Chapter 8

Motivation and Empowerment

Motivation
The forces either internal or external to a
person that arouse enthusiasm and persistence
to pursue a certain course of action

wThe process of arousing and sustaining goal-

directed behavior
wWho is responsible for this?
wMotivation is an attribution
wWhat is the role of money as a motivator ?
2
 Relevancy for leaders

n The study of motivation helps leaders

understand what prompts people to
initiate action, what influences their
choice of action, and why they persist
in that action over time.

Ex. 8.1 A Simple Model of

Motivation

Need Creates desire to Behavior Results Rewards Satisfy

fulfill needs (money, in actions to fulfill needs: intrinsic or
friendship, recognition, needs extrinsic rewards
achievement)

Feedback Reward informs person whether behavior was appropriate and should
be used again

Need: state or condition within an individual that generates movement

toward some outcome or reward.

4
 Types of Rewards

Intrinsic Rewards
¡ Internal satisfactions a person receives in the
process of performing a particular action
Extrinsic Rewards
¡ Rewards given by another person, typically a
supervisor, such as pay increases and
promotions
Systemwide Rewards
¡ Rewards that apply the same to all people within
an organization or within a specific category or
department 5

Ex. 8.2 Examples of Intrinsic and

Extrinsic Rewards
Extrinsic Intrinsic

Individual Large merit increase Feeling of self-

fulfillment

Pride in being part of

Systemwide Insurance benefits a “winning”
organization

Individual rewards: differ among individuals within the same organization

or department

6
 Ex. 8.3 Needs of People and
Motivation Methods
Needs of people

Conventional Leadership
management

Lower needs Higher needs

Carrot and stick Empowerment

(Extrinsic) (Intrinsic)

Growth and
Control people
fulfillment

Adequate effort Best effort

7

Ex. 8.4 Maslow’s Hierarchy of

Needs
Need Hierarchy Fulfillment on the Job
Self-actualization Needs Opportunities for advancement, autonomy,
growth, creativity

Esteem Needs Recognition, approval, high status, increased

responsibilities
Belongingness Needs Work groups, clients, coworkers, supervisors

Safety Needs Safe work, fringe benefits, job security

Physiological Needs Food, shelter, base salary

Deficiency vs. growth needs

 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Hygiene Factor - work condition related to

dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain
¡ maintenance factor

¡ contributes to employee’s feeling not

dissatisfied
¡ contributes to absence of complaints

Motivators - work conditions related to the

satisfaction of the need for psychological growth
¡ job enrichment

¡ leads to superior performance & effort

Ex. 8.5 Herzberg’s Two-Factor

Theory
Highly Satisfied
Area of Motivators Motivators
influence level
Satisfaction of satisfaction
Achievement
Recognition
Responsibility
Work itself
Personal growth

Neither Satisfied
nor Dissatisfied
Hygiene
Area of Factors Hygiene factors
Work conditions influence level of
Dissatisfaction dissatisfaction
Pay/security
Co. policies
Supervisors
Interpersonal. relationships

Highly Dissatisfied 10
 Motivation-Hygiene Combinations

High M Low M
High H high motivation low motivation
few complaints few complaints
Low H high motivation low motivation
many complaints many complaints
(Motivation = M, Hygiene = H)
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Reinforcement Theory

n Looks at the relationship between

behavior and its consequences by
changing or modifying followers’ on-
the-job behavior through the
appropriate use of immediate rewards
or punishments

Behavior is a function of its consequences

12
 Behavior modification
n Law of effect: positively reinforced behaviors
tends to be repeated and behavior that is
not reinforced tends to not be repeated.
n Positive consequences: results of a
behavior that a person finds attractive or
pleasurable
n Negative consequences: results of a
behavior that a person finds unattractive or
aversive
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n Positive reinforcement: the administration of a

pleasant and rewarding consequence
following a behavior
n Negative reinforcement: the withdrawal of an
unpleasant consequence once a behavior is
improved. Avoidance learning.
n Punishment: the imposition of unpleasant
outcomes on an employee following
undesirable behavior
n Extinction: the attempt to weaken a behavior
by attaching no consequences to it.
 Reinforcement &
Punishment Strategies
Reinforcement Punishment
(desireable (undesireable
behavior) behavior)
Positive
Consequences Apply Withhold

