Himalayan Geology, Vol. 43 (1B), 2022, pp.

262-280, Printed in India

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Geochemistry and Ar- Ar age of mafic dykes of Sor Valley in Pithoragarh,
Kumaun Lesser Himalaya, India: Evidence for late Neoproterozoic
continental rifting during Rodinia breakup
LAXMAN SINGH1, GAJENDER KUMAR1, RAJEEV UPADHYAY1*, HARSHITA JOSHI2, DEEPAK PANT2
1
Department of Geology, Kumaun University, Nainital - 263002, India
2
LSMGPG College, Kumaun University, Pithoragarh - 242502, India
*Email (Corresponding author): rajeev_up@yahoo.com

Abstract: The Pithoragarh Mafic Dykes (PMDs) are intruded into the Proterozoic formations of Sor Valley of Kumaun
Lesser Himalaya are characterized by sub alkaline nature, positive anomalies for HFSEs, and negative anomalies for LILEs,
high Ti contents (up to 2.54 wt.%), and inclined REEs patterns, showing oceanic island basaltic nature. The La/Sm (1.78-
2.34) and Sm/Yb (2.09-3.26) ratios coupled with high TiO2 wt.% for PMDs possess a high degree of partial melting of
40 39
garnet-lherzolite at a deeper level. The Ar- Ar plateau age indicates that PMDs were emplaced at 644.7±2.4 Ma
(MSWD=0.14). Petrological and geochemical characteristics suggest that the studied mafic dykes were formed noticeably
in different tectonomagmatic environments than other western Lesser Himalayan mafic dykes. Conversely, the La/Ba,
La/Nb, and Nb/Yb ratios suggest the geochemical signature of an extensional regime similar to Neoproterozoic (~650 Ma)
mafic dykes of Ygntze block, South China. This study suggests that the PMDs were formed in a rift-related tectonic setting
and magmatism related to the breakup of the Rodinia supercontinent feeded the northern margin of the Indian subcontinent
up to ~650 Ma during the Neoproterozoic Period.
Keywords: Mafic Dykes, western Lesser Himalaya, Neoproterozoic, Rodinia breakup

INTRODUCTION Almora have been found to be geochemically similar to mafic

dykes of Nainital, but are dissimilar to Precambrian dykes and
Mafic dykes, and sills are widely recognized in all continents.
mafic volcanic flow of Northwest Himalaya and dykes of
They attract the petrologists because they provide a window to
Salma and Rajmahal areas (Singh & Kumar 2010). The age of
the mantle, and associated continental break-up or crustal
mafic dykes, intruding the Krol and Tal formations of Nainital
extension and rifting during which large quantities of mafic
town have been estimated ca 51 Ma (Sinha & Bagdasarian
magma are formed (Halls & Fahrin 1987; Ernst et al. 1995;
1976; Kumar et al. 2008). Geochemically, Bhimtal, and
Ernst & Buchan 1997). The mafic dykes originated in various
Berinag volcanics are similar (Bhat & Ahmad 1987; Pandey &
tectonic environments (e.g. Glazner et al. 1999; Callot &
Kumar 2006). The whole-rock Sm-Nd age of Garhwal and
Geoffrey 2004; Peng et al. 2008). Apart from the geodynamic
Bhowali mafic volcanics (2.51±0.08 Ga and an initial
evolution, the systematic study of mafic bodies is important to
eNd=5.1±0.5 suggests that they were formed at the Archean-
understand mantle heterogeneity. Subduction-related mafic-
Proterozoic boundary from the mantle source (Bhat et al.
ultramafic rocks produced by hydrous melting of mantle
1998). Petrochronologically, these rocks are similar to
wedge (Tatsumi 1989; Elliot et al. 1997; Hawkesworth et al.
Rampur-Mandi volcanics. Apart from other regions of Lesser
1997; Turner et al. 1997), in contrast to this, rift-related mafic
Himalaya, very limited geochemical and petrological
dykes are linked to asthenospheric upwelling and deep mantle
information is available on the mafic magmatic rock of the
plumes (Ernst et al. 2001; Ziegler & Cloetingh 2004; Pirajno
Tejam Group of Lesser Himalaya. The present study aims to
2007). Evaluation of the ages of dykes, sills, and igneous flows
describe petrological and geochemical characteristics of
helps in understanding their chronology, concerning
mafic rocks of Sor valley (Pithoragarh). This study also aims
stratigraphy and provides time restraints on processes
to determine the geochronology of mafic dykes from the
involved in basin development. Petrogenetic modeling can be
Tejam group and compare them with other mafic dykes of
applied to find a suitable mantle connection for the gradient
western Lesser Himalaya to understand the pre-himalayan
mafic dyke swarms. Hence the study of these mafic bodies can
magmatic evolution in this region.
provide important information to understand their
geodynamic evolution and the evolution of asthenospheric
STUDY AREA AND GEOLOGY
and lithospheric mantle, mantle upwelling, plume magmatism
along with their role in the continental break-up process of any The Kumaun Himalaya is named after the Kumaun region of
area. Such mafic bodies (dykes, sills, and lava flows) extend Uttarakhand and consists of the four principal tectonic zones
from Pirpanjal, Mandi, Darla, Zanskar Bhowali, Askot, to of Himalaya (Fig.1a). From North to South these are Tethys
Bageswar in the West, and the Abor volcanism in the East in Himalaya, the Higher Himalaya, the Lesser Himalaya, and the
Lesser Himalaya (e.g., Ahmad & Bhat 1987; Ahmad & Tarney Outer-Himalaya or Shivalik (Ahmad et al. 1980). The Higher
1991; Bhat & Le Fort 1992; Bhat et al.1994, Kumar et al. Himalayan zone underlies the Phanerozoic sequence of the
2008; Singh & Kumar 2010). These mafic bodies exhibit Tethys Himalaya and consists of Precambrian crystalline
tholeiite characteristics in which dyke sheets are considerably rocks. The Lesser Himalaya predominantly contains
more Fe-enriched as compared to lava flows (Ahmad & Precambrian and Cambrian rocks and the Shivalik zone
Tarney 1991). In Kumaun Lesser Himalaya, mafic dykes of consists of Tertiary and Quaternary deposits. The Shivalik

