Ch-6 MENG 335

Ch-6: External Forced Convection
▪ Heat and Mass Transfer A Practical Approach by Y. A. Cengel, A. J.

Ghajar (2nd/6th Ed.)
▪ Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer by T. L. Bergman, A. S.
Lavine, F. P. Incropera (8th Ed.)
Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 1

External Forced Convection
Drag and Heat Transfer in External flow

▪ Fluid flow over solid bodies is responsible for numerous physical
phenomena such as
– Drag Force
• automobiles
• power lines
– lift force
• airplane wings
– cooling of metal or plastic sheets
▪ Free-stream Velocity → velocity of the fluid relative to an immersed
solid body sufficiently far from the body
▪ Flow Fields and geometries for most external flow problems are too complicated to be solved analytically,
and thus we have to rely on correlations based on Experimental Data
▪ In this chapter we will mostly rely on relations developed Experimentally

▪ Primary objective is to determine convection coefficients for different flow geometries

Friction and Pressure Drag
▪ Force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction is called Drag
▪ Drag is compose of:
– Pressure Drag
– Friction Drag (skin friction drag)
▪ The drag force FD depends on the

– density ρ of the fluid,
– upstream velocity V, and
– size, shape, and orientation of the body
▪ Dimensionless Drag Coefficient CD is defined as:
▪ At low Reynolds numbers, most drag is due to Friction Drag

▪ Friction Drag is also proportional to the Surface Area

Friction and Pressure Drag – contd--
▪ Pressure Drag is proportional to the Frontal Area and to the difference

between the pressures acting on the front and back of the immersed body
▪ pressure drag is usually dominant for Blunt Bodies and negligible for
Streamlined Bodies
▪ When a fluid separates from a body, it forms a separated region between
the body and the fluid stream
▪ larger the separated region, the larger the Pressure Drag
▪ Cylinders and spheres are

considered Bluff Bodies → because
at large Reynolds numbers the drag
is dominated by the pressure
losses in the Wake


Heat Transfer
▪ Phenomena that affect Drag Force also affect Heat Transfer

▪ Local Drag and Convection Coefficients vary along the surface as a result of the changes in the velocity
boundary layers in the flow direction
▪ Average Friction and Convection Coefficients for the entire surface can be determined by
▪ Local and Average Nusselt Numbers have the functional form
▪ Experimentaldata for heat transfer is often represented conveniently with reasonable accuracy by a
simple Power-law Relation of the form
m and n are constant exponents, and the value of the constant C depends
on geometryMechanical
and flow Engineering Dept. UoB 5

Heat Transfer
▪ Fluid temperature in the thermal boundary layer varies from Ts at the surface to about T∞ at the outer edge
of the boundary
▪ To account for the variation of the properties with temperature, the Fluid Properties are usually evaluated
at Film Temperature
Fluid Properties are then assumed to remain constant at those values during the entire flow

Parallel Flow Over Flat Plates

▪ Consider the parallel flow of a fluid over a flat plate of length L in the flow direction
▪ Reynolds number at a distance x from the leading edge of a flat plate is expressed as
▪ In Engineering Analysis, a generally accepted value for

the Critical Reynolds Number is:
▪ Actual value of engineering critical Reynolds # may vary

somewhat from 105 to 3 x106


Local and Average Friction Coefficient
▪ Boundary Layer Thickness and the Local Friction Coefficient at
location x over a flat plate
▪ Average Friction Coefficient

average friction coefficient for the entire plate
when the flow is Laminar over the entire plate
Average Friction Coefficient for the entire plate only when the flow is turbulent over the entire plate, or
when the laminar flow region of the plate isMechanical
too small relative to the turbulent flow region
Engineering Dept. UoB 8

Local and Average Friction Coefficient – contd--
▪ If a flat plate is sufficiently long for the flow to become turbulent, but not long enough to disregard the
laminar flow region
Constants in this relation will be different for different critical

Reynolds numbers


Heat Transfer Coefficient - Isothermal Surfaces
▪ By solving the Differential Energy Equation, Nusselt number at a location x for laminar flow over a flat plate
For Laminar Flow, hx is infinite at the leading edge (x=0)

and decreases by a factor of x 0.5 in the flow direction
hx reaches its highest values when flow becomes fully turbulent,

and then decreases by a factor of x -0.2 in the flow direction


Heat Transfer Coefficient - Isothermal Surfaces– contd--
▪ Average Nusselt number over the entire plate is:
Average Nusselt No for the entire plate when the flow is

laminar over the entire plate
Average Nusselt No for the entire plate only when the flow is turbulent over the entire plate, or when
laminar flow region of plate is too small relative to the turbulent flow region


