Unit 4 - IT Infrastructure and Emerging Technologies (08)

IT Infrastructure,
Infrastructure Components,
Contemporary Hardware Platform Trends,
Contemporary Software Platform Trends,
Management Issues

What is IT infrastructure?

IT infrastructure refers to the collection of hardware, software, networks, and

services that are required to support the computing needs of an organization. It
includes all the physical and virtual components that make up the organization's IT
system, such as servers, storage devices, routers, switches, firewalls, operating
systems, databases, applications, and cloud services.
The IT infrastructure provides the foundation for an organization's information
technology systems and is critical for the efficient and effective operation of the
business. It enables employees to access information, communicate with one
another, and perform their job functions using various devices, from desktop
computers to mobile phones.
Maintaining a reliable and secure IT infrastructure is essential for organizations of
all sizes and industries. This requires a combination of proper planning, design,
implementation, and ongoing management and maintenance to ensure the
infrastructure meets the needs of the organization and remains secure and available
at all times.

Overview

Information technology (IT) infrastructure are the components required to operate

and manage enterprise IT environments. IT infrastructure can be deployed within a
cloud computing system, or within an organization's own facilities.
These components include hardware, software, networking components, an
operating system (OS), and data storage, all of which are used to deliver IT
services and solutions. IT infrastructure products are available as downloadable
software applications that run on top of existing IT resources—like
software-defined storage—or as online solutions offered by service providers—like
Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS).
What are the components of IT infrastructure?

IT infrastructure consists of several components, including:

1. Hardware: This includes all physical components such as servers, storage

devices, desktop computers, laptops, printers, and other peripheral devices.
2. Software: This includes all software applications that run on the
infrastructure, such as operating systems, databases, enterprise resource
planning (ERP) systems, customer relationship management (CRM)
systems, and other business applications.
3. Networks: This includes all the physical and logical components that allow
devices to communicate with one another, such as routers, switches,
firewalls, and cabling.
4. Cloud services: This includes all the cloud-based services such as
infrastructure as a service (IaaS), platform as a service (PaaS), and software
as a service (SaaS).
5. Security: This includes all the measures that protect the infrastructure from
cyber threats, such as firewalls, intrusion detection and prevention systems
(IDPS), antivirus software, and security policies and procedures.
6. Data centers: This includes the physical facilities that house the
infrastructure, such as server rooms and data centers, and the associated
power and cooling systems.
7. IT staff: This includes the personnel responsible for managing and
maintaining the infrastructure, including system administrators, network
engineers, and security professionals.

Hardware
Hardware includes servers, datacenters, personal computers, routers, switches, and
other equipment.
The facilities that house, cool, and power a datacenter could also be included as
part of the infrastructure.
Software
Software refers to the applications used by the business, such as web servers,
content management systems, and the OS—like Linux®. The OS is responsible for
managing system resources and hardware, and makes the connections between all
of your software and the physical resources that do the work.
Networking
Interconnected network components enable network operations, management, and
communication between internal and external systems. The network consists of
internet connectivity, network enablement, firewalls and security, as well as
hardware like routers, switches, and cables.

Types of IT infrastructure

Traditional infrastructure
With a traditional infrastructure, the components—like datacenters, data storage,
and other equipment—are all managed and owned by the business within their own
facilities. Traditional infrastructure is often thought of as expensive to run and
requires large amounts of hardware, like servers, as well as power and physical
space.
Cloud infrastructure
Cloud infrastructure describes the components and resources needed for cloud
computing. You can create a private cloud by building it yourself using resources
dedicated solely to you. Or you can use a public cloud by renting cloud
infrastructure from a cloud provider like Alibaba, Amazon, Google, IBM, or
Microsoft. And by incorporating some degree of workload portability,
orchestration, and management across multiple clouds you can create a hybrid
cloud.
Hyper Converged infrastructure
Hyperconverged infrastructure allows you to manage your compute, network, and
data storage resources from a single interface. With software-defined compute and
data storage bundled together, you can support more modern workloads with
scalable architectures on industry-standard hardware.

