Accepted Manuscript

Review

A Review on Textile Sonoprocessing: A special focus on sonosynthesis of

nanomaterials on textile substrates

Tina Harifi, Majid Montazer

PII: S1350-4177(14)00292-2
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultsonch.2014.08.022
Reference: ULTSON 2691

To appear in: Ultrasonics Sonochemistry

Received Date: 28 July 2014

Revised Date: 21 August 2014
Accepted Date: 22 August 2014

Please cite this article as: T. Harifi, M. Montazer, A Review on Textile Sonoprocessing: A special focus on
sonosynthesis of nanomaterials on textile substrates, Ultrasonics Sonochemistry (2014), doi: http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.ultsonch.2014.08.022

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 A Review on Textile Sonoprocessing: A special focus on

sonosynthesis of nanomaterials on textile substrates

Tina Harifi, Majid Montazer*

Department of Textile Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Functional Fibrous

Structures & Environmental Enhancement (FFSEE), Tehran, Iran.

*
Corresponding author: Majid Montazer

Email: tex5mm@aut.ac.ir

Phone: 009821 64542657

Fax: 009821 66400245

1
Abstract

The chemical and physical effects of ultrasound with a frequency above 16 kHz, higher than the

audible frequency of the human ear, have proven to be a useful tool for variety of systems

ranging from the application of ultrasound in environmental remediation to the cooperation of

ultrasound waves with chemical processing regarding as sonochemistry. Ultrasound opened up

new advances in textile wet processing including desizing, scouring, bleaching, dyeing, printing

and finishing and also nanoprocessing including nanopretreatment, nanodyeing, nanoprinting

and nanofinishing. Use of ultrasound appears to be a promising alternative technique to reduce

energy, chemicals and time involved in various operations. Over the past years there has been an

enormous effort on using sonochemistry for the synthesis of nanomaterials on various textile

materials. In-situ sonosynthesis of nanoparticles and nanocomposites on different textiles is a

pioneering approach driving future investigations. With such wide range of applications and vast

ever increasing publications, the objective of this paper is presenting a comprehensive review on

ultrasound application in textile from early time to now by the main emphasis on the

sonosynthesis of nanomaterials outlining directions toward future research.

Keywords: Sonoprocessing, Textile, Sonosynthesis, Nanomaterials.

2
1. Introduction

Ultrasound is a mechanical form of energy requiring a medium for propagation and not absorbed

by molecules [1]. It is generally accepted the effects of ultrasound arising from acoustic

cavitation in liquid media regarding as the formation, growth and collapse of bubbles [2]. The

violent collapse of bubbles in less than a microsecond releases extreme heat, forming short-lived

hot spots [2]. Degradation of organic compounds, oxidization and/or reduction of inorganic

compounds and sonolysis of water into reactive radicals •OH and H• are possible phenomenon

happened by ultrasound irradiation [3, 4]. Accelerating chemical reactions, enhancing mass

transfer, shortening reaction cycles, improving reaction yield, altering reaction pathway,

increasing surface area between the reactants and accelerating dissolution are some of the

ultrasound effects [3, 4].

The first step in introduction of acoustic cavitation was made in 1895 by Thornycroft et al

progressed with the advent of ultrasound as a means of reaction rate accelerator in 1927 [3]. It

was then turned to degradation of synthetic polymers, free radical formation, ultrasonic cleaning,

and ultrasonic physical aspects reaching to the foundation of sonochemistry group in 1987,

facilitating the use of ultrasound in industry [3].

Ultrasound has been introduced to textile wet processing as a promising tool for reducing the

operation time, energy consumption and enhancing the quality of the products [1]. Use of

ultrasound in textile industry traced back more than 100 years with the cleaning effect of

ultrasound for textile machinery parts such as needles in knitting machines [5]. It was followed

by using the dispersing action of ultrasound for preparation of pre-treatment baths such as rapid

preparation of starch sizing at low temperature, formation of long-time stable homogenous

3
emulsions, dye dispersions and thickeners for print paste [5]. The use of ultrasound for removing

impurities from surface of the fibers and enhancing diffusion of dyes or chemicals into the

fabrics was the next approach [1, 5], whereas other investigations led to application of ultrasound

in the textile wastewater remediation by the formation of oxidizing species [1]. Recently, high

intense ultrasound has been exploited for the synthesis of novel nanomaterials, insertion of

nanoparticles into mesoporous materials and deposition of nanomaterials on ceramic and

polymeric surfaces [2]. Sonochemical technique has been also developed for the synthesis and

deposition of nanoparticles on different textile substrates [2].

