Mercury (Element) - Wikipedia

6/22/23, 11:03 PM Mercury (element) - Wikipedia
Toggle the table of contents
Mercury (element)
Mercury is a chemical element with the symbol Hg

and atomic number 80. It is also known as Mercury, 80Hg
quicksilver and was formerly named
hydrargyrum (/haɪˈdrɑːrdʒərəm/ hy-DRAR-jər-
əm) from the Greek words hydro (water) and
argyros (silver).[5] A heavy, silvery d-block element,
mercury is the only metallic element that is known to
be liquid at standard temperature and pressure; the
only other element that is liquid under these
conditions is the halogen bromine, though metals
such as caesium, gallium, and rubidium melt just
above room temperature.
Mercury occurs in deposits throughout the world

mostly as cinnabar (mercuric sulfide). The red
pigment vermilion is obtained by grinding natural Mercury
cinnabar or synthetic mercuric sulfide. Appearance shiny, silvery liquid
Mercury is used in thermometers, barometers, Standard atomic weight Ar°(Hg)

manometers, sphygmomanometers, float valves,
200.592 ± 0.003
mercury switches, mercury relays, fluorescent lamps
and other devices, though concerns about the 200.59 ± 0.01 (abridged)[1]
element's toxicity have led to mercury thermometers Mercury in the periodic table
and sphygmomanometers being largely phased out in
clinical environments in favor of alternatives such as Cd
alcohol- or galinstan-filled glass thermometers and ↑
Hg
thermistor- or infrared-based electronic instruments. ↓
Cn
Likewise, mechanical pressure gauges and electronic gold ← mercury → thallium
strain gauge sensors have replaced mercury
sphygmomanometers. The mercury cell process Atomic number (Z) 80
(chlor-alkali) is used to produce chlorine and sodium
Group group 12
or potassium hydroxide, but is phased out.
Period period 6
Mercury, and mercury compounds, remain in use in Block d-block
scientific research applications and in amalgam for
dental restoration in some locales, and in some food Electron [Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s2
manufacturing operations. In food manufacturing, configuration
mercuric chloride is used in the starch extraction Electrons per 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 2
process during rice, corn, and wheat refining to shell
inhibit starch degrading enzymes.[6][7] It is also used
Physical properties
in fluorescent lighting. Electricity passed through
Phase at STP liquid
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(element) 1/36
mercury vapor in a fluorescent lamp produces short- Melting point 234.3210 K (−38.8290 °C,
wave ultraviolet light, which then causes the −37.8922 °F)
phosphor in the tube to fluoresce, making visible
Boiling point 629.88 K (356.73 °C,
light.
674.11 °F)
Mercury poisoning can result from exposure to Density (near r.t.) 13.534 g/cm3
water-soluble forms of mercury (such as mercuric
Triple point 234.3156 K, 1.65×10−7 kPa
chloride or methylmercury), by inhalation of mercury
vapor, or by ingesting any form of mercury. In Critical point 1750 K, 172.00 MPa
serious form, it is also known as Minamata disease. Heat of fusion 2.29 kJ/mol
Mercury poisoning is intensified with lead co-
exposures. Heat of 59.11 kJ/mol
vaporization
Properties Molar heat 27.983 J/(mol·K)

capacity
Vapor pressure
Physical properties P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 315 350 393 449 523 629
Atomic properties
Oxidation states −2 , +1, +2 (a mildly basic
oxide)
Electronegativity Pauling scale: 2.00
Ionization 1st: 1007.1 kJ/mol
energies
An old[8] pound coin (density 2nd: 1810 kJ/mol
3
~7.6 g/cm ) floats on mercury due to 3rd: 3300 kJ/mol
the combination of the buoyant force
and surface tension. Atomic radius empirical: 151 pm
Covalent radius 132±5 pm
Mercury is a heavy, silvery-white metal that is liquid Van der Waals 155 pm
at room temperature. Compared with other metals, it radius
is a poor conductor of heat, but a fair conductor of
electricity.[9]
It has a freezing point of −38.83 °C and a boiling Spectral lines of mercury

point of 356.73 °C,[10][11][12] both the lowest of any Other properties
stable metal, although preliminary experiments on
Natural primordial
copernicium and flerovium have indicated that they
occurrence
have even lower boiling points.[13] This effect is due
to lanthanide contraction and relativistic contraction Crystal structure rhombohedral
reducing the radius of the outermost electrons, and
thus weakening the metallic bonding in mercury.[11]
Upon freezing, the volume of mercury decreases by Speed of sound liquid: 1451.4 m/s (at 20 °C)
3.59% and its density changes from 13.69 g/cm3 Thermal 60.4 µm/(m⋅K) (at 25 °C)
when liquid to 14.184 g/cm3 when solid. The expansion
coefficient of volume expansion is 181.59 × 10−6 at
0 °C, 181.71 × 10−6

at 20 °C and 182.50 × 10−6
at Thermal 8.30 W/(m⋅K)
100 °C (per °C). Solid mercury is malleable and conductivity
ductile and can be cut with a knife.[14]
Electrical 961 nΩ⋅m (at 25 °C)
resistivity
Magnetic ordering diamagnetic[2]
Molar magnetic −33.44 × 10−6 cm3/mol
susceptibility (293 K)[3]
CAS Number 7439-97-6
History
Discovery Ancient
Egyptians (before 1500 BCE)
Symbol "Hg": from its Latin name
hydrargyrum, itself from
Greek hydrárgyros, 'water-
silver'
Isotopes of mercury
Main isotopes[4] Decay
abundance half-life (t1/2) mode product

194 194
Hg synth 444 y ε Au
195 195
Hg synth 9.9 h ε Au
196
Hg 0.15% stable
197 197
Hg synth 64.14 h ε Au
198
Hg 10.0% stable
199
Hg 16.9% stable
200
Hg 23.1% stable
201
Hg 13.2% stable
202
Hg 29.7% stable
203
Hg synth 46.612 d β− 203
Tl
204
Hg 6.82% stable
Thermal and physical properties of liquid mercury:[15][16] [show]

Specific Kinematic Thermal Bulk
Temperature Density Conductivity Prandtl
heat (kJ/kg viscosity diffusivity modulus
(°C) (kg/m^3) (W/m K) Number
K) (m^2/s) (m^2/s) (K^-1)
0 13628.22 0.1403 1.24E-07 8.2 4.30E-06 0.0288 0.000181
20 13579.04 0.1394 1.14E-07 8.69 4.61E-06 0.0249 0.000181
50 13505.84 0.1386 1.04E-07 9.4 5.02E-06 0.0207 0.000181

100 13384.58 0.1373 9.28E-08 10.51 5.72E-06 0.0162 0.000181
150 13264.28 0.1365 8.53E-08 11.49 6.35E-06 0.0134 0.000181
200 13144.94 0.157 8.02E-08 12.34 6.91E-06 0.0116 0.000181