IT infrastructure management

IT infrastructure management is the coordination of IT resources, systems,

platforms, people, and environments. Here are some of the most common
technology infrastructure management types:
● OS management: Oversees environments running the same OS by
providing content, patch, provisioning, and subscription management.
 ● Cloud management: Gives cloud admins control over everything running in
a cloud—end users, data, applications, and services—by managing resource
deployments, use, integration, and disaster recovery.
● Virtualization management: Interfaces with virtual environments and the
underlying physical hardware to simplify resource administration, enhance
data analyses, and streamline operations.
● IT operations management: Also known as business process management,
this is the practice of modeling, analyzing, and optimizing business
processes that are often repeated, ongoing, or predictable.
● IT automation: Creates repeatable instructions and processes to replace or
reduce human interaction with IT systems. Also known as infrastructure
automation.
● Container orchestration: Automates the deployment, management, scaling,
and networking of containers.
● Configuration management: Maintains computer systems, servers, and
software in a desired, consistent state.
● API management: Distributes, controls, and analyzes the application
programming interfaces (APIs) that connect apps and data across enterprises
and clouds.
● Risk management: Identifies and assesses risks and creates plans to
minimize or control those risks and their potential impacts.
● Data management: Gathers, stores, and uses data, allowing organizations to
know what data they have, where it is located, who owns it, who can see it,
and how it is accessed.

Contemporary Hardware Platform Trends:

Some of the current hardware platform trends include:

1. Mobile Devices: Mobile devices, such as smartphones and tablets, are

becoming increasingly popular as they offer a high level of flexibility and
convenience. These devices are becoming more powerful with each
generation, and many people use them as their primary computing device.
2. Internet of Things (IoT): The Internet of Things is a network of
interconnected devices, sensors, and machines that can communicate with
each other. IoT devices are becoming increasingly popular in homes, offices,
and factories, and they are being used to collect data and automate tasks.
 3. Cloud Computing: Cloud computing has become a popular way to store and
access data. It offers a number of benefits, including increased flexibility,
scalability, and cost-effectiveness.
4. Artificial Intelligence (AI): AI is being used in a wide range of applications,
from voice assistants to self-driving cars. It requires high-performance
hardware platforms, such as GPUs and specialized AI chips, to process large
amounts of data and make complex decisions.
5. Edge Computing: Edge computing involves processing data on devices
located closer to the source of the data, rather than transmitting it to a central
location. This can help reduce latency and improve efficiency in applications
such as IoT and autonomous vehicles.
6. Quantum Computing: Quantum computing is a new type of computing that
uses quantum-mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and
entanglement, to perform calculations. While still in its early stages,
quantum computing has the potential to revolutionize fields such as
cryptography, machine learning, and drug discovery.
7. Wearable Technology: Wearable technology, such as smartwatches and
fitness trackers, is becoming more popular as people look for ways to
monitor their health and stay connected on the go. These devices require
low-power hardware platforms and sophisticated sensors to capture and
process data.
Contemporary Hardware Platform Trends
While the cost of computing has fallen, IT infrastructure expenditures have grown
due to the rising cost of computing services, software, and the increase in intensity
and sophistication of computing.

Telecommunications and computing platforms have converged: at the client level,

with the merging of PDAs and cell phones, and at the server and network level,
with the rise of Internet telephony.

Grid computing utilizes the idle computational resources of separate,

geographically remote computers to create a single virtual supercomputer. In this
process, a server computer breaks data and applications into discrete chunks that
are parceled out to the grid's machines. Grid computing offers increased cost
savings, computational speed and agility.

On-demand computing, or utility computing, refers to firms off-loading peak

demand for computing power to remote, large-scale data processing centers. This
allows firms to reduce their investment in IT infrastructure by investing in only as
much computing power as needed on average and paying for additional power on
an as-needed basis. This arrangement offers firms much greater agility and
flexibility in their infrastructure.

Autonomic computing is an industry-wide effort to develop systems that can

configure, optimize, repair, and protect themselves against intruders and viruses, in
an effort to free system administrators from routine system management, reduce
costly system crashes. Today's virus software with automatic virus updates is one
example of autonomic computing.