262
Fig. 1. (a) Lithotectonic subdivisions of the Himalaya (Gansser 1964) (b) Geological map of the study area.

263
zone is bounded by the Himalayan Frontal Fault (HFF) in the
South which separates it from the Indo-Gangetic plains. In its
northern part lies Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) which
separates the Shivalik zone from the Lesser Himalayas.
Further north, Main Central Thrust (MCT) separates the
Lesser Himalaya from the Higher Himalaya. The Lesser
Himalaya is divided into two extensive sedimentary basins
namely the outer Krol basin in the South and the inner Deoban
basin in the north (Thakur 1987). Here, the North Almora
Thrust (NAT) separates the Deoban basin into two halves in
the Kumaun region. The volcanic rocks showing concordant
contact to the country rocks and mafic lava flows suggest
contemporaneous emplacement in Lesser Himalaya (Valdiya
1962; Varadarajan 1974).
The area of the present study lies in the Pithoragarh town
which is also known as Sor Valley of the Kumaun Lesser
Himalaya. This valley is bounded by two major thrusts with
NAT in the Southern part and Berinag Thrust (BT) in the
Northern part (Fig. 1b). A number of active faults and thrusts
also cut across the Sor valley making this area neotectonically
active. The rocks of the Tejam Group consist of the Deoban
(Gangolihat) and Mandhali (Sor and Thalkedar) formations
(Oldham 1883). The Deoban Formation is dominantly made
up of dolomite, characterized by the branching stromatolites
of middle to lower Upper Riphean age (Misra & Valdiya
1961). This formation imperceptibly grades upward into the
pyritous carbonaceous slates, marls, and calcitic marbles of
the Mandhali Formation. Locally, there are lenticular bands of
intraformational conglomerate at the base of the succession.
These carbonaceous slates have yielded acritarchs indicating
an age between Vendian and Cambrian (Valdiya 1969).
Overall, the Tejam Group consists of mafic rocks which are
less metamorphosed as compared to other groups in Lesser
Himalaya. Most of these mafic rocks are metamorphosed into
amphibolites, epidiorite, and chlorite schist (Valdiya 1980).
FIELD OBSERVATIONS
Detailed fieldwork has been carried out in and around Sor
Valley, Pithoragarh. About twenty mafic bodies were
identified. The locations of these bodies have been plotted on
the geological map (Fig. 1b) and summarized in table 1. These
bodies are 5-20 meters thick with a restricted extension along
the strike and mainly intruded in the argillaceous and
calcareous formations of the Tejam Group (Fig. 2a and b).
Most of the dykes are of dark green to grey colour (Fig. 2c).
However, at a few outcrops, they are red in colour (Fig. 2d).
Profuse iron leaching is cause of the reddish surface of these
dykes. At a few places, the PMDs show black to grey outcrop
(Fig. 2f). The contact between these mafic dykes/sills and
country rocks is sharp (Fig. 2a, b, and d). In pockets, the
country rock is warped due to intrusion of these mafic dykes.
At several places, the baked effect is observed at the contact
zone. The coarsening of grain size is observed from rim to core
of the dykes, corresponding to undercooling of dyke magma at
contact. Low-grade metamorphism and foliations are also
documented at a few places. Highly jointed and broken
unequal fragments (Fig.2c) of the dykes have also been
documented.
METHODOLOGY
The methodology adopted for present work includes field
study followed by laboratory studies for petrological and

Table 1. Sample locations, description, host rock and field features of Pithoragarh mafic dykes (PMDs).

S.No. Sample Location Rock type Host Rock Field features

1 M1 E 80.20676, Medium grained greenish-grey Slate Staining and weathering present, Not traceable,
N 29.58189, El.1585m Dolerite Sharp contact with the host rock
2 G1 E 80.18699, Coarse to medium grained dark Thinly Staining and weathering present, Trending N020°,
N 29.54895, El.1335m green Dolerite bedded Sharp contact with the host rock
Limestone
3 J1 E 80.1688, Fine to medium grained Thinly Staining and weathering present, Not traceable,
N 29.55494, El.1566m greenish-grey Dolerite bedded Sharp contact with the host rock
Limestone
4 C1 E 80.19959, Medium grained greenish-grey Slate Staining and weathering present, Trending N290°,
N 29.59655, El.1753m Dolerite Sharp contact with the host rock
5 DD1 E 80.20241, Medium grained greenish-grey Mud Staining and weathering present at the surface, Not
N 29.56631, El.1567m Dolerite traceable, Contact not visible
6 DD2 E 80.19566, Medium grained greenish-grey Thinly No staining and weathering present, Trending
N 29.54293, El.1440m Dolerite bedded N010°, Sharp contact with the host rock
Limestone
7 DD3 E 80.19739, Medium grained greenish-grey Thinly Staining and weathering present, Trending N010°,
N 29.5438, El.1446m Dolerite bedded Sharp contact with the host rock
Limestone
8 DD4 E 80.19738, Medium grained greenish-grey Thinly Staining and weathering present, Not traceable,
N 29.5464, El.1487m Dolerite bedded Sharp contact with the host rock
Limestone
9 CD2 E 80.19199, Medium grained greenish-grey Slate Staining and weathering present, Not traceable,
N 29.59827, El.1880m Dolerite Sharp contact with the host rock
10 CD3 E 80.19285, Medium grained greenish-grey Slate Staining and weathering present, Sharp contact with
N 29.59914, El.1879m Dolerite the host rock, Not traceable
11 CD4 E 80.19286, Medium grained greenish-grey Slate Staining and weathering present, Sharp contact with
N 29.59741, El.1831m Dolerite the host rock, Not traceable