250 13025.6 0.1357 7.65E-08 13.07 7.41E-06 0.0103 0.000183
315.5 12847 0.134 6.73E-08 14.02 8.15E-06 0.0083 0.000186
Chemical properties
Mercury does not react with most acids, such as dilute sulfuric acid, although oxidizing acids such as
concentrated sulfuric acid and nitric acid or aqua regia dissolve it to give sulfate, nitrate, and chloride.
Like silver, mercury reacts with atmospheric hydrogen sulfide. Mercury reacts with solid sulfur flakes,
which are used in mercury spill kits to absorb mercury (spill kits also use activated carbon and
powdered zinc).[17]
Amalgams
Mercury dissolves many metals such as gold and silver to form

amalgams. Iron is an exception, and iron flasks have traditionally
been used to trade mercury. Several other first row transition
metals with the exception of manganese, copper and zinc are also
Mercury-discharge spectral
resistant in forming amalgams. Other elements that do not readily
calibration lamp
form amalgams with mercury include platinum.[18][19] Sodium
amalgam is a common reducing agent in organic synthesis, and is
also used in high-pressure sodium lamps.
Mercury readily combines with aluminium to form a mercury-aluminium amalgam when the two pure
metals come into contact. Since the amalgam destroys the aluminium oxide layer which protects
metallic aluminium from oxidizing in-depth (as in iron rusting), even small amounts of mercury can
seriously corrode aluminium. For this reason, mercury is not allowed aboard an aircraft under most
circumstances because of the risk of it forming an amalgam with exposed aluminium parts in the
aircraft.[20]
Mercury embrittlement is the most common type of liquid metal embrittlement.
Isotopes
There are seven stable isotopes of mercury, with 202Hg being the most abundant (29.86%). The
longest-lived radioisotopes are 194Hg with a half-life of 444 years, and 203Hg with a half-life of 46.612
days. Most of the remaining radioisotopes have half-lives that are less than a day. 199Hg and 201Hg are
the most often studied NMR-active nuclei, having spins of 1⁄2 and 3⁄2 respectively.[9] For the synthesis
of precious metals two stable mercury isotopes are of potential interest: the trace isotope 196Hg and
the more abundant 198Hg. Both are "one neutron removed" from 197Hg, a radioisotope which decays
to 197Au, the only known stable isotope of gold. However, the rarity of 196Hg and the high energy
requirements of nuclear reactions "knocking out" a neutron from 198Hg (either via
photodisintegration or via a (n,2n) reaction involving fast neutrons), have thus far ruled out practical
application of this "real philosopher's stone".
Etymology
"Hg" is the modern chemical symbol for mercury. It is an abbreviation of
hydrargyrum, a romanized form of the ancient Greek name for mercury,
ὑδράργυρος (hydrargyros). Hydrargyros is a Greek compound word meaning
"water-silver", from ὑδρ- (hydr-), the root of ὕδωρ (hydor) "water", and ἄργυρος
(argyros) "silver". Like the English name quicksilver ("living-silver"), this name
was due to mercury's liquid and shiny properties.
The symbol for the
The modern English name "mercury" comes from the planet Mercury. In
planet Mercury (☿)
medieval alchemy, the seven known metals—quicksilver, gold, silver, copper,
has been used
iron, lead, and tin—were associated with the seven planets. Quicksilver was
since ancient times
associated with the fastest planet, which had been named after the Roman god to represent the
Mercury, who was associated with speed and mobility. The astrological symbol element
for the planet became one of the alchemical symbols for the metal, and
"Mercury" became an alternative name for the metal. Mercury is the only metal
for which the alchemical planetary name survives, as it was decided it was preferable to "quicksilver"
as a chemical name.[21]
History
The mercury compound known as cinnabar was recorded as a component of the red pigments in
Paleolithic cave paintings of 30,000 years ago in Spain and France.[22]
Mercury was found in Egyptian tombs that date from 1500 BC.[23]
In China and Tibet, mercury use was thought to prolong life, heal fractures, and maintain generally
good health, although it is now known that exposure to mercury vapor leads to serious adverse health
effects.[24] The first emperor of a unified China, Qín Shǐ Huáng Dì—allegedly buried in a tomb that
contained rivers of flowing mercury on a model of the land he ruled, representative of the rivers of
China—was reportedly killed by drinking a mercury and powdered jade mixture formulated by Qin
alchemists intended as an elixir of immortality.[25][26] Khumarawayh ibn Ahmad ibn Tulun, the
second Tulunid ruler of Egypt (r. 884–896), known for his extravagance and profligacy, reportedly
built a basin filled with mercury, on which he would lie on top of air-filled cushions and be rocked to
sleep.[27]
In November 2014 "large quantities" of mercury were discovered in a chamber 60 feet below the
1800-year-old pyramid known as the "Temple of the Feathered Serpent," "the third largest pyramid of
Teotihuacan," Mexico along with "jade statues, jaguar remains, a box filled with carved shells and
rubber balls".[28]
Aristotle recounts that Daedalus made a wooden statue of Venus move by pouring quicksilver in its
interior.[29] In Greek mythology Daedalus gave the appearance of voice in his statues using
quicksilver. The ancient Greeks used cinnabar (mercury sulfide) in ointments; the ancient Egyptians
and the Romans used it in cosmetics. In Lamanai, once a major city of the Maya civilization, a pool of
mercury was found under a marker in a Mesoamerican ballcourt.[30][31] By 500 BC mercury was used
to make amalgams (Medieval Latin amalgama, "alloy of mercury") with other metals.[32]
Alchemists thought of mercury as the First Matter from which all metals were formed. They believed
that different metals could be produced by varying the quality and quantity of sulfur contained within
the mercury. The purest of these was gold, and mercury was called for in attempts at the
transmutation of base (or impure) metals into gold, which was the goal of many alchemists.[21]
The mines in Almadén (Spain), Monte Amiata (Italy), and Idrija (now Slovenia) dominated mercury
production from the opening of the mine in Almadén 2500 years ago, until new deposits were found
at the end of the 19th century.[33]
On 8 April 1911, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes found that at 4.2 K a solid mercury wire immersed in liquid
helium became superconductive.[34]
Occurrence and production

