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Sea level and global ice volumes from the Last Glacial Maximum to the
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Article  in  Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · October 2014

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Sea level and global ice volumes from the Last Glacial
Maximum to the Holocene
Kurt Lambecka,b,1, Hélène Roubya,b, Anthony Purcella, Yiying Sunc, and Malcolm Sambridgea
a
Research School of Earth Sciences, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia; bLaboratoire de Géologie de l’École Normale
Supérieure, UMR 8538 du CNRS, 75231 Paris, France; and cDepartment of Earth Sciences, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
This contribution is part of the special series of Inaugural Articles by members of the National Academy of Sciences elected in 2009.
Contributed by Kurt Lambeck, September 12, 2014 (sent for review July 1, 2014; reviewed by Edouard Bard, Jerry X. Mitrovica, and Peter U. Clark)
The major cause of sea-level change during ice ages is the exchange
of water between ice and ocean and the planet’s dynamic response
to the changing surface load. Inversion of ∼1,000 observations for
the past 35,000 y from localities far from former ice margins has
provided new constraints on the fluctuation of ice volume in this
interval. Key results are: (i) a rapid final fall in global sea level of
∼40 m in <2,000 y at the onset of the glacial maximum ∼30,000 y
before present (30 ka BP); (ii) a slow fall to −134 m from 29 to 21 ka
BP with a maximum grounded ice volume of ∼52 × 106 km3 greater
than today; (iii) after an initial short duration rapid rise and a short
interval of near-constant sea level, the main phase of deglaciation
occurred from ∼16.5 ka BP to ∼8.2 ka BP at an average rate of rise
of 12 m·ka−1 punctuated by periods of greater, particularly at 14.5–
14.0 ka BP at ≥40 mm·y−1 (MWP-1A), and lesser, from 12.5 to
11.5 ka BP (Younger Dryas), rates; (iv) no evidence for a global
MWP-1B event at ∼11.3 ka BP; and (v) a progressive decrease in
the rate of rise from 8.2 ka to ∼2.5 ka BP, after which ocean vol-
umes remained nearly constant until the renewed sea-level rise at
100–150 y ago, with no evidence of oscillations exceeding ∼15–
20 cm in time intervals ≥200 y from 6 to 0.15 ka BP.
sea level | ice volumes | Last Glacial Maximum | Holocene
T he understanding of the change in ocean volume during gla-
cial cycles is pertinent to several areas of earth science: for
estimating the volume of ice and its geographic distribution
through time (1); for calibrating isotopic proxy indicators of
ocean volume change (2, 3); for estimating vertical rates of land
movement from geological data (4); for examining the response
of reef development to changing sea level (5); and for recon-
structing paleo topographies to test models of human and other
migrations (6). Estimates of variations in global sea level come
from direct observational evidence of past sea levels relative
to present and less directly from temporal variations in the
oxygen isotopic signal of ocean sediments (7). Both yield model-
dependent estimates. The first requires assumptions about pro-
cesses that govern how past sea levels are recorded in the coastal
geology or geomorphology as well as about the tectonic, isostatic,
and oceanographic contributions to sea level change. The second
requires assumptions about the source of the isotopic or chemical
signatures of marine sediments and about the relative importance
of growth or decay of the ice sheets, of changes in ocean and
atmospheric temperatures, or from local or regional factors that
control the extent and time scales of mixing within ocean basins.
Both approaches are important and complementary. The direct
observational evidence is restricted to time intervals or climatic and
tectonic settings that favor preservation of the records through
otherwise successive overprinting events. As a result, the records
become increasingly fragmentary backward in time. The isotopic
evidence, in contrast, being recorded in deep-water carbonate
marine sediments, extends further back in time and often yields
near-continuous records of high but imprecise temporal resolution
(8). However, they are also subject to greater uncertainty because
of the isotope signal’s dependence on other factors. Comparisons
15296–15303 | PNAS | October 28, 2014 | vol. 111 | no. 43
for the Holocene for which the direct measures of past sea level are
relatively abundant, for example, exhibit differences both in phase
and in noise characteristics between the two data [compare, for
example, the Holocene parts of oxygen isotope records from the
Pacific (9) and from two Red Sea cores (10)].
Past sea level is measured with respect to its present position
and contains information on both land movement and changes in
ocean volume. During glacial cycles of ∼105 y, the most important
contribution with a global signature is the exchange of mass be-
tween the ice sheets and oceans, with tectonic vertical land
movements being important mainly on local and regional scales.
Global changes associated with mantle convection and surface
processes are comparatively small on these time scales but be-
come important in longer, e.g., Pliocene-scale, periods (11).
Changes in ocean volume associated with changing ocean tem-
peratures during a glacial period are also small (12).
The sea-level signal from the glacial cycle exhibits significant
spatial variability from its globally averaged value because of the
combined deformation and gravitational response of the Earth
and ocean to the changing ice-water load. During ice-sheet de-
cay, the crust rebounds beneath the ice sheets and subsides be-
neath the melt-water loaded ocean basins; the gravitational
potential and ocean surface are modified by the deformation and
changing surface load; and the planet’s inertia tensor and rota-
tion changes, further modifying equipotential surfaces. Together,
this response of the earth-ocean system to glacial cycles is re-
ferred to as the glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) (13–17). The
pattern of the spatial variability is a function of the Earth’s
rheology and of the glacial history, both of which are only partly
known. In particular, past ice thickness is rarely observed and
Significance
Several areas of earth science require knowledge of the fluctua-
tions in sea level and ice volume through glacial cycles. These in-
clude understanding past ice sheets and providing boundary
conditions for paleoclimate models, calibrating marine-sediment
isotopic records, and providing the background signal for evalu-
ating anthropogenic contributions to sea level. From ∼1,000
observations of sea level, allowing for isostatic and tectonic con-
tributions, we have quantified the rise and fall in global ocean and
ice volumes for the past 35,000 years. Of particular note is that
during the ∼6,000 y up to the start of the recent rise ∼100−150 y
ago, there is no evidence for global oscillations in sea level on time
scales exceeding ∼200 y duration or 15−20 cm amplitude.
Author contributions: K.L. designed research; K.L., H.R., A.P., Y.S., and M.S. performed
research; Y.S. contributed field data; K.L., H.R., A.P., Y.S., and M.S. analyzed data; K.L. and
H.R. wrote the paper; and A.P. and M.S. developed software.
Reviewers: E.B., CEREGE; J.X.M., Harvard University; and P.U.C., Oregon State University.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Freely available online through the PNAS open access option.
1
To whom correspondence should be addressed. Email: kurt.lambeck@anu.edu.au.
This article contains supporting information online at www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.
1073/pnas.1411762111/-/DCSupplemental.
www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1411762111

questions remain about the timing and extent of the former ice
sheets on the continental shelves. The sea-level response within,
or close to, the former ice margins (near-field) is primarily a
function of the underlying rheology and ice thickness while, far
from the former ice margins (far-field), it is mainly a function of
earth rheology and the change in total ice volume through time.
By an iterative analysis of observational evidence of the past sea
levels, it becomes possible to improve the understanding of the
past ice history as well as the Earth’s mantle response to forces
on a 104 y to 105 y time scale.
In this paper, we address one part of the Earth’s response to
the glacial cycle: the analysis of far-field evidence of sea-level
change to estimate the variation in ice and ocean volumes from
the lead into the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) at ∼35,000 y ago
(35 ka BP) to the start of the instrumental records. Such analyses
can either be of high-resolution records of a single data type
from a single location or of different sea-level indicators from
many different locations. We have adopted the latter approach.
Most sea-level indicators provide only lower (e.g., fossil coral) or
upper (e.g., fossil terrestrial plants) limiting values, and multiple
data-type analyses of both upper and lower limiting measure-
ments are less likely to be biased toward one or the other limit.
Tectonic displacement of the crust is always a potential con-
taminator of the sought signal, and a multiplicity of data from
tectonically “stable” regions is more likely to average out any
undetected tectonic effects as well as any uncertainties in the
above-mentioned GIA contributions.
Analysis Strategy
In a zero-order approximation, the change in sea level during
glacial cycles is the ice-volume equivalent sea level (esl) Δζ esl
defined as
Z observational data, as well as to make a first-order estimate for
1 1 dΔMice
Δζ esl ðtÞ = − dt [1]
ρo Ao ðtÞ dt
t Observational Evidence
where ΔMice is the change in ice mass on the continents and
grounded on the shelves at time t with respect to present, Ao is
the ocean area defined by the coastline and ice grounding line at
t, and ρo is the average density of the ocean. Superimposed on
this is the response of the earth and ocean surface to the changes
in loading. Hence, as a first approximation, the relative sea-level
Δζ rsl at a location ϕ and time t is
Δζ rsl ðϕ; tÞ = Δζesl ðtÞ + δζ iso
ice ðϕ; tÞ + δζ water ðϕ; tÞ
iso
[2]
where δζ iso
ice ðϕ; tÞ and δζ water ðϕ; tÞ are the isostatic contributions
iso
from the changing ice and water loads, respectively. Because of
the direct gravitational attraction of the ice sheets and deforma-
tion of the ocean basin during the glacial cycle, δζ iso water ðϕ; tÞ is not
independent of ice sheet geometry. Consequently, higher-order
iterative solutions are necessary to solve [2].
In the absence of tectonics, the dominant departure of far-field
sea level from its global mean [1] is due to δζ iso water ðϕ; tÞ and results
in a strong spatial variability of Δζ rsl ðϕ; tÞ across continental
margins and within partially enclosed ocean basins that is de-
pendent on mantle rheology, the amount of water added into the
oceans, and the rate at which it is discharged, but is relatively
insensitive to where this melt water originated. Typically, during
the melting phase, δζ isowater ðϕ; tÞ is about 15–25% of Δζ esl ðtÞ and
leads to near-coastal observations of LGM sea level being
systematically less than the corresponding Δζ esl ðtÞ. When de-
glaciation ceases, the seafloor continues to deform because of the
viscous nature of the mantle, and sea levels particularly at conti-
nental edges fall slowly until all load stresses have relaxed. This
mechanism often produces small highstands at ∼5–7 ka BP that
mark the end of the dominant melting period (15, 16, 18).
Lambeck et al.
INAUGURAL ARTICLE
The δζ iso
ice ðϕ; tÞ reflects mantle-scale flow induced by the changes
in ice load. This signal includes the evolution of a broad trough
and bulge system that extends several thousand kilometers be-
yond the ice margin, as a combined result of surface deformation
and gravitational potential change (the “geoidal” bulge). Beyond
these features, δζ iso ice ðϕ; tÞ shows less spatial variability than
δζ iso
water ðϕ; tÞ and is relatively insensitive to the details of the ice
load, but the amplitudes of these signals are not negligible and
are earth-rheology dependent.
The challenge is, in the presence of imperfect and incomplete
data, to invert the complete formulation of [2] for both the earth
and ice unknowns. This challenge is approached here through the
following iterative procedure: (i) Start with far-field sea-level data,
assume Δζ rsl = Δζ esl and using [1] estimate a first approximation of
ice mass or volume function ΔVice ðtÞ. (ii) Distribute this ice be-
tween the known ice sheets, guided by either published in-
formation or by glaciological hypotheses and with ice advance and
retreat histories, depending on the state of knowledge of the
particular ice sheet. (iii) Invert far-field sea-level data for earth
rheology parameters E (mantle viscosity, elastic thickness of the
lithosphere) and for a corrective term δζ esl to the nominal Δζ 0esl
corresponding to step ii, yielding an improved approximation of
ice volume function ΔVice ðtÞ. (iv) Analyze sea-level data separately
AND PLANETARY SCIENCES
EARTH, ATMOSPHERIC,
for each of the major ice sheets (near-field analyses) and, starting
with the ice models from step ii, invert for both E and corrections
to ice-thickness functions I. (v) Impose the condition that the sum
of the individual ice volume functions equals ΔVice ðtÞ from step iii
and distribute any discrepancies between the ice sheets. (vi) Re-
peat steps iii–v until convergence has been achieved.
Advantages of this approach include the ability to analyze
individual ice sheets with different resolutions depending on the
state of a priori knowledge of the ice sheet and quality of the
lateral variation in mantle viscosity.
The principal sources for quantitative sea-level information are
from sediment and coral records whose depositional environ-
ments relative to mean sea level (MSL) are assumed known and
whose ages have been determined either by radiocarbon or ura-
nium-series dating. In the former case, all 14C ages have been
calibrated using either the calibrations provided by the original
authors or the IntCal09 calibration (19). Reservoir and isotopic
fractionation corrections have been applied where appropriate.
Corals provide lower-limit estimates of mean-low-water-spring
(MLWS) tide, but their growth depth range δζ d is species and
environment dependent (20). Assuming that the modern range is
representative of the past growth range, the adopted mean sea
level from in situ fossil corals of age t at elevation ζ (all vertical
measures are positive upward) is
Δζ rsl ðϕ; tÞ = ζðϕ; tÞ − δζ d =2 − δζ tide
where δζ tide is the MLWS level with respect to MSL (with the
further assumption that, in the absence of paleo tide amplitude
information, there has been no significant change in tides). The
adopted precision estimate of the observation is Δζ d/2, added in
quadrature to other error sources. Greater uncertainties can
arise at times of very rapid sea-level rise if reef formation cannot
keep up. In some special morphological forms, the in situ coral
can be related more directly to MLWS, as is the case of micro-
atolls where the coral grows up to this limiting level before grow-
ing radially outward at the MLWS level (21). Observed records
are restricted to the past ∼6–7 ka, when far-field sea-level change
was slow enough for the microatoll development to be able to
keep up with change (22). The most complete record is from
Kiritimati Atoll (23). The principal coral records for the late
glacial period are from Barbados (24–26), Tahiti (27, 28), Huon
PNAS | October 28, 2014 | vol. 111 | no. 43 | 15297
Peninsula of Papua New Guinea (29, 30), the western Indian Ocean
(31), and the Great Barrier Reef of Australia, supplemented for the
past 7 ka with other observations from the Australian region and
the Indian Ocean (Fig. 1 and SI Appendix, Table S1).
The sedimentological evidence consists of age−depth relation-
ships of material formed within a known part of the tidal range,
such as terrestrial plants representative of the highest tidal zone or
microfaunal material representative of a lower tidal range (32)
(observations that provide only limiting estimates have been ex-
cluded). This evidence has the ability to provide high-precision
results if restricted to materials with well-understood depositional
ranges, but they also present their own difficulties. Is the dated
material within the sediment layer in situ? Has there been age
contamination by transport of older carbon into the sediment se-
quence? Has compaction of the sediment column subsequent to
Fig. 1. Distribution of far-field sea-level data for the past 35 ka. (A) Depth−
age relationship of all data with 2σ error estimates. (B) Time distribution of the
data. (C) Geographic distribution of all far-field coral (red dot) and sediment
(black triangles) data.
15298 | www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1411762111
deposition been important? Significant data sources included are
from the Sunda Shelf (33, 34), the Indian Ocean (35, 36), the
Bonaparte Gulf (37, 38), New Zealand (39), Singapore (40, 41),
Malaysia (42), and from the South China Sea to the Bohai Sea. Many
of the Asian observations are from large delta systems, and com-
parisons of such data with observations from adjacent sites often
indicate lower levels of the former, corresponding to differential
subsidence rates of the order of 1 mm·y−1 for the past ∼8 ka. Hence
data from the deltas of Chao Phraya of Thailand, Mekong and Red
rivers of northern Vietnam, and Pearl and Yangtze rivers of China,
have not been used for the purpose of estimating the esl function.
Where possible, the selected data are from tectonically stable
regions: away from plate margins and marked by an absence of
seismic activity and recent faulting. Where available, evidence for
the Last Interglacial (marine isotope stage 5.5) shoreline, formed
when, globally, sea levels were ∼4–8 m above present (43, 44), has
been used to assess the long-term stability of the region or to
correct for tectonic displacement. Both Huon Peninsula and
Barbados have been subject to uplift, and Tahiti to subsidence (SI
Appendix, Text S1). The eastern Asian margin in many locations
is characterized by rifting of Cenozoic age and postrift thermal
subsidence (45), but the expected rates are small on time scales of
the past 20 ka compared with the GIA signals and observational
uncertainties, and no corrections have been applied.
Inversion Results: Mantle Rheology
The observation equation is
Δζ obs ðϕ; tÞ + «obs = Δζ predicted ðϕ; tÞ
= Δζ 0esl ðtÞ + δζ esl ðtÞ + δζ iso
ice ðϕ; tÞ + δζ water ðϕ; tÞ
iso
[3]
where «obs are corrections to the observations of relative sea level
and δζ esl ðtÞ is a corrective term to Δζ0esl ðtÞ, parameterized in the
first instance as mean values in time bins of 1,000 y from present
to 22 ka BP, with larger bins for the data-sparse intervals 22–
26 ka BP, 26–31 ka BP, and 31–36 ka BP (Fig. 1). The inversion
for the earth-model parameters E and δζ esl ðtÞ is by forward mod-
eling through E space in which for any Ek (k = 1. . .K), the
corresponding δζ k;esl ðtÞ is estimated by weighted least squares.
The minimum value of the variance function Ψ2k in E space,
M   m 2
1 X  0
Ψ2k = obs − Δζ esl + δζ k;esl + δζ k;iso
Δζ m σ ; [4]
M m=1
is then sought, where δζ k;iso is the total isostatic correction for Ek
and σ m is the SD of the mth observation (m = 1. . .M). The E space
is initially restricted to a three-layered model of the mantle: elastic
lithosphere (including the crust) defined by an effective elastic
thickness H, upper mantle from the base of the lithosphere to
the 670 km seismic discontinuity with a depth-averaged effective
viscosity ηum, and a lower mantle viscosity extending down to the
core-mantle boundary of depth-averaged effective viscosity ηlm.
Elastic moduli and density are based on realistic depth profiles
determined from seismic data inversions. These approximate mod-
els nevertheless describe well the response of the Earth to surface
loading at periods and mantle-lithosphere stress levels of glacial
cycles (46, 47). The E search is conducted within the confines
Effective lithospheric thickness: 30 ≤ H1 ≤ 140 km:
Effective upper-mantle viscosity: 1019 ≤ ηum ≤ 1021  Pa s:
Effective lower-mantle viscosity: 5 × 1020 ≤ ηlm ≤ 1024  Pa s:
[5]
that span parameters found in earlier far- and near-field analyses.
The theory for the viscoelastic solution of earth deformation is
Lambeck et al.