Edge computing is a multi-tier, load-balancing scheme for Web-based applications

in which parts of the Web site content and processing are performed by smaller,
less expensive servers located near the computer. In an edge computing platform
client requests are initially processed by the edge servers, which may deliver static
presentation content, reusable code, while database and business logic components
are delivered by the enterprise servers.

Figure 5-11
FIGURE 5-11 EDGE COMPUTING PLATFORM
Edge computing involves the use of the Internet to balance the processing
load of enterprise platforms across the client and edge computing platform.

As companies deploy hundreds or thousands of servers, many have discovered that

they are spending more on electricity to power and cool their systems than they did
on acquiring the hardware. Power consumption can be lowered through
virtualization and multicore processors.
● Virtualization is the process of presenting a set of computing resources
(such as computing power or data storage) so that they can all be accessed in
ways that are not restricted by physical configuration or geographic location.
Server virtualization enables companies to run more than one operating
system at the same time on a single machine. Most servers run at just 10 to
15 percent of capacity, and virtualization can boost server utilization rates to
70 percent or higher.

● A multicore processor is an integrated circuit that contains two or more

processors. This technology enables two or more processing engines with
reduced power requirements and heat dissipation to perform tasks faster than
a resource-hungry chip with a single processing core.
Contemporary Software Platform Trends:

Some of the current software platform trends include:

1. Cloud-based Services: Cloud-based services are becoming more prevalent as

businesses and individuals move away from traditional software and storage
solutions. These services provide access to software and data from any
device with an internet connection, offering greater flexibility and
scalability.
2. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML): AI and ML are
being integrated into many software platforms, enabling businesses to
automate processes, personalize experiences, and make more informed
decisions based on data analysis.
3. Low-code/No-code Platforms: Low-code and no-code platforms are
becoming increasingly popular as businesses look for ways to develop and
deploy software more quickly and efficiently. These platforms require little
 to no coding expertise and allow users to drag-and-drop components to
create applications.
4. Open Source Software: Open source software is becoming more widely
adopted as businesses and individuals seek cost-effective solutions that offer
greater transparency, flexibility, and community support.
5. DevOps and Agile Development: DevOps and Agile development
methodologies are becoming more popular as businesses seek to streamline
the development process and deliver software more quickly and reliably.
6. Microservices: Microservices architecture involves breaking down software
applications into smaller, modular components that can be developed and
deployed independently. This approach allows for greater flexibility,
scalability, and resilience.
7. Blockchain: Blockchain technology is being integrated into a growing
number of software platforms, providing secure, transparent, and
decentralized solutions for a range of industries, from finance to healthcare.
8. Virtual and Augmented Reality: Virtual and augmented reality technologies
are being used to enhance user experiences in a range of industries,
including gaming, healthcare, and education. These platforms require
specialized software development expertise to create immersive and
interactive experiences.

Software Platform Trends and Emerging Technologies

There are five major themes in contemporary software platform evolution:
1. Linux and open-source software
2. Java
3. Enterprise software
4. Web services and service-oriented architecture
5. Software outsourcing
Open-source software is software produced by a community of several hundred
thousands of programmers around the world, and is available free of charge to be
modified by users, with minimal restrictions. The premise that open-source
software is superior to commercial software is based on the ability of thousands of
programmers modifying and improving the software at a much faster rate. In return
for their work, programmers receive prestige and access to a network of other
programmers, and additional for-pay work opportunities. The process of improving
open source software is monitored by self-organized, professional programming
communities. Thousands of open-source programs, ranging from operating systems
to office suites, are available from hundreds of Web sites.
Linux, an operating system related to Unix, is one of the most well-known
open-source software, and is the world's fastest growing client and server operating
system, along with related Linux applications. The rise of open-source software,
particularly Linux and the applications it supports, has profound implications for
corporate software platforms: cost reduction, reliability and resilience, and
integration, because Linux works on all the major hardware platforms from
mainframes to servers to clients. Because of its reliability, low cost, and integration
features, Linux has the potential to break Microsoft's monopoly of the desktop.