Mercury is an extremely rare element in Earth's crust, having an
average crustal abundance by mass of only 0.08 parts per million
(ppm).[35] Because it does not blend geochemically with those
elements that constitute the majority of the crustal mass, mercury
ores can be extraordinarily concentrated considering the element's
abundance in ordinary rock. The richest mercury ores contain up
to 2.5% mercury by mass, and even the leanest concentrated
deposits are at least 0.1% mercury (12,000 times average crustal
abundance). It is found either as a native metal (rare) or in
cinnabar, metacinnabar, sphalerite, corderoite, livingstonite and Native mercury with cinnabar,
other minerals, with cinnabar (HgS) being the most common Socrates mine, Sonoma County,
ore.[36][37] Mercury ores often occur in hot springs or other California. Cinnabar sometimes
volcanic regions.[38] alters to native mercury in the
oxidized zone of mercury deposits.
Beginning in 1558, with the invention of the patio process to
extract silver from ore using mercury, mercury became an
essential resource in the economy of Spain and its American colonies. Mercury was used to extract
silver from the lucrative mines in New Spain and Peru. Initially, the Spanish Crown's mines in
Almadén in Southern Spain supplied all the mercury for the colonies.[39] Mercury deposits were
discovered in the New World, and more than 100,000 tons of mercury were mined from the region of
Huancavelica, Peru, over the course of three centuries following the discovery of deposits there in
1563. The patio process and later pan amalgamation process continued to create great demand for
mercury to treat silver ores until the late 19th century.[40]
Former mines in Italy, the United States and Mexico, which once produced a large proportion of the
world supply, have now been completely mined out or, in the case of Slovenia (Idrija) and Spain
(Almadén), shut down due to the fall of the price of mercury. Nevada's McDermitt Mine, the last
mercury mine in the United States, closed in 1992.[41]
Mercury is extracted by heating cinnabar in a current of air and condensing the vapor. The equation
for this extraction is
HgS + O2 → Hg + SO2
In 2022, China was the top producer of mercury, providing 91% of

the world output (2000 out of 2200 tonnes), followed by
Tajikistan (120 t), Mexico (40 t), Peru (30 t) and Norway (20
t).[42]
Because of the high toxicity of mercury, both the mining of

cinnabar and refining for mercury are hazardous and historic
causes of mercury poisoning.[43] In China, prison labor was used
by a private mining company as recently as the 1950s to develop
new cinnabar mines. Thousands of prisoners were used by the Luo
Evolution of mercury price (U.S.)
Xi mining company to establish new tunnels.[44] Worker health in and production (worldwide)
functioning mines is at high risk.
A newspaper claimed that an unidentified European Union directive calling for energy-efficient
lightbulbs to be made mandatory by 2012 encouraged China to re-open cinnabar mines to obtain the
mercury required for CFL bulb manufacture. Environmental dangers have been a concern,
particularly in the southern cities of Foshan and Guangzhou, and in Guizhou province in the
southwest.[44]
Abandoned mercury mine processing sites often contain very hazardous waste piles of roasted
cinnabar calcines. Water run-off from such sites is a recognized source of ecological damage. Former
mercury mines may be suited for constructive re-use. For example, in 1976 Santa Clara County,
California purchased the historic Almaden Quicksilver Mine and created a county park on the site,
after conducting extensive safety and environmental analysis of the property.[45]
Chemistry
All known mercury compounds exhibit one of two positive oxidation states: I and II. Experiments
have failed to unequivocally demonstrate any higher oxidation states: both the claimed 1976
electrosynthesis of an unstable Hg(III) species and 2007 cryogenic isolation of HgF4 have disputed
interpretations and remain difficult (if not impossible) to reproduce.[46]
Compounds of mercury(I)
Unlike its lighter neighbors, cadmium and zinc, mercury usually forms simple stable compounds with
metal-metal bonds. Most mercury(I) compounds are diamagnetic and feature the dimeric cation, Hg
2+
2 . Stable derivatives include the chloride and nitrate. Treatment of Hg(I) compounds complexation
2+
with strong ligands such as sulfide, cyanide, etc. induces disproportionation to Hg and elemental
mercury.[47] Mercury(I) chloride, a colorless solid also known as calomel, is really the compound with
the formula Hg2Cl2, with the connectivity Cl-Hg-Hg-Cl. It is a standard in electrochemistry. It reacts
with chlorine to give mercuric chloride, which resists further oxidation. Mercury(I) hydride, a
colorless gas, has the formula HgH, containing no Hg-Hg bond.
Indicative of its tendency to bond to itself, mercury forms mercury polycations, which consist of linear
chains of mercury centers, capped with a positive charge. One example is Hg2+ − [48]
3 (AsF6 )2.
Compounds of mercury(II)
Mercury(II) is the most common oxidation state and is the main one in nature as well. All four
mercuric halides are known. They form tetrahedral complexes with other ligands but the halides
adopt linear coordination geometry, somewhat like Ag+ does. Best known is mercury(II) chloride, an
easily sublimating white solid. HgCl2 forms coordination complexes that are typically tetrahedral, e.g.
HgCl2−4 .
Mercury(II) oxide, the main oxide of mercury, arises when the metal is exposed to air for long periods
at elevated temperatures. It reverts to the elements upon heating near 400 °C, as was demonstrated
by Joseph Priestley in an early synthesis of pure oxygen.[17] Hydroxides of mercury are poorly
characterized, as they are for its neighbors gold and silver.
Being a soft metal, mercury forms very stable derivatives with the heavier chalcogens. Preeminent is
mercury(II) sulfide, HgS, which occurs in nature as the ore cinnabar and is the brilliant pigment
vermillion. Like ZnS, HgS crystallizes in two forms, the reddish cubic form and the black zinc blende
form.[9] The latter sometimes occurs naturally as metacinnabar.[37] Mercury(II) selenide (HgSe) and
mercury(II) telluride (HgTe) are also known, these as well as various derivatives, e.g. mercury
cadmium telluride and mercury zinc telluride being semiconductors useful as infrared detector
materials.[49]
Mercury(II) salts form a variety of complex derivatives with ammonia. These include Millon's base
+
(Hg2N+), the one-dimensional polymer (salts of HgNH2 )n), and "fusible white precipitate" or
[Hg(NH3)2]Cl2. Known as Nessler's reagent, potassium tetraiodomercurate(II) (HgI2− 4 ) is still
occasionally used to test for ammonia owing to its tendency to form the deeply colored iodide salt of
Millon's base.
Mercury fulminate is a detonator widely used in explosives.[9]
Organomercury compounds
Organic mercury compounds are historically important but are of little industrial value in the western
world. Mercury(II) salts are a rare example of simple metal complexes that react directly with
aromatic rings. Organomercury compounds are always divalent and usually two-coordinate and linear
geometry. Unlike organocadmium and organozinc compounds, organomercury compounds do not
react with water. They usually have the formula HgR2, which are often volatile, or HgRX, which are
often solids, where R is aryl or alkyl and X is usually halide or acetate. Methylmercury, a generic term
for compounds with the formula CH3HgX, is a dangerous family of compounds that are often found in
polluted water.[50] They arise by a process known as biomethylation.
Applications
Mercury is used primarily for the manufacture of industrial

chemicals or for electrical and electronic applications. It is used in
some liquid-in-glass thermometers, especially those used to
measure high temperatures. A still increasing amount is used as
gaseous mercury in fluorescent lamps, while most of the other
applications are slowly being phased out due to health and safety
regulations. In some applications, mercury is replaced with less
toxic but considerably more expensive Galinstan alloy.[51] The bulb of a mercury-in-glass
thermometer
Medicine
Mercury and its compounds have been used in medicine, although

they are much less common today than they once were, now that the
toxic effects of mercury and its compounds are more widely
understood. An example of the early therapeutic application of
mercury of was published in 1787 by James Lind.[52]
Mercury is an ingredient in dental amalgams. Thiomersal (called

