Tropical Fruits

UNIT 4 COCONUT
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Area and Production
4.3 Soil and Climatic Requirements
4.4 Botany and Varieties
4.4.1 Characteristic Features of Coconut Palm
4.4.2 Flowering and Fruit Development
4.5 Propagation
4.5.1 Nursery and Seedling Selection
4.6 Field Planting and Management
4.6.1 Shading, Weeding and Interculture
4.6.2 Drought Management
4.7 Nutritional Requirement
4.8 Irrigation
4.9 Intercropping and Mixed Cropping
4.10 Plant Protection
4.10.1 Pests
4.10.2 Diseases
4.11 Harvesting and Storage
4.12 Marketing
4.13 Processing
4.13.1 Traditional methods
4.13.2 Product Diversification and Value Addition
4.13.3 Byproducts from Coconut Tree
4.14 Let Us Sum Up
4.15 Key Words
4.16 Further Reference
4.17 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

4.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• understand the importance of coconut, varieties, soil and climatic
requirements,
• explain propagation, field planting and management of young and yielding
coconut gardens,
• describe pest and disease management strategies for coconut, and
260 • discuss post harvest handling and product diversification of coconut.
 Coconut
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is the most beautiful and useful of all cultivated
palms in the world. It is popularly known as ‘Kalpa Vriksha’ or ‘Tree of
Heaven’ as the palm yields more products of use to the mankind than any
other tree and every part of it is useful in one way or another. It provides
livelihood for millions of people around the globe. The dried kernel (copra)
contains 60 to 70 per cent oil which is one of the richest sources of vegetable
oil and is widely used for cooking and also for various industrial purposes.
The coconut milk, tender coconut and toddy tapped from unopened
inflorescence also are some valuable products from coconut. Wood from
mature coconut trunk is used for furniture. Coconut husk provides fibre which
finds various uses due to its elasticity and resistance to mechanical wear and
dampness. Coir and a number of Coir products are made this fibre. Coir pith
and fibre dust, byproducts of coir industry, are used as mulch for conserving
soil. The shell is an important source of charcoal and activated carbon. The
leaf is used for thatching. Newer products like virgin coconut oil, biodiesel
and geo-textiles have greater demands in both domestic and foreign markets.

4.2 AREAS OF PRODUCTION

Coconut is considered to have originated in South-East Asia or the Pacific
Islands from where it spread to other regions either by man or naturally by
sea currents. At present, this crop is cultivated in over 90 countries of the
tropical belt in the latitude range of 23°N and 23°S. The major countries
cultivating coconut are India, Indonesia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Malaysia,
Thailand, Papua New Guinea and Fiji. India, Indonesia, Philippines and Sri
Lanka together account for 81 per cent of the area and production. The other
major coconut producing are Brazil, Thailand, Mexico, Vietnam, Malaysia,
Papua New Guinea etc. India presently is the largest producer of coconut in
the world accounting for 15.5 per cent of the area and 27 per cent of the
world production. India is also ahead of other countries in productivity.
In India, the area under coconut is 2.01 million hectares and the annual
production is 16.41 billion nuts in 2017-18, with an average productivity of
8165 nuts/ha/year. It is cultivated in 18 states and three Union Territories. Of
these, 90 per cent of the area and 89 per cent of the production of the country
are from the peninsular region covering Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh, nuts/ha./year. Though Kerala leads in area (43 per cent) and
production (38.26 per cent), its productivity is only 6,889 nuts per hectare in
2005-06 as compared to 13,133 ,12,992 and 8577 per hectare respectively in
Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.

4.3 SOIL AND CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS

Coconut grows best in relatively coarse textured soils like sandy loams, sandy
coastal alluviums and sandy river valleys. The ideal soil conditions for better
growth and performance of the palm are proper drainage, good water-holding
capacity, presence of water table within 3 m and absence of rock or any hard
substratum within 2 m of the surface. Grown up trees can withstand short
periods of drought as well as water logging. 261
Tropical Fruits Coconut tree requires equitable climate, bright sunshine, fairly high humidity
and a well distributed rainfall of 100 cm. It grows up to an elevation of 1000
m above MSL. Cold and frosty climates are not suitable for the crop.

4.4 BOTANY AND VARIETIES

Coconut is a perennial monocot belonging to Family Arecaceae (formerly,
Palmae). It has a tall, slender and uniformly thick unbranched stem and a
massive crown bearing many long feathery leaves and heavy bunches at
various stages of development. Coconut types in all countries are broadly
grouped into two based on stature, ‘Tall’ and ‘Dwarf’, Tall types are widely
grown and are economically important due to their superior meat (kernel)
qualities West Coast Tal and East Coast Tall respectively, are two traditional
varieties available from ancient times along the West Coast and East Coast
of the Peninsular India. Other promising varieties developed through
Introduction/Selection are: Andaman Ordinary, Lakshadweep Ordinary,
Cochin China, Philippines, Java, Andaman Giant, San Ramon, Kappadam,
Komadan etc. Wide variation in all plant characters exists in tall populations
due to cross pollination. However, Dwarf types are almost true breeding and
only three subtypes with colour shades of Green, Orange and Yellow are
generally present.