▪ If a flat plate is sufficiently long for the flow to become turbulent,
but not long enough to disregard the laminar flow region


▪ Liquid metals such as mercury have high thermal conductivities, have very small Prandtl numbers, and
thus the thermal boundary layer develops much faster than the velocity boundary layer
▪ we can assume the velocity in the thermal boundary layer to be constant at the free
stream value and solve the energy equation:
▪ It is desirable to have a single correlation that applies to all fluids, including liquid metals
▪ Churchill and Ozoe proposed the following relation which is applicable for all Prandtl numbers and
is claimed to be accurate to ± 1%


Heat Transfer Coefficient - Uniform Heat Flux
▪ When a flat plate is subjected to uniform heat flux instead of uniform temperature, the local Nusselt
number is
These relations give values that are 36 Percent higher for laminar flow and 4 percent
higher for turbulent flow relative to the isothermal plate case


Example
The forming section of a plastics plant puts out a continuous sheet of plastic that is 4 ft wide and 0.04 in. thick at a velocity
of 30 ft/min. The temperature of the plastic sheet is 200°F when it is exposed to the surrounding air, and a 2-ft-long section
of the plastic sheet is subjected to air flow at 80°F at a velocity of 10 ft/s on both sides along its surfaces normal to the
direction of motion of the sheet, as shown in Figure.
Determine:
(a) the rate of heat transfer from the plastic sheet to air by forced convection
and radiation and
(b) the temperature of the plastic sheet at the end of the cooling section. Take
the density, specific heat, and emissivity of the plastic sheet to be 75
lbm/ft3, Cp = 0.4 Btu/lbm·°F, and ε = 0.9.


Example
Re =


Example

Flow Across Cylinders and Spheres

▪ Flow across cylinders and spheres is frequently encountered in many heat transfer systems
– shell-and-tube heat exchanger
– Pin fin heat sinks for electronic cooling
▪ Characteristic Length for a circular cylinder or sphere is taken to be the external diameter D
▪ The Critical Reynolds Number for flow across a circular cylinder or sphere is about: Recr = 2 x 105
▪ Cross-flow
over a cylinder exhibits complex flow patterns
depending on Re
▪ Atvery low upstream velocities (Re ≤ 1), fluid completely

wraps around the cylinder
▪ At higher velocities, boundary layer detaches from the

surface, forming a separation region behind the cylinder


Heat Transfer Coefficient
▪ Flows across cylinders and spheres, in general, involve flow separation,
which is difficult to handle analytically
▪ Local Nusselt Number Nuθ around the periphery of a cylinder

subjected to cross flow varies considerably
▪ Small θ: Nuθ decreases with increasing θ as a result of the thickening

of the laminar boundary layer
▪ 80º<θ <90º: Nuθ reaches a minimum

– low Re (70800 and 101300) → separation point in laminar flow
– high Re → sharp increase in Nuθ at θ = 90o is due to the transition from
laminar to turbulent flow


Heat Transfer Coefficient—contd--
▪ θ >90º laminar flow: Nuθ increases with increasing θ due to intense

mixing in separation zone
▪ 90º<θ <140º turbulent flow: Nuθ decreases again due to the thickening
of the boundary layer
▪θ ≈140º turbulent flow: Nuθ reaches a second minimum due to flow

separation point in turbulent flow


Average Heat Transfer Coefficient
▪ For flow over a cylinder (Churchill and Bernstein):
o Fluid Properties are evaluated at the Film Temperature [ Tf = 0.5 ( T∞ + Ts ) ]

▪ Flow over a sphere (Whitaker):
valid for 3.5 ≤ Re ≤ 80,000 and 0.7 ≤ Pr ≤ 380
o Fluid properties are to be evaluated at the Free-stream Temperature T∞,

o except for μs, which is evaluated at the surface temperature Ts
▪ A more compact correlation for flow across cylinders:
where n = 1/3 and the experimentally determined

constants C and m are given in Table 7-1.
o All fluid properties are evaluated at the film temp.

o Relations are for smooth surfaces and for single
cylinders or cylinders oriented such that the flow over
them is not affected by the presence of others

Example Flow Across Cylinders and Spheres

Consider a person who is trying to keep cool on a hot summer day by turning a fan
on and exposing his entire body to air flow. The air temperature is 85 °F and the fan
is blowing air at a velocity of 6 ft/s. If the person is doing light work and generating
sensible heat at a rate of 300 Btu/h, determine the average temperature of the outer
surface (skin or clothing) of the person. The average human body can be treated as a
1-ft diameter cylinder with an exposed surface area of 18 ft2. Disregard any heat
transfer by radiation. What would your answer be if the air velocity were doubled?