The current review summarizes the main applications of ultrasound in textile processing (Fig.1),

concentrating on sonofinishing with main focus on preparation and deposition of nanomaterials

on textile substrates imparted multi-features. In addition to laboratory scale studies, the earliest

attempts for the ultrasound industrial scale-up have been also discussed. This paper is intended to

overview almost all the information available in the literature to inspire future research in the

field of sonochemistry in textile processing.

Figure 1

The role of ultrasound in the various textile applications is different classified into two categories

of materials/impurities removal from the surface of textiles (mostly in sonopreparation process)

and diffusion and insertion of dye molecules/chemicals and nanoparticles into fibers

(sonodyeing/sonoprinting and sonofinishing). Although it is difficult to distinguish between the

chemical/physical aspects of ultrasound that are responsible for the two diverse applications,

cavitation is a key factor mainly reported effectively enhancing the involved reaction rates.

Textile wastewater remediation is also other ultrasound application due to radical formation

arising from cavitation.

4
All through the current review, the word “sono” has been used in combination with different

processes, indicating the cooperation of ultrasound waves with the process such as

sonopreparation, sonodyeing/sonoprinting, sonofinishing and sonosynthesis.

2. Sonopreparation

2.1. Cleaning

The interest in ultrasound micro-agitation as a cleaning technique helping the displacement of

surface contaminants is back to 1954 [5]. Reducing the time, water, chemicals and energy

consumption were the targets directed the researchers to the laundry process intensification by

ultrasound to accelerate the mass transfer in textile materials [6]. Scouring of greasy wool fiber

producing fine micro-cracks in the scale structure of the fibers was the first report on using

ultrasonic agitation. Comparing to hand washing, ultrasound had negligible effect on the strength

and color of wool fiber reduced felting during laundering while maintaining the complete grease

and dirt removal with the same detergent concentration and laundering temperature [7]. Using

the ultrasound energy in washing of polyester and polyester blended fabric in medical surgery

gowns reported as an alternative to conventional washing with less tenacity loss [8]. The

ultrasonic effect was used in 2011 for successful cleaning of scoured wool in water and water-

nonionic surfactant indicating no cracks on the scales of the treated fibers confirming by SEM

pictures presumably due to different duration, temperature, pH and ultrasound power intensity

[9]. An increase in water absorption, tensile strength and thermal properties were reported after

wool treatment with ultrasound for an appropriate time however prolong ultrasonic irradiation

led to hard fabric with higher bending rigidity and lower extension [10, 11]. Although ultrasound

energy was more effective in removal of model particulate and oily soils from polyester surface

in short time at low bath ratio with little fabric damage in comparison to conventional

5
mechanical agitation, it suffers from soil redoposition [12]. In recent published study ultrasound

laundering was effective in stain removal from silk fabrics with less dimensional shrinkage,

wrinkled appearance and tensile loss [13].

Fig.2 summarizes the main mechanism of ultrasound cleaning effect as reported in published

literatures.

Figure 2

The effect of ultrasound has been also used for cleaning the orifices of spinnerets or spinning

plates used in the production of artificial yarn patented in 1961 [14].

2.2. Desizing and degumming

The effect of ultrasound on improving the transport of molecules by the local turbulence created

under acoustic cavitation has been used for more efficient desizing with enzymes [15]. The

reaction rate between amylase and starch has been accelerated by ultrasound energy saving time

[15]. The ultrasound-assisted desizing of starch from 100% cotton plain woven fabric resulted in

remarkable increase in size removal [5]. Further investigations were carried out to study the

direct influence of ultrasound on α-amylase desizing by comparing step-wise pre-treatment of

enzyme by ultrasound following by enzymatic desizing and simultaneous utilization of

ultrasound and enzyme. Although the desizing with enzyme increased for the sonicated α-

amylase, the simultaneous procedure enhanced the desizing efficiency more prominently [16].

This has been supported with various explanations including more effective stirring/mixing

mechanism, damages or changes to substrate, more effective catalysis to hydrolytic reactions and

faster removal of loosened products from the fabric bulk [16].

Most of the literatures relied on the potential of ultrasound to alter the performance of various

enzymes depending on the sonication parameters and enzyme characteristics. Despite the

6
positive or negative impact of sonication on enzyme reactivity, the ultrasonic irradiation

possesses advantage in enzyme-aided heterogeneous systems due to the generation of powerful

shock waves causing effective stirring/mixing of the layer of liquid at a solid/liquid interface and

the outcome of the enzyme role on the solid surface such as hydrolysis of cellulose by cellulase,

hydrolysis of pectins by pectinase or hydrolysis of starch by amylase is always positive in

presence of ultrasound [16, 17].