based on the transformation of the elastic formulation into the
Laplace domain using the correspondence principle and then
inverting the Laplace-domain solution back into the time domain
(13, 15, 48). This latter inversion is carried out using a pure col-
location method (49) that has the potential to become unstable
when the ratio of the relaxation times of the two mantle layers
becomes very large, and, for numerical reasons, the above E space
is restricted to models for which ηlm/ηum ≤ 500 (see Discussion
and Conclusions).
In the
first iteration solution, a conservative data-quality cri-
terion ðΔζ obs − Δζ predicted Þ=σ obs > 6 has been adopted to examine
gross discrepancies without rejecting observations that may point
to rapid changes in ice volumes not captured by the parame-
. o2
terized δζ esl(t) function. Only where such large discrepancies are
incompatible with other observations close in location and time
are they excluded, and 18 observations, of a total of 992, have
been rejected. The Barbados record was not used in early iter-
ations because it is from the outer edge of the geoidal bulge
around the North American ice sheet and sea-level response
there may be more sensitive to δζ iso ice ðϕ; tÞ than sites further from
the ice margin, as well as to potential differences in mantle vis-
cosity beneath continents and oceans and local mantle structure
associated with the descending lithospheric slab (50). However,
tests with and without this data yielded near-identical results for
both E and δζ esl(t), and, in all subsequent iterations, observations
from Barbados (but not from other Caribbean sites closer to the
former ice margin) have been included.
The resulting variance function Ψ2k is illustrated in Fig. 2. The
minimum value of ∼2.8 exceeds the expected value of unity.
About 10% of the observations contribute nearly 50% to this
variance, but excluding this information from the analysis does
not lead to different E. That Ψ2k > 1 indicates either an un-
derestimation of the observational uncertainties or unmodeled
contributions to sea level. Of the former, conservative estimates
of observational accuracies have already been made, but, in
some instances, local tectonic or subsidence contributions, or
corrections for the coral growth range, may be more important
than assumed. Part of the latter may be a consequence of rapid
changes in ice volume not well captured by the adopted bin
sizes, but solutions with smaller bins give identical results for
E. Part may be a consequence of the oversimplification of the
depth dependence of the viscosity layering, but solutions with
further viscosity layering in the upper mantle do not lead to
a variance reduction, and two layered upper-mantle models with
their boundary at the ∼400-km seismic discontinuity lead to
a minimum variance solution for near-zero viscosity contrast
across this boundary. A further possible contributing factor is
the assumption of lateral uniformity of viscosity in the mantle.
Separate solutions for continental-margin and midocean-island
Fig. 2. Minimum variance function Ψ2k [4] as function of (A) lithospheric
thickness H, (B) upper-mantle viscosity ηum, and (C) lower-mantle viscosity ηlm
across E space defined by [5] with ηlm/ηum ≤ 500. Unique solutions are found
for H and ηum but two minima are identified for ηlm: a low lower-mantle
viscosity solution at ηlm ∼2 × 1021 Pa s (red dot) and a high lower-mantle
viscosity solution at ηlm ∼1023 Pa s (blue dot). The corresponding 95% confi-
dence limits Φ2k [6] are defined by the red and blue bands.
Lambeck et al.
INAUGURAL ARTICLE
data do not require lateral variation, partly because the island
data are limited in their distribution and partly because the
resolution of island data for depth dependence of viscosity is
intrinsically poor. Solutions excluding the eastern margin of
Asia also lead to the same E. Hence the resulting E parameters
are descriptive of the mantle response for continental margins
and midocean environments across the Indian and eastern Pa-
cific Oceans and the margins of Australia, East Africa, and
southern and eastern Asia.
Confidence limits for the E across the space [5] are estimated
using the statistic
M n
1 X
Φ2k = Δζ m
k;predicted − Δζ k p ; predicted
m
σm [6]
M m=1
where Δζm kp;predicted are the predicted relative sea levels for obser-
vation m and earth model Ekp that correspond to the least var-
iance solution [4]. If observational variances are appropriate and
the model is correct and complete, the contour Φ2k = 1:0 defines the
67% confidence limits of the minimum variance solution. Of the
Ek, ηum is well constrained (Fig. 2), with the preferred minimum
variance occurring at 1.5 × 1020 Pa s [with 95% confidence limits
AND PLANETARY SCIENCES
EARTH, ATMOSPHERIC,
of ∼(1, 2) × 1020 Pa s]. Resolution for lithospheric thickness is
less satisfactory and, while the solutions point to a minimum Ψ2k
at between 40 km and 70 km, the Φ2k ≤ 1 criterion indicates only
that very thick lithospheres can be excluded. This lack of reso-
lution is because (i) midocean small-island data have little reso-
lution for H and (ii) the distribution of the observations from
near the present continent-ocean boundary is insufficient to fully
reflect the gradients in Δζ rsl ðtÞ predicted across this boundary.
The solution for ηlm is least satisfactory of all (Fig. 2C)
and points to two local minima, a “low” viscosity solution at
2 × 1021 (7 × 1020 – 4 × 1021) Pa s and a “high” viscosity solution
of ∼7 × 1022 (1 × 1022 –2 × 1023) Pa s: An addition of a uniform
layer of melt water, whose spatial characteristics are dominated
by ocean-basin-scale wavelengths, predominantly stresses the
lower mantle. Thus, the question remains whether the geo-
graphic variability of the data set is adequate for a complete
separation of E and Δζ esl ðtÞ or whether a unique separation of
ice and earth parameters is even possible. We keep both solu-
tions for the present and examine their implications on the ice
volume estimates below.
The δζ esl(t) for the two solutions (Fig. 3) implies that the
global estimate of ice volume needs a correction of ∼5–10% for
some epochs, but the far-field analysis alone does not allow this
change to be attributed to one ice sheet or another. To evaluate
the possible dependence of the estimates of both E and Δζesl ðtÞ
on how δζ esl(t) is distributed, we have considered three options
in which: (i) the δζ esl(t) for the LGM and late-glacial period is
attributed to the North American ice sheet, (ii) the same as
option i but with the Holocene δζ esl(t) attributed to Antarctica,
and (iii) with δζ esl(t) attributed to Antarctica for the entire in-
terval. The solution for E and a further corrective term to Δζ esl
is then repeated for each of these so-modified ice sheets. This
results in equivalent results for E and to a rapid convergence for
the Δζesl function (SI Appendix, Table S2), justifying thereby the
basic assumption that the far-field analysis is not critically de-
pendent on the distribution of the ice between the component
ice sheets.
Inversion Results: Ice-Volume Equivalent Sea Level
The above parameterization of δζ esl(t) (Fig. 3) results in a low
temporal resolution of δζ esl(t) that could preclude detection of
changes in sea level in intervals <1,000 y. Thus, once optimum
effective earth parameters are established that are indepen-
dent of the details of the ice model, we adopt a post E solution
PNAS | October 28, 2014 | vol. 111 | no. 43 | 15299

Fig. 3. Low-definition solutions (1,000-y time bins) for the corrective term δζesl ðtÞ
for the two lower-mantle viscosity solutions (low-viscosity solution in red with
yellow error bars and high-viscosity solution in blue with pale blue error bars).
processing approach to solve for the incremental δζ esl(t) in which
each observation Δζm obs ðϕ; tÞ provides an estimate of esl
h i
Δζ mesl ðtÞ = Δζ obs ðϕ; tÞ − Δζ k p ; predicted ðϕ; tÞ − Δζ esl ðtÞ
m m 0
[7a]
with
 2  2  m 2
σm
esl = σm
obs ðϕ; tÞ + σ k p ; predicted ðtÞ : [7b]
2 characterized as high-viscosity and low-viscosity lower-mantle
The variance ðσ m kp;predicted ðtÞÞ follows from the variance of the
predicted values across the E space defined by the Φ2k ≤ 1
according to
" #,
2 X
2. X 
σ k p; predicted =
m
Δζ k p; predicted − Δζk; predicted
m m
σk
2
1 σ 2k
k k
[8]
with
 2
σ 2k = 1 − Φ2k : during the mid to late Holocene (the past ∼7 ka), the low-vis-
The underlying signal in the resulting noisy time series is then
estimated using the transdimensional Markov chain Monte Carlo
approach (51) that allows abrupt or rapid changes to be quanti-
fied against a background of long-term trends and that infers the
probability distributions on the number and location of change
points, as well as the trends between change points. This produ-
ces an ensemble of candidate time series curves, the collective
density of which follows a Bayesian a posteriori probability den-
sity function (PDF) defined by the product of a likelihood and
a priori PDF on control parameters. The algorithm avoids the
need to impose artificial constraints on model complexity by
using a flexible parameterization of the time series with a variable
number of unknowns but at the same time remains parsimonious
in that it eliminates unwarranted detail in the reconstructed sig-
nal. The mean of the ensemble is taken as an objective estimate
of the underlying “denoised” time series while uncertainty esti-
mates are obtained through appropriate projections of the en-
semble. Uncertainty estimates, in terms of probability density
functions, are obtained for the entire time signal as well as loca-
tion of the change points representing abrupt changes in gradient
(SI Appendix, Text S2 and Fig. S1).
Fig. 4 illustrates the result corresponding to the high-viscosity
lower mantle model, and that for the low-viscosity lower mantle
is given in SI Appendix, Fig. S2. Solution with and without the
China data yield indistinguishable results, and the introduction
of this generally lower-quality material has not distorted the
15300 | www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1411762111
inferences that can be drawn about rates of global sea-level
change but, rather, reinforces them.
Discussion and Conclusions
On time scales of 105 years and less, sea-level change at tec-
tonically stable regions is primarily a function of changing ice
volumes and the Earth’s response to the changing ice-water load,
but neither the ice history nor the response function is in-
dependently known with the requisite precision for developing
predictive models. Observations of sea level through time do
provide constraints on the ice and rheology functions, but a
complete separation of the two groups of parameters has not yet
been achieved. Separation of the analysis into far-field and near-
field areas provides some resolution, but ambiguities remain:
a consequence of inadequate a priori information on ice margin
evolution and ice thickness, observational data that deteriorates
in distribution and accuracy back in time, the likelihood of lateral
variations in the planet’s rheological response, and the ever-
present possibility of tectonic contributions.
We have focused here on the far-field analysis of nearly 1,000
observations of relative sea level for the past 35 ka, underpinned
by independent near-field analyses for the individual major ice
sheets of the Northern Hemisphere and inferences about the
past Antarctic ice sheet. Within the confines of model assump-
tions and with one caveat, a separation can be achieved of ef-
fective rheology parameters for the mantle beneath the oceans
and continental margins and the change in total ice volume or
ice-volume esl. The caveat is that two solutions are possible,
models, each with its own esl function (SI Appendix, Fig. S2).
One approach to separate earth and ice parameters could be to
search for “dip-stick” sites (52) where the glacioisostatic and
hydroisostatic components cancel and Δζ rsl ðϕ; tÞ = Δζesl ðϕ; tÞ.
However, such contours do exhibit time and E dependence, and
there are few observations that actually lie close to the Δζiso = 0
contour at any epoch (SI Appendix, Fig. S3).
The esl obtained for the two solutions (Fig. 4 and SI Appendix,
Fig. S2) differ in two important respects: (i) at the LGM, the
low-viscosity model requires ∼2.7 × 106 km3 (∼7 m esl) more ice
at the maximum glaciation than the high-viscosity model, and (ii)
cosity model requires less ice (∼0.5 × 106 km3 or ∼1.3 m esl at
6 ka BP) than the high-viscosity model (the relaxation in the low-
viscosity model is more complete than for a high-viscosity
model). Of these, the first difference may provide some guide to
the choice of solution.
The changes in Antarctic ice volume since the LGM remain
poorly known, and published estimates differ greatly: ∼25–35 m
of esl from the difference in far-field and Northern Hemisphere
near-field estimates of changes in ice volume (53), ∼20 m from
the combination of such methods with the inversion of rebound
data from the Antarctic margin (54), ∼10–18 m from glaciolog-
ical models (55, 56), and ∼10 m from combined glaciological and
geological modeling (57). In developing our component ice
sheets, we have used an iterative approach in which, at any step,
the Antarctic ice-volume function is the difference between the
far-field derived global estimate and the sum of the Northern
Hemisphere and mountain glacier ice volumes for that iteration.
This “missing” ice is then distributed within the ice sheet to re-
spect the LGM Antarctic margin (58) and with the assumption
that ice elevation profiles across the shelf and into the interior
approximate a quasi-parabolic form (59). Thus, the intent of this
ice sheet is only to preserve the global ocean−ice mass balance
and not to produce a realistic rebound model for far-southern
latitudes. The starting iteration of the present far-field solution
has an Antarctic contribution to esl of 28 m (equivalent to ∼107 km3
of ice, with a large fraction of this ice grounded on the shelves; see
Eq. 1). For the high-viscosity solution this is reduced to ∼23 m
Lambeck et al.

Fig. 4. Solution for the ice-volume esl function and change in ice volume. (A) Individual esl estimates (blue) and the objective estimate of the denoised time
series (red line). The Inset gives an expanded scale for the last 9,000 y. (B) The same esl estimate and its 95% probability limiting values. Also shown are the
major climate events in the interval [the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), Heinrich events H1 to H3, the Bølling-Allerød warm period (B-A), and the Younger
Dryas cold period (Y-D)] as well as the timing of MWP-1A, 1B, and the 8.2 ka BP cooling event. (C) The 95% probability estimates of the esl estimates. (D)
Estimates of sea-level rate of change.
whereas it is increased to ∼30 m for the low-viscosity solution. The
choice of model could then be made on the basis of how much ice
can plausibly be stored in Antarctica during the LGM, consistent
with other geological and glaciological constraints. On the basis of
the comparison with independent estimates (55–57), we favor the
high-viscosity model.
Both solutions point to an ongoing slow increase in ocean
volume after 7 ka BP, even though melting of the large Northern
Hemisphere ice sheets had largely ceased by this time. The high
northern latitude Holocene Climate Optimum peaked between
6 and 4 ka BP, and some Greenland ice-margin retreat occurred
at least locally (60, 61). There is also evidence that some Antarctic
melting occurred after ∼6 ka BP (62). Furthermore, high and
midlatitude mountain glaciers, including remnants of Late
Pleistocene arctic and subarctic ice caps, may also have contin-
ued to decrease in volume (63). However, in all cases, there is
not enough observational evidence to independently constrain
global estimates of ice-mass fluctuations during this post-7-ka
period to permit discrimination between the two esl solutions.
One option is to impose constraints on the lower-mantle vis-
cosity from sources independent of the far-field results. Our
analyses of rebound data from formerly glaciated regions (64)
and of deglaciation-induced changes in the dynamic flattening
and rotation of the Earth (65–67) are consistent with the high-
viscosity results, although these solutions are also ice-model
dependent. Inversions of geoid and seismic tomographic data are
less sensitive to the choice of ice models (the observed geoid
needs corrections for the GIA contribution) and point to an
increase in depth-averaged mantle viscosity of one to three
orders of magnitude from average upper to lower mantle (68–
73). Likewise, inferences of viscosity from the sinking speed of
subducted lithosphere also point to high (3–5) × 1022 Pa s values
for the lower-mantle viscosity (74). On this basis, and because it
yields the smaller volume for the LGM Antarctic ice volume, we
adopt the high-viscosity lower-mantle solution.
The adopted esl function illustrated in Fig. 4 and SI Appendix,
Table S3, shows many features previously identified in one or
more individual records but which, because it is based on geo-
graphically well-spaced observations corrected for the isostatic
Lambeck et al.
INAUGURAL ARTICLE
AND PLANETARY SCIENCES
EARTH, ATMOSPHERIC,
contributions, will reflect more accurately the changes in globally
averaged sea level and ice volume. These features are:
i) A period of a relatively slow fall in sea level from 35 to
31 ka BP followed by a rapid fall during 31–29 ka. This
is based on data from Barbados, Bonaparte Gulf, Huon
Peninsula (Papua New Guinea), and a few isolated obser-
vations from the Malay Peninsula and the Bengal Fan. It
points to a period of rapid ice growth of ∼25 m esl within
∼1,000 y to mark the onset of the peak glaciation, consis-
tent with the transition out of the Scandinavian Ålesund
Interstadial into the glacial maximum (75), although this
ice sheet alone is inadequate to contribute 25 m to esl.
Chronologically, the timing of the rapid fall corresponds
to the nominal age for the Heinrich H3 event (76, 77).
ii) Approximately constant or slowly increasing ice volumes
from ∼29–21 ka BP. The data for this interval are sparse
but are from geographically well-distributed sites (Barbados,
Bonaparte, Bengal Fan, East China Sea, and Maldives). The
slow increase in ice volume is consistent with eastward and
southward expansion of the Scandinavian ice sheet during
the LGM (78) as well as with the southward advance of the
Laurentide ice sheet (79). The esl reaches its lowest value of
∼134 m at the end of this interval, corresponding to ∼52 ×
106 km3 more grounded ice—including on shelves—at the
LGM than today. This is greater than the frequently cited
−125 m (e.g., 24, 80) that is usually based on observations
uncorrected for isostatic effects. Heinrich event H2 at
∼19.5–22 14C ka (∼25 ka BP) (77, 81, 82) is not associated
with a recognizable sea-level signal.
iii) Onset of deglaciation at ∼21–20 ka BP with a short-lived
global sea-level rise of ∼10–15 m before 18 ka. The evi-
dence comes from the Bonaparte Gulf (37, 38), has been
identified elsewhere (83, 84), and is supported by isolated
observations from five other locations (Bengal Bay, Cape St
Francis (South Africa), offshore Sydney, Barbados, Mal-
dives) which, although less precise than the principal data
set, spread the rise over a longer time interval than origi-
nally suggested. Chronologically, this rise occurs substan-
tially later than the H2 event.
PNAS | October 28, 2014 | vol. 111 | no. 43 | 15301
 iv) A short period of near-constant sea level from ∼18–16.5 ka
BP. Support for this comes from observations from
Barbados, the Sunda Shelf, Bonaparte Gulf, Mayotte,
and Cape St Francis.
v) A major phase of deglaciation from ∼16.5–7 ka BP. The
total esl change in this interval is ∼120 m, at an average rate
of ∼12 m·ka−1, corresponding to a reduction of grounded
ice volume of ∼45 × 106 km3). Within this interval, signif-
icant departures from the average occur.
vi) A rise of ∼25 m from ∼16.5–15 ka BP at the long-term
average rate of ∼12 m·ka−1. The data are from Sunda,
Tahiti, the East China Sea, Mayotte, and Australia. Chro-
nologically, the onset of this rise occurs at the time of the
H1 event dated at 16.8 ka (85) or 16 ka (86). This period of
rising sea level is followed by a short period (∼500–600 y) of
near-constant sea level.
vii) A high rate of sea-level rise starting at ∼14.5 ka BP of ∼500 y
duration. The onset occurs at the start of the Bølling−
Allerød warm period. Its duration could be <500 y because
of uncertainties in chronology, and the globally averaged rise
in sea level of ∼20 m occurs at a rate of ∼40 mm·y−1 or
greater. This pulse, MWP-1A, has been identified separately
in the records of Barbados (24), Sunda (33), and Tahiti (28,
87). Spatial variation in its amplitude can be expected be-
cause of the planet’s elastic and gravitational response to
rapid unloading of ice in either or both of the two hemi-
spheres (88) with, based on the ice−earth models used here,
model-predicted values ranging from ∼14 m for Barbados to
∼20 m for Tahiti (SI Appendix, Fig. S4). This compares with
observational values of ∼15–20 m (24, 28) for Barbados and
12–22 m for Tahiti (28). Observational uncertainties remain
large, including differences in the timing of this event as
recorded at the different localities, and it is not possible from
this evidence to ascertain the relative importance of the con-
tribution of the two hemispheres to MWP-1A.
viii) A period of sea-level rise from ∼14 to ∼12.5 ka BP of
∼20 m in 1,500 y. The rate of rise is near the long-term
average. Data are relatively dense in this interval and come
from well-distributed sites (Barbados, Tahiti, Sunda, Huon
Peninsula, Australia and New Zealand, Indian Ocean, and
the Yellow and East China seas).
ix) A period of a much reduced rate of rise from ∼12.5–11.5 ka
BP. This short duration pause in the sea-level rise has been
tenuously noted before in both composite (89) and individual
(27) records. The chronology corresponds to the timing of the
Younger Dryas stadial of the Northern Hemisphere when
retreat of the Northern Hemisphere ice sheets ceased mo-
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PNAS | October 28, 2014 | vol. 111 | no. 43 | 15303