Fig. 1a : Orange Dwarf and West Fig. 1b: Green Dwarf

Coast Tall Palms Palm

The popular dwarf varieties in India include Chawghat Dwarf Green and
Chawghat Dwarf Chowghat Orange Dwarf and Malayan Yellow types and
these are mostly self-pollinated. During the last four decades, a few hybrid
varieties using selected trees of Tall and Dwarf types were evolved in India
and released for cultivation. eg., T x D/D x T and TxT combinations, Some
of the promising hybrids from Kerala
are: Chandra Sankara, Chandra
Laksha, Kera Sankara. Laksha Ganga,
Ananda Ganga, Kera Ganga, Kera
Sree etc., Figure 1a shows Orange
Dwarf and Tall types of coconut trees
while Fig.1b gives a Green Dwarf
palm.
Fig. 2 : Coconut as a major component
Tall varieties are sturdy, take 8-10 crop in a typical homestead set up in
262 Kerala.
years for bearing and steady bearing is attained by 13-15 years and are 30-35 Coconut
m tall. Average life span is about 60-70 years or more while Dwarf palms
flower early, yield for about 25-40 years and grow up to 15-20 m. Figure 2
represents a typical homestead farm with coconut as a major component in
Kerala.

4.4.1 Characteristic Features of Coconut Palm

The coconut stem called ’trunk’ originate from a swollen base of the young
seedling 2-3 years of planting. The stem grows fast during early years and
under good management, start flowering by 3-5 years in Dwarf trees and 5-8
year onwards in Talls. The stem bears at its top, when in steady yielding
stage, 25-35 leaves and 12-14 bunches. The massive terminal part is called
crown consisting of long stout pinnate leaves and bunches at various stages
of development. Each leaf produces in its axil, an inflorescence called spadix.
Production of leaves and spadices is in succession. One leaf and with it, a
spadix will be produced in a month but usually one or two numbers more are
noticed in healthy regular bearing palms.

4.4.2 Flowering and Fruit Development

Coconut as stated above is a perennial
tall tree and thus has a long gestation
period. It exhibits called ‘pleonanthy’
a phenomenon of continuing
vegetative growth along with
flowering which lasts up to the death
of the palm. The inflorescence, spadix
enclosed in a spathe, emerges in the
axil of each leaf in every 25-30 days
and this indicates the commencement
of flowering in coconut. The long
spadix opens longitudinally and spike
with male flowers emerges out.
Coconut palm is monoecious ie., the
inflorescence called bears both male Fig.3 : Coconut crown showing
and female flowers, (see figure-3) ‘Pleonanthy’ and monoecious condition
males opening first followed by with small male and button shaped
female flowers with a gap of about 2- female flowers from a newly burst
spadix.
3 weeks in tall palms permitting cross
pollination. In dwarf palms there is overlapping of male and female phases,
hence more self pollination. The spike is 1.2 m to 1.8 m long and is branched
in to 30-35 spikelets bearing at the base of one or more or nil number of
female flowers called ‘buttons’ which later become nuts. The number of
buttons ranges from a few to about 50 out of which 25-60 per cent matures to
nuts. Each spikelet also bears numerous small male flowers which shed of
after dehiscence, the total number will be 8-10 thousands. Pollination is
assisted by insects and wind. In coconut, the duration from flower primordia
initiation to spadix opening is 36-38 months and then 11-12 months for nut
maturity.
263
Tropical Fruits Fruit Development :
The fruit of coconut is a drupe and the spike with the developing nuts is
called a ’bunch’. Each nut is attached to the spikelet by a persistent perianth.
Growth of fruit starts immediately after fertilization. From 3rd month water is
formed inside the button followed by appearance of coconut shell which
grows till full maturity of the nut. The kernel begins to form from 7th month
and continues up to 11th month.
The coconut fruit a drupe, has an outer thick leathery layer, the pericarp, a
fibrous mesocarp with a hard shell, and a solid endosperm, the kernel or
meat. Both pericarp and mesocarp together represent the coconut husk and
the water in the vacuole of the thick kernel is the liquid endosperm of the
fruit.
Activity 1 : Visit coconut gardens, identify Tall and Dwarf types of palms,
note their characteristic features and examine planting material production
procedures.

4.5 PROPAGATION
Coconut is propagated only through seed. Vegetative propagation has not
been successful in coconut. Tall coconut varieties which are widely cultivated
in all countries, show high variability in all plant characters due cross
pollination. Thus, being a perennial crop utmost care should be taken for
selection of mother plants for collection of seed nuts. The following selection
criteria are used as guideline for mother palm selection.
• Regular yielding palms of 15 years or more with an average yield not less
than 80 nuts/year/palm.
• More than 30 fully opened leaves with short, strong petioles and wide
leaf base firmly attached to the stem.
• At least 12 bunches with strong bunch stalks.
• Bearing nuts of medium size and of oval or oblong shape, with husked
nuts weighing not less than 600 g.
• Mean copra content of more than 150 g/nut.