While pioneer works in degumming of silk through ultrasound was done by Krasowski in 1999

[18], there was a lack in this field publications till 2010, when the degumming of silk was

introduced with ultrasound and ultrasound/proteolytic enzymes [19]. Alcalase, savinase and their

mixture were used along with sonication as environmentally friendly silk surface modification

[19].

2.3. Bleaching

The first report on combined ultrasound/peroxide bleaching of cotton fabric was published in

1989 by Satonov who used 20 kHz frequency ultrasound who observed an increase in the

bleaching rate and reduction in required time together with the enhanced whiteness over

conventionally bleached fabric [5]. Further attempts were focused on the effect of ultrasound on

the bleaching ability of laccase as an alternative to the conventional bleaching of cotton [20]. The

synergistic effect of biocatalyst and sonication intensifies the fabric whiteness comparing with

conventional peroxide bleaching [20]. More enzyme diffusion to the interior of the yarns and

formation of reactive transient species as a result of cavitation regarded as the reasons for the

superiority of laccase/ultrasound-aided bleaching system [20]. Ecofriendly laccase-hydrogen

peroxide/ultrasound-assisted bleaching of linen fabrics was also introduced as an alternative to

conventional bleaching process causing less fiber damage and more uniform treatment [21]. The

7
main advantages of sonochemical cavitation reactors for laccase/hydrogen peroxide cotton

bleaching were energy saving by lowering hydrogen peroxide, laccase, temperature and time

accompanied with lower environmental impact [22].

3. Sonodyeing/sonoprinting

The interest in ultrasound-assisted textile dyeing was first reported in 1941 as an effective tool

for enhanced dyeing uptake and cleaner production [1]. The potential advantages of ultrasound in

textile dyeing are summarized in Fig.3 along with some reported studies.

Figure 3

In most published literatures, the dyeing yield of different textile materials with various dyes has

been improved. In this regard dyeing of fabrics with natural dyes has been significantly enhanced

along with the effective role of sonication in natural dyes extraction [39, 40]. Ultrasound-aided

dyeing was done as an effective method for dyeing of cationized cotton with natural dyes [41].

Also, use of enzyme-sonicator combination for natural dyeing of cotton and silk fabrics is

reported [42]. Intermittent ultrasound dyeing at definite time intervals has been reported as the

most efficient applied method of ultrasound in reactive dyeing of cotton fabric comparing to

continuous ultrasound dyeing [43]. Moreover, a number of studies focused on the enhanced

diffusion rate of dyes through leather using ultrasound achieving better dye exhaustion in short

time with improved fastness properties [44-46].

Furthermore, a polyester fabric printed with a ultrasound treated nano-sized disperse dye

improved the color depth of print without addition of extra chemicals to the printing paste [47].

Several effects are responsible for the dyeing rate acceleration arising from the physical and

chemical aspects of sonochemistry as presented in Fig.4.

Figure 4

8
In spite of the positive role of ultrasound in textile dyeing and enhanced dyeing yield, ultrasound

was not effective in dyeing of poly lactic acid with some disperse dyes and pale dyeing with

reduced color strength achieved presumably due to the breakdown of the dye dispersions at

particular treatment temperature [48]. Hence, considering dyeing parameters including pH,

temperature and ultrasound power is important for obtaining the best result [48].

4. Sonofinishing

Textile finishing processes accompanied with ultrasound have been documented in literature

since 1975 by deeper penetration of cross-linking resins such as urea-formaldehyde under

ultrasonic irradiation on cotton fabric [5]. Treating military fabrics with a repellent

fluorochemical finish under ultrasonic waves has been patented in 1981 [49]. Also, ultrasound

energy led to more efficient coating of the softener layer on the cotton fiber surface [50]. Overall,

the ultrasound-assisted reactions in textile finishing have been reported to improve the finish

add-on and accelerate the rates of textile finishing [5].

With the growing role of nanotechnology in textile, nano sonofinishing including the synthesis of

nanoparticles on different textile materials has been driven attention and thoroughly discussed in

this review paper.

4.1. Nano sonofinishing

The collaboration between sonochemistry and nanotechnology dates back to 1994 with

introducing ultrasound for the production of nanostructured materials [51]. Over these years

plenty works has been done on using high intensity ultrasound for the preparation or

modification of a wide range of nanomaterials [52]. The extreme, transient conditions arise from

ultrasound acoustic cavitation categorized as chemical and physical aspects of sonochemistry

allow the formation of nanomaterials [2]. Due to the unique hot spots generated under ultrasound

9
irradiation, nanoparticles synthesis may be occurred at milder operating conditions such as low

temperature and pressure with no need for extra solvents and reduced preparation steps resulting

in enhanced yield [2]. Abramov was one of the pioneering researchers interested in materials

synthesis using ultrasound and developed a range of ideas in ultrasound field [53]. Moreover,

different groups led by Gedanken and Suslick published various papers on sonosynethesis of

nanomaterials [54, 55].

