Grade 8 Review

- Define diffusion, brownian motion, osmosis

The particulate nature of matter

The particle theory states that matter is made up of particles that are in constant
motion. The particle theory is explained by three phenomena:

- Diffusion

- Osmosis

- Brownian motion

Diffusion

Diffusion is the moving of particles from an area of high concentration to an area

of low concentration until equilibrium is achieved.

Osmosis

Osmosis is a type of diffusion. The movement of water molecules through a

selectively permeable membrane from a region of high water concentration to a
region of low water concentration.
Brownian motion

Particles in both liquids and gases (collectively called fluids) move randomly. This
is called Brownian motion. They do this because they are bombarded by the other
moving particles in the fluid.

Videos explaining

Diffusion:

https://youtu.be/4U4XnMNSmv8

Osmosis:
https://youtu.be/qqe2NhQt8bY

Brownian motion:

https://youtu.be/4m5JnJBq2AU

Structure of an atom

Oxygen

Protons – atomic number (8)

Electrons – atomic number (8)

Neutrons – atomic mass – atomic number (16 - 8 = 8)

Electronic configuration - (2,6)

NB. The valence shell is the last shell of the atom.

In an atom, protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus and electrons are
located on the shells.

1st shell – 2 electrons

2nd shell – 8 electrons

3rd shell – 8 electrons

Homework

- Review and memorize the first 20 elements of the periodic table i.e. atomic
number and atomic symbol

- Draw the structure of the first 20 elements of the periodic table with their
electronic configurations.

Isotopes and Radioactivity

Isotopes are defined as atoms with identical atomic numbers but different mass
numbers due to their having different numbers of neutrons. Example hydrogen has
3 isotopes:

Other isotopes:

Carbon-12, Carbon-13, Carbon-14

Chlorine-35 and Chlorine-37

Video explaining isotopes:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EboWeWmh5Pg

Applications of Radioisotopes

Radioisotopes are isotopes that give off radiation in the form of alpha, beta or
gamma rays.

See notes from textbook pg. 29-30

General trends in the periodic table

Group

- Group number denotes the number of the electrons on the valence shell. For
example, all elements in group 2 will have 2 electrons on its valence shell.

- As you go down a group, the number of shells increases by 1.

Period

- Period number denotes the number of shells. For example, all elements in
period 2 will have 2 shells.

- As you go across a period, the number of valence electrons increases by 1.

Predict the atomic structure of the following:

1. Group 7, period 2 – 7 valence electrons, 2 shells

2. Group 3, period 3 – 3 valence electrons, 3 shells

3. Group 1, period 2 – 1 valence electrons, 2 shells

4. Group 1, period 1- 1 valence electron, 1 shell

5. Group 5, period 4 – 5 valence electrons, 4 shells

Additional Trends Page 40-42

Trends in group 1 elements videos:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jI__JY7pqOM

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I8tOtZKpi04
Mixtures and their separations

A compound is any substance formed when two or more elements are chemically
combined. The compounds are new substances and the elements they are
composed of cannot be easily separated.

The properties of a compound are different from that of the individual elements
that make it up.

Examples

Water (H2O) is made of oxygen and hydrogen.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is made of carbon and oxygen

A mixture is formed when two or more substances are physically combined and so
can be easily separated to obtain pure substances.

There are two types of mixture:

Homogenous mixture – the mixture is uniform throughout eg. salt and water or
syrup and water

Type of homogenous mixture:

Solvent solution – A solvent solution is a homogenous mixture of a solute and a

solvent. The solute is the substance to be dissolved while the solvent does the
dissolving. Solutions may be aqueous with water as the solvent or non-aqueous
with alcohol or other liquid as the solvent. When a solute dissolves readily in a
solvent, it is considered to be soluble. Liquids that mix well together are said to be
miscible for example rum and water, while oil and water do not mix and so are
said to be immiscible.
 Different Types of solution

Solute Solvent Example

Gas Gas Air

Gas Liquid CO2 in soda

Gas Solid H2 in palladium

Liquid Liquid Rum in water, syrup in

water.

Liquid Solid Amalgams

Solid Liquid Sugar in water, salt and

water, tang and water,
milo in water

Solid Solid Alloys eg. stainless steel

Heterogeneous mixture – This is a non-uniform mixture for example sand and

water.