4.5.1 Nursery and Seedling Selection

Seed nuts collected from selected mother palms are stored under shade
arranging the nuts with the stalk end up. Up to three layers of nuts can thus
be stored arranging them one over the other with sand filling the interspaces.
In Kerala, seed nuts are collected during January to April and sowing is done
in May-June. Well-drained area with 50% shade is selected for nursery. Beds
of 1.5 m width and of convenient length with a space of 75 cm between beds
are made. Sowing of seed nuts is to be done in 30 cm deep trenches formed
in the beds, at 30 x 30 cm spacing. Give temporary shade with palm leaves
during summer months if shade is inadequate. Irrigate the nursery once in
two days during the rain-free period and keep nursery free of weeds. Remove
264
ungerminated nuts from six months of sowing. For field planting 9-12 month Coconut
old seedlings with high vigour are selected based on early germination, rapid
growth having collar girth of 10-12 cm and seedling vigour as indicated by
early splitting of Figure-4 has 8-9 months old seedlings. The recovery of
quality seedlings will be about 60-65 %. The seedlings are lifted from nursery
using spade and the roots are removed. Keep seedlings in shade and use
them for planting as soon as possible.

Fig. 4 : Vigourous young coconut seedlings ready for

transplanting in the main field.

4.6 FIELD PLANTING AND MANAGEMENT

The land for planting coconut should be prepared well in advance which in
turn depends upon topography of land, soil type and other factors. Contour
terracing or bund formation will be required on sloppy and undulating terrains.
In low lying areas, form mounds to a height of 1m above water level.
Interspaces of these mounds can be filled to form bunds.
The spacing between trees and between rows will depend on the planting
system, soil type, etc. Under normal conditions, a spacing of 7.5 x 7.5 m with
a population of 170 plants per hectare in the square system or 198 plants in
the triangular system, is given. Under single hedge with a spacing of 5 m in
the rows and 9 m between rows, 220 plants can be planted per hectare. In the
double hedge system, with a spacing of 5 x 5 m in rows and 9 m between
pairs of rows, 280 plants can be accommodated per hectare.
Pit sizes recommended are 1.0 m3 in loamy soils with low water table, 1.2 m3
in laterite soils with laterite rock below and 0.75 m3 in sandy soils. The pits
are refilled with top soil to a height of 60 cm below the ground level and
seedlings are planted. But in low level areas seedlings are planted in shallow
pits and as the trees grow up ground level will be raised so as to cover the
bole portion of the plants. 265
Tropical Fruits If there is assured supply of water for irrigation, coconut can be planted at
any time of the year. The best time of planting in Kerala is by the onset of
south west Monsoon in May - June.

4.6.1 Shading, Weeding and Interculture

Coconut requires full sunlight for good growth and yield. However, during
the first 2-3 years of its establishment, young palms require shade, especially
in summer months and when irrigation is not done. Shading with palm leaves
around the plant is the usual practice. Planting crops like banana, cassava
etc., also can provide temporary shade and protect the seedlings from hot
sun.
The traditional practice of weed control consists of slash weeding twice a
year and the organic matter is used as mulch. This will improve soil fertility,
soil porosity and microbial growth.

4.6.2 Drought Management

Continuous periods of drought leads to stunted growth, drooping of leaves,
immature nut fall and decreased yield. Some methods of drought management
are:
• Bury coconut husk in layers around the palm either in linear trenches
(0.5 m wide and deep) taken 3 m away from the base between rows of
palms or in circular trenches taken around the palm at a distance of 2 m
from the base with the concave surface up and covered with soil. The
beneficial effect of husk burial lasts for three to seven years.
• Mulching the basins with green/dry leaves including coconut leaves at
the close of north-east Monsoon (October - November).
• On level field, excess water of rainy season may be conserved by taking
small trenches in the field.
• On sloppy areas, the land may be terraced and trenches dug across the
slope.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

Note : a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Which are the major coconut producing countries ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. What is the recommended spacing for coconut ?
............................................................................................................
266 ............................................................................................................
 ............................................................................................................ Coconut

3. Write any three criteria for mother palm selection in coconut.

............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
4. Describe botanical features of the fruit of coconut.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

4.7 NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENT

Coconut like any other perennial crops, requires nutrients in adequate
quantities in the form of NPK and minor elements for better growth and
yields. However, the need for different nutrients varies with different soils
The fertilizer recommendation for different soils, varieties and other
management conditions of Kerala are given in Table 1.
Table 1 : Fertilizer recommendation for coconut in Kerala.

Quantity (Kg/palm/year)
N P2O5 K2O
1. General recommendation
a) Average management, 0.34 0.17 0.68
mostly rainfedb)
b) Good management 0.50 0.32 1.20
2. For reclaimed clayey soils 0.25 0.35 0.90
(as in Kuttanad)
3. Red loam soils (Southern Kerala) 0.68 0.23 0.90
4. Hybrids and high-yielding palms
a) For irrigated areas 1.00 0.50 2.00
b) For rain fed conditions 0.50 0.32 1.20

Organic manures :
@ 25 kg/palm may be applied along with fertilizers by the onset of south-
west monsoon. Fertilisers may best be applied in two split doses for rain fed
coconut, one third in May - June and two-third by September - October. For
irrigated crop, the entire quantity required for a year may be given in four
equal splits in May - June, September - October, December and February.
Basins are taken at a radius of 1.8 m and may have a depth of 25 cm towards
the periphery. Apply fertilisers in the basin in May-June and rake in. Close
the basin after application of the second dose of fertilisers in September -
October for rainfed crop.
267
Tropical Fruits The quantity of fertilisers recommended for young coconut during the first
year is one-third of the full dose for adult palms and for the second year, two-
third. Full recommended adult dose is to be given from fourth year onwards.
Green manure :
Crops suitable for coconut are cow pea, crotalaria, Sunhemp and Daincha
and cover crops such as Peuraria, Mimosa invisa etc. The seeds of these
crops are sown towards the periphery of basins taken at a radius of 2 m from
the base of the palm for green manuring during April - May with the onset of
pre-monsoon showers. When the plants start flowering, the plants are uprooted
or ploughed in and incorporated into the soil during August - September and
the basins are covered with soil.
Recycling of palm waste and residues of all intercrops is a good practice of
maintaining the organic matter content of soil. Palm wastes like coconut
leaves, crown waste, dried spathes, husk etc. may be deposited in small
trenches of convenient length, 0.5 m - 0.75 m wide and 0.3 m - 0.5 m deep
at a distance of 2-2.5 m away from the base of palm. Fill up the trenches with
wastes along one side, say north, during one year, opposite side in the next
year, eastern side in the third year and western side in the fourth year.