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 Fig. 2. (a), (b) and (d) Contact of host rock limestone and dolerite dyke. (c) and (e) Outcrops of dolerite dykes.
geochemical analyses of the mafic rocks present in the study
area. The thin-sections were prepared and petrographic
features at various resolutions were documented using the
Nicola clips (e400 pol) polarizing microscope attached with
Q-image display system at thin-section and microscopic
laboratory of Department of Geology, CAS, Kumaun
University, Nainital. The microphotographs were taken using
the digital camera attached to this microscope. The detailed
petrography which includes significant textural petrogenetic
features is discussed in the forthcoming section. The major
and trace element analyses were carried out through Spectro
XEPOS XRF spectrometer (AMETEK) by the Turboquant-
powders method. For this analysis, the standard multichannel
analyzer calibration sample from Fluxana was used. For
preparing sample, 8 gm of dried rock was powdered, of which
4 gm was used for geochemical analysis. Rare Earth Element
(REE) analysis was done using the ICPMS technique at Wadia
265
Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun, Uttarakhand. REE
concentrations were analyzed using a Perkin-Elmer SCIEX
EL AN DRC-e In ducti vely Coupl ed Plasma Mass
Spectrometer (ICPMS) at WIHG, Dehradun, India. The
analytical procedure of Khanna et al. (2009) was adopted. The
open-system digestion method was used for the analysis.
Approximately 0.1 gm of powdered sample was mixed with
20 ml of HF+HNO3 (2:1 ratio) and ∼2 ml of HClO4 in Teflon
crucibles. Then the crucibles were heated over a hot plate until
the samples were fully digested and dried to form a paste,
followed by the addition of 20 ml of 10% HNO3 to each
sample which was left on a hot plate for 10-15 m in until a clear
solution was obtained. The clear solution was made up to 100
ml final volume with milli-Q water. BHVO-1 and JB-1a are
used as reference standards. The accuracy of trace elements
ranges from 2% to 12% and precision varies from 1% to 8%.
 Plagioclase samples from the whole rock were separated
40 39
for Ar- Ar dating following the standard procedure using
heavy liquid. Rock chips of about 20-25g were cut from the
rock sample taking care to avoid veins and weathered part. The
chips were crushed in a brass mortar-pestle and coarse grained
phenocrysts were hand-picked. These were then crushed in a
ceramic mortar-pestle and seived. Heavy liquid separation
(sodium polytungstate-water solution of appropriate density,
2.56) was carried out on 120-180 micron fraction, to separate
plagioclase. Plagioclase grains were separated and thoroughly
cleaned by deionised water in ultrasonic bath. After cleaning,
the samples were heated in oven to drive away moisture.
About 0.2 g of minerals were separated and packed in
aluminum capsules along with MMHb-1 monitor sample
(523.1 ± 2.6 Ma, Renne et al. 1998), along with highly pure
CaF2 and K2SO4 salts. The aluminum capsules were put in a
0.5 mm thick cadmium cylinder and sent for irradiation. The
variance influence within the reactor can be somewhat high
thus high purity nickel wires (99.9% pure) were incorporated
in samples and monitor capsules to determine neutron fluence
variation. The sample was irradiated for 100 hours. The
irradiated sample was repacked in aluminium foil and loaded
on the extraction unit of a Thermo Fisher Scientific noble gas
preparation system. Argon was extracted in a series of steps up
◦
to 1400 C in an electrically heated ultrahigh vacuum furnace.
After purification using Ti–Zr getters, the argon released in
each step was measured with a Thermo Fisher mass
spectrometer (equipped with five Faraday cups fitted with
40 39
1011 resistors) located at the National Facility for Ar/ Ar
Geo-thermochronology in the Department of Earth Sciences,
IIT, Bombay, India.
PETROGRAPHY
The mafic bodies from Sor valley are fine to coarse-grained
and show intergranular, ophitic to subophitic textures. They
are holocrystalline and mainly composed of cpx-hbl-pl-mag-
ap-zr assemblage (symbols are used after Kretz 1983). The
observed differential grain size of minerals from core to rim

Fig. 3. (a) shows Chloritization and epitodization of amphibole and Saussuritization of plagioclase (b) showing saussuritization of plagioclase and frilled and
feathery edges of hornblende (c) coarsed grained altered pyroxene and saussurized plagioclase (d) showing alteration of pyroxene into zoisite and
chlorite (e) shows ophitic texture of pyroxene and plagioclase and accessory mineral magnetite (f) shows frilled and feathery edges of hornblende and
alteration of pyroxene and plagioclase. Abbrevation used Pl-Plagioclase, Prx-Pyroxene, Hbl-Hornblende, Bt- Biotite, Act- Actinolite, Mag- Magnetite,
Chl- Chlorite, Ep- Epidote, Spn- Sphene, Qz- Quartz and Zo-Zoisite (Whitney & Evans 2010).