  1
 

Supporting Information:

Text S1: Vertical tectonic correction

A primary indicator of long-term tectonic stability is the elevation of previous interglacials, particularly
the Last Interglacial from ~130-118 ka BP (MIS 5e). If MIS5e occurs within about 10 m of present sea
level, the region is assumed to have been stable within 0.1 mm/year and any contribution to LGM sea
levels is ~±2 m. Where these shorelines lie further from present sea level, their elevation hLIG provide a
first-order measure of long-term tectonic uplift rate

!! ! T (", t) = (hLIG " !! LIG ) / TLIG

where TLIG is the age of MIS5e (125±5 ka) and ΔζLIG is the expected sea level in the absence of tectonics,
assumed here to be at 5±5 m to allow for both the lesser ice during the LIG and the GIA spatial variability
expected across far field sites (1–3). The tectonic correction and its accuracy at time t is

!! T (", t) = !! ! T (", t) " t

# 2 = (!! ! / " )2 + (" 2
h T t h(LIG ) + " !2! (LIG ) ) / TLIG
2
+ (hLIG # !! LIG )2 " T2 (LIG ) / TLIG
4

The Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea, is an area of rapid uplift with the LIG reefs of earlier interglacial
reefs at elevations of 1000 m and more with rates of uplift that vary with location (4). The Holocene data
is from Sialum (Kwamba) with an uplift rate of 1.9 m ka-1 (5), whereas the MIS3 data is from the
Kanzarua and Bobongara sections with uplift rates of 2.8 and 3.4 m ka-1 respectively (6). These are
average rates over 100,000 years but at least in the case of Sialum the uplift rate over the past 6,000 years
is consistent with that for the longer interval.

Tahiti, a relatively young volcanic load, is subject to subsidence from the loading of the lithosphere by the
volcanic complex and, to a lesser degree, from the thermal contraction of a cooling lithosphere. The
volcanic load is relatively young (~106 years) and the relaxation time for the oceanic lithosphere for this
region may be of the order of ~107 years (7), yielding a subsidence rate of about 0.1 mm/year or only
about 1 m over 10,000 years. This is the value adopted here with an uncertainty of 50% (see (8) for a
further discussion).

Barbados is a slowly uplifting and faulted island with MIS5e reefs at elevations from 60 to 24 m above
present sea level (9). Onshore of the core sites this reef occurs at ~ 35 m but the offshore extension of the
faults is unknown. We adopt this value here with an uncertainty of ±10 m.

Sea level estimates from within the large river deltas of Asia may be subject to subsidence from both
compaction of the sediment subsequent to the formation of the sea-level marker as well as from the
lithosphere-mantle response to the time-dependent sediment load. The first of these will be restricted to
the delta region itself whereas the latter will extend beyond the confines of the delta and sea-floor fan.
Calculations for a similar-scale Mississippi delta suggest that this is small beyond about 100 km of the
load (10). Hence we have only used data from areas beyond the delta.

1. Kopp RE, Simons FJ, Mitrovica JX, Maloof AC, Oppenheimer M (2009) Probabilistic assessment of sea
level during the last interglacial stage. Nature 462:863–7.
2. Dutton A, Lambeck K (2012) Ice volume and sea level during the last interglacial. Science 337:216–9.
3. Lambeck K, Purcell A, Dutton A (2012) The anatomy of interglacial sea levels: The relationship between sea
levels and ice volumes during the Last Interglacial. Earth Planet Sci Lett 315-316:4–11.
4. Chappell J (1974) Geology of Coral Terraces, Huon Peninsula, New Guinea: A Study of Quaternary
Tectonic Movements and Sea-Level Changes. Geol Soc Am Bull 85:553–570.
5. Chappell J, Polach H (1991) Post-glacial sea-level rise from a coral record at Huon Peninsula, Papua New
Guinea. Nature 349:147–149.
   2  

6. Yokoyama Y, Esat TM, Lambeck K (2001) Last glacial sea-level change deduced from uplifted coral
terraces of Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea. Quat Int 83-85:275–283.
7. Lambeck K (1981) Lithospheric response to volcanic loading in the Southern Cook Islands. Earth Planet Sci
Lett 55:482–496.
8. Lambeck K, Yokoyama Y, Purcell T (2002) Into and out of the Last Glacial Maximum: sea-level change
during Oxygen Isotope Stages 3 and 2. Quat Sci Rev 21:343–360.
9. Radtke U, Grün R, Schwarcz HP (1988) Electron spin resonance dating of the Pleistocene coral reef tracts of
Barbados. Quat Res 29:197–215.
10. Simms AR, Lambeck K, Purcell A, Anderson JB, Rodriguez AB (2007) Sea-level history of the Gulf of
Mexico since the Last Glacial Maximum with implications for the melting history of the Laurentide Ice
Sheet. Quat Sci Rev 26:920–940.

Text S2: Bayesian partition modelling

Fig. S1 shows a simple example of the Bayesian partition methodology used to recover the ice volume
equivalent sea level (esl) curves in this study. Data (the filled circles in (A) are given in the form of noisy
estimates of esl as a function of time and the regression problem is to recover the underlying signal
parameterized using a series of linear segments determined by a set of control points (blue squares). The
Bayesian partition modelling provides an objective framework for signal reconstruction in which the
complexity of the sought after curve is determined by the data itself rather than imposed at the outset. It is
highly flexible since the position of the control points may vary in both the vertical (D) and horizontal (X)
directions, with the exception of the first and last which may only vary in the vertical direction. In addition
the number of control points, and consequently the number of linear segments in the esl curve, may also
vary, and is adjusted as the algorithm progresses.  

Allowing the number of unknowns to vary means that it would be meaningless to simply optimize the fit
to the data because the data could always be fit perfectly by introducing as many linear segments as there
are data. Instead Bayesian partition modelling provides a parsimonious estimation of the underlying signal
through sampling of an a posteriori probability density function (PDF) on the unknowns (1, 2). The
Bayesian framework requires definition of the usual data likelihood function and a priori PDF on the
unknowns, the a posteriori PDF on the model parameters is then the product of the two according to
Bayes’s rule. Under the assumption that each datum !! , is contaminated with independent Gaussian noise
of known standard deviation !! , the likelihood function is the standard multi-dimensional Gaussian

! !! !!! (!) !
! !    !   =     [2! ! !! ]!!/! exp − !!! ,
!!!!

where ! represents the N-vector of data, ! the k-vector of model parameters and !! (!) the height of the
linear segment curve at the location of the ith-datum (Fig. S1(A). The a priori PDF for the model
parameters are chosen to be uniform between upper and lower bounds in all cases. For both the vertical
and horizontal position of the control points the prior bounds are set to the corresponding limits of the data,
and the number of control points set to a maximum of 10 in the example of Fig. S1, and to 40 for the esl
data in the main body of the paper.

Bayes’ rule is used to combine the likelihood and prior PDFs to give

! !! !!! (!) !
! !    !   ∝   [2! ! !! ]!!/! exp − !!! , for !∈M
!!!!

which is the a posteriori PDF of the model parameters given the data. Here the model vector ! of control
points has k unknowns, where k is itself an unknown. We call this a trans-dimensional inverse problem
since the parameter space varies in dimension. Solution of the inverse problem provided by Bayesian
partition modelling takes the form of an ensemble of model vectors, !! (! = 1, … , !! ), whose density is
distributed according to the trans-dimensional a posteriori PDF ! !    ! . The ensemble is generated
using the birth-death Markov chain Monte Carlo algorithm of (3). In essence this involves a series of
   3  

random perturbations in each model parameter that are either accepted or rejected according to
probabilistic decision rules. Once obeyed, these rules allow the Markov chain to relax to any targeted
probability distribution. Transitions between models of different dimension (i.e. with different numbers of
linear segments) are handled by proposing a ‘birth’ of a control point randomly in X, or ‘death’ of an
existing control point, again following acceptance rules which ensure asymptotic convergence of the chain.
Implementation requires choices to be made on the size of perturbations of each parameter that influences
the rate of convergence and hence overall efficiency of the process. Other implementation details are
given in (4), although here, as shown in Fig. S1(A), linear segments are used to create a continuous curve
rather than zero-order polynomials which is more appropriate when data are expected to contain
discontinuities.

In this Bayesian approach the entire ensemble is thought of as the ‘solution’ to the inverse problem,
properties of which are then examined for inspection. For the example in Fig. S1(A)the resulting posterior
ensemble is shown in Fig. S1(B)as a density plot, together with the ensemble mean which is taken as the
average of the collected curves at each point along the X axis, and 95% confidence intervals. Here the
ensemble comprises 106 linear segment-curves with between 1 and 7 segments. For this example the
ensemble mean is a good recovery of the original signal (gray curve in Fig. S1(A)) and captures the major
change points in the gradient. The two smallest gradient changes at locations X=5 and 8.5 are not
recovered due to the relatively large noise on the data. Fig. S1(C)shows a histogram of the X positions of
the control parameter (squares in Fig. S4-A) which provides an estimate of the probability density of the
change points in the signal, i.e. the positions where the gradient changes. As with any PDF the width and
height of the histogram indicates relative confidence that may be placed in the locations of the change
points. In this example the four largest change points are recovered including two rather close in the range
6 < X < 7, which can be clearly discerned by the double peak of the histogram.

One of the advantages of Bayesian partition modeling is its ability to recover the resolvable signal in the
data without imposing the number of degrees of freedom in the model, beyond that contained in choosing
the prior. In this way the sampling approach avoids use of explicit data smoothing parameters which
appear in optimization approaches and are often chosen in an ad hoc manner. Bayesian inference is also
‘naturally parsimonious’ in that models of higher dimension are not necessarily favored over those of
lower dimension when fitting the data (see (5) for an explanation). In the above example, the effectiveness
of natural parsimony is seen with a maximum number of control points chosen by the algorithm of just 7
with most models having only 5 segments. In this study the spatial mean model is extracted and taken as
an estimate of the underlying signal from the noisy data. Uncertainty estimates, such as the 95% credible
intervals (dotted curves in Fig. S1(B), light blue envelope in Fig. 4(B) of the main text) are obtained as a
by-product of estimating the ensemble mean as a function of X and may also be a useful output, while
uncertainty in the change point position is estimated by the widths of the peaks in histograms such as Fig.
S1(C).

1. Denison DGT, Holmes CC, Mallick BK, Smith AFM (2002) Bayesian Methods for Nonlinear Classification
and Regression (Wiley, Chichester), 296 pp.
2. Sambridge M, Gallagher K, Jackson A, Rickwood P (2006) Trans-dimensional inverse problems, model
comparison and the evidence. Geophys J Int 167:528–542.
3. Geyer CJ, Møller J (1994) Simulation Procedures and Likelihood Inference for Spatial Point Processes.
Scand J Stat 21:359–373.
4. Gallagher K et al. (2011) Inference of abrupt changes in noisy geochemical records using transdimensional
changepoint models. Earth Planet Sci Lett 311:182–194.
5. MacKay DJC (2003) Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms (Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge).
   4  

Supporting Information: Figures

 
A
60
Model control
parameters
40

20
D

-20
True signal
-40 Linear
Data segment
curve
-60
0 2 4 6 8 10
X
B
60

40

20

0
F

-20

-40

-60
0 2 4 6 8 10
X
C
Probability density
Changepoint

0 2 4 6 8 10
X
 
Figure S1.
Illustration of Bayesian change point modeling methodology used in this study. (A) 100 synthetic
noisy data points (dots) generated from the linear segment curve (gray) with Gaussian noise added.
Model parameterization consists of a linear segment curve defined by control points (squares)
whose vertical and horizontal position are variable. The Markov chain algorithm randomly adjusts
these control parameters and also creates or destroys control points to sample the trans-dimensional
posterior probability density function. (B) An estimate of the a posteriori PDF. The mean of the
ensemble as a function of X provides an estimate of the underlying signal, whereas uncertainty
estimates are obtained on the mean curve from 95% of the ensemble mass as a function of X. (C) A
histogram of the control point positions in the ensemble, which provides information on the
locations and uncertainty of the places where the gradient changes in the signal.

 
   5  

Figure S2.
A: The esl function for the two solutions (the preferred high-viscosity solution in blue and the low-
viscosity solution in red) and the nominal esl function corresponding to the ice models that define
the isostatic corrections in eqn 3 (yellow). B: The corrective term for the two solutions (same colors
as in A). C: Histogram of the estimated gradient change positions for the esl solution corresponding
to the high-viscosity solution. The widths of the peaks provide a measure of the uncertainty in the
location of the change points.
   6  

Figure S3.
Predicted contours !! rsl (", t) = !! esl (", t) ± # at two epochs, 6 and 20 ka BP (A, B and C, D
respectively) for the two earth-model solutions (high-viscosity (A and C) and low-viscosity (B and
D) for the lower mantle). For 6 ka ε = 0.25 m and for 20 ka ε = 2.5% of the equivalent sea level for
that epoch. The data sites for this solution are also indicated. One approach to separating earth and
ice parameters is to search for the ‘dip-stick’ sites where the glacio- and hydro-isostatic components
cancel and !! rsl (", t) = !! esl (", t) but the location of such contours do exhibit a dependence on
both earth- and ice-parameters as well as varying through time. For example, for the high-viscosity
model, Tahiti approximates a dip-stick response at 20 ka (C) but not at 6 ka (A) and Barbados
approximates a dip-stick response for the low-viscosity (B and D) model but not for the high-
viscosity model (A and C). Thus an a priori assumption that a particular site acts as a dip-stick has
the potential to lead to erroneous model parameters.
   7  

Figure S4.
(A) Predicted sea level at five sites that have contributed to the far-field solution for the high-viscosity
lower-mantle model and for the second iteration solution for the correction to the nominal esl function
parameterized by 1,000 year means (it does not correspond exactly to the final solution illustrated in Fig.
4). This illustrates well the spatial variability in sea level that occurs within the far-field as a result of the
earth-ocean response to the changing ice-water load. Of these sites, and for this ice-earth model parameter
combination, Tahiti approximates most closely the ice-volume function over the entire period with the
gravitational and deformational contributions from the ice sheets in the two hemispheres nearly cancelling
out. The largest departure from this occurs within the Malacca Strait location offshore Malacca (site
Hv7653 of (1)), which effectively is a far-inland site at times of sea level-lowstands, continuing a trend in
spatial variability previously noted for the Sunda Shelf area (2). (The Sunda Shelf site corresponds to
18301-2 of (3)). (B) The same result but for the period about the time of MWP-1A. The most important
difference between sites is the depth at which this event occurs but the amplitudes and rates also vary. The
rapid change at this time, from 14.5 to 14 ka BP, is the result of changes in the Laurentide ice model
derived from the inversion of sea level data from North America with a globally averaged contribution to
sea level of ~19 m whereas, due to the elastic and gravitational factors, the local predicted variation ranges
from ~14 m at Barbados (35 mm/year) to ~21 m at Tahiti (52 mm/year).

1. Geyh MA, Kudrass H-R, Streif H (1979) Sea-level changes during the late Pleistocene and Holocene in the
Straits of Malacca. Nature 278:441–43.
2. Lambeck K, Yokoyama Y, Purcell T (2002) Into and out of the Last Glacial Maximum: sea-level change
during Oxygen Isotope Stages 3 and 2. Quat Sci Rev 21:343–360.
3. Hanebuth T, Stattegger K, Grootes PM (2000) Rapid Flooding of the Sunda Shelf: A Late-Glacial Sea-Level
Record. Science 288:1033–1035.

 
   8  

Table S1.
Summary of observational evidence for the last 35,000 years used in the analysis. For the corals the depth
correction for growth range assumes (i) no geographic variability in growth range of a species, (ii) no time
dependence of this growth range and (iii) the growth position is normally distributed about the average
value of half the growth range. For Barbados most of the sampled corals included are Acropora palmata
that have a well defined growth range of typically 3–7 m below mean sea level for Caribbean reefs (1) and
the average growth position adopted for A. palmata is 5±2.5 m below mean sea level. For Porites
asteroids species a larger depth range of 8±4m has been adopted although colonies of this species can
presently occur at greater depths (2). Age uncertainties σt have been introduced into the elevation
uncertainties by adding (d!! / dt)" t in quadrature to the uncertainties of the height estimates, using σt
estimates from the original observations. During the deglaciation phase the gradient !! / dt has been
approximated by the average value for the sea level rise from 16.5 to 7 ka and will lead to an
underestimation at times of very rapid change such as during MWP-1A. Where appropriate, all age data
from the China and SE Asia region have been recalibrated using Calib61 of Reimer et al., 2009 (see
reference in main text) and tidal corrections have been applied to reduce all data to a common datum of
mean sea level.
 
1. Lighty RG, Macintyre IG, Stuckenrath R (1982) Acropora palmata reef framework: A reliable indicator of
sea level in the western atlantic for the past 10,000 years. Coral Reefs 1:125–130.
2. Fairbanks RG (1989) A 17,000-year glacio-eustatic sea level record: influence of glacial melting rates on the
Younger Dryas event and deep-ocean circulation. Nature 342:637–642.