Negative
Consequences Withhold Apply

Examples of Negative Reinforcement

n Focused on desirable behaviors that occur

more frequently:
¡ If a clerical worker feels that being ahead is a
favorable condition, the worker will be motivated to
work hard in order to avoid the unpleasant state of
being behind.
¡ An instructor deducts 10 points from a student’s
grade for each observed absence but there is no
effect on a student’s grade for attendance.
¡ Example of an alarm in a child’s room.
 Examples of Punishment

n Focused on undesirable behaviors that

should occur very infrequently:
¡ If you exhibit unprofessional behavior in this
class, you will lose a letter grades
¡ If you are caught cheating on an exam, you
could fail the course
¡ If you steal something at work, you will be
terminated.

Acquired Needs Theory

n McClelland’s theory that proposes that
certain types of needs are acquired during
an individual’s lifetime
n Three needs most frequently studied:
¡ Need for achievement
¡ Need for affiliation
¡ Need for power

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McClelland’s Need Theory:
Need for Achievement

Need for Achievement - a manifest (easily perceived)

need that concerns individuals’ issues of excellence,
competition, challenging goals, persistence, and
overcoming difficulties
nSet moderate goals

nSeek feedback

nStay focused

McClelland’s Need Theory:

Need for Power

Need for Power - a manifest (easily

perceived) need that concerns an
individual’s need to make an impact
on others, influence others, change
people or events, and make a
difference in life
nPersonal or socialized
 McClelland’s Need Theory:
Need for Affiliation

Need for Affiliation - a manifest

(easily perceived) need that concerns
an individual’s need to establish and
maintain warm, close, intimate
relationships with other people

What combination of needs are present in the best managers?

Expectancy Theory of
Motivation: Key Constructs

Valence - value or importance placed on a

particular reward

Expectancy - belief that effort leads to

performance

Instrumentality - belief that performance is

related to rewards
 Ex. 8.6 Key Elements of
Expectancy Theory
Will putting effort into the task lead
E > P expectancy
to the desired performance?
Effort Performance

Will high performance lead to the

P > O expectancy
desired outcomes?
Performance Outcomes

Valence – value of outcomes Are the available outcomes

(pay, recognition, other highly valued?
rewards)

Motivation 23

Theory of Inequity

Inequity – the situation in which a person

perceives he or she is receiving less
than he or she is giving, or is giving less
than he or she is receiving

People are motivated when they see themselves

in a position they believe is unfair. They will be
motivated to either change their behavior or change
their perceptions in order to restore equity
 Carrot-and-stick controversy
n Extrinsic rewards diminish intrinsic
rewards
n Extrinsic rewards are temporary
n Extrinsic rewards assume people are driven
by lower order needs
n Organizations are too complex for carrot-
and-stick approaches
n Carrot-and-stick approaches destroy
people’s motivation to work as a group
25

On the folly of rewarding A

while hoping for B
n Mangers hope for:
¡ Teamwork and
collaboration
¡ Innovative thinking and
risk taking
¡ Development of people
skills
¡ Employee involvement
and empowerment
¡ High achievement
¡ Commitment to quality
¡ Long-term growth
n But they reward:
¡ The best individual
performers
¡ Proven methods and not
making mistakes
¡ Technical achievements
and accomplishments
¡ Tight control over
operations and resources
¡ Another year’s routine
effort
¡ Shipping time, even with
defects
¡ Quarterly earnings

See the three major obstacles to fixing reward systems on p. 241

Empowerment

n Power sharing: the delegation of

power or authority to subordinates in
the organization. What’s wrong with
this concept?
n Empowerment: being enabled to
make independent decisions and take
effective action

27

Elements of empowerment
n Information about company performance
n Knowledge and skills to contribute to
company goals
n Power to make substantive decisions
n Understanding the meaning and impact of
your job
n Rewards based on company performance

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 Other approaches

n Employee ownership
n Gainsharing
n Pay for knowledge
n Pay for performance
n Job enrichment
n Goal setting?
¡ Problems with?
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Job Characteristics Model