266
may be due to the gravity-independent thermal gradient
developed across the mafic dykes. Plagioclases(An50-60) are
randomly oriented and associated with pyroxene (Fig. 3a, b, c,
e). Normal zoning in plagioclase suggests disequilibrium
during magma crystallization. Pyroxene is showing yellow,
pale yellow, bluish-green, and brown pleochroism (Fig. 3a, c,
d, f). The documented sector zoning in clinopyroxene (Fig. 3c,
d) has developed due to the differential growth rate of crystal
faces, at high-P in the absence of co-precipitation of anorthitic
plagioclase (Hollister & Gancarz 1971). A few plagioclase
crystals are partially or fully embedded in pyroxene showing
ophitic to subophitic texture (Fig. 3c, f). At places, the core of
amphiboles occupied by pyroxenes correspond to resorption
texture (Fig. 3f) which may have occurred due to changing
water pressure with progressive crystallization. Hornblende is
showing frilled and feathery edges of actinolites (Fig. 3b, f).
Table 2. Whole-rock major oxides (wt.%), trace and REE elements (ppm) concentration for representative Pithoragarh mafic
dykes (PMDs) and average of other western Lesser Himalayan mafic dykes.
267
Chloritization of pyroxene and amphibole at marginal area
also observed (Fig. 3a, d). Opaque minerals (magnetite) are
present as accessory phases (Fig. 3a, b, c, e). The secondary
minerals namely zoisite, chlorite, and epidote are also present
(Fig. 3a, d). The alteration of plagioclase is common and is
manifested by the presence of zoisite, chlorite, amphibole, and
carbonates (Fig. 3d, f). Secondary quartz is prominent and is
formed by post-magmatic tectonic activity.
RESULTS
Geochemistry
Total ten samples were selected for whole-rock geochemistry
from Sor valley. The fresh samples were selected basically
from the core of the dykes to avoid the contamination of host
rock and post magmatic alteration effect. The obtained major
Contd/...
oxides, trace elements, and REE of all samples are
summarised in table 2. The obtained geochemical results of
PMDs are compared with other mafic dykes from western
Lesser Himalaya i.e., (i) Nainital mafic dykes (NMDs;
Kumar et al. 2008), which are intruded in Krol-Tal formation
in Nainital region between Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and
South Almora Thrust (SAT) (Valdiya 1969) (ii) Almora Mafic
Dyke (AMDs; Joshi et al. 2016; Singh & Kumar 2010),
situated between SAT and North Almora Thrust (NAT) and
(iii) Garhwal mafic dykes (GMDs; Ahmad et al. 1999;
Ahmad & Tarney 1990), lie between NAT and MCT (Kumar
& Aggarwal 1975).
Post Crystallization Alteration Effects on Whole Rock
Geochemistry
Alterations like saussuritization, epidotization, silicification,
Fig. 4. (a) Na2O/K2O versus Na2O+K2O binary diagram (Miyashiro 1975), (b) CaO/Al2O3-MgO/10-SiO2/100 ternary plot (Schweitzer & Kroner 1985) for the
PMDs (filled squares) of Lesser Himalaya (see the text for explanation).
268
and chloritization are broadly documented from the
petrography of PMDs. Such alteration effects occur purely as a
response to progressive low-grade regional metamorphism
(Condie et al.1977). the observed post-magmatic alteration
may have mobilized some of the elements. Before any
geochemical interpretation of representative geochemical
data, it is necessary to identify the effect of post-crystallization
alteration processes on the whole-rock chemistry. Alkali
elements are primarily affected by alteration. To elucidate the
nature and the extent of alteration on these alkali elements, the
PMDs samples were plotted in the Na 2O/K 2 O versus
Na2O+K2O diagram (Fig. 4a) and CaO/Al2O3–MgO/10-
SiO2/100 ternary diagram (Fig. 4b). It is evident from these
diagrams that all the PMDs samples spread over the unaltered
field. However, a slight increase in the values of Na2O may be
attributed to the albitization or spilitisation process which
might be responsible for the replacement of Ca by Na to a Geochemical Characteristics
varying degree. The consistent variations of the majority of the
Based on CIPW normative classification, the composition of
major and trace elements denote the present rocks have
the PMDs and AMDs samples exhibits range from olivine to
preserved much of their primary igneous chemistry. Large ion
quartz normative, whereas the NMDs and GMDs samples
lithophile elements (LILE) such as Ba, Rb, Sr except for Th
show quartz normative nature (Table 2). The observed slightly
generally show mobile nature during secondary alteration
high Mg number for Ol normative samples for PMDs and
effects (Cann 1970; Pearce et al. 1973; Condie & Sinha 1996).
AMDs strengthens the fractionation of olivine in the dykes.
The Rb/Sr ratio is highly susceptible to the post magmatic
The observed moderate SiO2 wt.% (45.16-49.10 wt.%) and
alteration effect. The Rb/Sr ratio is very low (0.007) in the
low alkalies (Na2O+K2O = 2.87-5.01 wt.%) for PMDs further
least altered basaltic rocks and observed very high (8) in
strengthen their sub-alkaline nature (Fig. 5a). Their normative
highly altered mafic rocks (Lafleche et al. 1992). The PMDs
orthoclase (1.30-6.08) and Ilmenite (0.36-0.49) are very low
samples have lower ratios of Rb/Sr (0.04-0.13). The observed
in PMDs, corresponding to their sub-alkaline nature. NMDs
Rb/Sr ratio for other western Lesser Himalayan mafic dykes is
and AMDs exhibit moderate SiO2 [Avg. 48.96 wt.% (n=5) and
consistent with the least altered mafic rock. Thus, the observed
44.82 wt.% (n=7); respectively] and high alkalies [Avg. 4.2
geochemical features for all western Lesser Himalayan mafic
wt.% (n=5) and 3.86 wt.% (n=7); respectively] (Table 2)
dykes, indicate that the secondary processes have not altered
correspond to alkaline basalt (Fig. 5a). However, GMDs have
primary concentrations of LILEs. In addition, normalized
a wide range of SiO2 (46-66 wt. %) and alkalies (Na2O+K2O=
REE and multielement patterns (Fig. 8) are regular and
3.16-6.06 wt. %) and are spread over a large area in the TAS
consistent suggesting that these incompatible trace element
diagram (Fig. 5a). Overall a limited range of major oxides has
abundances and their ratios appear to reflect primary
been shown individually for PMDs, NMDs, and AMDs. In
magmatic characteristics. Based on the above observations it
contrast to this, GMDs show relatively large variation in their
can be inferred that most of the studied mafic dykes show their
major oxides (Table 2). The AFM plot suggests tholeiitic
primary igneous signatures and can be performed to evaluate
nature for all mafic dyke samples (Fig. 5b). To discriminate the
their petrogenetic inferences.
Fe and Mg tholeiite the Al-Fe+Ti-Mg cation triangle (after

Fig. 5. (a) Total Alkali-Silica (TAS) classification diagram (Le Maitre 2002) for the classification of the mafic dykes from western Kumaun Lesser Himalaya,
(b) AFM diagram (Irvine & Baragar 1971) used for various mafic dykes of western Lesser Himalaya (c) Jensen's cation plot (Jensen 1976) plotted to
discriminate Fe- and Mg-tholeiite basalt.