Java, an operating system-independent, object-oriented programming language,

has become the leading programming environment for the Web, and its use has
migrated into cellular phones, cars, music players, and more.

For each of the computing environments in which Java is used, Sun has created a
Java Virtual Machine that interprets Java programming code for that machine. In
this manner, the code is written once and can be used on any machine for which
there exists a Java Virtual Machine. A Macintosh PC, an IBM PC running
Windows, a Sun server running Unix, and even a smart cellular phone or personal
digital assistant can share the same Java application.

Java is typically used to create small Web programs called applets, but is also a
very robust language designed to handle text, data, graphics, sound, and video.
Java enables PC users to manipulate data on networked systems using Web
browsers, reducing the need to write specialized software. A Web browser is an
easy-to-use software tool with a graphical user interface for displaying Web pages
and for accessing the Web and other Internet resources.

Software for enterprise integration is one of the most urgent software priorities
today for U.S. firms who need to integrate existing legacy software with newer
technology. Replacing isolated systems that cannot communicate with enterprise
software is one solution; however, many companies cannot simply jettison
essential legacy mainframe applications. Some integration can be achieved by
middleware, software that creates an interface or bridge between two different
systems. Firms increasingly purchase enterprise application integration (EAI)
software that enables multiple systems to exchange data through a single software
hub.

Figure 5-12
FIGURE 5-12 ENTERPRISE APPLICATION INTEGRATION (EAI)
SOFTWARE VERSUS TRADITIONAL INTEGRATION
EAI software (a) uses special middleware that creates a common platform
with which all applications can freely communicate with each other. EAI
requires much less programming than traditional point-to-point integration
(b).

Web services, loosely coupled software components that use Web communication
standards, can exchange information between different systems regardless of
operating system of programming language. Web services technology is founded
on Extensible Markup Language (XML). XML was developed as a more
powerful markup language than Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), a page
description language specifying how content appears on Web pages. By marking
data with XML tags, computers can interpret, manipulate, and exchange data from
different systems.

Web services communicate through XML messages over standard Web protocols,
such as:
● SOAP (Simple Object Access Protocol) is a set of rules for structuring
messages that enables applications to pass data and instructions to one
another.

● WSDL (Web Services Description Language) is a common framework for

describing the tasks performed by a Web service and the commands and data
it will accept so that it can be used by other applications.
 ● UDDI (Universal Description, Discovery, and Integration) enables a Web
service to be listed in a directory of Web services so that it can be easily
located.

Using these protocols, a software application can connect freely to other

applications without custom programming for each different application with
which it wants to communicate. The collection of Web services used to build a
firm's software systems constitutes a service-oriented architecture (SOA). SOA
is an entirely new way of developing software for a firm. In the past, separate
applications were written for different divisions and tasks and could not
communicate with each other. In an SOA environment, a single application can be
used and reused as a "service" that can be used by other services. For example, an
"invoice service" can be written that is the only program in the firm responsible to
calculating invoice information and reports. Virtually all major software vendors
provide tools and entire platforms for building and integrating software
applications using Web services.

Figure 5-13
FIGURE 5-13 HOW DOLLAR RENT A CAR USES WEB SERVICES
Dollar Rent A Car uses Web services to provide a standard intermediate
layer of software to “talk” to other companies’ information systems. Dollar
Rent A Car can use this set of Web services to link to other companies’
information systems without having to build a separate link to each firm’s
systems.

Other software trends include:

● Ajax (Asynchronouse JavaScript and XML): Ajax, and a related set of
techniques called RIA ("rich Internet applications") use JavaScript or
Macromedia Flash programs downloaded to your client to maintain a near
continuous conversation with the server you are using. While making the life
of consumers much easier, Ajax and RIA are even more important for
another new software development: Web-based applications.

● Web-based applications: Software firms are delivering software services

over the Web to client computers and their customer's sites. Google's Google
Apps for Your Domain is a Web-based suite of productivity tools, including
online spreadsheet, word processing, and calendars, aimed at small
businesses.