Thimerosal in the United States) is an organic compound used as a
preservative in vaccines, though this use is in decline.[53] Thiomersal Amalgam filling
is metabolized to ethyl mercury. Although it was widely speculated
that this mercury-based preservative could cause or trigger autism in
children, scientific studies showed no evidence supporting any such link.[54] Nevertheless, thiomersal
has been removed from, or reduced to trace amounts in all U.S. vaccines recommended for children 6
years of age and under, with the exception of inactivated influenza vaccine.[55]
Another mercury compound, merbromin (Mercurochrome), is a topical antiseptic used for minor cuts
and scrapes that is still in use in some countries.
Mercury in the form of one of its common ores, cinnabar, is used in various traditional medicines,
especially in traditional Chinese medicine. Review of its safety has found that cinnabar can lead to
significant mercury intoxication when heated, consumed in overdose, or taken long term, and can
have adverse effects at therapeutic doses, though effects from therapeutic doses are typically
reversible. Although this form of mercury appears to be less toxic than other forms, its use in
traditional Chinese medicine has not yet been justified, as the therapeutic basis for the use of cinnabar
is not clear.[56]
Today, the use of mercury in medicine has greatly declined in all respects, especially in developed
countries. Thermometers and sphygmomanometers containing mercury were invented in the early
18th and late 19th centuries, respectively. In the early 21st century, their use is declining and has been
banned in some countries, states and medical institutions. In 2002, the U.S. Senate passed legislation
to phase out the sale of non-prescription mercury thermometers. In 2003, Washington and Maine
became the first states to ban mercury blood pressure devices.[57] Mercury compounds are found in
some over-the-counter drugs, including topical antiseptics, stimulant laxatives, diaper-rash ointment,
eye drops, and nasal sprays. The FDA has "inadequate data to establish general recognition of the
safety and effectiveness" of the mercury ingredients in these products.[58] Mercury is still used in
some diuretics although substitutes now exist for most therapeutic uses.
Production of chlorine and caustic soda
Chlorine is produced from sodium chloride (common salt, NaCl) using electrolysis to separate the
metallic sodium from the chlorine gas. Usually the salt is dissolved in water to produce a brine. By-
products of any such chloralkali process are hydrogen (H2) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH), which is
commonly called caustic soda or lye. By far the largest use of mercury[59][60] in the late 20th century
was in the mercury cell process (also called the Castner-Kellner process) where metallic sodium is
formed as an amalgam at a cathode made from mercury; this sodium is then reacted with water to
produce sodium hydroxide.[61] Many of the industrial mercury releases of the 20th century came from
this process, although modern plants claimed to be safe in this regard.[60] After about 1985, all new
chloralkali production facilities that were built in the United States used membrane cell or diaphragm
cell technologies to produce chlorine.
Laboratory uses
Some medical thermometers, especially those for high temperatures, are filled with mercury; they are
gradually disappearing. In the United States, non-prescription sale of mercury fever thermometers
has been banned since 2003.[62]
Some transit telescopes use a basin of mercury to form a flat and absolutely horizontal mirror, useful
in determining an absolute vertical or perpendicular reference. Concave horizontal parabolic mirrors
may be formed by rotating liquid mercury on a disk, the parabolic form of the liquid thus formed
reflecting and focusing incident light. Such liquid-mirror telescopes are cheaper than conventional
large mirror telescopes by up to a factor of 100, but the mirror cannot be tilted and always points
straight up.[63][64][65]
Liquid mercury is a part of popular secondary reference electrode (called the calomel electrode) in
electrochemistry as an alternative to the standard hydrogen electrode. The calomel electrode is used to
work out the electrode potential of half cells.[66] Last, but not least, the triple point of mercury,
−38.8344 °C, is a fixed point used as a temperature standard for the International Temperature Scale
(ITS-90).[9]
In polarography both the dropping mercury electrode[67] and the hanging mercury drop electrode[68]
use elemental mercury. This use allows a new uncontaminated electrode to be available for each
measurement or each new experiment.
Mercury-containing compounds are also of use in the field of structural biology. Mercuric compounds
such as mercury(II) chloride or potassium tetraiodomercurate(II) can be added to protein crystals in
an effort to create heavy atom derivatives that can be used to solve the phase problem in X-ray
crystallography via isomorphous replacement or anomalous scattering methods.
Niche uses
Gaseous mercury is used in mercury-vapor lamps and some "neon sign" type advertising signs and
fluorescent lamps. Those low-pressure lamps emit very spectrally narrow lines, which are traditionally
used in optical spectroscopy for calibration of spectral position. Commercial calibration lamps are
sold for this purpose; reflecting a fluorescent ceiling light into a spectrometer is a common calibration
practice.[69] Gaseous mercury is also found in some electron tubes, including ignitrons, thyratrons,
and mercury arc rectifiers.[70] It is also used in specialist medical care lamps for skin tanning and
disinfection.[71] Gaseous mercury is added to cold cathode argon-filled lamps to increase the
ionization and electrical conductivity. An argon-filled lamp without mercury will light incorrectly and
have dull spots. Lighting containing mercury can be bombarded/oven-pumped only once. When
added to neon filled tubes, the light produced will have inconsistent red/blue spots until the initial
burning-in process is completed; eventually, it will light a consistent, dull, off-blue color.[72]
The deep violet glow of a mercury Skin tanner containing a low-

vapor discharge in a germicidal pressure mercury vapor lamp and
lamp, whose spectrum is rich in two infrared lamps, which act both
invisible ultraviolet radiation. as light source and electrical ballast
Assorted types of fluorescent The miniaturized Deep Space

lamps. Atomic Clock is a linear ion-trap-
based mercury ion clock, designed
for precise and real-time radio
navigation in deep space.
The Deep Space Atomic Clock (DSAC) under development by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory utilises
mercury in a linear, ion-trap-based clock. This novel use of mercury allows very compact atomic
clocks with low energy requirements, and is therefore ideal for space probes and Mars missions.[73]
Cosmetics
Mercury, as thiomersal, is widely used in the manufacture of mascara. In 2008, Minnesota became
the first state in the United States to ban intentionally added mercury in cosmetics, giving it a tougher
standard than the federal government.[74]
A study in geometric mean urine mercury concentration identified a previously unrecognized source
of exposure (skin care products) to inorganic mercury among New York City residents. Population-
based biomonitoring also showed that mercury concentration levels are higher in consumers of
seafood and fish meals.[75]
Skin whitening
Mercury is effective as an active ingredient in skin whitening compounds used to depigment skin.[76]
The Minamata Convention on Mercury limits the concentration of mercury in such whiteners to 1 part
per million. However, as of 2022, many commercially sold whitener products continue to exceed that
limit, and are considered toxic.[77]
Firearms
Mercury(II) fulminate is a primary explosive which is mainly used as a primer of a cartridge in