269
Jensen 1976) diagram has been plotted (Fig. 5c). In this
diagram, PMDs exhibit the transition between Mg-tholeiite
and Fe-tholeiite fields (Fig. 5c). However, NMDs, AMDs and
GMDs exhibit affinity towards the Fe-tholeiite. The
classification plot of Al2O3/(CaO+Na2O+K2O) vs. Al2O3/
(Na2O+K2O) (Shand 1943) suggests metaluminous nature for
all of these dykes (Fig not shown). The Harker variation
diagram for major and minor oxides was plotted against MgO
(Figs. 6, 7) for a meaningful geological inference. SiO2 wt. %
show a negative correlation with MgO wt.%. for all of mafic
dykes (Fig. 6), whereas in other variation diagrams each group
of dykes plot separately and show their own course of
evolutionary trend (Fig. 6). The MgO wt.% vs CaO, TiO2, and
Fig. 6. Harker variation diagrams for various mafic dykes of western Lesser Himalaya showing major oxides variation against MgO.
270
P2O5 wt.% diagrams show meaningful results. The GMDs and
NMDs have low MgO and exhibit a positive correlation
between MgO and CaO; however, PMDs and AMDs are
relatively rich in MgO wt.% and possess a negative correlation
with CaO wt. %. GMDs bear lowest TiO2 [Avg=1.61 wt.%
(n=5) and 1.71 wt.% (n=11)] and P2O5 [Avg. 0.2 wt.% (n=5)
and 0.2 wt.% (n=11)] and show a curvilinear and negative
crystallization trend against the MgO wt.%., respectively.
AMDs possess a negative trend between MgO and TiO2 and
P2O5 wt.% is positively related to MgO wt.%. The PMDs
define a negative trend for both TiO2 and P2O5 wt.%, however,
the NMDs exhibit a positive and negative trend for both,
respectively. The mafic dykes bear a positive relation between
MgO and Cr while they exhibit a negative correlation between
MgO and Sr, Ba, and Rb which deny the postmagmatic
geochemical alteration of the selected samples (Fig. 7; Table
2). The high-field strength elements (HFSEs; Nb, Ce, Y, Lu,
Nd) are supposed to be least affected by post magmatic
thermal process (Floyd & Winchester 1978; Winchester &
Floyd 1977) and they can be used to unravel the geochemical
processes. PMDs follow a distinct crystallization trend in
MgO wt.% against trace elements and HFSEs (Fig. 7), in
comparision to other mafic dykes of western Lesser Himalaya.
However, they are positively correlated with TiO2 wt.%
corresponding to differentiation of host magma (fractionation
of olivine and pyroxene) through crystallization (Table 2). All
Fig. 7. Harker variation diagrams for various mafic dykes of western Lesser Himalaya showing trace element variation against MgO.
271
these observations clearly indicate that all four sets of mafic
dyke samples are derived from different mantle melts.
Primitive mantle normalized multi-elements spidergram
(Fig. 8a) and rare earth element (REE) pattern (Fig. 8b) are
also plotted for studied PMDs and all other western Lesser
Himalayan dykes along with the N-MORB, E-MORB, and
OIB of Sun & McDonough 1989. All studied samples show an
enriched concentration of trace and REE elements as
compared to the primitive mantle and chondrite composition.
The PMDs show distinct characteristics in the multielement
and REE diagram. They exhibit positive Rb, Hf, Nd, Nb, Ti,
and Y anomalies and negative Rb, Sr anomalies. All studied