Obs. Site Latitude Longitude Age RSL Sig.RSL Sample Ref.

Region
num. Location (degree) (ka) (m) type num.
1 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 7.210 -0.50 5.10 Coral 1/2
2 PACIFIC Tahiti -17.45 210.45 7.670 -4.10 5.10 Coral 1/2
3 OCEAN Tahiti -17.45 210.45 7.780 -5.60 5.10 Coral 1/2
4 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 8.580 -18.80 5.10 Coral 1/2
5 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 8.790 -14.50 5.10 Coral 1/2
6 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 9.330 -22.80 5.10 Coral 1/2
7 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 9.600 -25.10 5.10 Coral 1/2
8 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 9.880 -27.80 5.20 Coral 1/2
9 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 9.980 -30.10 5.20 Coral 1/2
10 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 10.180 -36.50 5.20 Coral 1/2
11 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 10.290 -34.40 5.20 Coral 1/2
12 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 10.310 -34.50 5.20 Coral 1/2
13 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 10.640 -42.30 5.20 Coral 1/2
14 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 11.090 -43.30 5.20 Coral 1/2
15 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 11.350 -51.30 5.20 Coral 1/2
16 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 11.560 -57.30 5.20 Coral 1/2
17 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 12.000 -52.50 10.10 Coral 1/2
18 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 12.770 -60.40 10.10 Coral 1/2
19 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 12.780 -61.00 10.10 Coral 1/2
20 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 12.940 -61.50 10.10 Coral 1/2
21 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 12.950 -63.90 5.30 Coral 1/2
22 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 12.980 -63.00 10.10 Coral 1/2
23 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 13.140 -64.10 10.10 Coral 1/2
24 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 13.600 -67.10 10.10 Coral 1/2
25 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 13.840 -70.00 5.30 Coral 1/2
26 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 14.300 -83.20 5.30 Coral 1/2
27 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 14.350 -98.60 5.30 Coral 1/2
28 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 14.520 -94.20 10.20 Coral 1/2
29 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 14.640 -100.20 5.30 Coral 1/2
30 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 14.990 -99.20 10.20 Coral 1/2
   9  

31 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 15.150 -102.20 10.20 Coral 1/2

32 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 15.180 -103.10 10.20 Coral 1/2
33 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 15.510 -105.50 10.20 Coral 1/2
34 Tahiti -17.45 210.45 16.020 -112.00 5.40 Coral 1/2
35 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 0.090 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
36 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 0.090 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
37 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 0.119 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
38 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 0.184 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
39 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 0.591 -0.00 0.10 Coral 3
40 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 0.607 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
41 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 0.610 -0.00 0.10 Coral 3
42 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 0.614 -0.00 0.10 Coral 3
43 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 0.644 -0.00 0.10 Coral 3
44 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 0.675 -0.00 0.10 Coral 3
45 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 0.723 -0.00 0.10 Coral 3
46 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 0.749 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
47 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.059 -0.00 0.10 Coral 3
48 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.123 0.10 0.10 Coral 3
49 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.280 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
50 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.408 -0.30 0.10 Coral 3
51 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.432 -0.00 0.10 Coral 3
52 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.467 0.20 0.10 Coral 3
53 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.477 0.10 0.10 Coral 3
54 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.490 0.00 0.10 Coral 3
55 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.496 -0.00 0.10 Coral 3
56 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.540 0.10 0.10 Coral 3
57 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.565 0.10 0.10 Coral 3
58 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.571 0.20 0.10 Coral 3
59 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.583 0.00 0.10 Coral 3
60 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.599 -0.00 0.10 Coral 3
61 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.599 0.10 0.10 Coral 3
62 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.628 -0.20 0.10 Coral 3
63 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.644 -0.00 0.10 Coral 3
64 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.668 -0.00 0.10 Coral 3
65 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.717 0.20 0.10 Coral 3
66 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.727 -0.00 0.10 Coral 3
67 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.734 0.10 0.10 Coral 3
68 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.740 0.10 0.10 Coral 3
69 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.773 0.00 0.10 Coral 3
70 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.775 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
71 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.778 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
72 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.815 0.20 0.10 Coral 3
73 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.832 -0.20 0.10 Coral 3
74 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.836 -0.00 0.10 Coral 3
75 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.841 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
76 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.856 -0.00 0.10 Coral 3
77 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.868 0.00 0.10 Coral 3
78 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.880 -0.00 0.10 Coral 3
79 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.880 0.10 0.10 Coral 3
80 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.896 0.00 0.10 Coral 3
81 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.898 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
82 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.919 -0.00 0.10 Coral 3
83 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.923 0.00 0.10 Coral 3
84 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.945 0.10 0.10 Coral 3
85 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 1.951 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
   10  

86 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 2.004 0.10 0.10 Coral 3

87 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 2.190 -0.00 0.10 Coral 3
88 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 2.223 0.00 0.10 Coral 3
89 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 2.351 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
90 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 2.486 0.00 0.10 Coral 3
91 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 2.507 -0.00 0.10 Coral 3
92 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 2.531 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
93 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 2.612 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
94 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 2.624 0.10 0.10 Coral 3
95 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 2.734 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
96 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 2.749 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
97 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 2.749 0.10 0.10 Coral 3
98 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 2.794 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
99 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 2.803 0.10 0.10 Coral 3
100 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 2.810 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
101 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 2.813 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
102 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 2.825 0.10 0.10 Coral 3
103 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 2.837 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
104 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 2.936 -0.20 0.10 Coral 3
105 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 2.985 0.00 0.10 Coral 3
106 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 3.000 -0.20 0.10 Coral 3
107 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 3.204 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
108 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 3.220 -0.00 0.10 Coral 3
109 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 3.329 0.00 0.10 Coral 3
110 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 3.550 0.20 0.10 Coral 3
111 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 3.550 -0.00 0.10 Coral 3
112 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 3.582 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
113 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 3.632 0.10 0.10 Coral 3
114 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 3.685 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
115 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 3.704 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
116 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 3.797 0.30 0.10 Coral 3
117 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 3.816 -0.20 0.10 Coral 3
118 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 3.865 0.10 0.10 Coral 3
119 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 3.878 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
120 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 3.908 -0.20 0.10 Coral 3
121 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 3.925 0.10 0.10 Coral 3
122 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 3.932 0.10 0.10 Coral 3
123 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 4.131 -0.20 0.10 Coral 3
124 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 4.138 0.20 0.10 Coral 3
125 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 4.175 -0.20 0.10 Coral 3
126 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 4.210 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
127 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 4.217 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
128 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 4.243 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
129 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 4.277 0.10 0.10 Coral 3
130 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 4.303 -0.00 0.10 Coral 3
131 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 4.389 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
132 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 4.426 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
133 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 4.467 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
134 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 4.614 -0.00 0.10 Coral 3
135 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 4.676 -0.00 0.10 Coral 3
136 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 4.682 -0.10 0.10 Coral 3
137 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 4.703 0.10 0.10 Coral 3
138 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 4.712 0.00 0.10 Coral 3
139 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 4.776 0.20 0.10 Coral 3
140 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 5.137 0.20 0.10 Coral 3
   11  

141 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 5.160 0.00 0.10 Coral 3

142 Kiritimati 1.98 202.52 5.255 0.00 0.10 Coral 3
143 Christchurch -43.50 172.67 0.639 -0.50 1.00 Sediment 4
144 NEW Christchurch -43.50 172.67 4.232 -0.50 1.00 Sediment 4
145 ZEALAND Christchurch -43.50 172.67 6.636 0.90 2.00 Sediment 4
146 Christchurch -43.50 172.67 7.027 -0.20 2.10 Sediment 4
147 Christchurch -43.50 172.67 7.462 -5.30 2.50 Sediment 4
148 Christchurch -43.50 172.67 7.619 -5.30 3.10 Sediment 4
149 Christchurch -43.50 172.67 8.240 -9.30 2.80 Sediment 4
150 Christchurch -43.50 172.67 8.261 -11.30 2.80 Sediment 4
151 Christchurch -43.50 172.67 8.364 -8.80 2.20 Sediment 4
152 Christchurch -43.50 172.67 8.385 -9.60 2.80 Sediment 4
153 Christchurch -43.50 172.67 8.572 -15.40 2.30 Sediment 4
154 Christchurch -43.50 172.67 8.729 -14.90 2.30 Sediment 4
155 Christchurch -43.50 172.67 8.855 -18.20 2.40 Sediment 4
156 Christchurch -43.50 172.67 8.950 -12.50 2.20 Sediment 4
157 Christchurch -43.50 172.67 9.111 -15.50 2.20 Sediment 4
158 Christchurch -43.50 172.67 9.219 -26.20 2.20 Sediment 4
159 Christchurch -43.50 172.67 9.362 -23.20 2.90 Sediment 4
160 Christchurch -43.50 172.67 9.495 -25.60 2.20 Sediment 4
161 Christchurch -43.50 172.67 10.259 -24.20 2.50 Sediment 4
162 Christchurch -43.50 172.67 10.538 -24.90 2.00 Sediment 4
163 Christchurch -43.50 172.67 10.695 -28.30 2.30 Sediment 4
164 Christchurch -43.50 172.67 11.151 -31.60 4.70 Sediment 4
165 South Neck Beach -43.29 147.33 1.275 -0.50 0.50 Sediment 5
166 TASMANIA, South Neck Beach -43.29 147.33 2.000 -0.60 0.50 Sediment 5
167 VICTORIA South Neck Beach -43.29 147.33 2.726 -0.90 0.50 Sediment 5
168 & NSW South Neck Beach -43.29 147.33 4.094 -1.20 0.50 Sediment 5
169 South Arm Beach -43.02 147.33 4.279 -0.90 0.50 Sediment 5
170 South Neck Beach -43.29 147.33 6.235 -1.60 0.50 Sediment 5
171 Port Melbourne -37.75 144.97 9.461 -22.00 5.00 In-situ tree stump 6
172 Batemans Bay -35.70 150.18 2.390 1.80 0.30 Sediment 7
173 Batemans Bay -35.70 150.18 2.506 1.80 0.30 Sediment 7
174 Batemans Bay -35.70 150.18 2.540 1.30 0.30 Sediment 7
175 Batemans Bay -35.70 150.18 2.840 1.80 0.30 Sediment 7
176 Batemans Bay -35.70 150.18 2.852 1.80 0.30 Sediment 7
177 Batemans Bay -35.70 150.18 3.610 1.00 0.30 Sediment 7
178 Moruya -35.93 150.10 6.822 0.50 5.00 Sediment 8
179 Moruya -35.93 150.10 8.919 -17.00 5.00 Sediment 8
180 Moruya -35.93 150.10 10.039 -31.00 5.00 Sediment 8
181 Moruya -35.93 150.10 11.370 -45.00 5.00 Sediment 8
182 Sydney Shelf -33.72 151.75 20.400 -125.00 5.00 Sediment 9
183 Ceduna -32.11 133.65 1.255 -0.20 0.40 Sediment 10
184 SOUTH Ceduna -32.11 133.65 1.306 0.40 0.40 Sediment 10
185 AUSTRALIA Ceduna -32.11 133.65 3.004 0.40 0.40 Sediment 10
186 Ceduna -32.11 133.65 3.491 0.40 0.40 Sediment 10
187 Ceduna -32.11 133.65 3.606 0.40 0.40 Sediment 10
188 Ceduna -32.11 133.65 5.177 -0.20 0.40 Sediment 10
189 Ceduna -32.11 133.65 5.502 -0.30 0.40 Sediment 10
190 Ceduna -32.11 133.65 6.131 -0.60 0.40 Sediment 10
191 Ceduna -32.11 133.65 6.930 -0.60 0.40 Sediment 10
192 Port Lincoln -34.70 135.94 2.056 -0.10 0.40 Sediment 10
193 Port Lincoln -34.70 135.94 2.177 0.90 0.40 Sediment 10
194 Port Lincoln -34.70 135.94 2.424 0.90 0.40 Sediment 10
   12  

195 Port Lincoln -34.70 135.94 2.473 0.60 0.40 Sediment 10

196 Port Lincoln -34.70 135.94 2.624 0.40 0.40 Sediment 10
197 Port Lincoln -34.70 135.94 2.801 0.40 0.40 Sediment 10
198 Port Lincoln -34.70 135.94 2.928 0.10 0.40 Sediment 10
199 Port Lincoln -34.70 135.94 3.017 0.40 0.40 Sediment 10
200 Port Lincoln -34.70 135.94 3.081 1.00 0.40 Sediment 10
201 Port Lincoln -34.70 135.94 3.260 0.30 0.40 Sediment 10
202 Port Lincoln -34.70 135.94 3.452 1.40 0.40 Sediment 10
203 Port Lincoln -34.70 135.94 3.862 0.70 0.40 Sediment 10
204 Port Lincoln -34.70 135.94 4.015 -0.10 0.40 Sediment 10
205 Port Lincoln -34.70 135.94 4.092 0.40 0.40 Sediment 10
206 Port Lincoln -34.70 135.94 4.396 1.40 0.40 Sediment 10
207 Port Lincoln -34.70 135.94 4.584 0.80 0.40 Sediment 10
208 Port Lincoln -34.70 135.94 5.213 0.70 0.40 Sediment 10
209 Port Lincoln -34.70 135.94 5.442 0.40 0.40 Sediment 10
210 Port Franklin -33.73 136.93 1.996 1.60 0.60 Sediment 10
211 Port Franklin -33.73 136.93 3.491 1.40 1.40 Sediment 10
212 Port Franklin -33.73 136.93 3.939 2.10 0.60 Sediment 10
213 Port Franklin -33.73 136.93 4.659 0.90 0.60 Sediment 10
214 Port Franklin -33.73 136.93 5.994 1.20 0.60 Sediment 10
215 Port Franklin -33.73 136.93 6.481 0.50 0.60 Sediment 10
216 Redcliff Belperio -32.69 137.87 1.245 0.70 0.60 Sediment 10
217 Redcliff Belperio -32.69 137.87 1.336 0.70 0.60 Sediment 10
218 Redcliff Belperio -32.69 137.87 1.386 0.70 0.60 Sediment 10
219 Redcliff Belperio -32.69 137.87 1.537 0.90 0.80 Sediment 10
220 Redcliff Belperio -32.69 137.87 1.640 0.70 0.30 Sediment 10
221 Redcliff Belperio -32.69 137.87 1.672 -0.10 0.20 Sediment 10
222 Redcliff Belperio -32.69 137.87 2.202 -0.60 0.50 Sediment 10
223 Redcliff Belperio -32.69 137.87 2.226 0.70 0.30 Sediment 10
224 Redcliff Belperio -32.69 137.87 2.699 1.20 0.40 Sediment 10
225 Redcliff Belperio -32.69 137.87 2.788 1.20 0.80 Sediment 10
226 Redcliff Belperio -32.69 137.87 3.503 0.60 0.30 Sediment 10
227 Redcliff Belperio -32.69 137.87 4.015 0.60 0.30 Sediment 10
228 Redcliff Belperio -32.69 137.87 5.936 2.50 0.70 Sediment 10
229 Redcliff Belperio -32.69 137.87 5.959 2.20 0.30 Sediment 10
230 Redcliff Belperio -32.69 137.87 6.525 2.30 0.50 Sediment 10
231 Redcliff Belperio -32.69 137.87 8.447 -4.20 0.80 Sediment 10
232 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 0.430 -0.00 0.70 Sediment 10
233 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 0.484 -0.40 0.30 Sediment 10
234 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 0.923 -0.60 0.20 Sediment 10
235 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 1.066 0.90 0.20 Sediment 10
236 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 1.075 0.30 0.20 Sediment 10
237 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 1.215 1.20 1.40 Sediment 10
238 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 1.512 -0.60 0.30 Sediment 10
239 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 1.608 1.50 0.20 Sediment 10
240 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 1.704 1.20 0.20 Sediment 10
241 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 1.821 1.90 0.20 Sediment 10
242 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 2.080 0.90 0.20 Sediment 10
243 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 2.208 1.20 0.20 Sediment 10
244 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 2.318 1.10 0.20 Sediment 10
245 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 2.349 1.10 0.20 Sediment 10
246 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 2.731 0.80 0.20 Sediment 10
247 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 3.061 1.20 0.20 Sediment 10
248 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 3.273 -0.10 0.20 Sediment 10
249 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 3.548 1.10 0.20 Sediment 10
   13  

250 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 3.638 1.60 0.20 Sediment 10

251 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 3.913 1.40 0.20 Sediment 10
252 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 4.270 1.40 0.20 Sediment 10
253 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 4.377 1.40 0.20 Sediment 10
254 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 4.478 0.90 0.20 Sediment 10
255 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 4.572 1.30 0.20 Sediment 10
256 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 5.370 2.60 0.20 Sediment 10
257 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 5.472 2.30 0.20 Sediment 10
258 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 6.177 1.60 0.20 Sediment 10
259 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 6.430 1.10 0.20 Sediment 10
260 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 6.641 2.10 0.20 Sediment 10
261 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 6.984 2.10 0.20 Sediment 10
262 Port Pirie -33.16 138.01 7.561 -0.40 0.30 Sediment 10
263 Port Wakefield -34.13 138.09 1.135 -0.40 0.50 Sediment 10
264 Port Wakefield -34.13 138.09 1.185 1.20 0.50 Sediment 10
265 Port Wakefield -34.13 138.09 1.972 -0.40 0.50 Sediment 10
266 Port Wakefield -34.13 138.09 2.449 0.70 0.50 Sediment 10
267 Port Wakefield -34.13 138.09 2.966 0.70 0.50 Sediment 10
268 Port Wakefield -34.13 138.09 3.145 -0.00 0.50 Sediment 10
269 Port Wakefield -34.13 138.09 3.414 1.10 0.50 Sediment 10
270 Port Wakefield -34.13 138.09 3.606 1.30 0.50 Sediment 10
271 Port Wakefield -34.13 138.09 3.709 1.70 0.50 Sediment 10
272 Port Wakefield -34.13 138.09 3.862 0.10 0.50 Sediment 10
273 Port Wakefield -34.13 138.09 7.951 -3.10 0.50 Sediment 10
274 Port Gawler -34.64 138.46 0.825 1.10 0.50 Sediment 10
275 Port Gawler -34.64 138.46 2.288 -0.20 0.50 Sediment 10
276 Port Gawler -34.64 138.46 4.796 0.60 0.50 Sediment 10
277 Port Gawler -34.64 138.46 7.091 1.40 0.50 Sediment 10
278 Port Gawler -34.64 138.46 7.409 -1.20 0.20 Sediment 10
279 Port Gawler -34.64 138.46 7.556 0.00 0.50 Sediment 10
280 Fisherman Bay -33.43 137.88 1.456 0.30 0.30 Sediment 10
281 Fisherman Bay -33.43 137.88 1.772 1.10 0.40 Sediment 10
282 Fisherman Bay -33.43 137.88 2.008 1.30 0.40 Sediment 10
283 Fisherman Bay -33.43 137.88 2.104 1.30 0.40 Sediment 10
284 Fisherman Bay -33.43 137.88 2.473 1.50 0.50 Sediment 10
285 Fisherman Bay -33.43 137.88 3.004 0.90 0.50 Sediment 10
286 Fisherman Bay -33.43 137.88 3.273 0.90 0.60 Sediment 10
287 Fisherman Bay -33.43 137.88 3.465 1.60 0.60 Sediment 10
288 Fisherman Bay -33.43 137.88 4.054 1.40 0.70 Sediment 10
289 Fisherman Bay -33.43 137.88 4.219 3.80 0.70 Sediment 10
290 Fisherman Bay -33.43 137.88 4.497 3.10 0.80 Sediment 10
291 Fisherman Bay -33.43 137.88 4.821 3.80 0.80 Sediment 10
292 Mambray Creek -32.85 137.91 0.743 0.90 0.20 Sediment 10
293 Mambray Creek -32.85 137.91 1.056 0.20 0.30 Sediment 10
294 Mambray Creek -32.85 137.91 1.155 0.40 0.30 Sediment 10
295 Mambray Creek -32.85 137.91 1.821 0.60 0.40 Sediment 10
296 Mambray Creek -32.85 137.91 1.960 0.90 0.40 Sediment 10
297 Red Cliff Burne -32.70 137.80 1.772 0.30 0.40 Sediment 10
298 Red Cliff Burne -32.70 137.80 2.436 0.60 0.50 Sediment 10
299 Red Cliff Burne -32.70 137.80 4.345 1.80 0.80 Sediment 10
300 Red Cliff Burne -32.70 137.80 4.672 0.30 0.80 Sediment 10
301 Red Cliff Burne -32.70 137.80 4.957 0.50 0.90 Sediment 10
302 Red Cliff Burne -32.70 137.80 5.104 0.90 0.90 Sediment 10
303 Wood Point -33.33 137.86 0.369 0.40 0.20 Sediment 10
304 Wood Point -33.33 137.86 1.215 1.10 0.30 Sediment 10
   14  