firearms.
Historic uses
Many historic applications made use of the peculiar physical

properties of mercury, especially as a dense liquid and a liquid
metal:
Quantities of liquid mercury ranging from 90 to 600 grams (3.2

to 21.2 oz) have been recovered from elite Maya tombs (100–
700 AD)[28] or ritual caches at six sites. This mercury may A single-pole, single-throw (SPST)
have been used in bowls as mirrors for divinatory purposes. mercury switch
Five of these date to the Classic Period of Maya civilization (c.
250–900) but one example predated this.[78]
In Islamic Spain, it was used for filling decorative pools. Later, the American artist Alexander
Calder built a mercury fountain for the Spanish Pavilion at the 1937 World Exhibition in Paris. The
fountain is now on display at the Fundació Joan Miró in Barcelona.[79]
Mercury was used inside wobbler lures. Its heavy, liquid form made it useful since the lures made
an attractive irregular movement when the mercury moved inside the plug. Such use was stopped
due to environmental concerns, but illegal preparation of modern fishing plugs has occurred.
The Fresnel lenses of old lighthouses used to float and rotate in a bath of mercury which acted like
a bearing.[80]
Mercury sphygmomanometers (blood pressure meter), barometers,

diffusion pumps, coulometers, and many other laboratory instruments
took advantage of mercury's properties as a very dense, opaque
liquid with a nearly linear thermal expansion.[81]
As an electrically conductive liquid, it was used in mercury switches
(including home mercury light switches installed prior to 1970), tilt
switches used in old fire detectors, and tilt switches in some home
thermostats.[82]
Owing to its acoustic properties, mercury was used as the
propagation medium in delay-line memory devices used in early
digital computers of the mid-20th century.
Experimental mercury vapor turbines were installed to increase the
efficiency of fossil-fuel electrical power plants.[83] The South Meadow
power plant in Hartford, CT employed mercury as its working fluid, in Mercury manometer to
a binary configuration with a secondary water circuit, for a number of measure pressure
years starting in the late 1920s in a drive to improve plant efficiency.
Several other plants were built, including the Schiller Station in
Portsmouth, NH, which went online in 1950. The idea did not catch on industry-wide due to the
weight and toxicity of mercury, as well as the advent of supercritical steam plants in later
years.[84][85]
Similarly, liquid mercury was used as a coolant for some nuclear reactors; however, sodium is
proposed for reactors cooled with liquid metal, because the high density of mercury requires much
more energy to circulate as coolant.[86]
Mercury was a propellant for early ion engines in electric space propulsion systems. Advantages
were mercury's high molecular weight, low ionization energy, low dual-ionization energy, high
liquid density and liquid storability at room temperature. Disadvantages were concerns regarding
environmental impact associated with ground testing and concerns about eventual cooling and
condensation of some of the propellant on the spacecraft in long-duration operations. The first
spaceflight to use electric propulsion was a mercury-fueled ion thruster developed at NASA Glenn
Research Center and flown on the Space Electric Rocket Test "SERT-1" spacecraft launched by
NASA at its Wallops Flight Facility in 1964. The SERT-1 flight was followed up by the SERT-2 flight
in 1970. Mercury and caesium were preferred propellants for ion engines until Hughes Research
Laboratory performed studies finding xenon gas to be a suitable replacement. Xenon is now the
preferred propellant for ion engines as it has a high molecular weight, little or no reactivity due to
its noble gas nature, and has a high liquid density under mild cryogenic storage.[87][88]
Other applications made use of the chemical properties of mercury:
The mercury battery is a non-rechargeable electrochemical battery, a primary cell, that was
common in the middle of the 20th century. It was used in a wide variety of applications and was
available in various sizes, particularly button sizes. Its constant voltage output and long shelf life
gave it a niche use for camera light meters and hearing aids. The mercury cell was effectively
banned in most countries in the 1990s due to concerns about the mercury contaminating
landfills.[89]
Mercury was used for preserving wood, developing daguerreotypes, silvering mirrors, anti-fouling
paints (discontinued in 1990), herbicides (discontinued in 1995), interior latex paint, handheld
maze games, cleaning, and road leveling devices in cars. Mercury compounds have been used in
antiseptics, laxatives, antidepressants, and in antisyphilitics.
It was allegedly used by allied spies to sabotage Luftwaffe planes: a mercury paste was applied to
bare aluminium, causing the metal to rapidly corrode; this would cause structural failures.[90]
Chloralkali process: The largest industrial use of mercury during the 20th century was in
electrolysis for separating chlorine and sodium from brine; mercury being the anode of the
Castner-Kellner process. The chlorine was used for bleaching paper (hence the location of many
of these plants near paper mills) while the sodium was used to make sodium hydroxide for soaps
and other cleaning products.[91] Although this usage has largely been discontinued and replaced
with other technologies that utilize membrane cells,[91] the World Chlorine Council Report
indicates there were still eleven manufacturing plants operating in North and South America in
2020.[92]
As electrodes in some types of electrolysis, batteries (mercury cells), sodium hydroxide and
chlorine production, handheld games, catalysts, insecticides.
Mercury was once used as a gun barrel bore cleaner.[93][94]
From the mid-18th to the mid-19th centuries, a process called "carroting" was used in the making
of felt hats. Animal skins were rinsed in an orange solution (the term "carroting" arose from this
color) of the mercury compound mercuric nitrate, Hg(NO3)2·2H2O.[95] This process separated the
fur from the pelt and matted it together. This solution and the vapors it produced were highly toxic.
The United States Public Health Service banned the use of mercury in the felt industry in
December 1941. The psychological symptoms associated with mercury poisoning inspired the
phrase "mad as a hatter". Lewis Carroll's "Mad Hatter" in his book Alice's Adventures in
Wonderland was a play on words based on the older phrase, but the character himself does not
exhibit symptoms of mercury poisoning.[96]
Gold and silver mining. Historically, mercury was used extensively in hydraulic gold mining in order
to help the gold to sink through the flowing water-gravel mixture. Thin gold particles may form
mercury-gold amalgam and therefore increase the gold recovery rates.[9] Large-scale use of
mercury stopped in the 1960s. However, mercury is still used in small scale, often clandestine,
gold prospecting. It is estimated that 45,000 metric tons of mercury used in California for placer
mining have not been recovered.[97] Mercury was also used in silver mining.[98]
Historic medicinal uses
Mercury(I) chloride (also known as calomel or mercurous chloride) has been used in traditional
medicine as a diuretic, topical disinfectant, and laxative. Mercury(II) chloride (also known as mercuric
chloride or corrosive sublimate) was once used to treat syphilis (along with other mercury
compounds), although it is so toxic that sometimes the symptoms of its toxicity were confused with
those of the syphilis it was believed to treat.[99] It is also used as a disinfectant. Blue mass, a pill or
syrup in which mercury is the main ingredient, was prescribed throughout the 19th century for
numerous conditions including constipation, depression, child-bearing and toothaches.[100] In the
early 20th century, mercury was administered to children yearly as a laxative and dewormer, and it
was used in teething powders for infants. The mercury-containing organohalide merbromin
(sometimes sold as Mercurochrome) is still widely used but has been banned in some countries such
as the U.S.[101]
Toxicity and safety