4.8 IRRIGATION
Water needs of coconut is determined by different climatic and soil factors.
The frequency of irrigation will depend on the water holding capacity of the
soil and the rate at which water is lost. Therefore, for proper growth and
production, it is advised to irrigate the palms during summer months in basins
around the palm, as shown in Table 2.
Table 2 : Irrigation schedule for coconut under Kerala conditions.

Soil types
Parameters Sandy Sandy Loam Silty
loam clay
Quantity of water / irrigation / 600 800 1300 1600
palm in litres in a basin of 1.8 m
radius
Frequency of Irrigation (days)
All areas in Kerala except north 3-4 5 7-8 9
– eastern portion of Thrissur and
Palakkat districts
North-eastern portion of Trissur 2-3 3-4 5-6 6-7
and Palakkat districts
For a better water use efficiency, drip irrigation is now being widely used.
Four drips per palm will supply 32 litres of water per hour and irrigating
daily for two hours gives a steady supply of water to palm.

4.9 INTERCROPPING AND MIXED CROPPING

In coconut, intercropping refers to the cultivation of short duration crops
268 along with coconut. Examples are banana, pineapple, yams, ginger etc. When
long duration crops like cocoa, nutmeg, clove etc. are grown along with Coconut
coconut, it is mixed cropping eg., cocoa, nutmeg, clove etc. While taking up
inter and mixed cropping, the following factors must be considered and
managed.
1. Light infiltration through coconut canopy varies with age. In plantations
of above 20 years, it ranges from 30-80 per cent. In the early years,
interspace light availability is close to 100 per cent and it reduces gradually
to about 20 per cent in 9 to 10 years after planting. Hence, in the early
years, almost any annual/biennial crop can be raised depending on
availability of light.
2. Long duration crops can be planted only after about 20 years.
3. Avoid competition by intercrops with coconut for water and nutrient.
Provide additional watering and manuring to each and every crop. The
spacing of these crops should be in such a way that it should be minimum
2 m away from the base of the palm.
The following crops are recommended as intercrops.
• Cereals: Rice, maize, millets etc.
• Legumes and pulses: Ground nut, horse gram and cow pea.
• Tubers: Tapioca, sweet potato, yams, colocasia.
• Fruit Crops: Banana, pineapple, papaya.
• Fodder grasses: Hybrid napier, guinea grass.
• Mixed crops: Cocoa, black pepper, nutmeg, cinnamon, clove.

4.10 PLANT PROTECTION

In the traditional coconut areas like Kerala, the trees are attacked by various
insect pests and diseases which damage the palms and reduce production.
We will now examine the nature of damage and control measures of these
separately.