Example
A 25-cm-diameter stainless steel ball (ρ = 8055 kg/m3, cp = 480 J/kg⋅K) is removed
from the oven at a uniform temperature of 300 °C. The ball is then subjected to
the flow of air at 1 atm pressure and 25°C with a velocity of 3 m/s. The surface
temperature of the ball eventually drops to 200°C. Determine the average
convection heat transfer coefficient during this cooling process, and estimate
how long the process will take.


Example
A 25-cm-diameter stainless steel ball (ρ = 8055 kg/m3, cp = 480 J/kg⋅K) is removed
from the oven at a uniform temperature of 300 °C. The ball is then subjected to
the flow of air at 1 atm pressure and 25°C with a velocity of 3 m/s. The surface
temperature of the ball eventually drops to 200°C. Determine the average
convection heat transfer coefficient during this cooling process, and estimate
how long the process will take.

Flow Across Tube Bank

▪ Cross-flow over tube banks is commonly encountered in practice in heat transfer equipment such as heat
exchangers (such as Condensers and Evaporators of Power Plants, Refrigerators, and Air Conditioners)
▪ One fluid moves through the tubes while the other moves
over the tubes in a perpendicular direction
▪ Flow through the tubes can be analyzed by considering

flow through a single tube, and multiplying the results by
the number of tubes
▪ For flow over the tubes affect the flow pattern and
turbulence level downstream, and thus heat transfer to or
from them are altered


▪ Typical arrangement
o in-line
o staggered
▪ Outer Tube Diameter D is the Characteristic Length
▪ Arrangement of the tubes are characterized by:
o Transverse pitch ST
o longitudinal pitch SL
o Diagonal pitch SD
▪ As fluid enters the tube bank, Flow Area decreases from

A1 = ST L to AT = ( ST – D )L between tubes, and thus flow velocity increases
▪ InTube Banks, flow characteristics are dominated by the Maximum

Velocity Vmax, that occurs within the tube bank rather than the Approach
Velocity V


▪ Reynolds number is defined on the basis of maximum velocity Vmax as:
▪ For In-line Arrangement, maximum velocity occurs at minimum flow

area between the tubes:
ρ V A1 = ρ Vmax AT
⇒
VST = Vmax ( ST − D)
▪ For In staggered arrangement :
o Fluid approaching through area A1 passes through area AT and
then through area 2 AD as it wraps around the pipe in the next row
o If 2AD > AT → maximum velocity still occurs at AT between the tubes:
⇒ for SD > (ST + D ) / 2 :


▪ For In staggered arrangement :
if 2AD < AT [or, if 2( SD − D) < ( ST − D) ] → maximum velocity occurs at the
diagonal cross sections → maximum velocity in this case becomes
for SD < ( ST + D ) / 2 :
▪ Nature of flow around a tube in the First Row resembles flow over a single tube
▪ Nature of flow around a tube in the Second and subsequent rows is very different
▪ Level of turbulence, and thus the Heat Transfer Coefficient, increases with Row Number
▪ There is no significant change in turbulence level after the first few rows, and thus the heat transfer
coefficient remains constant
▪ Zukauskas has proposed correlations whose general form is:
where values of constants C, m, and n depend on Reynolds number
▪ Av.Nu-relations in Table 7–2 are for

tube banks with 16 or more rows
▪ Relations can also be used for tube

banks with NL < 16 provided that they
are modified as:
F is a correction factor, whose values

are given in Table 7–3

▪ Once Nu and thus h for the entire tube bank is known, Q can be determined from Newton’s law of cooling
using a suitable temperature difference ΔT
o Fluid may experience a large change in temperature as it moves through the tube bank → heat transfer
rate could be signiﬁcantly overpredicted by using Ts – T∞ as the temperature difference
o As the ﬂuid moves through the bank, its temperature approaches Ts and ∆T decreases.
▪ Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference ΔTln defined as:


▪ Exit Temperature of the fluid Te can be determined:
Where; As = NπDL is Heat Transfer Surface Area
= Mass Flow Rate of the fluid

N = total number of tubes in the bank
NT = Number of tubes in a transverse plane
L = length of the tubes
V = Velocity of the fluid just before entering the tube bank
▪ Then the Heat Transfer Rate can be determined from:


Example
Air is to be cooled in the evaporator section of a refrigerator by passing it over a
bank of 0.8-cm-outer-diameter and 0.4-m-long tubes inside which the refrigerant
is evaporating at -20 ºC. Air approaches the tube bank in the normal direction at
0ºC and 1 atm with a mean velocity of 4 m/s. The tubes are arranged in-line with
longitudinal and transverse pitches of SL = ST = 1.5 cm. There are 30 rows in the
flow direction with 15 tubes in each row. Determine:
(a) Refrigeration capacity of this system
(b) Pressure Drop across the tube bank.


Example


Example

Steady State Heat Conduction
Practice Problems:
Book: Yunus Cengel 2nd Ed.
▪ Problems: 7-1 to 7-7, 7-10, 7-11c to 7-16, 7-20, 7-21, 7-22, 7-24, 7-26, 7-27, 7-31, 7-35C, 7-
39, 7-40, 7-44, 7-46, 7-49, 7-50E, 7-52, 7-55, 7-60, 7-62C to 7-64, 7-69, 7-70,
▪ All Problems/derivations which were solved in the class

Ch-6 MENG 335

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Ch-6: External Forced Convection

▪ Heat and Mass Transfer A Practical Approach by Y. A. Cengel, A. J.

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 1

Drag and Heat Transfer in External flow

▪ In this chapter we will mostly rely on relations developed Experimentally

Drag and Heat Transfer in External flow

▪ The drag force FD depends on the

▪ At low Reynolds numbers, most drag is due to Friction Drag

Drag and Heat Transfer in External flow

▪ Pressure Drag is proportional to the Frontal Area and to the difference

▪ Cylinders and spheres are

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 4

Drag and Heat Transfer in External flow

▪ Phenomena that affect Drag Force also affect Heat Transfer

▪ Local and Average Nusselt Numbers have the functional form

Drag and Heat Transfer in External flow

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 6

Parallel Flow Over Flat Plates

▪ In Engineering Analysis, a generally accepted value for

▪ Actual value of engineering critical Reynolds # may vary

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 7

Parallel Flow Over Flat Plates

▪ Average Friction Coefficient

Parallel Flow Over Flat Plates

Constants in this relation will be different for different critical

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 9

Parallel Flow Over Flat Plates

For Laminar Flow, hx is infinite at the leading edge (x=0)

hx reaches its highest values when flow becomes fully turbulent,

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 10

Parallel Flow Over Flat Plates

▪ Average Nusselt number over the entire plate is:

Average Nusselt No for the entire plate when the flow is

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 11

Parallel Flow Over Flat Plates

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 12

Parallel Flow Over Flat Plates

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 13

Parallel Flow Over Flat Plates

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 14

Parallel Flow Over Flat Plates

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 15

Parallel Flow Over Flat Plates

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 16

Parallel Flow Over Flat Plates

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 17

Flow Across Cylinders and Spheres

▪ Atvery low upstream velocities (Re ≤ 1), fluid completely

▪ At higher velocities, boundary layer detaches from the

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 18

Flow Across Cylinders and Spheres

▪ Local Nusselt Number Nuθ around the periphery of a cylinder

▪ Small θ: Nuθ decreases with increasing θ as a result of the thickening

▪ 80º<θ <90º: Nuθ reaches a minimum

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 19

Flow Across Cylinders and Spheres

▪ θ >90º laminar flow: Nuθ increases with increasing θ due to intense

▪θ ≈140º turbulent flow: Nuθ reaches a second minimum due to flow

Mechanical Engineering Dept. UoB 20

Flow Across Cylinders and Spheres

▪ For flow over a cylinder (Churchill and Bernstein):

o Fluid Properties are evaluated at the Film Temperature [ Tf = 0.5 ( T∞ + Ts ) ]

valid for 3.5 ≤ Re ≤ 80,000 and 0.7 ≤ Pr ≤ 380

o Fluid properties are to be evaluated at the Free-stream Temperature T∞,