Fig. 8. (a) Primitive mantle normalized (Sun & McDonough 1989)
spidergram plotted for mafic dykes of western Lesser Himalaya, (b)
Primitive mantle normalized (Sun & McDonough 1989) REE plots
for mafic dykes of western Lesser Himalaya.
PMDs samples follow the same trend in multi-elements and
REE diagram only G1 is seen following a different trend. The
primitive mantle normalized LaN/SmN ratio (1.12 to 1.38;
Avg.=1.27; G1=1.43) for PMDs suggests an enriched LREE
N N
pattern. The Gd /Lu ratio varies from 1.94-2.67 (Avg.=2.34;
N N
except G1=3.05), and La /Lu ratio is between 2.69 to 4.62
(Avg.=3.72; G1=5.71) and shows slightly positive to negative
Eu* anomalies (Eu/Eu*=0.91-1.04; G1=0.74). The REE and
multi element spidergram pattern for PMDs present a similar
variation trend that varies between E-MORB and OIB;
whereas the G1 follows the typical OIB trend (Fig. 8a, b).
40 39
Ar/ Ar Geochronology
One not/least altered mafic dyke sample (DD-3) has been
40 39
selected for Ar- Ar age determination. The results from
40 39
Ar- Ar step-heating dating with plateau, isochron, and
inverse isochron ages are summarised in table 3. The obtained
40 39
Ar- Ar ages were calculated with 2σ uncertainties. The
272
selected mafic dyke sample yielded a 26-step plateau
39
constituting 58.2 percent of the Ar release and age of
644.7±2.4 Ma (MSWD=0.14) (Fig. 9a). The obtained
isochron (645±4.0 Ma) and inverse isochron (644.9±3.2 Ma)
ages are statistically identical to their plateau ages (Fig. 9a, b,
40 39
c). The obtained Ar -Ar ages for PMDs are considerably
younger than their paleomagnetic ages (~1000 Ma; Kumar et
al. 2016).
DISCUSSION
There are three main concerns related to the petrogenesis of
the Pithoragarh mafic dykes (PMDs):
1. What is the relationship of the PMDs with other Lesser
Himalayan dykes: are the dykes derived independently
from similar sources or they were derived from different
sources in different periods?
2. To what extent have the magmas been affected by crustal
contamination? Or are the geochemical characteristics
observed as a feature of their mantle source?
3. Which tectono-magmatic conditions are associated with
the Pithoragarh mafic dykes?
Crustal Contamination
Crustal contamination plays an important role while
discussing the petrogenesis of any mafic igneous rocks. It is
believed that mafic dykes are often the least contaminated
except for dyke margins (Ahmad & Tarney 1991; Tarney &
Jones 1994; Srivastava 2012). However, there is always a
possibility of crustal contamination in dykes either en-route or
emplacement level. The role and extent of crustal
contamination can be easily documented by the geochemical
properties of the mafic dykes. The possibility of post
magmatic alteration for western Lesser Himalayan mafic
dykes has already been discussed in the earlier section. The
mafic magmas that have been affected by the crustal
contamination or subduction tectonics should show LREE
enrichment but flat HREE patterns (Cullers et al. 1981). PMDs
showing identical trace elements variation and REE diagrams
(LaN/SmN=1.14-1.48; GdN/LuN=1.94-3.05; Table 2; Fig. 8),
possess least or no crustal contamination. A few samples from
NMDs and AMDs are inconsistent with normal patterns (Fig.
8a, b) that might have been caused by crustal contamination.
The GMDs exhibit a wide range of trace and REE patterns
consistent with crustal contamination. A further change of
mafic to andesitic in the composition of GMDs (SiO2= 46.63-
66.30 wt.%; MgO= 2.0-8.05 wt.%; Table 2) suggests crustal
contamination related modification to the host magma
(Rudnick & Gao 2003; Ernst 2014; Srivastava et al. 2018).
Crustal contamination primarily causes the depletion of Nb,
87 86
Ta, Zr anomalies, and a high Sr /Sr ratio with positive Sr
anomalies (Srivastava & Singh 2004; Zhao & Zhou 2008; Cai
et al. 2010). The multi-elements diagram (Fig. 8a) for PMDs
show positive and negative anomalies for Nb and Sr
respectively which is inconsistent with crustal contamination.
87 86
Further the low Sr /Sr ratio (0.7051; Kumar et al. 2016) for
PMDs also suggests the least possibility of crustal
Table 3. Plagioclase apparent Age and percentage of nucleogenic and radiogenic argon age for sample DD-3. Errors on age
are without and (with) error on J respectively. Errors quoted are 2σ. J=0.0025398± 0.000012.

contamination. In contrast, the NMDs possess negative Nb,
87 86
Zr, and positive Sr anomalies with a high Sr /Sr ratio
(0.7071-0.7112); corresponding to crustal contamination.
AMDs and GMDs show distinct Nb, Ta, Zr, and Sr anomalies
suggesting variable contamination through the crust. Further,
87 86
the Sr /Sr rat io shows a wide ran ge for AM Ds
87 86
(Sr /Sr =0.7039-0.7084) suggesting the possibility of crustal
contamination. It is believed that crustal rocks are enriched in
LILEs and LRREs and depleted in HFSEs. Thus the ratios of
Ti/Y, Ba/Nb, La/Yb, La/Sm, Ba/Zr, Zr/Y, and Nb/Y can be a
useful tool to evaluate the possibility of crustal contamination
(Rollinson 1993). Ti/Y vs Ba/Nb were plotted to examine the
possibility of crustal contamination (Fig. 10), which suggests
that PMDs samples plot in the mantle array field. They are