305 Wood Point -33.33 137.86 1.588 1.00 0.30 Sediment 10

306 Wood Point -33.33 137.86 1.872 1.20 0.40 Sediment 10
307 Wood Point -33.33 137.86 2.263 1.40 0.40 Sediment 10
308 Wood Point -33.33 137.86 2.712 2.50 0.50 Sediment 10
309 Wood Point -33.33 137.86 3.952 1.30 0.70 Sediment 10
310 Wood Point -33.33 137.86 4.534 1.60 0.80 Sediment 10
311 Wood Point -33.33 137.86 5.561 2.50 0.90 Sediment 10
312 Abrolhos -28.68 113.83 1.058 0.50 2.10 Coral 11 / 12
313 WESTERN Abrolhos -28.68 113.83 2.335 0.70 2.10 Coral 11 / 12
314 AUSTRALIA Abrolhos -28.68 113.83 3.226 0.70 2.10 Coral 11 / 12
315 Abrolhos -28.68 113.83 3.831 0.80 2.10 Coral 11 / 12
316 Abrolhos -28.68 113.83 3.867 1.00 2.10 Coral 11 / 12
317 Abrolhos -28.68 113.83 5.825 1.50 2.10 Coral 11 / 12
318 Abrolhos -28.68 113.83 6.323 0.80 2.00 Coral 11 / 12
319 Abrolhos -28.68 113.83 6.832 1.60 2.10 Coral 11 / 12
320 Abrolhos -28.68 113.83 6.919 1.40 2.10 Coral 11 / 12
321 Abrolhos -28.68 113.83 6.309 0.20 0.50 Coral 11 / 12
322 Abrolhos -28.68 113.83 6.714 -1.20 0.50 Coral 11 / 12
323 Abrolhos -28.68 113.83 7.099 -2.30 1.00 Coral 11 / 12
324 Abrolhos -28.68 113.83 7.842 -5.00 1.00 Coral 11 / 12
325 Abrolhos -28.68 113.83 7.996 -10.70 1.00 Coral 11 / 12
326 Abrolhos -28.68 113.83 8.119 -7.50 3.00 Coral 11 / 12
327 Abrolhos -28.68 113.83 8.619 -14.20 3.00 Coral 11 / 12
328 Abrolhos -28.68 113.83 8.990 -17.10 3.00 Coral 11 / 12
329 Abrolhos -28.68 113.83 9.345 -19.80 3.00 Coral 11 / 12
330 Abrolhos -28.68 113.83 9.610 -23.60 3.00 Coral 11 / 12
331 Abrolhos -28.68 113.83 9.800 -24.40 3.10 Coral 11 / 12
332 Swan River -31.95 115.85 9.240 -20.00 2.50 Sediment 13
333 Bonaparte_3 -12.12 127.93 28.330 -118.30 7.80 Sediment 14 / 15
334 Bonaparte_3 -12.12 127.93 29.580 -118.40 7.80 Sediment 14 / 15
335 Bonaparte_3 -12.12 127.93 29.070 -118.60 7.80 Sediment 14 / 15
336 Bonaparte_3 -12.12 127.93 29.980 -118.90 7.80 Sediment 14 / 15
337 Bonaparte_4 -12.17 128.00 19.720 -112.80 5.40 Sediment 14 / 15
338 Bonaparte_4 -12.17 128.00 21.690 -119.10 3.70 Sediment 14 / 15
339 Bonaparte_4 -12.17 128.00 28.280 -117.40 4.00 Sediment 14 / 15
340 Bonaparte_5 -12.18 128.02 16.980 -109.10 5.40 Sediment 14 / 15
341 Bonaparte_5 -12.18 128.02 19.120 -117.30 2.90 Sediment 14 / 15
342 Bonaparte_5 -12.18 128.02 19.740 -117.30 2.90 Sediment 14 / 15
343 Bonaparte_5 -12.18 128.02 19.670 -117.30 2.90 Sediment 14 / 15
344 Bonaparte_5 -12.18 128.02 20.480 -118.20 2.90 Sediment 14 / 15
345 Bonaparte_Gb1 -11.92 124.48 21.980 -129.00 5.00 Sediment 14 / 15
346 Bonaparte_V229 -11.96 123.84 20.520 -133.00 5.00 Sediment 14 / 15
347 Grub Reef -18.63 147.43 7.740 -2.80 1.00 Coral 16 / 17
348 QUEENSLAND Grub Reef -18.63 147.43 7.970 -3.80 2.00 Coral 16 / 17
349 & Grub Reef -18.63 147.43 8.170 -4.50 2.00 Coral 16 / 17
350 NORTHERN Grub Reef -18.63 147.43 8.400 -6.20 2.00 Coral 16 / 17
351 TERRITORY Grub Reef -18.63 147.43 8.710 -8.70 2.00 Coral 16 / 17
352 Grub Reef -18.63 147.43 9.180 -15.50 2.00 Coral 16 / 17
353 Grub Reef -18.63 147.43 9.610 -27.70 4.00 Coral 16 / 17
354 Grub Reef -18.63 147.43 12.290 -43.70 4.00 Coral 16 / 17
355 Inner-Cleveland Bay -19.20 146.90 1.922 -0.30 3.70 Coral 18
356 Inner-Cleveland Bay -19.20 146.90 2.640 0.60 3.90 Coral 18
357 Inner-Cleveland Bay -19.20 146.90 6.621 1.70 3.90 Coral 18
358 Inner-Cleveland Bay -19.20 146.90 7.175 1.70 3.80 Coral 18
359 Inner-Cleveland Bay -19.20 146.90 8.203 -2.90 3.80 Coral 18
   15  

360 Inner-Cleveland Bay -19.20 146.90 8.725 -5.60 4.30 Coral 18

361 Inner-Cleveland Bay -19.20 146.90 9.025 -5.80 4.40 Coral 18
362 Outer-Cleveland Bay -18.90 146.98 1.712 -0.60 4.40 Coral 18
363 Outer-Cleveland Bay -18.90 146.98 4.308 0.90 3.90 Coral 18
364 Outer-Cleveland Bay -18.90 146.98 8.964 -8.90 4.50 Coral 18
365 Fantome Island -18.67 146.52 2.562 0.30 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
366 Fantome Island -18.67 146.52 2.567 0.40 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
367 Fantome Island -18.67 146.52 4.842 0.60 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
368 Fantome Island -18.67 146.52 6.132 1.00 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
369 Fantome Island -18.67 146.52 6.345 0.90 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
370 Great Palm Island -18.72 146.60 5.061 0.90 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
371 Great Palm Island -18.72 146.60 5.758 0.90 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
372 Great Palm Island -18.72 146.60 6.321 0.80 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
373 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 2.541 0.20 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
374 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 2.588 0.30 0.20 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
375 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 3.168 0.40 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
376 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 3.875 0.50 0.20 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
377 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 3.177 0.30 0.20 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
378 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 3.947 0.50 0.20 Coral-microatoll 17
379 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 4.812 0.60 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
380 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 5.459 0.50 0.20 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
381 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 5.601 0.90 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
382 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 5.850 0.60 0.20 Coral-microatoll 17
383 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 5.889 0.80 0.20 Coral-microatoll 17
384 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 5.896 0.70 0.20 Coral-microatoll 17
385 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 5.994 1.10 0.20 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
386 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 6.074 1.00 0.20 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
387 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 6.086 0.90 0.20 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
388 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 6.113 0.60 0.20 Coral-microatoll 17
389 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 6.147 1.00 0.20 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
390 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 6.170 0.70 0.20 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
391 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 6.222 1.30 0.20 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
392 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 6.242 1.00 0.20 Coral-microatoll 17
393 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 6.305 0.80 0.20 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
394 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 6.427 0.90 0.20 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
395 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 6.476 0.90 0.20 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
396 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 6.488 0.80 0.20 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
397 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 6.538 0.80 0.20 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
398 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 6.582 0.80 0.20 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
399 Pioneer Bay -18.60 146.48 6.625 0.60 0.20 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
400 Dunk Island -17.94 146.14 5.316 0.40 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
401 Dunk Island -17.94 146.14 6.094 0.70 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
402 Dunk Island -17.94 146.14 6.136 0.30 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
403 Dunk Island -17.94 146.14 6.523 0.90 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
404 Goold -18.17 146.16 0.356 0.20 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
405 Goold -18.17 146.16 3.193 0.60 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
406 Goold -18.17 146.16 5.128 0.50 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
407 Goold -18.17 146.16 5.412 0.70 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
408 Goold -18.17 146.16 5.418 1.00 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
409 Goold -18.17 146.16 5.973 0.90 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
410 Goold -18.17 146.16 6.068 1.20 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
411 Goold -18.17 146.16 6.703 1.30 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
412 Magnetic Island -19.15 146.87 0.360 0.20 0.20 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
413 Magnetic Island -19.15 146.87 3.260 0.60 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
414 Magnetic Island -19.15 146.87 5.102 0.50 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
   16  

415 Magnetic Island -19.15 146.87 5.268 0.40 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17

416 Magnetic Island -19.15 146.87 5.481 1.00 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
417 Magnetic Island -19.15 146.87 5.498 0.70 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
418 Magnetic Island -19.15 146.87 5.942 0.90 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
419 Magnetic Island -19.15 146.87 6.034 0.70 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
420 Magnetic Island -19.15 146.87 6.079 1.20 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
421 Magnetic Island -19.15 146.87 6.103 0.30 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
422 Magnetic Island -19.15 146.87 6.519 0.90 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
423 Magnetic Island -19.15 146.87 6.663 1.30 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19 / 17
424 Yule Point -16.57 145.52 1.059 0.30 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
425 Yule Point -16.57 145.52 1.193 0.60 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
426 Yule Point -16.57 145.52 3.894 1.00 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
427 Yule Point -16.57 145.52 5.072 1.20 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
428 Yule Point -16.57 145.52 5.083 0.70 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
429 Camp Island -19.87 147.88 1.156 0.50 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
430 Camp Island -19.87 147.88 5.767 0.70 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
431 Camp Island -19.87 147.88 6.646 0.90 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
432 Stone Island -20.03 148.27 6.026 1.10 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
433 Stone Island -20.03 148.27 6.046 0.60 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
434 Stone Island -20.03 148.27 6.583 1.00 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
435 Stone Island -20.03 148.27 6.741 1.10 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
436 King Island -14.10 144.33 4.367 0.60 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
437 King Island -14.10 144.33 4.386 0.40 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
438 King Island -14.10 144.33 5.789 0.80 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
439 King Island -14.10 144.33 5.850 0.80 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
440 Flinders Island -14.18 144.26 6.380 0.20 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
441 Flinders Island -14.18 144.26 6.447 0.30 0.30 Coral-microatoll 19
442 Legatt Island -14.55 144.67 5.067 0.80 0.30 Coral-microatoll in 16 / 20
443 Legatt Island -14.55 144.67 5.597 0.60 0.30 Coral-microatoll in 16 / 20
444 Legatt Island -14.55 144.67 6.028 0.90 0.30 Coral-microatoll in 16 / 20
445 Houghton -14.52 144.97 4.274 0.60 0.30 Coral-microatoll in 16 / 20
446 Houghton -14.52 144.97 5.251 1.20 0.30 Coral-microatoll in 16 / 20
447 Houghton -14.52 144.97 5.889 0.80 0.30 Coral-microatoll in 16 / 20
448 Houghton -14.52 144.97 6.558 1.00 0.30 Coral-microatoll in 16 / 20
449 Myall Reef -16.08 145.50 5.146 0.10 0.30 Coral-microatoll in 16 / 20
450 Myall Reef -16.08 145.50 5.683 0.50 0.30 Coral-microatoll in 16 / 20
451 Myall Reef -16.08 145.50 6.489 0.30 0.30 Coral-microatoll in 16 / 20
452 Noble Island -14.50 144.77 6.376 1.00 0.30 Coral-microatoll in 16 / 20
453 Noble Island -14.50 144.77 6.602 0.80 0.30 Coral-microatoll in 16 / 20
454 Nymph Island -14.65 145.25 3.348 1.20 0.30 Coral-microatoll in 16 / 20
455 Nymph Island -14.65 145.25 3.393 1.40 0.30 Coral-microatoll in 16 / 20
456 Nymph Island -14.65 145.25 5.458 1.00 0.30 Coral-microatoll in 16 / 20
457 Yam Island -9.90 142.77 5.237 0.50 0.30 Coral-microatoll 21
458 Yam Island -9.90 142.77 6.120 0.50 0.30 Coral-microatoll 21
459 Yam Island -9.90 142.77 6.658 0.70 0.30 Coral-microatoll 21
460 Yam Island -9.90 142.77 6.701 0.30 0.30 Coral-microatoll 21
461 Warraber Island -10.21 142.82 5.334 1.00 0.30 Coral-microatoll 21
462 Warraber Island -10.21 142.82 5.936 0.80 0.30 Coral-microatoll 21
463 Warraber Island -10.21 142.82 6.063 0.70 0.30 Coral-microatoll 21
464 Hammond Island -10.56 142.18 6.910 1.00 0.30 Coral-microatoll 21
465 Arafura Sill -10.65 137.58 12.200 -53.00 3.00 Sediment 22
466 Edward River -18.75 147.27 3.324 0.70 0.50 Sediment 23
467 Edward River -18.75 147.27 5.691 1.10 0.50 Sediment 23
468 Edward River -18.75 147.27 5.924 1.20 0.50 Sediment 23
469 Karumba -17.42 140.83 0.868 0.40 0.50 Sediment 23
   17  

470 Karumba -17.42 140.83 1.947 0.60 0.50 Sediment 23

471 Karumba -17.42 140.83 3.196 1.40 0.50 Sediment 23
472 Karumba -17.42 140.83 4.472 1.90 0.50 Sediment 23
473 Karumba -17.42 140.83 6.380 2.30 0.50 Sediment 23
474 Port McArthur -15.78 136.67 5.808 1.20 0.60 Coral 23
475 Capricorn Channel -22.88 152.51 16.800 -110.00 5.00 Sediment 11 / 12
476 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 7.782 -4.20 5.40 Coral 24 / 25
477 PAPUA Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 8.163 -7.10 5.40 Coral 24 / 25
478 NEW Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 8.300 -8.30 5.40 Coral 24 / 25
479 GUINEA Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 8.465 -11.90 5.40 Coral 24 / 25
480 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 8.495 -14.90 5.40 Coral 24 / 25
481 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 8.516 -10.50 5.40 Coral 24 / 25
482 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 8.763 -13.80 5.40 Coral 24 / 25
483 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 9.132 -19.60 5.40 Coral 24 / 25
484 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 9.513 -21.50 5.40 Coral 24 / 25
485 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 9.561 -23.60 5.40 Coral 24 / 25
486 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 9.565 -26.90 5.40 Coral 24 / 25
487 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 9.843 -30.40 5.40 Coral 24 / 25
488 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 9.901 -28.10 5.40 Coral 24 / 25
489 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 9.950 -29.70 5.40 Coral 24 / 25
490 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 10.035 -33.20 5.40 Coral 24 / 25
491 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 10.199 -41.40 5.40 Coral 24 / 25
492 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 10.228 -32.70 5.40 Coral 24 / 25
493 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 10.325 -36.80 5.40 Coral 24 / 25
494 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 10.492 -38.50 5.40 Coral 24 / 25
495 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 10.504 -41.00 5.40 Coral 24 / 25
496 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 10.630 -40.10 5.40 Coral 24 / 25
497 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 10.776 -45.20 5.40 Coral 24 / 25
498 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 11.132 -47.40 5.40 Coral 24 / 25
499 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 11.406 -49.30 5.50 Coral 24 / 25
500 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 12.280 -53.80 5.50 Coral 24 / 25
501 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 12.628 -61.80 5.50 Coral 24 / 25
502 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 12.651 -54.30 5.50 Coral 24 / 25
503 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 12.998 -63.80 5.50 Coral 24 / 25
504 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 31.529 -70.30 3.50 Coral 25
505 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 31.997 -76.80 5.30 Coral 25
506 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 32.262 -70.60 5.50 Coral 25
507 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 32.600 -68.70 3.70 Coral 25
508 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 34.100 -63.00 3.90 Coral 25
509 Huon Peninsula -6.11 147.62 34.800 -63.40 2.40 Coral 25
510 Sunda-18262-3 9.25 107.99 11.670 -56.50 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
511 SUNDA Sunda-18262-3 9.25 107.99 12.970 -64.20 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
512 SHELF Sunda-18262-3 9.25 107.99 13.080 -64.40 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
513 Sunda-18265-2 9.39 107.75 10.902 -49.30 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
514 Sunda-18299-1 4.53 108.83 15.410 -104.80 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
515 Sunda-18300-2 4.36 108.65 14.350 -91.60 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
516 Sunda-18300-2 4.36 108.65 14.350 -95.30 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
517 Sunda-18300-2 4.36 108.65 14.720 -93.20 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
518 Sunda-18300-2 4.36 108.65 14.730 -95.30 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
519 Sunda-18300-2 4.36 108.65 14.750 -95.20 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
520 Sunda-18300-2 4.36 108.65 14.760 -95.00 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
521 Sunda-18300-2 4.36 108.65 15.290 -93.10 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
522 Sunda-18301-2 4.36 108.65 14.320 -95.80 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
523 Sunda-18301-2 4.36 108.65 14.340 -95.80 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
524 Sunda-18301-2 4.36 108.65 14.740 -96.30 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
   18  