● Mashups: Part of a movement called Web 2.0, and in the spirit of musical
mashups, Web mashups combine the capabilities of two or more online
applications to create a kind of hybrid that provides more customer value
than the original sources alone. For example, housingmaps.com can display
real estate listings in local areas from Craigslist.com overlaid on Google
Maps, with pushpins showing the location of each listing. The result of these
techniques is that instead of the Web being a collection of pages, it becomes
a collection of capabilities, a platform where thousands of programmers can
create new services quickly and inexpensively.

Web 2.0 refers to "the new Web applications" like those above and is also the
name of an annual conference. Web 2.0 can be described also as an expression of
all the changes above, plus changes in the way people and business use the Web
and think about human interaction on the Web. These changes include seeing the
Web applications as services, not packaged software, seeing users as
co-developers, harnessing collective intelligence, and lightweight user interfaces,
development models, and business models.

Although traditionally businesses developed unique software themselves, today

most new software is purchased from external sources. There are three external
sources for software:
● Commercial software packages
● Software services from an application service provider (ASP)
● Outsourcing application development to an outside software firm
Figure 5-14
FIGURE 5-14 THE CHANGING SOURCES OF SOFTWARE
U.S. firms will spend nearly $340 billion on software in 2006. Over
30 percent of that software will come from outsourcing its
development and operation to outside firms, and another 15 percent
will come from purchasing the service from application service
providers either on the Web or through traditional channels.
Sources: Authors estimates; Bureau of Economic Analysis, 2006; IT
Spending and Trends, eMarketer, 2004; IT Spending and Trends,
eMarketer, 2005; SEC 10K statements, various firms.

A commercial software package is a prewritten set of software

programs for certain functions, eliminating the need for a firm to write
its own software program. Enterprise systems are so complex that few
corporations have the expertise to develop these in house and instead
rely on enterprise software packages from vendors such as SAP and
PeopleSoft.

An application service provider (ASP) is a business that delivers and

manages applications and computer services from remote computer
centers to multiple users using the Internet or a private network. The
software is paid for typically on a per-user, subscription, or
per-transaction basis. Renting enterprise software avoids the expense
and difficulty of installing, operating, and maintaining the hardware
and software needed for complex systems.

Large and medium-sized businesses are using ASPs for enterprise

systems, sales force automation, or financial management, and small
businesses are using them for functions such as invoicing, tax
calculations, electronic calendars, and accounting. Application service
providers also enable small and medium-sized companies to use
applications that they otherwise could not afford.

In outsourcing, a firm contracts custom software development or

maintenance to outside firms, frequently firms operating in low-wage
areas of the world. With the growing sophistication and experience of
offshore firms, more and more new-program development is
outsourced.
Management Issues

Some of the key management issues that organizations face include:

1. Leadership: Leadership is critical to the success of any organization.

Effective leaders must be able to inspire, motivate, and guide their teams to
achieve common goals, while also balancing the needs and interests of
various stakeholders.
2. Communication: Effective communication is essential to ensure that
everyone in the organization is aligned and working toward the same goals.
Communication breakdowns can lead to misunderstandings, delays, and
conflicts.
3. Talent Management: Managing talent is critical to the success of any
organization. It involves identifying, hiring, developing, and retaining
employees who have the necessary skills and competencies to help the
organization achieve its goals.
4. Change Management: Change is inevitable in any organization, and effective
change management is critical to ensure that changes are implemented
smoothly and effectively. It involves assessing the impact of changes,
communicating the rationale for change, and involving stakeholders in the
change process.
5. Resource Allocation: Organizations must manage their resources effectively,
including financial, human, and technological resources, to achieve their
goals. Effective resource allocation requires careful planning and
decision-making to ensure that resources are used efficiently and effectively.
6. Performance Management: Performance management involves setting goals,
monitoring progress, providing feedback, and rewarding performance.
Effective performance management can help to motivate employees,
improve productivity, and align individual goals with organizational
objectives.
7. Risk Management: Organizations face a range of risks, including financial,
operational, and reputational risks. Effective risk management involves
identifying and assessing risks, developing strategies to mitigate risks, and
monitoring risk exposure on an ongoing basis.
8. Ethical Issues: Ethical issues can arise in any organization, and it is
important for managers to ensure that ethical standards are upheld. This
 includes promoting ethical behavior, developing policies and procedures to
address ethical issues, and providing training and support to employees to
ensure that they understand and adhere to ethical standards.