Types of heterogeneous mixtures:

Colloid – This mixture has particles that do not separate out. The individual
particles are so small that they cannot be seen. Examples: milk, mayonnaise, jello,
fog, toothpaste.

Suspension – When particles dissolve to a small extent, they are known to be

sparingly soluble. They may clump together to form a suspension and settle out to
form a sediment. Example dirt and water, chalk in water
Separation Techniques

- Dissolution, filtration and evaporation

- Paper Chromatography

- Centrifugation and Decanting

- Solvent Extraction

- Simple Distillation

- Fractional Distillation

- Sublimation
 Chemical Bonding
Ion Formation

· The noble gases have the maximum number of electrons in their valence shells.
Example helium has 2 valence electrons while Neon and argon has 8 valence
electrons.

· Atoms with complete outer shells are in a particularly stable state. These atoms
are non-reactive.

· Most atoms combine with other atoms to achieve a stable electronic

configuration (noble gas configuration) or a stable octet.

· Atoms may achieve a stable octet by gaining, losing or sharing electrons.

· A chemical bond holds the combining atoms together.

Types of ions

· Hydrogen and metals of group I, II and III (except for Boron) form positive
ions called cations. They are therefore electropositive.

· Elements of group IV and V do not usually form ions. They usually form
covalent bonds by sharing electrons

· The non-metals of group VI and VII form negative ions called anions. They are
therefore electronegative.

N.B. A chemical bond only takes place between the valence electrons. The inner
electrons and the nucleus are not affected by a chemical bond.

Group I elements lose 1 electron Group V elements gain 3 electrons

Group II elements lose 2 electrons Group VI elements gain 2 electrons

Group III elements lose 3 electrons Group VII elements gain 1 electron

Group IV elements share electrons Group 0 elements are already stable

- An atom that gains or loses one or more electrons become a charged particle
called an ion.

- Positively charged ions formed when an atom loses an electron are called
cations.

- Negatively charged ions formed when an atom gains electrons are called
anions.

Ionic bonding

- This is formed between a metal and a non-metal by the transfer of electrons.

The atom with the fewer electrons on the outer shell (metal) loses electron(s)
to an atom with more electrons on the outer shell (non-metal).
- The loss of electrons causes the donor to become a positively charged ion
(cation). The number of positive charges on the ion will be equal to the
number of electrons lost.
- The addition of electrons to the outermost shell of a non-metal causes it to
become a negatively charged ion (anion). The number of negative charges
on the ion is equal to the number of electrons received by the atom.
- Ionic bonding results from the electrostatic attraction of the oppositely
charged ions formed. The electrostatic attraction causes the oppositely
charged ions to pack themselves into a regular arrangement called a lattice.
Covalent bonding

- Covalent bonds can be formed between atoms of the same non-metals as

well as between atoms of different non-metals.
- Covalent bonds are formed when atoms share pairs of electrons because the
energy to lose or gain them is too great for them to do so.
- Each atom contributes one or more electrons to form a pair (or pairs) for
sharing based on how many electrons each needs.
- Each shared pair of electrons represents one covalent bond. In this way, all
combining atoms achieve more stable electronic configuration.
- The force of attraction between the nuclei of the two atoms and the shared
pair of electrons holds the atoms together as molecules.
- Covalent bonding results in the formation of neutral molecules.
Metallic bonding

Metallic bonding is a special type of bonding that takes place within a metal. In
metallic bonding, a “sea of electrons” circles the positively charged nuclei. Metals
cannot bond with each other. They can however form alloys which are solid
mixtures. Metals exist as three dimensional aggregates of atoms in crystal lattices
with the outermost electrons moving freely from one cation to another as
represented in the figure below:

Metallic bonding with sodium:

A) The electrons are free to move and so are known as a “sea of electrons”. The
atoms assume a positive charge and so the positive and negative charges cause
great forces of attraction called electrostatic attraction. Metals, therefore, tend to
have high melting and boiling points.

B) The close packing of the cations gives rise to high density, and metals being
strong, tough solids.

C) The cations tend to have the ability to roll past each other without destroying
the metallic bonding and so metals are both malleable and ductile.
D) The vibration of cations and free movement of the electrons allow metals to be
good conductors of heat and electricity.