525 Sunda-18302-2 4.16 108.58 14.100 -87.20 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27

526 Sunda-18302-2 4.16 108.58 14.150 -87.90 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
527 Sunda-18302-2 4.16 108.58 14.310 -87.10 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
528 Sunda-18305-2 4.29 109.08 18.230 -110.70 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
529 Sunda-18305-2 4.29 109.08 18.840 -114.10 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
530 Sunda-18305-2 4.29 109.08 19.250 -114.10 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
531 Sunda-18307-2 3.63 108.53 16.295 -105.20 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
532 Sunda-18307-2 3.63 108.53 18.410 -109.30 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
533 Sunda-18308-2 3.30 108.79 14.280 -80.30 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
534 Sunda-18308-2 3.30 108.79 14.320 -80.30 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
535 Sunda-18309-2 3.47 108.69 14.340 -84.80 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
536 Sunda-18309-2 3.47 108.69 14.350 -84.80 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
537 Sunda-18310-2 3.54 108.54 15.940 -104.90 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
538 Sunda-18322-2 2.31 107.63 13.440 -70.70 3.00 Sediment 26 / 27
539 LCK 1.45 103.72 1.787 -0.80 0.70 Sediment 28 / 29
540 SINGAPORE LCK 1.45 103.72 2.522 -0.40 0.70 Sediment 28 / 29
541 LCK 1.45 103.72 7.777 -3.20 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
542 NIE 1.35 103.65 5.746 3.30 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
543 NIE 1.35 103.65 5.772 3.10 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
544 SBU 1.45 103.72 1.740 1.00 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
545 SBU 1.45 103.72 7.545 -1.10 0.70 Sediment 28 / 29
546 SBU 1.45 103.72 7.554 -2.10 0.70 Sediment 28 / 29
547 SBU 1.45 103.72 7.585 -1.60 0.70 Sediment 28 / 29
548 SBU 1.45 103.72 7.923 -3.60 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
549 SEK 1.40 103.98 0.073 0.60 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
550 SEK 1.40 103.98 1.299 -0.40 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
551 SEK 1.40 103.98 4.510 1.70 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
552 SEK 1.40 103.98 4.612 1.70 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
553 GAM 1.38 104.28 6.870 0.30 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
554 Semakau 1.21 103.77 6.750 1.20 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
555 Semakau 1.21 103.77 6.910 1.40 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
556 Semakau 1.21 103.77 7.030 0.80 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
557 Semakau 1.21 103.77 7.045 1.00 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
558 Semakau 1.21 103.77 8.256 -9.60 1.20 Sediment 28 / 29
559 Semakau 1.21 103.77 8.556 -10.40 1.20 Sediment 28 / 29
560 Geylang 1.31 103.87 6.106 2.20 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
561 Geylang 1.31 103.87 6.410 1.20 0.70 Sediment 28 / 29
562 Geylang 1.31 103.87 6.456 1.20 0.70 Sediment 28 / 29
563 Geylang 1.31 103.87 6.705 0.00 0.60 Sediment 28 / 29
564 Geylang 1.31 103.87 6.820 -0.60 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
565 Geylang 1.31 103.87 6.822 1.10 1.20 Sediment 28 / 29
566 Geylang 1.31 103.87 7.025 -0.40 0.60 Sediment 28 / 29
567 Geylang 1.31 103.87 7.043 0.10 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
568 Geylang 1.31 103.87 7.092 -1.90 0.60 Sediment 28 / 29
569 Geylang 1.31 103.87 7.100 0.40 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
570 Geylang 1.31 103.87 7.120 -0.40 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
571 Geylang 1.31 103.87 7.175 0.20 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
572 Geylang 1.31 103.87 7.275 -2.50 0.60 Sediment 28 / 29
573 Geylang 1.31 103.87 7.350 -3.50 0.60 Sediment 28 / 29
574 Geylang 1.31 103.87 7.401 -2.70 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
575 Geylang 1.31 103.87 7.505 -2.20 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
576 Geylang 1.31 103.87 7.520 -3.20 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
577 Geylang 1.31 103.87 7.545 -2.10 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
578 Geylang 1.31 103.87 7.595 -2.20 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
579 Geylang 1.31 103.87 7.780 -3.60 0.60 Sediment 28 / 29
   19  

580 Geylang 1.31 103.87 7.840 -4.10 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29

581 Geylang 1.31 103.87 7.875 -2.10 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
582 Geylang 1.31 103.87 7.880 -2.90 0.60 Sediment 28 / 29
583 Geylang 1.31 103.87 7.895 -3.70 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
584 Geylang 1.31 103.87 7.975 -3.30 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
585 Geylang 1.31 103.87 7.987 -5.20 0.60 Sediment 28 / 29
586 Geylang 1.31 103.87 8.000 -2.50 0.60 Sediment 28 / 29
587 Geylang 1.31 103.87 8.100 -5.20 0.60 Sediment 28 / 29
588 Geylang 1.31 103.87 8.155 -4.20 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
589 Geylang 1.31 103.87 8.165 -5.10 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
590 Geylang 1.31 103.87 8.170 -6.90 0.70 Sediment 28 / 29
591 Geylang 1.31 103.87 8.175 -7.40 0.60 Sediment 28 / 29
592 Geylang 1.31 103.87 8.185 -3.00 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
593 Geylang 1.31 103.87 8.225 -5.40 0.60 Sediment 28 / 29
594 Geylang 1.31 103.87 8.230 -3.70 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
595 Geylang 1.31 103.87 8.300 -6.80 0.70 Sediment 28 / 29
596 Geylang 1.31 103.87 8.410 -5.40 0.60 Sediment 28 / 29
597 Geylang 1.31 103.87 8.450 -7.30 0.60 Sediment 28 / 29
598 Geylang 1.31 103.87 8.465 -8.10 0.60 Sediment 28 / 29
599 Geylang 1.31 103.87 8.470 -8.60 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
600 Geylang 1.31 103.87 8.505 -6.80 0.70 Sediment 28 / 29
601 Geylang 1.31 103.87 8.560 -8.60 0.40 Sediment 28 / 29
602 Geylang 1.31 103.87 8.610 -8.10 0.60 Sediment 28 / 29
603 Geylang 1.31 103.87 8.795 -8.80 0.70 Sediment 28 / 29
604 Geylang 1.31 103.87 8.795 -8.80 0.70 Sediment 28 / 29
605 Malay_1 3.15 101.45 4.530 2.60 1.00 Mangrove 30
606 MALAYSIA Malay_2 3.15 101.47 4.618 2.30 1.00 Mangrove 30
607 Malay_3 2.98 101.50 6.024 2.00 0.90 Mangrove 30
608 Malay_3 2.98 101.50 6.096 2.10 0.90 Mangrove 30
609 Malay_3 2.98 101.50 6.101 3.20 1.00 Mangrove 30
610 Malay_3 2.98 101.50 6.346 2.90 1.00 Mangrove 30
611 Malay_6 3.72 103.27 4.436 1.70 0.90 Mangrove 30
612 Malay_7 2.52 101.77 0.979 -1.60 0.90 Mangrove 31
613 Malay_8 2.42 101.97 1.060 -1.50 0.90 Mangrove 31
614 Malay_15 2.32 102.08 6.821 0.30 0.90 Mangrove 31
615 Malay_16 1.53 103.47 7.140 -0.00 0.60 Mangrove 31
616 Malay_16 1.53 103.47 7.516 0.20 0.60 Mangrove 31
617 Malay_18 2.37 102.00 7.865 -4.70 1.00 Mangrove 31
618 Malay_20 2.42 101.93 8.044 -5.90 1.00 Mangrove 31
619 Malay_22 2.42 101.93 8.262 -6.70 1.10 Mangrove 31
620 Malay_22 2.42 101.93 8.374 -8.40 1.20 Mangrove 31
621 Malay_23 2.20 102.30 8.915 -13.60 1.60 Mangrove 32
622 Malay_Hv7665 2.57 101.50 31.500 -66.00 5.00 Mangrove/in-situ? 32
623 Tioman 2.75 104.25 1.833 1.10 0.70 Mangrove 32
624 Tioman 2.75 104.25 2.445 1.60 0.70 Mangrove 32
625 Tioman 2.75 104.25 3.328 0.90 0.70 Mangrove 33 / 34
626 Tioman 2.75 104.25 4.647 1.70 0.70 Mangrove 33 / 34
627 Pattani 6.83 100.25 3.035 1.10 0.50 Mangrove 35
628 THAILAND Satting_Pra 7.50 100.17 7.178 -1.40 0.50 Mangrove 36 / 37
629 Satting_Pra 7.50 100.17 7.493 -0.70 0.50 Mangrove 36 / 37
630 Pattalung 7.60 100.17 7.739 -4.70 0.50 Mangrove 36 / 37
631 TNTH 7.75 100.17 7.787 -4.00 0.90 Mangrove 38
632 TNTH 7.75 100.17 8.349 -6.70 0.90 Mangrove 39
633 TNTH 7.75 100.17 7.787 -4.00 0.60 Mangrove 40
634 TNTH 7.75 100.17 8.352 -6.70 0.60 Mangrove 40
   20  

635 Phuket 7.75 98.41 2.224 1.30 0.50 Mangrove 41

636 Phuket 7.75 98.41 2.483 1.50 0.50 Mangrove 41
637 Phuket 7.75 98.41 3.468 1.60 0.50 Mangrove 41
638 Phuket 7.75 98.41 3.582 1.50 0.50 Mangrove 41
639 Phuket 7.75 98.41 4.667 1.80 0.50 Mangrove 41
640 Phuket 7.75 98.41 4.674 1.80 0.50 Mangrove 41
641 Phuket 7.75 98.41 4.714 1.80 0.50 Mangrove 41
642 Phuket 7.75 98.41 5.559 1.80 0.50 Mangrove 41
643 Phuket 7.75 98.41 6.052 1.90 0.50 Mangrove 41
644 Phuket 7.75 98.41 6.673 2.00 0.50 Mangrove 41
645 Phuket 7.75 98.41 6.785 2.00 0.50 Mangrove 41
646 Prachuab 11.75 99.75 3.544 1.50 0.70 Mangrove 41
647 Prachuab 11.75 99.75 4.677 2.00 0.70 Mangrove 41
648 Ca_Na 11.33 108.84 2.057 2.70 0.60 Washover, gastropod 42
649 VIETNAM Ca_Na 11.33 108.84 2.075 1.70 0.60 Backshore, bivalve 42
650 Ca_Na 11.33 108.84 3.555 1.20 0.60 Beachrock, coral 42
651 Ca_Na 11.33 108.84 3.915 1.30 0.60 Beachrock, coral 42
652 Ca_Na 11.33 108.84 4.110 1.80 0.60 Beachrock, coral 42
653 Ca_Na 11.33 108.84 5.677 2.70 0.40 Bachridge, bivalve 42
654 Ca_Na 11.33 108.84 5.711 2.40 0.60 Backshore, coral 42
655 Ca_Na 11.33 108.84 5.948 2.90 0.60 Backshore, coral 42
656 Ca_Na 11.33 108.84 6.032 3.30 0.70 Beachridge, coral 42
657 Ca_Na 11.33 108.87 6.237 1.80 0.60 Beachrock, coral 42
658 Ca_Na 11.33 108.87 6.409 1.00 0.30 Beachrock, bivalve 42
659 Ca_Na 11.33 108.87 7.070 2.10 0.60 Beachrock, coral 42
660 Dawuzhuang 39.71 117.49 7.625 -1.10 0.70 Oyster reef 43
661 BOHAI, Biaokou 39.33 117.58 6.270 0.00 0.70 Oyster reef 43
662 SOUTH Yingcheng 39.20 117.78 1.650 -1.80 0.70 Oyster reef 43
663 YELLOW Beitang 39.11 117.72 1.445 -1.00 0.70 Oyster reef 43
664 & C05 39.59 120.80 10.197 -36.30 3.80 Brackish - lagoon mud 44
665 EAST Qianmiaozhuang 39.45 117.84 5.325 0.00 1.50 Chenier 45
666 CHINA Changzhuang 39.25 117.10 4.020 -0.40 1.50 Chenier 45
667 SEAS Laolangtuozi 39.23 117.19 0.850 0.00 1.50 Chenier 45
668 Laolangtuozi 39.23 117.19 1.245 0.60 1.50 Chenier 45
669 Dongsuncun 39.02 117.44 7.160 0.90 1.50 Chenier 45
670 Qikou 38.72 117.57 2.525 0.90 1.50 Chenier 45
671 Mapengkou 38.71 117.54 2.095 -1.30 1.50 Chenier 45
672 Mapengkou 38.71 117.54 2.490 0.10 1.50 Chenier 45
673 S3 38.02 118.85 9.834 -20.40 2.00 Brakish - shell fragments 46
674 H9602 37.80 118.91 9.538 -18.80 1.80 Brackish - L. Coccinea 47
675 H9602 37.80 118.91 9.724 -18.40 1.80 Marine - shell fragments 47
676 DH4-1 37.02 126.47 7.609 -2.70 3.00 Brackish 48
677 H80-18 37.00 123.52 12.732 -71.90 7.80 Brackish 49
678 YSDP103 34.48 125.48 14.182 -77.30 8.40 Intertidal 50
679 QC2 34.30 122.27 12.638 -66.10 6.70 Salty marsh 51
680 QC2 34.30 122.27 13.305 -68.50 6.90 Salty marsh 40
681 CC-04 36.30 124.50 15.135 -86.50 8.60 Brackish 40
682 JS_QF 33.52 119.72 1.181 -0.20 0.60 Brackish/freshwater marsh 52
683 JS_QF 33.52 119.72 2.529 -0.70 0.60 Brackish/freshwater marsh 52
684 JS_QF 33.52 119.72 6.115 1.30 1.50 Organic silt/clay of tidal flat 52
685 JS_QF 33.52 119.72 7.413 0.60 1.50 Organic silt/clay of tidal flat 52
686 JS_QF 33.52 119.72 8.539 -3.50 0.60 Brackish/freshwater marsh 52
687 JS_YC 33.38 120.12 6.420 1.10 1.50 Organic silt/clay of tidal flat 53
688 JS_YC 33.38 120.12 7.689 0.20 1.50 Organic silt/clay of tidal flat 53
689 JS_YC 33.38 120.12 7.854 -0.90 1.50 Organic silt/clay of tidal flat 53
   21  

690 JS_FN 33.78 119.80 7.182 0.20 1.50 Organic silt/clay of tidal flat 53
691 JS_FN 33.78 119.80 7.329 0.60 1.50 Organic silt/clay of tidal flat 52
692 JS_FN 33.78 119.80 7.578 2.10 0.50 Ostrea in silt/clay 52
693 Yancheng 33.38 120.12 7.669 -3.60 1.00 Shells in shell ridge 54
694 Wenzhou 28.05 120.67 3.350 -0.40 0.50 Shells in beach sands 54
695 Wenzhou 28.05 120.67 9.471 -19.50 1.90 Shells in beach sands 54
696 KS-5 33.69 127.19 15.857 -101.20 10.40 Pitar Sulfureum - intertidal flat 55
697 KS-3 33.54 127.00 24.038 -136.40 13.70 P. Amurensis - brackish 55
698 YZ_ECS0702 31.00 122.67 11.950 -56.30 5.80 Plant material - tidal flat 56
699 YZ_ECS0702 31.00 122.67 12.231 -53.40 5.50 Plant material - tidal flat 56
700 Pingtan 25.52 119.73 3.761 1.40 1.10 Shell-ridge conglomerate 33 / 34
701 SOUTH Pingtan2 25.52 119.78 5.991 -1.10 1.00 Shell-ridge conglomerate 33 / 34
702 CHINA Putian 25.20 119.45 4.490 2.20 1.20 Shell-ridge conglomerate 33 / 34
703 Liyu Outian 25.10 119.05 1.520 0.70 1.00 Beachrock 34 / 57
704 Sea_floor 24.67 118.87 9.444 -25.60 2.70 Shells in beach sands 34 / 57
705 Dongshan 23.60 117.30 4.608 2.90 1.10 Shells in beach sands 34 / 57
706 Zhangpu 24.07 117.63 1.907 1.40 1.00 Shells in beach sands 34 / 58
707 Zhangpu 24.07 117.63 2.746 1.20 1.00 Beachrock 34 / 58
708 Longhai 24.40 117.85 1.821 0.30 1.10 Shell-ridge conglomerate 34 / 58
709 Longhai 24.40 117.85 1.936 1.00 0.90 Brackish/freshwater marsh 34 / 58
710 Longhai 24.40 117.85 2.349 2.40 1.10 Shells in beach sands 34 / 58
711 Longhai 24.40 117.85 3.369 1.40 1.80 Ostrea in living position 34 / 58
712 Longhai 24.40 117.85 3.624 1.50 1.80 Ostrea in living position 34 / 58
713 Longhai 24.40 117.85 4.147 2.30 1.10 Beachrock 34 / 58
714 Longhai 24.40 117.85 4.851 2.20 1.00 Shells in beach sands 34 / 52
715 Han14 23.53 119.53 3.757 -0.60 0.40 Shells in beach sands 57
716 Fengkuei 23.53 119.53 1.852 1.30 1.00 Shells in beach sands 34 / 59
717 Chihkan 23.67 119.58 1.881 1.30 1.00 Shells in beach sands 34 / 59
718 Chihkan 23.67 119.58 5.110 2.00 1.00 Shells in beach sands 34 / 59
719 Lintou 23.55 119.63 3.949 1.90 1.00 Shells in beach sands 34 / 59
720 Lintou 23.55 119.63 5.468 1.90 1.00 Shells in beach sands 34 / 59
721 Kupoyu 23.72 119.55 0.790 1.20 1.00 Shells in beach sands 34 / 59
722 Sokang 23.53 119.60 1.714 1.10 1.00 Shells in beach sands 34 / 59
723 Chinglo 23.60 119.65 4.749 1.90 1.00 Shells in beach sands 34 / 59
724 Tashihpi 23.60 119.58 1.970 1.10 1.00 Shells in beach sands 34 / 59
725 Paikeng 23.63 119.65 5.135 2.20 1.00 Shells in beach sands 34 / 59
726 KWG-307 23.42 117.02 1.942 0.70 1.10 Shell-ridge conglomerate 34 / 57
727 KWG-327 23.42 117.02 2.349 2.10 1.10 Shell-ridge conglomerate 34 / 57
728 CG-442 23.42 117.02 2.394 1.80 1.10 Shell-ridge conglomerate 34 / 57
729 CG-444 23.42 117.02 2.905 0.70 0.30 Beachrock 34 / 57
730 CG-446 23.42 117.02 3.941 0.70 1.10 Shell-ridge conglomerate 34 / 57
731 KWG-328 23.42 117.02 5.502 1.30 1.10 Shell-ridge conglomerate 34 / 57
732 KWG-557 22.77 115.37 1.294 0.70 0.50 Ostrea in living position 34 / 57
733 CG-459 22.77 115.37 3.226 1.20 1.10 Shell-ridge conglomerate 34 / 57
734 KWG-308 22.97 116.23 3.541 -0.50 0.30 Shells in beach sands 34 / 57
735 KWG-310 22.97 116.23 3.564 2.20 1.10 Shell-ridge conglomerate 34 / 57
736 CG-unknown 22.58 114.92 1.762 0.70 0.40 Brackish/freshwater marsh 34 / 57
737 KWG-556 22.58 114.90 2.422 1.50 0.30 Beachrock 34 / 57
738 KWG-145 22.58 114.90 4.421 0.20 1.00 Shell-ridge conglomerate 34 / 57
739 Dapeng Shenzhen 22.45 114.50 2.149 0.80 0.30 Shells in beach sands 33 / 34
740 Dapeng Shenzhen 22.45 114.50 3.609 -0.30 1.60 Organic silt/clay of subtidal flat 60
741 Dapeng Shenzhen 22.45 114.50 4.866 -1.90 1.60 Organic silt/clay of subtidal flat 61
742 HN01 18.72 109.30 0.912 -1.00 1.00 beachrock 34
743 HAINAN HN01 18.72 109.30 1.119 0.20 0.50 Brackish/freshwater marsh 34
744 HN01 18.72 109.30 5.059 0.00 1.00 Beachrock 34
   22  