Critical
Core job Personal and
psychological
dimensions work outcomes
states

Skill variety Experienced work’s High internal

Task identity work motivation
meaningfulness
Task significance High-quality
Experienced
work performance
Autonomy responsibility High satisfaction
for work’s outcomes with the work
Feedback Knowledge of work Low absenteeism
activities’ results and turnover
Employee
growth,need,
strength
 Examples of high and low job characteristics
Skill variety
High variety The owner-operator of a garage who does electrical repair, rebuilds
engines, does body work, and interacts with customers
Low variety A bodyshop worker who sprays paint eight hours a day
Task Identity
High identity A cabinetmaker who designs a piece of furniture, selects the wood,
builds the object, and finishes it to perfection
Low identity A worker in a furniture factory who operates a lathe solely to make
table legs
Task significance
High significance Nursing the sick in a hospital intensive care unit
Low significance Sweeping hospital floors
Autonomy
High autonomy A telephone installer who schedules his or her own work for the day,
makes visits without supervision, and decides on the most effective
techniques for a particular installation
Low autonomy A telephone operator who must handle calls as they come according to
a routine, highly specified procedure
Feedback
High feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a modem and then tests
it to determine if it operates properly
Low feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a modem and then routes
it to a quality control inspector who tests it for proper operation and
makes needed adjustments

Engagement: pp 246-249
Bookshelf: First break all the rules

n The strength of a workplace depends

upon engaged employees
n Leaders
¡ Recognize that you have no control
¡ Build on the talents of employees
¡ Focus people on performance
n Engagement is a positive, fulfilling, work-related state
of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and
absorption. Rather than a momentary and specific
state, engagement refers to a more persistent and
pervasive affective-cognitive state that is not focused
on any particular object, event, individual, or behavior.
Vigor is characterized by high levels of energy and
mental resilience while working, the willingness to
invest effort in one’s work, and persistence even in the
face of difficulties. Dedication refers to being strongly
involved in one's work and experiencing a sense of
significance, enthusiasm, inspiration, pride, and
challenge. Absorption is characterized by being fully
concentrated and happily engrossed in one’s work,
whereby time passes quickly and one has difficulties
with detaching oneself from work

Gallup Q-12 Engagement – cause or effect?

n I know what is expected of me
at work.
n I have the materials and
equipment I need to do my
work right.
n At work, I have the opportunity
to do what I do best everyday.
n In the last seven days, I have
received recognition or praise
for doing good work.
n My supervisor, or someone at
work, seems to care about me
as a person.
n There is someone at work who
encourages my development.
n At work, my opinions seem to
count.
n The mission or purpose of my
company makes me feel my
job is important
n My associates or fellow
employees are committed to
doing quality work.
n I have a best friend at work.
n In the last six months,
someone at work has talked to
me about my progress.
n This last year, I have had
opportunities at work to learn
and grow.

#13: How satisfied are you with ________ as a place to work?

 VIGOR
When I am working, I feel mentally strong
I can continue for a very long time when I am working
When I work at my current job, I feel like I am bursting with energy
At my job, I feel strong and vigorous
When I get up in the morning, I feel like going to work
DEDICATON
I find my work to be full of meaning and purpose
My work inspires me
I am enthusiastic about my job
I am proud of the work that I do
I find my work challenging
ABSORBTION
Time flies when I am working
When I am working, I forget everything else around me
I feel very happy when I am working intensively
I can get carried away when I am working
I am immersed in my work

Engagement

n Cause (examples: n Effect (examples)

Q12) ¡ My work inspires me
¡ I have a best friend ¡ I am immersed in my
at work work
¡ I know what is ¡ When I get up in the
expected of me at morning, I feel like
work going to work
¡ My opinions seem to ¡ I feel very happy
count when I am working
¡ My supervisor intensively
seems to care about
me
 Evidence-Based Management

n What is evidence-based
management?
n What are six substitutes that managers
often use for the best evidence?
n What are the four things leaders can
do to create a new-mindset of
evidence-based management?
n What is the nasty side effect for
leaders that practice evidence-based
management?