Over the years, research groups all around the world introduced variety of textile materials with

multi-functional properties through incorporation of nanomaterials [56-59]. During the last

decade, Montazer and his research group have done a vast number of studies on synthesis of

different nanoparticles for imparting multi-functional properties on textiles including self-

cleaning, water repellency, flame retardancy and antibacterial properties [60-70]. However, the

use of sonochemistry as a synthetic route to deposit nanoparticles onto various substrates

including textiles has recently been of increasing interest [2].

In the following part, the recent literatures studying the sonosynthesis of nanomaterials on

textiles categorized based on the type of nanoparticles:

4.1.1. Silver nanoparticles

Sonosynthesis of silver nanoparticles have been attributed to the reducing effect of radicals

generated during water sonolysis under high temperature and pressure resulting from the collapse

of cavitation bubbles [71]. Reactions (1-3) show the reductive, oxidative and overall reactions

occurred during sonolysis of water producing silver nanoparticles [71].

H2O Sonication H• + •OH, H• + Ag+ → H+ + Ag° (1)

HO• + •OH → H2O2, H2O2 → H2O+ ½ O2 (2)

10
2 Ag+ + H2O → 2 Ag° + ½ O2 + 2 H+ (3)

Silver nanoparticles of 5-10 nm were synthesized on wool fibers in an aqueous medium

containing silver nitrate and ammonia for 120 min under argon atmosphere. The strong adhesion

of silver nanoparticles to the wool fibers through bonding with sulfur moieties of cysteine amino

acid confirmed with a series of physicochemical methods. The prepared silver-wool

nanocomposite served as an antimicrobial fabric with satisfactory stability after several

laundering cycles [72].

Furthermore, Perelshtein et al [73] reported a new method for preparing fabrics including nylon,

polyester and cotton with antibacterial properties by silver coating using ultrasound irradiation in

a one-step procedure. They suggested that the amount of deposited silver was independent of the

nature of the substrate indicating the physical adsorption of the nanoparticles on the surface as a

result of sonication. They suggested no chemical bond between the silver and functional groups

of the substrate.

Silk yarn containing Ag nanoparticles was prepared by chemical reduction under ultrasound by

Abbasi et al in 2011 [74]. The main goal of the study was to investigate the effect of ultrasound

power and temperature on the synthesis Ag nanoparticles. They showed a relation between

particle size and morphology with ultrasound power and indicated higher mechanical properties

for the silver loaded silk yarn [74]. A year later, the same group used the proposed method for

loading silver nanoparticles on polyethylene fibers [75] showing similar results decreasing the

particle size with increasing of ultrasound power [75].

11
4.1.2. TiO2 nanoparticles

Under ultrasound irradiation the polycondensation of Ti–OH or Ti–OR is promoted through

generation of local hot spots during the implosion of bubbles, accelerating the crystallization

process of TiO2 without requiring subsequent heating of the coated textile [76-79].

Perelshtein et al [80] reported the mechanism and characteristics of the ultrasonic synthesis and

deposition of titanium dioxide nanoparticles with anatase and rutile crystalline structures on

cotton fabrics as an antibacterial and antifungal coating. Moreover, the fabric was assessed in the

photodegradation of methylene blue [80]. Their proposed method involved the in situ generation

of TiO2 nanoparticles and their simultaneous deposition onto the fabric in a one-step reaction by

using ultrasound irradiation promoting the crystallization process of titania due to the high local

temperature and pressure generated during the collapse of the acoustic bubble under

sonochemical irradiation. Fast migration of the synthesized nanoparticles onto the fabric caused

local melting of the fibers at the contact sites and resulted in strong adherence of the

nanoparticles to the fabric surface [80].

Akhavan and Montazer [81] developed the in situ sonosynthesis of nano TiO2 particles on cotton

fabric using titanium tetra isopropoxide as a precursor and ultrasonic bath (50 kHz, 50 W). The

treated fabric showed excellent durable UV-protection and self-cleaning properties with no

negative effect on the fabric mechanical strength. The best self-cleaning property was obtained

by using 9 mL precursor for 4 h sonication at low temperature (75 °C) [81].

