULUMB’S LAW
- Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736-18060: studied
interaction forces of charged particles in 1784)
- “Electric charges show that if 2 objects each have electric
charge, they exert an electric force on each other”
- Magnitude of force = linearly proportional = to net charge on
each object
- Magnitude of force = inversely proportional = to the square
distance (d2) between them
- Direction of force vector = along imaginary line joining two
involved
- Represent force exerted by particles (mass/charge) on each
other that interact by means of a field
𝒌𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭𝒆 =
𝒓𝟐
- Fe = electrical force
- q1 & q2 = magnitude of charges
- r = distance between charges
- k = 9.00 x 109 Nm2/C2 (electrical coefficient in vacuum)
STEM 12 - C
* Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation between 2 point-like partciles:
𝑮𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝑭𝑮 =
𝒓𝟐
* Electrical & Gravitational Forces: field forces
- occur in an area caused by presence of types of bodies involved
Module 2: Electric Field
ELECTRIC FIELD – area where electrical force is experienced
- independent of test charge in given system
- relates force on a test charge
- vector quantity
- follows direction of the field on positive test charge
* Principles of Superposition of Electric Field – net electric force on test
charge is the vector sum of all electric forces acting on it, from all various
source charges, located at their various positions:
ELECTRIC FIELD/LINES – imaginary line/curve drawn through a region of space
so its tangent at any point’s in the direction of electric field vector at that
point
- →
𝐸
- always start at right-angle 90° to charged object causing field
- they never cross
• Positive – point away
• Negative – towards
* Arrows: indicate region of the field/direction a + or - charge would move
* Stronger field/large field magnitude = field line drawn closer
ELECTRIC FLUX – measure of the # of electric field lines passing through an
area
- dot product of a vector field (ELECTRIC FIELD)
• → = vector having a magnitude equal to surface’s area,
𝑨
in a direction normal to surface
• 𝐀 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 = amount of surface perpendicular to the
electric field
= amount of surface area effectively cut
through by the electric field
* tilted surface = fewer lines cut surface
* Numerical value of electric flux = depends on electric field’s magnitudes &
areas, relative orientation of are w/ respect to direction of e. field
GAUSS’S LAW – “The net electric flux through a closed surface is directly
proportional to net charge inside that surface.”
- Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855), great mathematician
- Provides a diff. way to express relationship between electric
charge & electric field
- Helpful in determining expression for electric field
- In situations that have certain symmetries (spherical,
cylindrical, planar) in charge distribution, we can deduce
electric field based on knowledge of electric flux
• ∅𝑬 = electric flux
• E = electric field
• Q = charge
• A = area
• 𝜺𝑶 = permittivity constant
= 8.85 x 10-12
GAUSSIAN SURFACE – imaginary surface around a charge distribution arbitrary
chosen for its symmetry
- Field = proportional = to the charge inside Gaussian surface
* More field lines = stronger field = stronger charge inside
Juliana Mariz N. Aliswag STEM 12 - C
Module 3: Electric Potential - Voltage (potential diff. between 2 pints)
- Unit: joules/coulomb
* Force (F) acts on a particle & work is done on the particle moving from point - Volt (V)
a to point b: - Alessandro Volta

* Conservative force & work done is expressed in a change in potential energy

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
* Conservative force, total energy of particle remains constant:

* when a free + charge q is accelerated by electric field, it’s given kinetic

energy • Relationship between potential diff./voltage & electrical potential
energy:
* Electric Force – conservative force

* Electrostatic/Coulomb Force – conservative, work done on q is independent

of path taken
- analogous to gravitational force EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES – equipotential line/surface
- Potential for a point charge is the same anywhere on an
WORK DONE BY UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD imaginary sphere of radius (r) surrounding the charge
• Force on charge

- Electric field does no work as a charge is moved along an

• Work done by electric field: equipotential surface (no force qE along direction of motion)
- Electric field is perpendicular to equipotential force
* Conductor – equipotential, can replace any equipotential surface
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