Mercury and most of its compounds are extremely toxic and must Mercury
be handled with care; in cases of spills involving mercury (such as
Hazards
from certain thermometers or fluorescent light bulbs), specific
cleaning procedures are used to avoid exposure and contain the GHS labelling:
spill.[103] Protocols call for physically merging smaller droplets on
hard surfaces, combining them into a single larger pool for easier
removal with an eyedropper, or for gently pushing the spill into a Pictograms
disposable container. Vacuum cleaners and brooms cause greater
dispersal of the mercury and should not be used. Afterwards, fine
sulfur, zinc, or some other powder that readily forms an amalgam
(alloy) with mercury at ordinary temperatures is sprinkled over
the area before itself being collected and properly disposed of.
Cleaning porous surfaces and clothing is not effective at removing Signal word Danger
all traces of mercury and it is therefore advised to discard these Hazard H330, H360D,
kinds of items should they be exposed to a mercury spill. statements H372, H410
Precautionary P201, P233, P260,
Mercury can be absorbed through the skin and mucous
statements P273, P280, P304,
membranes and mercury vapors can be inhaled, so containers of
mercury are securely sealed to avoid spills and evaporation. P308, P310, P313,
Heating of mercury, or of compounds of mercury that may P340, P391,
decompose when heated, should be carried out with adequate P403[102]
ventilation in order to minimize exposure to mercury vapor. NFPA 704
(fire diamond) 0
The most toxic forms of mercury are its organic compounds, such 2 0
as dimethylmercury and methylmercury. Inorganic mercury, by
itself, however, is especially toxic with co-exposures to lead during
child development.[104][105][106] Exposures to inorganic mercury
are linked to the development of type-2 diabetes in the human population.[107][108] Mercury can cause
both chronic and acute poisoning.
Dietary exposures to mercury
In 2021, the United States Congress released a report on the problem of heavy metals in baby foods,
including mercury and lead.[109][110][111][112] Scholars have studied the effects of dietary inorganic
mercury exposure from processed food consumption.[113]
Releases in the environment
Preindustrial deposition rates of mercury from the atmosphere may be about 4 ng /(1 L of ice deposit).
Although that can be considered a natural level of exposure, regional or global sources have significant
effects. Volcanic eruptions can increase the atmospheric source by 4–6 times.[114]
Natural sources, such as volcanoes, are responsible for approximately half of atmospheric mercury
emissions. The human-generated half can be divided into the following estimated
percentages:[115][116][117]
65% from stationary combustion, of which coal-fired power plants are the largest aggregate
source (40% of U.S. mercury emissions in 1999). This includes power plants fueled with gas
where the mercury has not been removed. Emissions from coal combustion are between one and
two orders of magnitude higher than emissions from oil combustion, depending on the country.[115]
11% from gold production. The three largest point sources for mercury emissions in the U.S. are
the three largest gold mines. Hydrogeochemical release of mercury from gold-mine tailings has
been accounted as a significant source of atmospheric mercury in eastern Canada.[118]
6.8% from non-ferrous metal production, typically smelters.
6.4% from cement production.
3.0% from waste disposal, including municipal and hazardous

waste, crematoria, and sewage sludge incineration.
3.0% from caustic soda production.
1.4% from pig iron and steel production.
1.1% from mercury production, mainly for batteries.
2.0% from other sources.
The above percentages are estimates of the global human-caused

mercury emissions in 2000, excluding biomass burning, an
important source in some regions.[115]
Recent atmospheric mercury contamination in outdoor urban air

was measured at 0.01–0.02 μg/m3. A 2001 study measured
mercury levels in 12 indoor sites chosen to represent a cross-
section of building types, locations and ages in the New York area.
This study found mercury concentrations significantly elevated
over outdoor concentrations, at a range of 0.0065 – 0.523 μg/m3. Amount of atmospheric mercury
The average was 0.069 μg/m3.[119] deposited at Wyoming's Upper
Fremont Glacier over the last 270
Artificial lakes, or reservoirs, may be contaminated with mercury years
due to the absorption by the water of mercury from submerged
trees and soil. For example, Williston Lake in northern British
Columbia, created by the damming of the Peace River in 1968, is still sufficiently contaminated with
mercury that it is inadvisable to consume fish from the lake.[120][121] Permafrost soils have
accumulated mercury through atmospheric deposition,[122] and permafrost thaw in cryospheric
regions is also a mechanism of mercury release into lakes, rivers, and wetlands.[123][124]
Mercury also enters into the environment through the improper disposal (e.g., land filling,
incineration) of certain products. Products containing mercury include: auto parts, batteries,
fluorescent bulbs, medical products, thermometers, and thermostats.[125] Due to health concerns (see
below), toxics use reduction efforts are cutting back or eliminating mercury in such products. For
example, the amount of mercury sold in thermostats in the United States decreased from 14.5 tons in
2004 to 3.9 tons in 2007.[126]
Most thermometers now use pigmented alcohol instead of mercury. Mercury thermometers are still
occasionally used in the medical field because they are more accurate than alcohol thermometers,
though both are commonly being replaced by electronic thermometers and less commonly by
galinstan thermometers. Mercury thermometers are still widely used for certain scientific applications
because of their greater accuracy and working range.
A less well-known source of mercury is the burning of joss paper,[127] which is a very common practice
in Asian places like China,[128] Vietnam, Hong Kong, Thailand, Taiwan and Malaysia.[129]
Historically, one of the largest releases was from the Colex plant, a lithium isotope separation plant at
Oak Ridge, Tennessee. The plant operated in the 1950s and 1960s. Records are incomplete and
unclear, but government commissions have estimated that some two million pounds of mercury are
unaccounted for.[130]
A serious industrial disaster was the dumping of waste mercury

compounds into Minamata Bay, Japan, between 1932 and 1968. It is
estimated that over 3,000 people suffered various deformities, severe
mercury poisoning symptoms or death from what became known as
Minamata disease.[131][132]
The tobacco plant readily absorbs and accumulates heavy metals such
as mercury from the surrounding soil into its leaves. These are
subsequently inhaled during tobacco smoking.[133] While mercury is a
constituent of tobacco smoke,[134] studies have largely failed to
discover a significant correlation between smoking and Hg uptake by
humans compared to sources such as occupational exposure, fish
consumption, and amalgam tooth fillings.[135]
Sediment contamination
0:09
Sediments within large urban-industrial estuaries act as an important
sink for point source and diffuse mercury pollution within
Joss paper burning on the
catchments.[136] A 2015 study of foreshore sediments from the Thames street, a very common practice,
estuary measured total mercury at 0.01 to 12.07 mg/kg with mean of Tai Po, Hong Kong, 2023
2.10 mg/kg and median of 0.85 mg/kg (n=351).[136] The highest
mercury concentrations were shown to occur in and around the city of
London in association with fine grain muds and high total organic carbon content.[136] The strong
affinity of mercury for carbon rich sediments has also been observed in salt marsh sediments of the
River Mersey mean of 2 mg/kg up to 5 mg/kg.[137] These concentrations are far higher than those
shown in salt marsh river creek sediments of New Jersey and mangroves of Southern China which
exhibit low mercury concentrations of about 0.2 mg/kg.[138][139]
Occupational exposure
Due to the health effects of mercury exposure, industrial and

commercial uses are regulated in many countries. The World
Health Organization, OSHA, and NIOSH all treat mercury as an
occupational hazard, and have established specific occupational
exposure limits. Environmental releases and disposal of mercury
are regulated in the U.S. primarily by the United States
Environmental Protection Agency.
EPA workers clean up residential