Behzadnia and Montazer [82] presented a novel idea to prepare nanocrystalline TiO2 on wool

fabric under ambient pressure at 60-65 °C using in situ sonosynthesis method. Self-cleaning,

antibacterial/antifungal, hydrophilicity, enhanced tensile strength, low cytotoxicity and reduced

alkaline solubility and photoyellowing were the most important features imparted to the treated

12
wool fabrics. They suggested the higher photocatalytic efficiency of TiO2 nanoparticles prepared

by titanium tetra isopoxide in comparison to titanium butoxide as a precursor [82].

The same group also studied the sonosynthesis of N-doped nano TiO2 on wool fabric at low

temperature using ammonia. Self-cleaning, hydrophilicity and antibacterial/antifungal properties

of the treated fabric was confirmed and the treated samples indicated lower alkaline solubility,

yellowness and cytotoxicity. The sonotreatment on the wool fabric also improved the tensile

strength of fabric due to the cross-linking action of nano N-doped TiO2 between the protein

chains of wool [83].

4.1.3. ZnO nanoparticles

Perelshtein et al [84] reported a simple method for preparing cotton bandages with antibacterial

properties by homogeneous distribution of ZnO nanoparticles with average size of 30 nm

through sonochemistry. The minimum ZnO concentration for achieving a significant

antibacterial activity was found around 0.75% (wt%).

Deposition of ZnO nanoparticles on silk fabrics was achieved by sequential dipping steps in

ultrasonic bath containing potassium hydroxide and zinc nitrate [85]. The method served as a

simple green route for obtaining a homogeneous coating of the silk fibers without significant

damage to their structure [85].

The in situ formation and deposition of ZnO-chitosan complex on cotton fabric was reported via

ultrasound irradiation without any binding agents [86]. The simultaneous deposition of chitosan

and ZnO showed synergistic effect on the antibacterial activity. The proposed method regarded

as a general approach for sonosynthesis of organic and metal organic nanoparticles. This has a

potential to be used in various applications where the coating stability is important due to the

insolubility of the coating in water [86].

13
Further, the same group worked on the optimization of the reagents concentration and processing

time for improving the antibacterial efficiency with biocompatibility. The presence of chitosan in

the nanocomposite for 30 min sonochemical coating process with an ultrasound transducer 20

kHz, 750 W was beneficial for achieving the best antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus

aureus and Escherichia coli with 87 % biocompatibility [87].

Bezadnia and Montazer (although still unpublished) have also sonosynthesized nano ZnO on

wool in alkali medium at low temperature obtaining similar results as nano TiO2.

4.1.4. CuO nanoparticles

Publications in the sonosynthesis and application of copper-textile composite are rare and the

only research was synthesis of CuO nanoparticles with average size of 10-15 nm on cotton

bandage by a simple, efficient sonochemical method for imparting antibacterial property [88].

4.1.5. Other nanoparticles

Ultrasound-assisted coating of silk yarn with sphere-like Mn3O4 nanoparticles was successfully

achieved. Some parameters, such as concentration, sonicating time and pH on growth and

morphology of the prepared nanostructures were also investigated. The preparation process

involved the sequential dipping of the yarns in an alternating bath of potassium hydroxide and

manganese (II) nitrate under ultrasound irradiation [89]. The same procedure was used for

sonosynthesis of magnesium hydroxide nanostructures on silk yarns. The morphology of the

product was dependent on pH, changing from nano-needle to nanoparticle by pH alteration from

13 to 8. In addition, the size of particles was proportional to the number of dipping steps and

concentration [90].

Sonochemical method has been introduced as a promising technique to synthesize nanoparticles

on textile materials via ultrasound irradiation without high temperature and pressure or long

14
reaction time through a phenomenon called acoustic cavitation [71-90]. Ultrasound

sonosynthesis allows one step preparation and deposition of nanomaterials on textile substrates

[84]. The introduction of ultrasound in nanosynthesis is effective in producing smaller

nanoparticles in comparison to conventional synthesis routes [81, 82]. Furthermore,

sonochemical irradiation leads to formation of crystalline phase without requiring heating of the

coated textile. This plays a critical role in deposition of nanoparticles particularly metal oxides

onto the textile [80-82]. All the obtained results are the main consequences of the formation,

growth and collapse of bubbles [2]. Another prominent impact of sonochemistry in textile

nanoparticles loading is the stability of the deposited nanostructures arising from cavitation and

heating [80-82]. Advantages of in situ sonosynthesis of nanoparticles on textiles are summarized

in Fig.5.