273
Fig. 9. (a) 40Ar/39Ar plateau spectra, (b) isochrons, and (c) inverse isochrons for dolerite dyke of Sore valley, Pithoragarh (Sample=DD-3). The values of MSWD
(mean square weighted deviate) and probability (p) are also shown in the figure.
confined between the enriched mantle and the OIB field.
These observations together suggest no crustal contamination
for PMDs. The NMDs and AMDs show high Ti values (>4
wt.%; Table 2) and have an affinity with OIB. The high Ba/Nb
values for NMDs and AMDs are consistent with crustal input
to these dykes. The GMDs samples spread between the
average lower crust and mantle derivatives; suggesting a
variable degree of crustal contamination to the melt. In
summary, the geochemical properties of PMDs samples do not
support any crustal contamination. Whereas the NMDs,
AMDs, and GMDs show variably crustal input in their
geochemical properties.
Source Characterisation and Partial Melting
Partial melting of any of the crustal and lower crustal rocks
produces highly siliceous magmas (Hirajima et al. 1990; Yang
et al. 1993; Zhang et al. 1994; Kato et al. 1997; Gao et al.
1998a,b; Rapp et al. 2003). The mafic dykes could have been
formed by the partial melting either from a lithospheric or
from an asthenospheric mantle source. PMDs have low SiO2
(45.16–49.10 wt.%) and high MgO (5.67-10.51 wt.%)
suggesting derivation from an ultramafic mantle source rather
than from the crust. The magmas derived from the lithospheric
mantle are commonly characterized by low TiO2 wt.% and
274
enrichment of LREE and LILE and depletion of Nb and Ta
(e.g., Zhao et al. 2010; Zhu et al. 2011). However, mafic
magmas derived from the asthenospheric mantle show
comparatively high TiO2, enriched LILEs and HFSEs, and
have trace element patterns similar to oceanic island basalts
(e.g., Lightfoot et al. 1993; Ewart et al. 1998; Peng et al. 2007;
Zhang et al. 2007). The TiO2 from PMDs varies from 1.5 to
2.54 wt.% (avg. ~2 wt.%) showing a transition between
EMORB and OIB (Sun & McDonough 1989). Commonly,
lavas from back-arc settings can show arc-like geochemical
features like low Nb, Ti, and Fe concentrations, high water
contents, and high Ba/La ratios, whereas MORB-like end
members show the opposite features (Taylor & Martinez
2003). PMDs show the features resembling MORB (Table 2).
Their La/Nb and La/Ba values (0.66-2.74 and 0.12-6.38;
respectively) further corroborates their derivation from the
asthenosphere mantle (Table 2). Furthermore, the Sr /Sr
87 86
ratios slightly higher than mantle source indicate that these
rocks originated from partial melting of an EMI type
asthenospheric mantle source rather than a lithospheric mantle
source (Stracke et al. 2003). The NMDs have slightly higher
SiO2 (48.45-51.03 wt.%) and lower MgO (5.62-8.07 wt.%)
and higher Sr87/Sr86 corresponding to EMII type mantle source.
The AMDs have a wide range of SiO2 wt.% and MgO wt.%
(Table 2) and Sr87/Sr86 ratio suggesting primordial mantle to
enriched mantle sources. The GMDs show the largest
variation in SiO2 wt.% and MgO wt.% suggesting a highly
enriched mantle source that underwent crustal contamination.
Thus, Mafic dykes of the western Lesser Himalaya clearly
suggest that samples of PMDs, AMDs, NMDs, and GMDs
have distinct genetic histories and are derived from different
mantle magmas. This is well corroborated by the observed
variation in the Harkers variation diagram (Figs. 6, 7), trace
element, and REE patterns (Fig. 8).
It is established that the gradient of REE patterns of any
suite of rocks is useful in understanding the degree of melting
conditions; slightly fractionated (inclined) REE patterns show
low percentage melting of a mantle source, whereas flat REE
patterns may produce by a higher percentage of mantle
melting (Cullers & Graf 1984; Srivastava et al. 2010; Davis et
al. 2011). The studied PMDs have La/Sm, Sm/Yb, and Ti/Y
ratios consistent with derivation by partial melting of a garnet-
lherzolite. We have plotted La vs. La/Sm and Sm vs. Sm/Yb
(Fig. 11a, b) to estimate the degree of partial melting of the
source rock. The studied PMDs, AMDs, and NMDs samples
suggest their derivation from the garnet-lherzolite source. The
high Ti/Y ratio (488-1056; 491-1823; 932-1599; respectively)
and Al2O3 wt.% (Table 2) further confirm the presence of
garnet in the source at a deeper level (Johnson 1998). The REE
distribution suggests garnet-lherzolite to garnet-spinal source
for GMDs. The large variation of the Ti/Y ratio (240-1200)
corroborated with their variable source. Furthermore, the
NMDs and AMDs were derived from relatively low degrees of
partial melting (3–8% and 1-5%; respectively) of the garnet-
lherzolite mantle; whereas the PMDs originated from 10-25%
partial melting of garnet-lherzolite source (Fig. 11a, b).
Relatively high degrees of partial melting for PMDs are also
consistent by their high MgO, Cr, and Ni contents (Table 2).
The GMDs were originated by 5-10% partial melting of
Fig. 10. Ti/Y vs. Ba/Zr variation diagrams for the mafic dykes of western Lesser Himalaya.
275
garnet-lherzolite and 1-5% partial melting of garnet-spinel
sources (Fig. 11). Thus based on the above discussion it is
clear that the PMDs are petrogenetically also distinct from all
other mafic dykes reported from western Lesser Himalayas
and derived from garnet-lherzolite mantle source.
Regional Correlation and Tectonic Implications
Based on the above discussion, the mafic dykes in this study
and previous studies have distinct geochemical features. This
suggests that these dykes were evolved from distinct sources
or different degrees of melting (Fig. 11). The studied PMDs
were intruded into the metamorphosed amphibolite facies
schists and dolomitic limestone and they show chilled margins
with the grain size increasing from the margins towards the
central parts of the dykes. It is clear that the intrusion post
dates regional metamorphism of the country rocks. It is a
consequence of a post-metamorphic extensional event that is
highly unlike to be of Himalayan (Tertiary) age as there is no
evidence of any extensional event strong enough to tap the
mantle during the Himalayan orogeny. This theory is further
strengthened through the obtained Ar-Ar whole-rock ages of
650 Ma for PMDs (Table 3; Fig. 9). During the early
Neoproterozoic (950-650 Ma) the Rodinia supercontinent
experienced contemporaneous marginal arc-related and
intracontinental rift-related magmatism (e.g., Li et et al.
2008a,b; Bogdanova et al. 2009). The pieces of evidence of
this period are widely preserved in northern India, Africa, and
southern China. The Neoproterozoic rift-related history in the
Lesser Himalaya can be subdivided into (i) Tonian 850-730
Ma, (ii) Cryogenian 699- 635 Ma, and (iii) Ediacaran 635-541
Ma (Hofmann et al. 2011; Bhargava et al. 2021). The Tonian
events are in good agreement with the other north Indian and
worldwide occurred early Neoproterozoic rift-related
episodic plume events that happened at ca. 825 Ma, ca. 780
Ma, and ca. 750 Ma (Gregory et al. 2009; Kumar &
Vallinayagam 2014; Webb et al. 2011; Zao et al. 2018 and
references therein). However, the studied 650 Ma PMDs are
younger than the Tonian and equal to the Cryogenian event
(750-600 Ma) which is related to the main superplume-related
breakup of Rodinia (Hoffman 1999; Cawood et al. 2007; Li et
al. 2008a,b). This age of PMDs is almost equal to the detrital
zircon ages (~670 Ma) reported from Balani formation (Webb
et al. 2011, Bhargava et al. 2021). Neoproterozoic
stratigraphic sequences and available geochronological data
(detrital zircon ages) for sedimentary rocks in the Lesser
Himalaya of northwestern India and the Yangtze block (South
China) reveal remarkable similarities (Hoffman et al. 2011;
Martin et al. 2017; Jiang et al. 2003). These pieces of evidence
suggest that India and South China were close to each other
and along the same passive margin during the breakup of
Rodinia in the Late Neoproterozoic (Hoffman et al. 2011). The
geochemical features of PMDs compared with ~650 Ma
plume-related mafic dykes from the Yangtze block of South
China (after Zhu et al. 2014). The initial Sr87/Sr86 ratio of PMDs
87 86
(0.705) is equal to South China mafic dykes (Sr /Sr = 0.704-
0.707), corresponding to enriched mantle source. The
obtained La/Ba and La/Nb and TiO2 wt.% for PMDs are high
(Table 2) and are distinct from other Lesser Himalayan mafic
dykes. When we plot La/Ba against La/Nb ratio, the PMDs
samples distinctly spreads over the OIB and asthenosphere
field and have an affinity towards the mafic dykes in the South
Qinling and the northern Yangtze blocks of South China (Fig.
12a). As stated earlier, the TiO2/Yb and Nb/Yb diagram also
explains that PMDs formed through the plume-related process
at a deeper level and are equal to South China mafic dykes, and
the composition of mantle progressively changes from
enriched (OIB) to enriched (MORB) composition (Fig. 12b).
OIB has higher Ti/Yb ratios than MORB reflecting deeper
melting resulting from a combination of a thicker lithospheric
cap and hotter mantle temperatures for PMDs and South China