745 HN01 18.72 109.30 6.835 -1.00 1.00 Shells in shell ridge 34
746 HN02 20.03 110.33 1.504 0.50 1.50 Organic silt/clay of tidal flat 34
747 HN03 21.83 112.00 1.566 0.20 1.00 Beachrock 34
748 HN04 19.62 110.73 1.808 0.00 1.00 Shell-ridge conglomerate 34
749 HN04 19.62 110.73 1.944 0.00 1.00 Beachrock 34
750 HN04 19.62 110.73 2.070 0.00 1.00 Beachrock 34
751 HN04 19.62 110.73 2.214 0.00 1.00 Shells in beach sands 34
752 HN04 19.62 110.73 3.010 0.70 1.00 Shell-ridge conglomerate 34
753 HN05 21.45 110.78 2.028 1.00 1.00 Shell-ridge conglomerate 34
754 HN05 21.45 110.78 6.281 -2.00 1.00 Shell-ridge conglomerate 34
755 HN06 18.28 109.45 2.461 -0.50 1.00 Beachrock 34
756 HN06 18.28 109.45 3.701 1.00 0.50 Coral reef 34
757 HN06 18.28 109.45 4.198 1.00 1.00 Beachrock 34
758 HN06 18.28 109.45 4.264 1.30 1.00 Beachrock 34
759 HN06 18.28 109.45 4.527 1.00 1.00 Beachrock 34
760 HN06 18.28 109.45 4.652 -0.40 1.00 Beachrock 34
761 HN06 18.28 109.45 4.948 1.00 1.00 Beachrock 34
762 HN06 18.28 109.45 5.430 -0.50 1.00 Shell-ridge conglomerate 34
763 HN06 18.28 109.45 5.707 0.30 1.00 Coral sand 34
764 HN06 18.28 109.45 5.761 -0.30 1.00 Coral sand 34
765 HN06 18.28 109.45 5.952 0.00 1.00 Coral sand 34
766 HN06 18.28 109.45 6.272 -0.40 1.00 Beachrock 34
767 HN06 18.28 109.45 6.497 -0.30 1.50 Organic silt/clay of tidal flat 34
768 HN06 18.28 109.45 7.286 -0.70 1.00 Beachrock 34
769 HN09 19.73 110.00 3.348 0.50 0.50 Ostrea in living position 34
770 HN10 19.52 109.57 3.512 1.00 0.50 Coral reef 34
771 HN10 19.52 109.57 5.096 0.00 1.00 Coral sand 34
772 HN11 19.90 109.67 3.485 0.50 1.00 Shell-ridge conglomerate 34
773 HN12 21.18 110.38 4.403 -0.50 0.50 Lagoonal organic sediment 34
774 HN13 18.23 109.50 1.289 0.00 0.50 Ostrea in living position 34
775 HN13 18.23 109.50 2.879 0.30 1.00 Shells in beach sands 34
776 HN13 18.23 109.50 3.955 1.00 1.00 Shell-ridge conglomerate 34
777 HN13 18.23 109.50 4.121 0.00 1.00 Beachrock 34
778 HN13 18.23 109.50 4.279 0.00 1.00 Shells in beach sands 34
779 HN13 18.23 109.50 4.505 0.20 1.00 Coral sand 34
780 HN14 18.80 110.43 6.486 -0.60 0.50 Lagoonal organic sediment 34
781 HN15 20.00 110.35 7.646 -4.50 3.00 Organic silt/clay of subtidal flat 34
782 HN16 19.13 108.68 7.958 -6.00 3.00 Organic silt/clay of subtidal flat 34
783 HN06 18.28 109.45 8.113 -6.40 1.50 Organic silt/clay of tidal flat 34
784 Bengal Fan 1 20.61 89.79 24.476 -133.00 3.00 Sediment 62
785 INDIAN Bengal Fan 1 20.61 89.79 29.213 -133.00 3.00 Sediment 62
786 SUB- Bengal Fan 2 20.66 89.81 19.459 -128.00 3.00 Sediment 62
787 CONTINENT Bengal Fan 3 20.69 89.78 21.922 -125.00 3.00 Sediment 62
788 Bengal Fan 3 20.69 89.78 23.788 -125.00 3.00 Sediment 62
789 Rameswaran Island 9.30 79.17 6.051 1.40 0.40 Sediment 63
790 Rameswaran Island 9.30 79.17 6.165 1.20 0.40 Sediment 63
791 Rameswaran Island 9.30 79.17 6.492 1.40 0.40 Sediment 63
792 Rameswaran Island 9.30 79.17 7.048 1.40 0.40 Sediment 63
793 Rameswaran Island 9.30 79.17 7.304 1.00 0.40 Sediment 63
794 Zone_A_Akurala 6.13 80.06 5.334 0.90 0.50 Sediment 64
795 Zone_A_Akurala 6.13 80.06 5.632 0.90 0.50 Sediment 64
796 Zone_A_Akurala 6.13 80.06 6.200 1.00 0.50 Sediment 64
797 Zone_A_Akurala 6.13 80.06 6.358 1.00 0.50 Sediment 64
798 Zone_A_Akurala 6.13 80.06 6.569 0.50 0.50 Sediment 64
799 Zone_B_Dadalla 6.04 80.18 5.454 0.60 0.50 Sediment 64
   23  

800 Zone_B_Dadalla 6.04 80.18 5.785 0.50 0.50 Sediment 64

801 Zone_C_Mihiripenna 6.01 80.26 5.738 0.80 0.50 Sediment 64
802 Zone_D_Aranwala 5.97 80.38 5.855 0.70 0.50 Sediment 64
803 Zone_E_Pallikkudawa 6.02 80.79 5.773 1.10 0.50 Sediment 64
804 Zone_E_Pallikkudawa 6.02 80.79 5.936 0.80 0.50 Sediment 64
805 Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 0.445 0.70 1.50 Coral 65
806 MALDIVES Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 1.470 -0.90 1.50 Coral 65
807 & Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 1.780 0.80 1.50 Coral 65
808 COCOS Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 3.475 0.10 1.50 Coral 65
809 ISLANDS Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 3.815 -1.40 1.50 Coral 65
810 Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 4.115 -2.70 1.50 Coral 65
811 Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 4.595 0.30 1.50 Coral 65
812 Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 6.125 -0.40 1.50 Coral 65
813 Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 6.450 -1.20 1.50 Coral 65
814 Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 7.030 -0.40 3.00 Coral 65
815 Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 7.205 -0.90 3.00 Coral 65
816 Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 7.280 -2.40 3.00 Coral 65
817 Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 7.295 -3.40 3.00 Coral 65
818 Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 7.520 -1.90 3.00 Coral 65
819 Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 7.680 -6.40 3.00 Coral 65
820 Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 7.700 -7.90 3.00 Coral 65
821 Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 7.725 -4.90 3.00 Coral 65
822 Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 7.725 -4.90 3.00 Coral 65
823 Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 8.050 -10.90 3.00 Coral 65
824 Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 8.060 -9.40 3.00 Coral 65
825 Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 8.110 -8.40 3.00 Coral 65
826 Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 8.125 -11.70 3.00 Coral 65
827 Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 8.235 -14.20 3.00 Coral 65
828 Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 8.290 -17.70 3.00 Coral 65
829 Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 8.400 -14.70 3.00 Coral 65
830 Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 8.405 -17.70 3.00 Coral 65
831 Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 8.555 -16.90 3.00 Coral 65
832 Maldives Rasdhoo 4.30 72.98 21.000 -125.00 5.00 Coral 65
833 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 2.095 0.50 0.30 Coral 66
834 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 2.104 0.50 0.30 Coral 66
835 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 3.445 0.30 0.30 Coral 66
836 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 3.930 0.90 1.50 Coral 66
837 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 4.368 0.70 1.50 Coral 66
838 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 4.600 1.30 1.50 Coral 66
839 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 5.026 0.90 1.50 Coral 66
840 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 6.060 -0.40 1.50 Coral 66
841 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 6.328 -0.80 1.50 Coral 66
842 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 6.440 -0.10 1.50 Coral 66
843 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 6.589 -1.60 1.50 Coral 66
844 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 6.918 -1.50 3.00 Coral 66
845 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 6.935 -1.20 3.00 Coral 66
846 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 6.973 -0.60 3.00 Coral 66
847 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 7.138 -1.60 3.00 Coral 66
848 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 7.231 -2.60 3.00 Coral 66
849 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 7.244 -1.70 3.00 Coral 66
850 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 7.266 -2.50 3.00 Coral 66
851 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 7.280 -3.30 3.00 Coral 66
852 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 7.424 -3.10 3.00 Coral 66
853 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 7.424 -4.50 3.00 Coral 66
854 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 7.441 -4.30 3.00 Coral 66
   24  

855 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 7.793 -7.50 3.00 Coral 66

856 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 8.071 -8.60 3.00 Coral 66
857 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 8.097 -9.60 3.00 Coral 66
858 Maldives Maalhosmadulu 5.27 73.03 8.136 -10.30 3.00 Coral 66
859 Maldives Feydhoo -0.69 73.14 2.826 0.50 0.40 Coral 67
860 Cocos Pulu -12.14 96.92 1.900 0.40 0.30 Coral 68
861 Cocos Pulu -12.14 96.92 3.132 1.00 0.30 Coral 68
862 Cocos West Island -12.18 96.82 0.916 0.20 0.20 Coral 68
863 Cocos West Island -12.18 96.82 2.611 0.50 0.20 Coral 68
864 Cocos West Island -12.18 96.82 2.801 0.50 0.20 Coral 68
865 Cocos West Island -12.18 96.82 2.826 0.50 0.20 Coral 68
866 Cocos West Island -12.18 96.82 2.851 0.50 0.20 Coral 68
867 Cocos West Island -12.18 96.82 3.170 0.40 0.20 Coral 68
868 Cocos West Island -12.18 96.82 3.221 0.50 0.20 Coral 68
869 Cocos West Island -12.18 96.82 3.439 0.60 0.30 Coral 68
870 Cocos West Island -12.18 96.82 3.503 0.70 0.30 Coral 68
871 Cocos South Island -12.20 96.91 3.913 0.20 0.30 Coral 68
872 Reunion -21.08 55.23 0.800 2.40 2.50 Coral 69
873 WESTERN Reunion -21.08 55.23 2.900 0.50 2.50 Coral 69
874 INDIAN Reunion -21.08 55.23 6.900 -7.90 2.50 Coral 69
875 OCEAN Reunion -21.08 55.23 7.400 -10.10 2.50 Coral 69
876 & Reunion -21.08 55.23 8.000 -11.10 2.50 Coral 69
877 SOUTH Seychelles -4.68 55.52 3.740 0.70 2.50 Coral 69
878 AFRICA Seychelles -4.68 55.52 4.110 -1.70 2.50 Coral 69
879 Seychelles -4.68 55.52 4.289 -1.90 2.50 Coral 69
880 Seychelles -4.68 55.52 4.685 1.40 2.50 Coral 69
881 Seychelles -4.68 55.52 7.200 -7.80 2.50 Coral 69
882 Seychelles -4.68 55.52 8.200 -6.70 2.50 Coral 69
883 Mayotte -12.80 45.27 9.170 -28.80 0.50 Sediment 70
884 Mayotte -12.80 45.27 9.640 -34.70 2.00 Sediment 70
885 Mayotte -12.80 45.27 9.725 -34.70 2.00 Sediment 70
886 Mayotte -12.80 45.27 11.080 -58.50 1.00 Sediment 70
887 Mayotte -12.80 45.27 11.375 -60.00 0.50 Sediment 70
888 Mayotte -12.80 45.27 11.405 -59.30 0.50 Sediment 70
889 Mayotte -12.80 45.27 11.635 -60.50 0.50 Sediment 70
890 Mayotte -12.80 45.27 12.035 -61.50 0.50 Sediment 70
891 Mayotte -12.80 45.27 1.500 2.20 2.50 Coral 69
892 Mayotte -12.80 45.27 2.660 -2.20 0.50 Coral 69
893 Mayotte -12.80 45.27 3.700 0.10 2.50 Coral 69
894 Mayotte -12.80 45.27 6.950 -6.80 0.50 Coral 69
895 Mayotte -12.80 45.27 7.200 -3.80 2.50 Coral 69
896 Mayotte -12.80 45.27 7.305 -9.00 1.00 Coral 69
897 Mayotte -12.80 45.27 7.965 -9.00 1.00 Coral 69
898 Mayotte -12.80 45.27 8.200 -5.90 2.50 Coral 69
899 Mayotte -12.80 45.27 8.200 -8.10 2.50 Coral 69
900 Mayotte -12.80 45.27 8.600 -13.20 2.50 Coral 69
901 Mayotte -12.80 45.27 9.110 -18.50 2.50 Coral 69
902 Mayotte -12.80 45.27 16.900 -123.00 3.00 Coral 69
903 Mayotte -12.80 45.27 17.100 -123.00 3.00 Coral 69
904 Mayotte -12.80 45.27 18.200 -123.00 3.00 Coral 69
905 Natal -28.47 32.40 8.993 -18.00 2.00 Sediment 71
906 Natal -28.47 32.40 9.068 -18.00 2.00 Sediment 71
907 Natal -28.47 32.40 9.219 -18.00 2.00 Sediment 71
908 Natal -28.47 32.40 9.373 -29.00 3.00 Sediment 71
909 Natal -28.47 32.40 9.849 -28.00 3.00 Sediment 71
   25  

910 Natal -28.47 32.40 9.979 -28.00 3.00 Sediment 71

911 Natal -28.47 32.40 10.793 -44.00 3.00 Sediment 71
912 Natal -28.47 32.40 10.904 -36.00 3.00 Sediment 71
913 Natal -28.47 32.40 11.581 -48.00 3.00 Sediment 71
914 Cape St Francis -34.19 24.83 17.078 -102.00 10.00 Sediment 71
915 Cape St Francis -34.19 24.83 20.042 -110.00 10.00 Sediment 71
916 Barbados 13.04 300.45 0.726 1.20 2.70 A. palmate 72 / 73
917 CARRIBEAN Barbados 13.04 300.45 8.934 -22.90 2.80 A. palmate 72 / 73
918 Barbados 13.04 300.45 8.936 -22.20 2.80 A. palmate 72 / 73
919 Barbados 13.04 300.45 9.155 -26.10 2.80 A. palmate 72 / 73
920 Barbados 13.04 300.45 9.618 -30.90 2.90 A. palmate 72 / 73
921 Barbados 13.04 300.45 9.922 -31.20 2.90 A. palmate 72 / 73
922 Barbados 13.04 300.45 9.930 -19.50 2.90 A. palmate 72 / 73
923 Barbados 13.04 300.45 10.571 -39.00 2.90 A. palmate 72 / 73
924 Barbados 13.04 300.45 10.808 -40.40 2.90 A. palmate 72 / 73
925 Barbados 13.04 300.45 11.078 -42.10 2.90 A. palmate 72 / 73
926 Barbados 13.04 300.45 11.391 -55.90 2.90 A. palmate 72 / 73
927 Barbados 13.04 300.45 11.392 -54.50 2.90 A. palmate 72 / 73
928 Barbados 13.04 300.45 11.511 -56.20 2.90 A. palmate 72 / 73
929 Barbados 13.04 300.45 11.512 -55.80 2.90 A. palmate 72 / 73
930 Barbados 13.04 300.45 12.002 -59.10 3.00 A. palmate 72 / 73
931 Barbados 13.04 300.45 12.170 -59.50 3.00 A. palmate 72 / 73
932 Barbados 13.04 300.45 12.203 -59.40 3.00 A. palmate 72 / 73
933 Barbados 13.04 300.45 12.798 -62.40 3.00 A. palmate 72 / 73
934 Barbados 13.04 300.45 12.844 -64.30 3.00 A. palmate 72 / 73
935 Barbados 13.04 300.45 12.993 -65.80 3.00 A. palmate 72 / 73
936 Barbados 13.04 300.45 13.088 -67.40 3.00 A. palmate 72 / 73
937 Barbados 13.04 300.45 13.179 -67.90 3.00 A. palmate 72 / 73
938 Barbados 13.04 300.45 13.555 -71.30 3.00 A. palmate 72 / 73
939 Barbados 13.04 300.45 13.574 -71.60 3.00 A. palmate 72 / 73
940 Barbados 13.04 300.45 13.578 -71.80 3.00 A. palmate 72 / 73
941 Barbados 13.04 300.45 13.632 -72.10 3.00 A. palmate 72 / 73
942 Barbados 13.04 300.45 14.082 -91.00 3.00 A. palmate 72 / 73
943 Barbados 13.04 300.45 14.255 -93.20 3.10 A. palmate 72 / 73
944 Barbados 13.04 300.45 14.295 -92.00 3.10 A. palmate 72 / 73
945 Barbados 13.04 300.45 14.396 -95.10 3.10 A. palmate 72 / 73
946 Barbados 13.04 300.45 14.408 -95.00 3.10 A. palmate 72 / 73
947 Barbados 13.04 300.45 14.539 -96.50 3.10 A. palmate 72 / 73
948 Barbados 13.04 300.45 14.573 -93.90 3.10 A. palmate 72 / 73
949 Barbados 13.04 300.45 17.580 -109.60 3.30 A. palmate 72 / 73
950 Barbados 13.04 300.45 18.116 -109.00 3.30 A. palmate 72 / 73
951 Barbados 13.04 300.45 18.174 -109.70 3.30 A. palmate 72 / 73
952 Barbados 13.04 300.45 18.176 -109.90 3.30 A. palmate 72 / 73
953 Barbados 13.04 300.45 18.218 -109.80 3.30 A. palmate 72 / 73
954 Barbados 13.04 300.45 18.408 -105.60 3.30 A. palmate 72 / 73
955 Barbados 13.04 300.45 18.448 -109.90 3.30 A. palmate 72 / 73
956 Barbados 13.04 300.45 18.549 -110.90 3.30 A. palmate 72 / 73
957 Barbados 13.04 300.45 18.716 -113.10 3.30 A. palmate 72 / 73
958 Barbados 13.04 300.45 18.746 -111.40 3.30 A. palmate 72 / 73
959 Barbados 13.04 300.45 18.783 -111.60 3.30 A. palmate 72 / 73
960 Barbados 13.04 300.45 18.806 -113.30 3.30 A. palmate 72 / 73
961 Barbados 13.04 300.45 19.075 -118.00 3.30 A. palmate 72 / 73
962 Barbados 13.04 300.45 19.392 -106.00 3.30 A. palmate 72 / 73
963 Barbados 13.04 300.45 19.518 -107.50 3.30 A. palmate 72 / 73
964 Barbados 13.04 300.45 19.708 -108.00 3.30 A. palmate 72 / 73
   26  