Module 4: Capacitance

• Potential Energy CAPACITANCE (C)– deals w/ stored charges

– increases if particle moves in direction opposite to the force on
it
- Decreases if particle moves in the same direction as force on
it
• Work done by force – same as change in particle’s potential
energy, depends upon position change
• Potential Energy of 2 Point Charges – work done not dependent
upon path taken
- work done related to component of force along displacement
- Determines amount of storage in a capacitor
unit: F (farad) (Michael Faraday – electromagnetism)
• Q = charge between plates (coulombs)
• V = potential diff/voltage (volts)
- Capacitance is independent of Q or V
* Higher capacitance = higher # of charges it can store
CAPACITOR – device used to store electrical charge & electrical energy
- Any 2 conductors separated by an insulator
- Consists of 2 electrical conductors (plating of metal)
separated by distance
- Essential components of electronic devices (cellphones,
computers, gaming consoles)
- Used in filtering static from radio reception & energy storage
in defibrillators
- Capacitance is independent of Q or V
- If charge changes, potential changes correspondingly so that
Q/V remains constant

• Work done w/ same functional, taking difference

• Potential Energy (functional) – zero (0) when 2 charges are

infinitely separated 1) Parallel-Plate Capacitors – composed of 2 identical parallel-
conducting plates separated by distance

• Potential Energy of 1 charge w/ respect to other

* Magnitude of electrical field in the space between parallel

plates:
• Potential energy of system of charges

2) Spherical Capacitors – conducting materials are concentric hollow

spherical shells of radii R1 (inner shell) & R2 (outer shell)
- electric field between shells is directed radially outside
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ELECTRIC FIELD

3) Cylindrical Capacitors – affected by its shape

- Consists of 2 concentric, conducting cylinder:
a. radius R1 - inner cylinder; either solid or shell
b. radius R2 – outer cylinder; shell of inner radius
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY PER UNIT CHARGE

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE – change in potential energy of a charge q • Relation between charge (Q), voltage (V), & capacitance (C):
moved from A to B, divided by charge
Juliana Mariz N. Aliswag STEM 12 - C

PARALLEL CAPACITORS – same voltage for all plates; different charges BATTERY – serves as the source of electromotive force that makes charges flow
in the circuit

LIGHT BULB – most important part of circuit

- Load, a circuit element that actively translates energy to a
more functional form
SERIES CAPACITORS – same charges, different voltages
* Potential Drop – differences on voltages

RESISTORS (R)– controls amount of current that passes through a load

WORK DONE BY CAPACITOR:

CAPACITANCE (C) – property of capacitor only

DIELECTRIC – insulator material where a vacuum is inserted

- Will affect capacitance of capacitor/voltage drop/potential
because of its own characteristic (permittivity 𝜺 : ability to
distort/be affected by an electric field)
SWITCH – closes & opens circuit
* Open circuit – no current
Constant Capacitance

WIRE – passageway of current

JUNCTION – point where at least 3 elements are joined

CURRENT (I) – charge; no physical representation in diagrams

- Arrows are used to represent current direction
- Amount of current disperses as it passes through a junction
Module 5: Electric Circuits

• CURRENT – any motion of charge from one region to another

• RESISTIVITY – measure of how strong a material resist electric

current SERIES CONNECTION RESISTORS – resistors are connected w/out junctions;
current flows continuously; same current

• ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE/VOLTAGE – makes current flow from

lower to higher potential

• POWER

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Juliana Mariz N. Aliswag STEM 12 - C

PARALLEL CONNECTION RESISTORS – resistors are connected to the voltage

source

- Charges will pass through a junction, splitting pathway into 2

SERIES-PARALELLE CONNECTION RESISTORS

KIRCHHOFF’S RULES – algebraic representation of conservation of charges

1. Junction Rule – sum of current moving in & out of a junction is
equal to 0

2. Loop Rule – sum of potential diff. across for each circuit

element in any closed loop is equal to 0

* Wheatstone Bridge – circuit wherein the arrangement is used to measure

resistance