Fig. 11. (a) Plots of La/Sm vs. La and (b) Sm/Yb vs. Sm showing melt curves (or lines) obtained using the non-modal batch melting equations of Shaw (1970).
Melt curves are drawn for spinel-lherzolite (with mode and melt mode of ol 0.530 + opx 0.270 + cpx 0.170 + sp 0.030 and ol 0.060 + opx 0.280 + cpx 0.670
+ sp 0.110; respectively; Kinzler 1997) and for garnet-lherzolite (with mode and melt mode of ol 0.600 + opx 0.200 + cpx 0.100 + gt 0.100 and ol 0.030 +
opx 0.160 + cpx 0.880 + gt 0.090; respectively; Walter 1998). Mineral/matrix partition coefficients and DMM are from the compilation of McKenzie &
O'Nions (1991, 1995); primitive mantle, N-MORB and E-MORB compositions are from Sun & McDonough (1989).

276
Fig. 12. (a) La/Ba versus La/Nb diagram and (b) 11 Nb/Y versus TiO2/Yb diagram (Pearce 2008). This diagram also shows petrogenetic modeling (Pearce 2005,
2008).
mafic dykes. The data for GMDs (~1800 Ma; Ahmad et al.
1999 & Ahmad et al. 2008) spreads over the EMORB fields
except for a few samples (spread over OIB) corresponding to
the shallow level melting of enriched mantle sources (Fig. 12).
This observation is consistent with Ahmad et al. (1999) and
Ahmad et al. (2008). However, the NMDs and AMDs show
affinity towards the alkaline OIB. These observations
corroborated with the earlier results and point out that the
PMDs have a different petrogenetic history than other western
Lesser Himalayan mafic dykes and they could not be related in
space and time.
The Proto-Tethys Ocean has opened between 750 and 650
Ma and started to separate South China, North China, Alex
Qaidam, and Tarim blocks from Australia and India (Zhang et
al. 2012; Li et al. 2013 and references therein). However, the
geochemical signatures and age of mafic dykes of South China
corroborate with those of PMDs. This profuse similarity
suggests that PMDs and Yangtze block mafic dykes of ~650
Ma are coeval and cogenetic. They were formed from similar
magma present within a similar tectonic environment i.e. rift-
related tectonic setting. Thus based on the above discussion, it
is clear that the magmatism related to the Rodinia breakup
feed the Indian continent up to 650 Ma.
CONCLUSION
We compiled field features, microscopic evidence, whole-
rock geochemistry, and geochronology of the Neoproterozoic
PMDs from Kumaun Lesser Himalaya and compared them
with other western Lesser Himalayan mafic dykes. Based on
obtained results and discussion we conclude the following
points.
The field and petrographic observations suggest that these
mafic bodies have been emplaced before the occurrence of
major tectonic activities in the Himalayas.
They were generated from the garnet-lherzolite source at a
deeper level and have geochemical features that vary
277
between enriched OIB to enriched MORB.
The geochemical observations also indicate that PMDs
were formed in a different tectono-magmatic environment
from other western Lesser Himalayan mafic dykes.
These dykes are coeval and cogenetic to the Neoproterozoic
mafic dykes of the Yangtze block from southern China.
These features together suggest that the magmatism related
to the breakup of the Rodinia supercontinent lasted for ~650
Ma in the Indian subcontinent.
Acknowledgements: The authors are highly grateful to Late Padma
Bhushan Prof. K.S. Valdiya for his guidance in the preliminary
fieldwork and fruitful discussions. LS is also thankful to the Council
of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) for providing fellowship
for this research work. G.K. is grateful to CSIR-UGC for providing
the stipend (Student ID 202850) for research work. We are obliged to
Prof. Kanchan Pande, IIT, Bombay for dating our rock sample age.
We are thankful to the Directors of Indian Institute of Geomagnetism,
Mumbai (IIGM), Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology (WIHG),
and Head of the Department of Geology, DSB Campus, Kumaun
University for providing the necessary facilities. Dr. N. Basavaiah
(IIGM) and Dr. A.K. Singh (WIHG) are acknowledged for their help
in geochemical data generation. The suggestions were given by the
anonymous reviewer and Dr. J. Perumal greatly helped to improve
this manuscript.
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