965 Barbados 13.04 300.45 30.147 -85.60 4.10 A. palmate 72 / 73

966 Barbados 13.04 300.45 30.225 -86.00 4.10 A. palmate 72 / 73
967 Barbados 13.04 300.45 30.242 -86.60 4.10 A. palmate 72 / 73
968 Barbados 13.04 300.45 30.298 -86.60 4.20 A. palmate 72 / 73

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Table S2.
Earth and esl parameter results for the first and second iteration solutions for effective earth-model
parameters. For the latter the corrective δζesl has been attributed to the North American ice sheet for the
LGM and late-glacial period and to Antarctica for the Holocene.
distributed between the two hemispheres according to the option (iii). The other options for the
distribution of the incremental ice yield identical results and the E parameters are insensitive to this choice.
These solutions are for 1000 year bin sizes for the parameterization of the δζesl but solutions for E with
smaller bin sizes, likewise, are insensitive to this choice, although solutions with 500 year bin sizes result
2
in a reduced variance ( ! min = 2.64 for the first iteration high-viscosity lower-mantle model compared
with 2.88) indicating that there is higher resolution esl information in the solutions corresponding to Fig. 3
of main text.

Earth parameter High-viscosity lower-mantle Low-viscosity lower-mantle

1st iteration 2nd iteration 1st iteration 2nd iteration
H (km) 50 50 57 65
ηum (x1020 Pa s) 1.5 1.25 1.5 1.5
ηlm (x1022 Pa s) 7.0 5.0 0.2 0.2
   29  

! 2min 2.88 2.88 2.86 2.82

Table S3.
Best estimates of the ice-volume equivalent sea-level function (esl) (column 3) and its accuracy estimate
(2 sigma) (column 4). The nominal esl function corresponding to the starting ice model is given in
column 2.

nominal esl
time (ka) (m) esl (m) sigma esl
0 0 0 0.0
0.122 -0.21 -0.16 0.07
0.192 -0.21 -0.16 0.07
0.296 -0.21 -0.16 0.07
0.365 -0.21 -0.16 0.07
0.435 -0.21 -0.16 0.07
0.504 -0.21 -0.17 0.07
0.574 -0.21 -0.17 0.07
0.643 -0.21 -0.17 0.07
0.712 -0.21 -0.18 0.07
0.782 -0.21 -0.18 0.07
0.851 -0.21 -0.19 0.07
0.921 -0.21 -0.19 0.07
0.990 -0.21 -0.2 0.07
1.060 -0.21 -0.2 0.07
1.129 -0.22 -0.2 0.07
1.199 -0.22 -0.21 0.07
1.268 -0.23 -0.21 0.07
1.372 -0.23 -0.22 0.07
1.442 -0.24 -0.22 0.07
1.511 -0.24 -0.23 0.07
1.581 -0.25 -0.23 0.07
1.650 -0.25 -0.24 0.07
1.720 -0.26 -0.24 0.07
1.789 -0.26 -0.24 0.07
1.859 -0.27 -0.25 0.07
1.928 -0.28 -0.25 0.07
1.997 -0.28 -0.26 0.07
2.067 -0.29 -0.26 0.07
2.136 -0.29 -0.27 0.07
2.206 -0.3 -0.27 0.07
2.275 -0.3 -0.27 0.07
2.345 -0.33 -0.28 0.07
   30  

2.414 -0.38 -0.29 0.07

2.484 -0.42 -0.32 0.07
2.553 -0.47 -0.35 0.07
2.623 -0.52 -0.38 0.07
2.692 -0.56 -0.41 0.07
2.762 -0.61 -0.44 0.07
2.831 -0.65 -0.47 0.07
2.901 -0.7 -0.51 0.07
2.970 -0.74 -0.54 0.07
3.039 -0.79 -0.57 0.07
3.109 -0.83 -0.6 0.07
3.178 -0.88 -0.63 0.07
3.248 -0.93 -0.67 0.07
3.317 -0.97 -0.7 0.07
3.387 -1.02 -0.73 0.07
3.456 -1.06 -0.76 0.07
3.526 -1.11 -0.8 0.07
3.595 -1.15 -0.83 0.07
3.665 -1.2 -0.86 0.07
3.734 -1.26 -0.89 0.07
3.803 -1.32 -0.93 0.07
3.873 -1.38 -0.96 0.07
3.942 -1.44 -0.99 0.07
4.012 -1.5 -1.02 0.07
4.081 -1.56 -1.06 0.07
4.151 -1.61 -1.09 0.07
4.220 -1.67 -1.12 0.07
4.290 -1.73 -1.15 0.07
4.359 -1.79 -1.19 0.07
4.429 -1.85 -1.22 0.07
4.498 -1.91 -1.25 0.07
4.568 -1.97 -1.28 0.07
4.637 -2.03 -1.32 0.07
4.707 -2.09 -1.36 0.07
4.776 -2.15 -1.43 0.07
4.845 -2.21 -1.52 0.07
4.915 -2.26 -1.6 0.07
4.984 -2.32 -1.69 0.07
5.054 -2.38 -1.77 0.07
5.123 -2.44 -1.86 0.07
5.193 -2.5 -1.94 0.07
5.262 -2.56 -2.03 0.07
5.332 -2.62 -2.11 0.07
5.401 -2.68 -2.2 0.07
5.470 -2.74 -2.28 0.07
5.540 -2.8 -2.37 0.07
5.609 -2.86 -2.45 0.07
   31  

5.679 -2.91 -2.54 0.07

5.748 -2.97 -2.62 0.07
5.818 -3.03 -2.71 0.07
5.887 -3.09 -2.79 0.07
5.957 -3.15 -2.88 0.07
6.026 -3.23 -2.96 0.07
6.096 -3.33 -3.05 0.07
6.165 -3.43 -3.13 0.07
6.235 -3.53 -3.22 0.07
6.304 -3.63 -3.3 0.07
6.373 -3.73 -3.39 0.07
6.443 -3.83 -3.47 0.07
6.512 -3.93 -3.56 0.07
6.582 -4.04 -3.64 0.07
6.651 -4.14 -3.73 0.07
6.721 -4.24 -3.81 0.07
6.790 -4.34 -4.01 0.14
6.860 -4.76 -4.46 0.14
6.929 -5.24 -4.93 0.14
6.999 -5.71 -5.39 0.14
7.068 -6.19 -5.86 0.07
7.138 -6.66 -6.32 0.07
7.207 -7.14 -6.78 0.07
7.277 -7.61 -7.25 0.14
7.346 -8.09 -7.71 0.14
7.415 -8.54 -8.17 0.07
7.485 -9 -8.64 0.07
7.554 -9.45 -9.1 0.14
7.624 -9.9 -9.57 0.14
7.693 -10.35 -10.03 0.14
7.763 -10.81 -10.49 0.22
7.832 -11.26 -10.96 0.22
7.902 -11.72 -11.43 0.22
7.971 -12.39 -11.97 0.22
8.040 -13.07 -12.57 0.22
8.110 -13.75 -13.17 0.29
8.179 -14.43 -13.78 0.43
8.249 -15.11 -14.53 0.43
8.318 -15.79 -15.39 0.29
8.388 -16.47 -16.26 0.22
8.457 -17.19 -17.13 0.22
8.527 -18.25 -17.99 0.36
8.596 -19.32 -18.86 0.58
8.70 -20.92 -20.16 0.79
8.805 -22.52 -21.46 1.08
8.978 -25.19 -24.99 2.23
9.082 -26.75 -26.87 1.15
   32  

9.187 -28.24 -28.77 1.23

9.291 -29.72 -30.59 2.02
9.395 -31.2 -32.18 2.67
9.499 -32.68 -33.35 2.74
9.603 -34.16 -34.17 1.15
9.708 -35.75 -35.28 1.3
9.812 -37.44 -36.5 1.66
9.916 -39.12 -37.87 1.59
10.020 -40.81 -39.28 1.51
10.124 -42.49 -40.69 1.44
10.229 -44.17 -42.1 1.66
10.333 -45.59 -43.5 1.95
10.437 -46.83 -44.92 2.31
10.541 -48.07 -46.39 2.38
10.645 -49.31 -48.04 2.09
10.749 -50.55 -49.92 1.8
10.854 -51.79 -51.92 1.23
10.958 -53.03 -54.02 0.87
11.062 -54.28 -56.15 1.23
11.166 -55.53 -58.2 1.73
11.270 -56.78 -59.56 1.3
11.375 -58.03 -60.49 0.72
11.479 -59.28 -61.11 0.58
11.583 -60.39 -61.43 0.65
11.687 -61.31 -61.73 0.5
11.791 -62.24 -62.02 0.43
11.896 -63.16 -62.3 0.5
12.000 -64.08 -62.58 0.65
12.104 -64.67 -62.88 0.72
12.208 -65.25 -63.24 0.94
12.312 -65.83 -63.81 1.23
12.417 -66.41 -64.75 1.3
12.521 -66.99 -65.89 1.3
12.625 -67.57 -67.06 1.15
12.729 -68.15 -68.22 1.08
12.833 -68.76 -69.38 0.94
12.937 -69.42 -70.54 0.87
13.042 -70.08 -71.71 0.87
13.146 -70.74 -72.87 0.87
13.250 -71.4 -74.03 0.94
13.354 -72.06 -75.19 1.01
13.458 -72.74 -76.36 1.15
13.563 -73.42 -77.52 1.37
13.667 -74.1 -78.71 1.44
13.771 -74.78 -80.19 1.87
13.875 -75.46 -82.67 2.38
13.979 -76.17 -86.14 2.09
   33  

14.084 -76.93 -89.74 1.51

14.188 -82.05 -93.34 1.01
14.292 -87.98 -96.94 0.87
14.396 -91.66 -100.53 1.15
14.500 -95.14 -103.1 2.09
14.605 -96.23 -102.66 2.38
14.709 -96.76 -101.48 1.37
14.813 -97.29 -100.29 2.31
14.917 -97.82 -99.44 3.24
15.021 -98.36 -99.5 3.24
15.125 -99.01 -100.39 3.24
15.203 -100.03 -101.82 3.53
15.334 -101.05 -103.96 2.88
15.438 -102.06 -106.7 3.68
15.542 -103.08 -109.1 5.91
15.646 -104.1 -111.08 5.62
15.751 -105.13 -112.84 4.97
15.855 -106.19 -114.53 4.25
15.959 -107.25 -116.18 3.6
16.063 -108.3 -117.79 3.32
16.167 -109.36 -119.3 3.17
16.272 -110.41 -120.66 2.88
16.376 -111.41 -121.9 2.88
16.480 -112.39 -122.9 3.24
16.584 -113.04 -123.45 3.32
16.688 -113.63 -123.61 3.24
16.792 -114.21 -123.59 2.96
16.897 -114.79 -123.51 2.74
17.001 -115.37 -123.42 2.52
17.105 -115.95 -123.31 2.23
17.209 -116.54 -123.19 2.02
17.313 -117.12 -123.07 1.87
17.418 -117.7 -122.93 1.73
17.522 -118.28 -122.8 1.73
17.626 -118.84 -122.68 1.95
17.730 -119.3 -122.56 2.09
17.834 -119.77 -122.47 2.02
17.939 -120.23 -122.41 1.87
18.043 -120.7 -122.4 1.73
18.147 -121.16 -122.43 1.51
18.251 -121.62 -122.52 1.44
18.355 -122.09 -122.7 1.51
18.460 -122.56 -123.01 1.44
18.564 -123.02 -123.44 1.37
18.668 -123.49 -123.95 1.23
18.772 -123.95 -124.5 1.23
18.876 -124.42 -125.07 1.08
   34  

18.980 -125.41 -125.65 1.08

19.085 -126.42 -126.23 1.15
19.189 -127.42 -126.81 1.3
19.293 -128.43 -127.41 1.51
19.397 -129.43 -128.02 1.66
19.501 -130.43 -128.66 1.59
19.606 -131.44 -129.34 1.3
19.710 -132.44 -130.04 1.08
19.814 -133.45 -130.75 1.37
19.918 -134.45 -131.44 1.73
20.022 -135.35 -132.11 2.02
20.127 -135.85 -132.73 1.95
20.231 -136.34 -133.32 1.87
20.335 -136.82 -133.82 1.8
20.439 -137.3 -134.15 1.66
20.543 -137.77 -134.28 1.59
20.648 -138.24 -134.28 1.59
20.786 -138.86 -134.18 1.66
20.925 -139.48 -134.04 1.59
21.064 -139.66 -133.9 1.59
21.203 -139.31 -133.76 1.59
21.342 -138.96 -133.62 1.51
21.481 -138.61 -133.47 1.44
21.620 -138.27 -133.33 1.44
21.759 -137.94 -133.19 1.44
21.898 -137.61 -133.04 1.44
22.037 -137.27 -132.9 1.37
22.176 -136.92 -132.76 1.3
22.419 -136.29 -132.51 1.3
22.558 -135.93 -132.37 1.3
22.697 -135.57 -132.23 1.3
22.836 -135.21 -132.08 1.3
22.974 -134.86 -131.94 1.3
23.113 -134.59 -131.8 1.3
23.252 -134.35 -131.66 1.23
23.391 -134.1 -131.51 1.15
23.530 -133.85 -131.37 1.15
23.669 -133.61 -131.23 1.15
23.808 -133.36 -131.09 1.15
23.947 -133.12 -130.94 1.15
24.086 -132.87 -130.8 1.23
24.225 -132.63 -130.66 1.23
24.364 -132.39 -130.52 1.3
24.503 -132.15 -130.38 1.3
24.641 -131.91 -130.23 1.3
24.780 -131.67 -130.09 1.3
24.919 -131.44 -129.95 1.3
   35  

25.058 -131.12 -129.81 1.3

25.197 -130.69 -129.67 1.3
25.336 -130.25 -129.52 1.3
25.475 -129.82 -129.38 1.37
25.614 -129.39 -129.24 1.44
25.753 -128.95 -129.1 1.44
25.892 -128.5 -128.95 1.44
26.065 -127.95 -128.78 1.44
26.239 -127.42 -128.6 1.51
26.413 -126.9 -128.42 1.51
26.586 -126.68 -128.24 1.59
26.760 -126.74 -128.07 1.59
26.934 -126.89 -127.89 1.66
27.107 -126.68 -127.71 1.8
27.281 -126.25 -127.53 1.8
27.455 -125.82 -127.36 1.87
27.628 -125.26 -127.18 1.87
27.802 -124.67 -127 1.95
27.976 -124.07 -126.82 1.95
28.149 -123.48 -126.65 2.02
28.323 -122.88 -126.47 2.09
28.497 -122.28 -126.29 2.16
28.670 -121.31 -126.12 2.23
28.844 -120.33 -125.94 2.23
29.017 -119.34 -125.76 2.31
29.191 -118.35 -125.57 2.38
29.365 -117.36 -125.17 2.67
29.538 -115.81 -123.92 4.4
29.712 -112.3 -120.9 6.13
29.886 -108.87 -115.37 6.78
30.059 -105.48 -108.53 3.6
30.233 -102.12 -101.67 2.38
30.407 -98.76 -94.82 5.26
30.580 -95.39 -88.78 6.78
30.754 -92.03 -85.1 5.84
30.928 -88.69 -83.24 5.05
31.101 -85.36 -82.23 4.61
31.275 -82.03 -81.48 4.33
31.449 -78.73 -80.8 4.04
31.622 -75.46 -80.13 3.75
31.796 -72.22 -79.46 3.46
31.970 -69.01 -78.8 3.24
32.143 -69.25 -78.13 3.03
32.317 -70.21 -77.46 2.96
32.490 -71.18 -76.8 2.81
32.803 -72.93 -75.6 2.88
32.977 -73.9 -74.94 2.96
   36  

33.150 -73.98 -74.27 3.1

33.324 -73.92 -73.61 3.24
33.498 -73.86 -72.95 3.46
33.671 -73.79 -72.31 3.68
33.845 -73.73 -71.68 3.89
34.019 -73.68 -71.07 4.18
34.192 -73.61 -70.46 4.4
34.366 -73.56 -69.85 4.69
34.540 -73.5 -69.24 5.12
34.713 -73.44 -68.63 5.41
34.783 -73.41 -68.39 5.55

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