4.10.1 Pests
The most important ones are rhinoceros beetle, red palm weevil, cockchafer
beetles, leaf-eating caterpillar, mites, coreid bugs and mealy bugs.
i) Red palm weevil (Rhyncophorus ferrugeneus) : This is the most
dangerous of all pests attacking coconut in the state and difficult to control
as the grubs bore in to interior tender portions of the growing young
palms The diagnostic symptoms are appearance of holes on the stem,
oozing out of a viscous brown fluid and extrusion of chewed up fibrous
matter through the hole, longitudinal splitting of leaf base and wilting of
central shoot.
Control : Provide field sanitation and avoid injury to stem.
The topmost three leaf axils may be filled with 250 g neem cake or marotti 269
Tropical Fruits cake with equal volume of sand
twice during April / May and Sept
/ October. Apply Sevidol 8 g 25 g
along with fine sand thrice during
April - May and Sept - October
and December - January.
Naphthalene balls 12.0 g with fine
sand once in 45 days.
Boreholes are sealed except the
top most one and pour 1.0 %
carbaryl @ 1.00 litre per palm
using a funnel.
Coconut log traps with fermenting
toddy or pineapple or sugarcane
activated with yeast or molasses,
can be set in the coconut Fig. 5 : Young WCT palms showing
plantation to attract and trap the symptoms of attack by Red palm weevil
free floating population of red and Rhinoceros beetle.
palm weevils. Incorporate any of the insecticide to each trap and kill the
weevils trapped. Figure-5 presents two WC Tall young palms damaged
from a combined attack by Red palm weevil and Rhinoceros beetle.
ii) Rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros) : The adult rhinoceros beetle
bores into the unopened fronds and spathes and the attacked portions
show characteristic triangular cuts. The chewed up leaves when open,
show scissor-cuts on the leaves. Due to this, considerable leaf lamina is
lost and this leads to low productivity.
Management :
• Provide field sanitation
• Hook out beetles from attacked palm using beetle hooks
• Leaf axil filling as recommended for red palm beetle.
• Incorporate cuttings of Clerodendron infortunatum in the cowdung/
compost pits where the grubs multiply or treat these pits with 0.01 %
carbaryl every three months
• Release Bacculovirus oryctes infected adults @ 10-15/ ha
iii) Leaf - eating caterpillar (Opisina arenosella) : The caterpillars eat the
chlorophyll of older leaves of coconut and remains within the galleries
of silk and frass. The attack is severe during summer months.
Control :
• Cut and burn affected leaves.
• Release larval/pupal parasitoids, Goniozus nephantidis, Elasmus
nephantidis and Brachymeria nosatoi.
270 • Spray Dichlorvos 0.02 % on the undersurface of leaves.
iv) Cockchafer beetle (Leucopholis coneophora) : The grubs damage the Coconut
coconut palm roots. The leaves of the palm become yellow and do not
grow to their full size. Management of this pest involves catching the
adults and killing them to the extent possible or treating the soil application
with insecticides like Chlorpyriphos (0.04 %) and phorate 10G @10 g/
palm.
v) Eriyophid Mite (Aceria guerreronis) : The mites suck the sap from
young buttons. Symptoms appear as white triangular patches on 2-3
months old young nuts. These patches dry turn dark and nuts get deformed.
The husk is made unsuitable for coconut fiber industry. Reduction in
husk yield is about 40 % and that of copra 20 %.
Management : Collect and destroy all fallen buttons. Apply 2 % neem
oil + garlic emulsion or 0.004 % azadirachtin or wettable suplher 0.4 %
in the crown on young bunches. In large coconut plantations, dicofol 0.1
% is applies, but never on homesteads using rocker sprayer @ 1.0 - 1.5l
/ palm. Three rounds of sprays are required and are given during April -
May, September - October and January - February months.
vi) Coried bug : This bug attacked buttons become deformed with
characteristic crevices and scars on the husk below the perianth with gum
exudations and the tender nuts become barren. To control this pest, apply
0.1 per cent Carbaryl on the newly opened inflorescence, the entire crown
excluding the leaves and older bunches.
vii) Mealy bugs : Mealy bugs infest the unopened spindle leaf and
inflorescence. As a result, the leaves become highly stunted, suppressed,
deformed and present a crinkled appearance. Button mealy bugs colonize
under the perianth lobes of tender nuts. Infested nuts harbouring mealy
bugs remain on the spadix, which serve as inoculum for further spread.
Remove and destroy all dried up inflorescence and unproductive buttons.
Application of dimethoate 0.1 per cent, quinalphos 0.05 per cent, and
fenthion 0.1 per cent at the infested bunches, checks button mealy bugs.
viii) Mammalian Pests-Rats and Squirrels : These mammals, mainly field
rats, stay in nests on the coconut crown, bore in to tender nuts and feed
on the contents. Their attack is severe during summer months. Their
control is rather difficult as they can move from tree to tree.
Crown cleaning at least once in a year can reduce damage. Placing baits
containing Warfarin, Zinc sulphide etc., at short intervals, also will help
controlling the pest population.

4.10.2 Diseases
i) Bud Rot : This disease caused by the fungus Phytophthora palmivora
affects the growing bud. The wet monsoons and the ensuing cool post-
monsoon periods are the most conducive seasons for its incidence and
development. The base of the spindle becomes rotten and emits a foul
smell. This disease can be checked by prophylactic spraying with
Bordeaux mixture 1 per cent at the start of the monsoon and after the
rains. 271
Tropical Fruits ii) Stem Bleeding : This disease is characterised by the oozing of a dark
liquid which often dries up leaving a black streak on the trunk. This is
found caused by the fungus Thielaviopsis paradoxa but some stress factors
like drought make the palms susceptible to the disorder. The disease can
be managed to some extend by chiseling away the affected portions and
spraying systemic fungicide Tridemorph (Calixin) at 5 per cent.
iii) Basal Stem rot / Ganoderma wilt : This disease infects the roots first
and then spreads to the bole region, blocking the conducting vessels. The
disease spreads from plant to plant through root to root contact and the
spread is faster in light soils compared to clayey soils. Leaves of the
outer whorl start drying in quick succession much faster than the usual
rate. These leaves, however, do not fall off and hang around the crown to
look like a leafy skirt. The drying continues and soon the entire crown
dries up. The infected plants are to be isolated by deep trenches (1m deep
and 0.5 m wide) taken around the infected palms. The entire root-zone is
drenched with 1 per cent copperoxychloride solution or 1 per cent Calixin.
iv) Root - wilt disease : In Kerala and parts of Tamil Nadu, coconut palms
are affected by the serious ‘root wilt’ disease. Affected palms present an
emaciated look with the green colour drained from leaves, which are
bent inward to like the rib cage of animals, and often the leaflets showing
dead patches at the tips and along margins (Fig. 6 gives picture of root
wilt affected palms in the background along with a high yielding one in
the foreground. The loss by reduction in yield is considerable depending
on the severity of damage inflicted by the malady. This disease is the
most dreaded disorder of coconut reported to be caused by ‘Phytoplasma’.