Figure 5

In liquid-solid systems the most pertinent effects of ultrasound rather than chemical aspects are

mechanical attributed to the symmetric and asymmetric cavitation [3]. Shock waves and micro-

jets are produced with the potential of creating microscopic turbulence within interfacial of the

liquid and textile [3]. This results in enhanced mass transfer and fast migration of the synthesized

nanoparticles to the textile surface [71-90]. The high velocity collision of the nanoparticles with

the solid surface, causing local welding of the substrate at the contact sites leads to strong

adhesion of prepared nanoparticles to the fabric [91]. Hence, physical attachment of

nanoparticles occurs as a result of sonication that is independent of the nature of the textile

material [73]. All responsible phenomena for production and deposition of nanomaterials on

textile substrate during ultrasonic irradiation are summarized in Fig. 6.

Figure 6

15
5. Other ultrasound applications in textile

5.1. Ultrasound assisted extraction

The ultrasonic aided-extraction procedures gained interest for constituent analysis of the

substances or chemicals on textiles and reported to be superior to conventional methods. In 2008,

ultrasonic extraction on historical textile was introduced as the fastest and the most efficient

method for identification of resinous binders [92]. Moreover, the dynamic ultrasound extraction

was coupled with solid support derivatization and liquid chromatography for detection of

residual formaldehyde on textiles [93]. A year later the ultrasonic extraction proved to be an

effective technique for the extraction of 32 elements from cotton with low cost and

environmental accessibility [94].

The enhancement effect of ultrasonic power on natural dyes extract has been also reported in

several studies [95, 96]. For instance, ultrasonic cavitation effect improved the extraction of lac

dye in comparison with the conventional heating process [35, 38]. Furthermore, ultrasound was

introduced as an effective technique for the extraction of cochineal with maximum extraction at

300 W [95].

5.2. Ultrasound in textile wastewater treatment

The number of publications in the field of environmental sonochemistry using cavitation to

destroy or accelerate the destruction of liquid phase contaminate has increased significantly in

the last 20 years [3, 4, 97, 98]. Much of the efforts have been concerned with the effluent of

textile dyeing and finishing contaminate with intense color, suspended solids and variety of

matters including heavy metals and surfactants [99, 100]. The sonochemical reactions occur in

three potential sites namely 1) hot gaseous nucleus inside the cavitation bubble, 2) the interfacial

sheath between the gas-phase cavitation bubble and the liquid bulk phase and 3) the bulk

16
solution. Combined effects of thermal reactions or pyrolytic decomposition in the first two

regions or oxidative degradations by hydroxyl radical or hydrogen peroxide in the bulk solution

are hypothesized mechanisms of pollutants destruction [101]. It has been confirmed that while

ultrasound may render discoloration of textile dyes, the dyes degradation or mineralization

cannot be entirely achieved or is too slow unless sonochemistry is coupled with other

environmental remediation techniques [1]. Therefore, combination or hybrid systems have been

developed for improving the efficiency of sonochemical waste water treatments [102]. Fig.7 and

Table 1 highlight the overall aspects of environmental sonochemistry and coupled remediation

techniques together with involved reactions.

Figure 7

Table 1

The potential use of ultrasound coupled with biodegradation of dyes has also concerned in few

studies mainly due to more substrate diffusion and enhanced cell permeability around cavitation

bubbles [108]. Ultrasound has been also used in combination with two remediation methods

forming three-component systems to achieve the best textile dyes degradation [97]. Ultrasound

and UV irradiation combining with homogeneous Fenton type reagent (sono-photo-Fenton)

[109], ultrasound/O3/H2O2 [97], ultrasound/O3/UV [110] and sono-photo-electro catalysis [102]

are some of the reported investigations. The main mechanism of synergistic effects of hybrid

systems arises from generation of additional hydroxyl radicals and pyrolytic cleavage of

chemicals under thermal hot spots causing efficient pollutants degradation with high degree of

energy efficiency controlling the optimized conditions [101].

17
In textile industry the field of environmental sonochemistry is popular and there are vast number

of publications concerning the discoloration and mineralization of different azo (70% of all

textile dyestuffs), reactive, anthraquinone and metal complex dyes [1, 102]. Some review papers

include the studies using ultrasound as a basic or auxiliary dye remediation tool [102]. The

operating parameters such as pH, temperature, initial concentration of effluent and ultrasound

power play an important role in achieving the efficient waste water treatment [105].

6. Scale-up issues

In the last 100 years, ultrasound has had the potential for use in different textile areas as

reviewed in this paper including cleaning, desizing, degumming, bleaching, dyeing, printing,

nanoparticles synthesis and waste water treatment and shown to be technically feasible by

numerous published reports.