Fish
mercury spill in 2004
Fish and shellfish have a natural tendency to concentrate mercury

in their bodies, often in the form of methylmercury, a highly toxic
organic compound of mercury. Species of fish that are high on the food chain, such as shark,
swordfish, king mackerel, bluefin tuna, albacore tuna, and tilefish contain higher concentrations of
mercury than others. Because mercury and methylmercury are fat soluble, they primarily accumulate
in the viscera, although they are also found throughout the muscle tissue.[140] Mercury presence in
fish muscles can be studied using non-lethal muscle biopsies.[141] Mercury present in prey fish
accumulates in the predator that consumes them. Since fish are less efficient at depurating than
accumulating methylmercury, methylmercury concentrations in the fish tissue increase over time.
Thus species that are high on the food chain amass body burdens of mercury that can be ten times
higher than the species they consume. This process is called biomagnification. Mercury poisoning
happened this way in Minamata, Japan, now called Minamata disease.
Cosmetics
Some facial creams contain dangerous levels of mercury. Most contain comparatively non-toxic
inorganic mercury, but products containing highly toxic organic mercury have been
encountered.[142][143]
Effects and symptoms of mercury poisoning
Toxic effects include damage to the brain, kidneys and lungs. Mercury poisoning can result in several
diseases, including acrodynia (pink disease), Hunter-Russell syndrome, and Minamata disease.
Symptoms typically include sensory impairment (vision, hearing, speech), disturbed sensation and a
lack of coordination. The type and degree of symptoms exhibited depend upon the individual toxin,
the dose, and the method and duration of exposure. Case–control studies have shown effects such as
tremors, impaired cognitive skills, and sleep disturbance in workers with chronic exposure to mercury
vapor even at low concentrations in the range 0.7–42 μg/m3.[144][145] A study has shown that acute
exposure (4–8 hours) to calculated elemental mercury levels of 1.1 to 44 mg/m3 resulted in chest pain,
dyspnea, cough, hemoptysis, impairment of pulmonary function, and evidence of interstitial
pneumonitis.[146] Acute exposure to mercury vapor has been shown to result in profound central
nervous system effects, including psychotic reactions characterized by delirium, hallucinations, and
suicidal tendency. Occupational exposure has resulted in broad-ranging functional disturbance,
including erethism, irritability, excitability, excessive shyness, and insomnia. With continuing
exposure, a fine tremor develops and may escalate to violent muscular spasms. Tremor initially
involves the hands and later spreads to the eyelids, lips, and tongue. Long-term, low-level exposure
has been associated with more subtle symptoms of erethism, including fatigue, irritability, loss of
memory, vivid dreams and depression.[147][148]
Treatment
Research on the treatment of mercury poisoning is limited. Currently available drugs for acute
mercurial poisoning include chelators N-acetyl-D, L-penicillamine (NAP), British Anti-Lewisite
(BAL), 2,3-dimercapto-1-propanesulfonic acid (DMPS), and dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA). In one
small study including 11 construction workers exposed to elemental mercury, patients were treated
with DMSA and NAP.[149] Chelation therapy with both drugs resulted in the mobilization of a small
fraction of the total estimated body mercury. DMSA was able to increase the excretion of mercury to a
greater extent than NAP.[150]
Regulations
International
140 countries agreed in the Minamata Convention on Mercury by the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) to prevent emissions.[151] The convention was signed on 10 October 2013.[152]
United States
In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency is charged with regulating and managing
mercury contamination. Several laws give the EPA this authority, including the Clean Air Act, the
Clean Water Act, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and the Safe Drinking Water Act.
Additionally, the Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act, passed in 1996,
phases out the use of mercury in batteries, and provides for the efficient and cost-effective disposal of
many types of used batteries.[153] North America contributed approximately 11% of the total global
anthropogenic mercury emissions in 1995.[154]
The United States Clean Air Act, passed in 1990, put mercury on a list of toxic pollutants that need to
be controlled to the greatest possible extent. Thus, industries that release high concentrations of
mercury into the environment agreed to install maximum achievable control technologies (MACT). In
March 2005, the EPA promulgated a regulation[155] that added power plants to the list of sources that
should be controlled and instituted a national cap and trade system. States were given until November
2006 to impose stricter controls, but after a legal challenge from several states, the regulations were
struck down by a federal appeals court on 8 February 2008. The rule was deemed not sufficient to
protect the health of persons living near coal-fired power plants, given the negative effects
documented in the EPA Study Report to Congress of 1998.[156] However newer data published in 2015
showed that after introduction of the stricter controls mercury declined sharply, indicating that the
Clean Air Act had its intended impact.[157]
The EPA announced new rules for coal-fired power plants on 22 December 2011.[158] Cement kilns
that burn hazardous waste are held to a looser standard than are standard hazardous waste
incinerators in the United States, and as a result are a disproportionate source of mercury
pollution.[159]
European Union
In the European Union, the directive on the Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in
Electrical and Electronic Equipment (see RoHS) bans mercury from certain electrical and electronic
products, and limits the amount of mercury in other products to less than 1000 ppm.[160] There are
restrictions for mercury concentration in packaging (the limit is 100 ppm for sum of mercury, lead,
hexavalent chromium and cadmium) and batteries (the limit is 5 ppm).[161] In July 2007, the
European Union also banned mercury in non-electrical measuring devices, such as thermometers and
barometers. The ban applies to new devices only, and contains exemptions for the health care sector
and a two-year grace period for manufacturers of barometers.[162]
Norway
Norway enacted a total ban on the use of mercury in the manufacturing and import/export of mercury
products, effective 1 January 2008.[163] In 2002, several lakes in Norway were found to have a poor
state of mercury pollution, with an excess of 1 μg/g of mercury in their sediment.[164] In 2008,
Norway's Minister of Environment Development Erik Solheim said: "Mercury is among the most
dangerous environmental toxins. Satisfactory alternatives to Hg in products are available, and it is
therefore fitting to induce a ban."[165]
Sweden
Products containing mercury were banned in Sweden in 2009.[166][167]
Denmark
In 2008, Denmark also banned dental mercury amalgam,[165] except for molar masticating surface
fillings in permanent (adult) teeth.
Mercury in art
Mercury Fountain, Alexander Calder's 1937 sculpture, is displayed behind glass at the Fundació Joan
Miró in Barcelona, to control toxic mercury vapors.[168]
Cloud Gate, a 2006 public sculpture by Anish Kapoor in Chicago, Illinois, was inspired by liquid
mercury.
See also
Mercury pollution in the ocean
Red mercury
COLEX process (isotopic separation)
References
1. "Standard Atomic Weights: Mercury" (https://www.ciaaw.org/mercury.htm). CIAAW. 2011.
2. "Magnetic Susceptibility of the Elements And Inorganic Compounds" (https://web.archive.org/web/
20040324080747/http://www-d0.fnal.gov/hardware/cal/lvps_info/engineering/elementmagn.pdf)
(PDF). www-d0.fnal.gov. Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory: DØ Experiment (lagacy
document). Archived from the original (http://www-d0.fnal.gov/hardware/cal/lvps_info/engineering/
elementmagn.pdf) (PDF) on 24 March 2004. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
3. Weast, Robert (1984). CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton, Florida: Chemical
Rubber Company Publishing. pp. E110. ISBN 0-8493-0464-4.
4. Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation
of nuclear properties" (https://www-nds.iaea.org/amdc/ame2020/NUBASE2020.pdf) (PDF).
Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae (https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1
674-1137%2Fabddae).
5. "Definition of hydrargyrum | Dictionary.com" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140812203929/http://d
ictionary.reference.com/browse/hydrargyrum). Archived from the original (https://www.dictionary.co
m/browse/hydrargyrum) on 12 August 2014. Retrieved 22 December 2022. Random House
Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
6. Guzmán-Maldonado, H.; Paredes-López, O. (September 1995). "Amylolytic enzymes and