Fig. 6 : Heavy yielding WCT in a home stead with Root-wilt disease affected
coconut palms. Right: Root-wilt affected Tall palm

There is no cure known so far for this malady. However, the disease can be
managed, and productivity of the palm restored to a considerable extent. The
following measures may be adopted.
(a) Nutrition and irrigation are very important in restoring the health of the
palm. In addition to the normal dose of fertilizers, an additional dose of
0.5 kg Magnesium sulphate may be given to restore the green colour of
the leaves.
(b) Control leaf rot by removing infected portions of the spear leaf by treating
with systemic fungicides like Hexaconazole is needed.
(c) Plants which give less than10 nuts a year, those which are very severely
affected by the disease and those which are very old and senile, may be
272 removed from the garden.
 Coconut
4.11 HARVESTING AND STORAGE
Tall varieties of coconut come to bearing after about the 5-8 years under
good management and reaches steady bearing by 8-10 years. Poor management
may delay first bearing to eighth year and steady bearing to 15th year.
A coconut tree produces a bunch every month and harvesting is usually done
at intervals 45 days with 6-8 harvests in a year. Under good management, the
average yield will be about 60 to 80 nuts per palm under unirrigated condition
and about 100 to 120 with irrigation. The average yields are pretty higher in
the non traditional areas.
Nuts for copra making, culinary edible purposes and other social and religious
purposes, are harvested after 10-11 months of pollination and for tender
coconut, 6-8 months old nuts are harvested. The correct stage of maturity
can be judged only by experience.
Coconut is harvested manually by professional climbers. Bunches of required
maturity are cut with a sharp knife specially made for the purpose and the
bunches are allowed to fall. Nuts are separated from bunches and barren and
undersized nuts are discarded. In some states like Karnataka, mature nuts are
harvested from ground using bamboo poles fitted with a sharp knife. Some
climbing devices have been devised by Research Institutions, but they have
not become popular with the majority of coconut farmers.
Tender nuts are normally used fresh and or can be stored for a few days
before they are utilised. Harvested nuts for domestic purposes can be used
right from harvest. Nuts for copra making are either used immediately after
harvest or stored for 2-3 weeks. In big holdings, nuts are stored in godowns
till they are taken for processing. For ball copra making, fully mature nuts
are stored separately. In Kerala where coconuts are mainly converted in to
copra, small processors collect the harvested nuts dehusked and dried in the
drying yards or smoked if sun drying is not possible and the final produce is
packed in gunny bags. The copra thus prepared are transported and sold to
merchants/milling units.

4.12 MARKETING
On the marketing side, although the supply of coconut has been fairly stable
over the years, its prices have been subjected to seasonal and annual
fluctuations mainly on account of variations in demand as well as due to the
interference of middlemen in the processing chain. In Kerala, the price of
coconut is heavily dependent on the price of coconut oil. Although it provides
numerous products which are commercially significant, the demand for
coconut and the prospects of coconut cultivation are governed the coconut
oil and copra sectors.

4.13 PROCESSING
The coconut industry in India is centred mostly around coconut oil and its
products. Value addition and product diversification are being attempted only
273
Tropical Fruits on a limited scale unlike countries like The Philippines, Sri Lanka etc, though
by product utilization is in the increase. New technologies are available for
post harvest processing of coconuts. Since more than 50 per cent of the nuts
produced in India are utilized for edible, religious and industrial purposes,
there is good scope for manufacturing and marketing of many products. Details
relating to above said aspects are presented in the following paragraphs.

4.13.1 Traditional methods

Coconut is an important source of vegetable oil used for edible and industrial
applications. Many products are processed from coconut meat or kernel.
Among these, copra, coconut oil and cake are the most important traditional
coconut products.
i) Copra : The dried coconut endosperm (meat) is called copra. For the
preparation of copra, nuts are dehusked, opened and dried either in the
field or at a separate site where facilities for drying are available The
former system is practiced more by small farmers while the latter by the
larger farms and estates where shells and husks are also utilized. In India,
two forms of copra are made viz; milling copra (cup copra) and ball copra.
The former is used for extraction of coconut oil while ball copra is mostly
used in the form of a dry fruit.
ii) Milling copra: The steps involved in the production of milling copra
from which coconut oil is extracted, are seasoning of the mature harvested
nuts by heaping them and covering with coconut fronds for 2-4 weeks,
followed by dehusking, splitting and drying. Three methods of drying
are:
1) Sun drying : Split nuts are kept in the sun After 2 or 3 days of drying,
the meat is scooped out from the shell and dried again for another 4-
5 days.
2) Smoke drying : This is done when sun drying becomes difficult. The
wet kernel is dried in a kiln like structure and the product obtained is
smoked copra. There are several types of kilns in use.
3) Mechanical drying : In this method, copra is dried by clean hot air in
driers at 90°C in the initial stage followed by 60°C after 2 hours or
70°C for initial 8 hrs and 60°C for the remaining period.
4) Packing and storage : Dried copra should be properly packed and
stored in the least humid conditions. The safe moisture level is 5-6
per cent. Copra can be packed in polythene lined gunny bags. However,
storing for longer periods would cause deterioration due to absorption
of moisture and result in mouldy and insect attacked copra. Early
utilization of dried copra is always desirable
iii) Extraction of coconut oil : Traditionally, coconut oil was extracted by
country “chakku” where pieces of copra were fed into the bullock driven
extraction units. Oil recovery is poor in this type of country expellers,
Subsequently, this system was replaced by rotary method of extraction.
Majority of the traditional oil mills were equipped with this method.
274
 However, the most efficient system of extraction of oil from copra is by Coconut
the use of expellers. The oil recovery in this method is comparatively
higher than that of rotary mills and is about 65 per cent by weight of
copra.
Coconut oil is utilized as an edible as well as an industrial oil and generally
grouped as a Lauric oil in the international market. This oil is immensely
used in the food industry by virtue of its characteristics such as easy
melting behaviour, digestibility resistance to oxidative rancidity pleasing
flavour etc. It contains Vitamin E and act as an ideal energy source in
baby food.
iv) Coconut oil cake : Coconut cake is the residue left after the extraction of
oil from copra. The yield of coconut cake varies from 30-35 per cent of
the copra depending upon the method employed for extraction. It is mainly
used as cattle feed.
v) Ball copra : Conversion of mature coconut into edible ball copra is a
traditional method followed in the states of Karnataka and northern parts
of Kerala. It is made by storing 12-14 months old nuts (with husk) for
10-12 months. The coconut water insidegradually dries up when copra
gets detached from the shell. After dehusking and splitting the shell, the
copra in the form of a ball is removed and stored. This copra can be
stored for a longer period Figure 7 shows cup copra and ball copra made
by traditional method.