Sonication can be applied directly to the reaction mixture by using ultrasonic probes (horn) or

indirectly through the walls of the sample container using ultrasonic bath. In ultrasonic baths the

power density is relatively low comparing to large amounts of power directly generated by an

ultrasonic horn [111]. While in almost all the textile sonopreparation processes ultrasonic baths

have been applied, horn type systems have been widely used for sonodyeing and sonofinishing

procedures.

Several researchers have studied the ultrasound characteristics in different zones of bath and

probe systems [3]. As the ultrasonic intensity distribution in an ultrasonic bath is not

homogeneous, it is necessary to determine the position with highest intensity to locate the

reaction vessel. Moreover, the shape of the bottom of the reaction vessel influences the wave

patterns [111]. In order to understand the acoustic field structure in sonochemical reactors,

numerical studies by different software have been carried out to model the cavitation events

18
within the sonoreactor [112]. While most of the previous reports concerned with linear based

models, non-linearity of formation, growth and collapse of the cavitation bubbles directed

researchers toward non-linear based simulations [112-114]. In most recent non-linear models the

vibration of solid boundaries of reactors and vibration of ultrasonic transducers have been also

accounted [115, 116].

In comparison to the ever-widening span of laboratory-scale ultrasound applications in textile

which has attracted researchers, its use in industry is limited [3, 117, 118]. The obstacle toward

industrialization of ultrasound is the effect of acoustic cavitation on erosion damage [118].

Besides, the first steps in scaling up the process burden with high operating costs. However, the

processing cost may be off-set by the promising advantages of ultrasound that can bring to textile

industry, such as acceleration in process rate, increase in productivity and the level of product

quality while reducing pollution [3]. Furthermore, process optimization possibly leads to a

considerable saving in overall cost of the process and for any sonochemical process there is an

optimum power for maximum effect [117]. Understanding the appropriate design parameters for

an ultrasound reactor is necessary for the ideal use of sonochemistry in textile industry.

Ultrasound is an industrial solution to optimize cost, environmental requests and quality for

textile dyeing, finishing and nanoparticles synthesis [1, 2]. Ultrasound technology can intensify

the phenomena of diffusion and washing by the effect of cavitation and improve effectiveness of

traditional washing and dyeing treatments [117]. Some examples of pilot and industrial

applications of sonochemistry in textile are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2

19
7. Concluding remarks and future prospects

The expansion of interest in sonochemistry in textile field has led to the development of a range

of applications from environmental protection to nanomaterials preparation. Ultrasound

technology makes possibility to intensify the reaction rate, to reduce energy and chemicals

consumption, to decrease the processing steps, and to improve the product quality.

During the last decade there have been several research teams involved in textile sonochemical

projects and this is undoubtedly the way forward. With the growing role of nanotechnology,

there has been a great deal of research into use of ultrasound as an alternative for producing

textiles coated with nanoparticles. Ultrasound-assisted synthesis route enables the formation of

nanoparticles with smaller size with higher efficiencies and their simultaneous strong adsorption

on textile materials creating durable multi-functional properties. In terms of synthesis conditions

(temperature and pressure), sonosynthesis has been proved to be superior to other synthesis

approaches that require subsequent heating of the coated textiles. The advances in the field of

sonosynthesis have been significant; however there is still a lot of new frontier to be covered.

This process will work on in situ sonosynthesis and deposition of new nanomaterials on different

textiles with the aim of introducing new multi-features. In this regard preparation and loading of

textiles with nanocomposites under ultrasound irradiation will open up a new perspective. For

instance, although still unpublished, we recently developed a novel multi-functional polyester

fabric with superparamagnetic property by in situ sonosynthesis of TiO2/Fe3O4/Ag

nanocomposite using ultrasonic bath. Moreover, Behzadnia and Montazer are working on

sonosynthesis of ZnO/TiO2 and ZnO/TiO2:Ag nanocomposites on wool obtaining interesting

results that will be reported soon.

20
Textile sonoprocessing will contribute to the future of textile industry as a cleaner technology.

The potential for the scale-up of sonochemical systems has been recently proved and in near

future the industry will be convinced of the need to move toward this green technology.

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decolouration/mineralization of textile dyes, Dyes Pigm. 65 (2005) 89-101.

[2] H. Xu, B.W. Zeiger, K.S. Suslick, Sonochemical synthesis of nanomaterials, Chem. Soc.