10 common management issues

The challenges of managing a team depend on various factors, e. g. the external

business environment. To find out what managers are facing today, we take a closer
look at some of the most common challenges:

● Communicating effectively
● Making employees feel motivated
● Promoting teamwork
● Handling conflicts within your team
● Managing your time
● Letting an employee go
● Hiring the right fit for your team
● Avoiding micromanagement
● Dealing with performance problems
● Setting clear goals and promoting the company’s mission

#1 Communicating effectively

There can often be a certain distance between managers and the rest of the team
members resulting from their different duties and the power dynamic. This creates
one of the biggest challenges for managers: bridging the distance with effective
and open communication, e. g. when it comes to constructive feedback.

When a manager isn’t communicating well with their employees, not only could it
do harm to the manager-employee-relationship, but it could also be adding to
employees’ work-related stress and lowering performance.

#2 Making employees feel motivated

Not every work day is an exciting one. For both you and your employees, tasks can
become monotonous or seem unnecessary from time to time. As a result, your team
members may question the need for certain tasks and processes and their
motivation may decrease.

Keeping everyone motivated and productive can even challenge managers that
have been overseeing employees for several years.

#3 Promoting teamwork

Productive collaboration among employees is a basic requirement for many, if not

most, tasks. However, team members’ work styles may vary or even differ
dramatically. If this is the case, it’s the managers’ responsibility to create a
workplace that merges the different approaches.

#4 Handling conflicts within your team

In a dream world, you have a perfectly harmonized team that constantly works well
together. However, this dream doesn’t always come true, and, as in any
interpersonal relationship, conflicts can arise between team members.

If a conflict stays unsolved, it can quickly affect productivity and morale within the
team. Hence, it is your job as a manager to identify and resolve emerging
interpersonal problems early, before they become bigger concerns.

#5 Managing your time

Because managers are typically responsible for a multitude of additional tasks, e.g.
coordinating the team and reporting to other departments, most managers struggle
to balance their time and tasks. Losing track of time in just one meeting can easily
lead to an absolute delay in the tightly set schedule for a workday.

#6 Letting an employee go
Letting someone from their team go is probably one of the toughest decisions
managers have to make – and it’s something you don’t really want to get too
comfortable doing.

The truth is: There’s no easy way around this one. Employee termination always
requires an unpleasant conversation – no matter why you need to let the employee
go.

#7 Hiring the right fit for your team

Hiring new employees and introducing them to the team is a big decision. During
the hiring process there might be dozens of applications from candidates with
excellent grades, skills and experience. But this doesn’t mean that they will also be
a good (cultural) fit for the team.

Good managers are capable of distinguishing between a good qualification or a

good cultural fit, and finding the right mix of the two. Always keeping in mind that
the wrong hire can easily have a negative impact on productivity and team spirit.

#8 Avoiding micromanagement

Given that they are under a lot of pressure to perform in their position, many
managers wish to control each and every work step in their department. After all,
they want it to look like they have their team under control – and ultimately,
managers are the ones who take the fall when performance is off.

Although the quality of the employees’ work can be a reflection of management

skills, employees still shouldn’t be supervised helicopter-style. Micromanaging
them in this way can impair their independent working skills.

#9 Dealing with performance problems

There may be periods where employees are not as productive as usual. A decrease
in productivity can sometimes affect the whole team and overall goals. Thus
performance problems are always going to be a concern for managers.
#10 Setting clear goals and promoting the company’s mission

Providing clarity is one of the most important skills for managers, and it’s not
always easy. Each and every employee needs to have a clear understanding of the
company’s mission and how they personally contribute to it.