Fig.7 : Traditional coconut products- Cup copra and Ball copra

(Courtesy-Coconut Development Board, Cochin)

4.13.2 Product Diversification and Value Addition

A large number of food products can be prepared from coconut meat, milk,
mature coconut water, tender coconut water, coconut toddy etc. (Fig.8) They
include:
• Virgin coconut oil: The coconut oil extracted from raw and matured
coconut through wet processing method is known as Virgin Coconut Oil.
VCO is a premium grade oil with very low Free Fatty Acids (FFAs) and
curative properties.
• Desiccated coconut: This is an important commercial product used in
confectionery and has worldwide demand. After dehusking and shelling
of fully matured coconut, the outer brown testa is removed by thin shaving
(paring) and the meat is disintegrated into gratings. This is dried to a
moisture level of 3 per cent, sieved and packed. 275
Tropical Fruits • Coconut milk/ cream: ‘Coconut milk’ is the commercial term for the
processed and packed milk extracted from fresh matured coconuts. This
is an instant product which can either be used directly or diluted with
water to make various preparations such as curries, sweets, desserts,
pudding, etc.
• Spray dried coconut milk powder: This is prepared from the milk taken
from fresh meat of mature nuts. The process consists of deshelling, paring,
disintegrating, squeezing, pasteurizing and spray drying.
• Coconut jam: Coconut jam is prepared from coconut skim milk, sugar
and glucose.
• Coconut vinegar: This is a product obtained fermenting sugar fortified
coconut water with yeast Sacharomycess cervisea and acetobacter bacteria.
The process is elaborate. A quick generation process for producing quality
vinegar from matured coconut water using vinegar generators is now
available.
• Coconut water concentrate: For the production of coconut water
concentrate, fully matured coconut water is used. Coconut water is
concentrated by spray evaporation technique developed in Germany.
• Nata-de-coco: In India, a large quantity of matured coconut water is
wasted at the premises of the processing units causing environmental
problems. Nata-de-coco is a gelatinous product prepared by the action of
cellulose forming bacteria namely Acetobacte raceti subspecies xylinium.
Generally 100 litres of coconut water can yield about 30 kg of raw nata.
• Tender coconut water: Nuts at 6-8 months age is used for tender coconut
water. Tender coconut water is now available in pouches and aluminium
cans. The technology for packing of tender coconut water is developed
by the Defence Food Research Laboratory, Mysore.
• Snowball tender coconut: Eight months old nuts are used for this
purpose. In India, the Central Plantation Crops Research Institute,
Kasargode, Kerala, has developed this technology. The important steps
involved in the process are dehusking to give a round/oval shape, making
a groove in the shell and scooping out the tender kernel in ball shape.
• Coconut toddy and neera: Coconut toddy is obtained by tapping mature
unopened spadix of coconut. Tapping is the process of beating the spadix
with a mallet a few minutes daily for about a month so as to facilitate
exudation of the inflorescence sap which is usually collected in mud pots.
Before tapping every day, a thin shaving from the tip of the spadix is
removed for easy flow of sap. The fresh toddy is an invigorating drink
and is great demand. Fermented toddy on distillation yields arrack.
• Coconut jaggery: Coconut jaggery is produced from fresh toddy and
contains high sugar content of 88 per cent. Fresh toddy when boiled to
118-120°C and allowed to cool, solidifies and the solid mass is known as
coconut jaggery.

276
 Coconut

Fig. 8 : Different value added products and byproducts

from coconut tree (Courtesy-CDB,Cochin)

4.13.3 Byproducts from Coconut Tree

Besides various edible products from meat, tender nut, neera/toddy etc,
coconut tree gives a number of byproducts out of different parts of the tree,
mainly the husk which is the outer cover of the nut, its shell, timber, leaf etc.
Husk is the source of the coir and products from which are of commercial
importance. We may examine the salient features and uses of the by products.
Figure 9 gives pictures of coconut by products from shell and coir.