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Figures and Tables captions

Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of sonolysis alone and coupled with other wastewater
treatment techniques

Table 2. Pilot and industrial applications of sonochemistry in textile

Fig.1 Textile applications of ultrasound

Fig.2 Mechanism of ultrasonic cleaning effect [11]

Fig.3 The potential advantages of ultrasound in textile dyeing

Fig. 4 Several effects of sonochemistry on dye rate acceleration [1, 23-46]

Fig.5 Advantages of in situ sonosynthesis of nanoparticles on textiles

Fig.6 Sonochemical phenomena responsible for nanoparticles synthesis and adsorption on textile

materials [69-88]

Fig.7 Environmental sonochemistry and the coupled remediation techniques along with involved

reactions [94, 95 99, 100]

36
 Table 1
Method Advantages
Sonolysis Dye discoloration by ultrasonically
generated hydroxyl radicals
Sonolysis + O2 + H2O2 Significant improvement in dye
discoloration to almost two-fold due to
enhanced hydroxyl radical formation
and higher reactivity of •HO2 and O2•-
Sonolysis + O3 A highly effective way of dye
mineralization resulting from
acceleration of the mass transfer of O3 in
the solution and enhanced radical
formation by ozone thermal
decomposition in the cavitation bubbles
Sonolysis + Fenton Three-fold increase in degradation rate
due to enhanced hydroxyl radical
formation
Sonolysis + photolysis Increased dye mineralization, formation
of excessive •OH by the photolysis of
ultrasonically generated H2O2,
reduced dye gap energy under extreme
condition arises from cavitation
Sonolysis + photocatalysis Enhanced degradation due to increased
formation of H2O2 and hydroxyl radical,
reducing the size of photocatalyst,
particle disaggregation and increased
surface area, enhanced dye transfer
between liquid and catalyst surface,
catalyst excitation by sonoluminescence,
increased catalyst surface accessibility
by acoustic micro-streaming cleaning
Sonolysis + electrooxidation Continuous cleaning and activation of
electrode by cavitation, increased ion
transfer, reducing gas bubble
accumulation
37
Disadvantages Ref
Incomplete or slow dye [1, 100]
degradation and mineralization
particularly in case of
hydrophilic compounds
Decrease in dye degradation in [102, 103]
higher H2O2 concentration by
•
OH scavenging effect
[104]
-
Scavenging effect of higher [105, 106]
H2O2 loading for the generated
radicals
Insufficient Decolorization and [102]
mineralization for practical
applications, higher destruction
rate by H2O2 addition
[102, 107]
-
Increased electrical charge for [102]
dye degradation, decreasing
degradation rate in higher
ultrasound frequency causing by
degassing. Total effect of
ultrasound in electrochemical
oxidation method was negative
 Table 2

Application Remarks Ref

Ultrasound washing Developing specific applicators of ultrasound energy adopted on jigger [119, 120]
and finishing machine to improve the effectiveness of traditional de-oiling of synthetic fibers
treatments and desizing of natural fibers.
optimization on
industrial machines

Study on the cost Combination of ultrasound with other wastewater remediation techniques was [121]
estimation of economically more attractive than using ultrasound alone. The cost of
wastewater treatment ultrasound waste water treatment as a new technology was more than the
using ultrasound in currently established remediation techniques but will be reduced in future.
industrial scale Besides, this method is free from detrimental health effects of other low cost
technologies.

Enzymatic bleaching Laccase-hydrogen peroxide cotton bleaching under ultrasound irradiation by [122]
of cotton fabric by adapting the jet dyeing machine with piezoelectric ultrasonic device. Cost
pilot-scale ultrasound reduction due to less energy (low temperature) and chemicals (H2O2) with
reactor lower environmental impact and high whiteness effects was achieved.

Pilot-scale The installed system for sonochemically assisted coating of fabric with CuO [123,124]
simultaneous and ZnO nanoparticles coat up to 50 m of continuous fabric per run. The
formation and coating process involved feeding the fabric between two ultrasonically vibrating plates
of fabrics with immersed in a metal salt solution. Cotton bandages with 0.65 and 1.5 wt%
nanoparticles for CuO showed antibacterial activity for killing E. Coli. The loaded nanoparticles
antibacterial treatment were stable to more than 20 washing cycles.

38
Fig.1

39
Fig.2

40
Fig.3

41
Fig.4

42
Fig.5

43
Fig.6

44
Fig.7

45
46
Highlights

● Review on textile sonoprocessing from early time to now

● Ultrasound application in sono-preparation, sono dyeing/printing and sono-finishing

● Application of ultrasound in textile waste water treatment

● Emphasis on sonosynthesis of nanoparticles on textiles along with future prospect

● Brief overview on ultrasound industrial scale-up

47