Fig. 9 : Handicrafts from coconut shell and coir geo-textile

(Courtesy-GDB.Cochin)
• Coir and Coir Products from Husk: Husk of mature coconut is
composed of many fibres embedded in a soft spongy tissue called pith.
The fibres are 20-30 cm long and have high tensile strength and are used
to make coir. Manufacture of coir and coir products is an important agro-
based cottage industry providing livelihood to millions and contributes a
significant share to the Country’s export earnings. India is the premier
coir producing country in the world.
• Coir Pith: It is the byproduct from husk obtained during extraction of
coconut fibre and has good demand in various horticultural activities as
it an excellent soil conditioner, rooting medium and mulching material.
It also finds uses as moisture conservative, organic manure, and for
manufacture of coir pith briquettes used as fuel etc. Coir pith can be
converted into coir pith compost employing Pleurotes (mushroom).
277
Tropical Fruits • Coconut shell products: Activated carbon, shell powder and shell
charcoal are the major products manufactured from coconut shell obtained
after separation of copra. These products are used for many industrial
and purification purposes. Handicrafts prepared from mature shell also
are in good demand in all markets.
• Other byproducts: Coconut wood is very strong and mature trees make
good building materials, furniture wall panels etc. Coconut leaf is mainly
used thatching, and for use as shading material, feed for elephants, as
fuel and preparation of brooms baskets etc.
• Coir geo-textiles: Coir nettings of various mesh prepared by weaving
coir yarn. This is a recently developed approach which can provide
protection to sloppy surfaces against soil erosion and grass turfs. These
can be used for growing vegetables on slopes up to 60°.
Activity 2: Visit coconut processing units and note harvesting and copra
making. Familiarise with the different edible products and verify their uses.
Also visit a super market and get acquainted with the value added products
and byproducts from coconut.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note : a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Give the fertilizer recommendation for hybrids and high yielding
palms grown under irrigated conditions.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
2. What is the quantity of water for irrigating coconut using drip method ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
3. Name two spice crops suited for intercropping in coconut gardens.
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
4. What are the symptoms of root wilt disease ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
278
............................................................................................................
 5. What is virgin coconut oil ? Coconut

............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
6. What is Nata-de-coco ?
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

4.14 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have studied the uses of coconut, major coconut producers in
the world and in India, soil and climatic requirements, varieties, cultivation
practices, pests and diseases and processing aspects of coconut. Coconut tree
is considered farmer friendly as it provides food and fuel while staying within
ambience of the homesteads of the medium and small farmers in the tropics.
In spite of various problems in marketing, low productivity, pest and disease
problems, the crop still continues to be the mainstay for millions of people in
the tropics particularly in India. Sustainability can be achieved by effective
utilization of technologies evolved from the different research stations by
gainful/utilization through product promotion and value addition.

4.15 KEY WORDS

Copra : Dried meat/kernel of coconut.
Intercropping : Cultivation of short duration crops along
with coconut like banana, pineapple, yams,
ginger etc.
Mixed cropping : Cultivation of long duration crops like
cocoa, nutmeg, clove and cocoa.
Spadix : Inflorescence of coconut enclosed in a boat
shaped spathe.

4.16 FURTHER REFERENCE

1. Alice, K and Peter, K.V. (2007). Commercial Crops Technology. New
India Publishing Agency, New Delhi, 500 p.
2. Child, R. (1994). Coconuts (II Edn.), Longman, London.
3. Menon, K.P.V. and Pandalai, K.M. (1960). The Coconut Palm-A
Monograph. Indian Central Coconut Committee, Kochi, Kerala.
4. Nampoothiri, K.U.K. and Singh, H.P. (2000). Trends in Coconut
Research and Development in India. Coconut Development Board,
Kochi, Kerala. 279
Tropical Fruits 5. Ohler J.G. (1984). Coconut, Tree of Life. FAO Plant Production and
Protection Paper 57, Food and Agriculture organization of the United
Nations, Rome.
6. Rethinam, P. Poduval, S. and Nandakumar T.B. (Eds). Coconut Products.
Coconut Development Board, Min. Agriculture, G.O.I., Kochi, Kerala,
India.
7. Thampan, P.K. (1996). Coconut for Prosperity. Peekay Tree Crops
Development Foundation, Kochi, Kerala.

4.17 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. India, Indonesia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Thailand, Papua New
Guinea and Fiji.
2. 7.5 m x 7.5 m.
3. Regular yielding palms of 20 years or more with an average yield of not
less than 80 nuts/year/palm.
More than 30 fully opened leaves with short, strong petioles and wide
leaf base firmly attached to the stem.
Bearing nuts of medium size and oblong shape with the husked nuts
weighing not less than 600 g.
4. The coconut fruit is a drupe with an outer thick layer pericarp, a fibrous
mesocarp with a hard shell), and a solid endosperm, kernel or meat. Both
pericarp and mesocarp together represent the coconut husk and the water
in the vacuole of the thick kernel is the liquid endosperm of the fruit.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. 1.00, 0.50, 2.00 kg N, P2O5 and K2O/palm/year.
2. 32 litres/day.
3. Ginger, turmeric.
4. Affected palms present an emaciated look with the green colour drained
from leaves, which are bent inward to like the rib cage of animals, and
often the leaflets showing dead patches at the tips and along margins.
5. The coconut oil extracted from raw and matured coconut kernel through
wet processing method.
6. Nata-de-coco is a gelatinous product prepared by the action of cellulose
forming bacteria namely Acetobacter aceti subspecies xylinium.

280