products derived from starch: a review". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 35 (5):
373–403. doi:10.1080/10408399509527706 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10408399509527706).
PMID 8573280 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8573280).
7. Palacios-Fonseca, A.J.; Castro-Rosas, J.; Gómez-Aldapa, C.A.; Tovar-Benítez, T.; Millán-Malo,
B.M.; del Real, A.; Rodríguez-García, M.E. (25 June 2002). "Effect of the alkaline and acid
treatments on the physicochemical properties of corn starch". CyTA – Journal of Food. 11 (sup1):
67–74. doi:10.1080/19476337.2012.761651 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F19476337.2012.761651).
S2CID 84521060 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:84521060).
8. "New 12-sided pound coin to enter circulation in March" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-3848018
0). BBC News. 1 January 2017. Retrieved 2 January 2017.
9. Hammond, C. R. "The Elements" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080626181434/http://www-d0.fna
l.gov/hardware/cal/lvps_info/engineering/elements.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://ww
w-d0.fnal.gov/hardware/cal/lvps_info/engineering/elements.pdf) (PDF) on 26 June 2008. in Lide,
D. R., ed. (2005). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL): CRC
Press. ISBN 0-8493-0486-5.
10. Senese, F. "Why is mercury a liquid at STP?" (http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/perio
dic/faq/why-is-mercury-liquid.shtml). General Chemistry Online at Frostburg State University.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070404210838/http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/
101/periodic/faq/why-is-mercury-liquid.shtml) from the original on 4 April 2007. Retrieved 1 May
2007.
11. Norrby, L.J. (1991). "Why is mercury liquid? Or, why do relativistic effects not get into chemistry
textbooks?" (https://semanticscholar.org/paper/caf75b791e27dbc7314c0ea8c543b914932f7426).
Journal of Chemical Education. 68 (2): 110. Bibcode:1991JChEd..68..110N (https://ui.adsabs.harv
ard.edu/abs/1991JChEd..68..110N). doi:10.1021/ed068p110 (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed068p1
10). S2CID 96003717 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:96003717).
12. Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL):
CRC Press. pp. 4.125–4.126. ISBN 0-8493-0486-5.
13. "Dynamic Periodic Table" (http://www.ptable.com/#Property/State). www.ptable.com. Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20161120061736/http://www.ptable.com/#Property/State) from the
original on 20 November 2016. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
14. Simons, E. N. (1968). Guide to Uncommon Metals. Frederick Muller. p. 111.
15. Holman, Jack P. (2002). Heat Transfer (9th ed.). New York, NY: cGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
pp. 600–606. ISBN 9780072406559.
16. Incropera 1 Dewitt 2 Bergman 3 Lavigne 4, Frank P. 1 David P. 2 Theodore L. 3 Adrienne S. 4
(2007). Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons,
Inc. pp. 941–950. ISBN 9780471457282.
17. Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.).
Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.
18. Gmelin, Leopold (1852). Hand book of chemistry (https://books.google.com/books?id=1AI5AAAA
MAAJ&pg=PA128). Cavendish Society. pp. 103 (Na), 110 (W), 122 (Zn), 128 (Fe), 247 (Au), 338
(Pt). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130509033751/http://books.google.com/books?id=1
AI5AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA128) from the original on 9 May 2013. Retrieved 30 December 2012.
19. Soratur (2002). Essentials of Dental Materials (https://books.google.com/books?id=N6HbxyaSt78
C&pg=PT14). Jaypee Brothers Publishers. p. 14. ISBN 978-81-7179-989-3. Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20160603085942/https://books.google.com/books?id=N6HbxyaSt78C&pg=PT14)
from the original on 3 June 2016.
20. Vargel, C.; Jacques, M.; Schmidt, M. P. (2004). Corrosion of Aluminium (https://books.google.com/
books?id=NAABS5KrVDYC&pg=PA158). Elsevier. p. 158. ISBN 9780080444956.
21. Stillman, J. M. (2003). Story of Alchemy and Early Chemistry (https://books.google.com/books?id=

hdaAGF5Y1N0C). Kessinger Publishing. pp. 7–9. ISBN 978-0-7661-3230-6.
22. "Mercury – Element information, properties and uses | Periodic Table" (https://www.rsc.org/periodi
c-table/element/80/mercury). www.rsc.org. Retrieved 14 January 2023.
23. "Mercury and the environment — Basic facts" (http://www.ec.gc.ca/mercure-mercury/default.asp?l
ang=En&n=9A4397AD-1). Environment Canada, Federal Government of Canada. 2004. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20110916172302/http://www.ec.gc.ca/mercure-mercury/default.asp?l
ang=En&n=9A4397AD-1) from the original on 16 September 2011. Retrieved 27 March 2008.
24. "Mercury — Element of the ancients" (http://www.dartmouth.edu/~toxmetal/mercury/history.html).
Center for Environmental Health Sciences, Dartmouth College. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20121202092915/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~toxmetal/mercury/history.html) from the original
on 2 December 2012. Retrieved 9 April 2012.
25. "Qin Shihuang" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080704151150/http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en_
aboutchina/2003-09/24/content_22854.htm). Ministry of Culture, People's Republic of China.
2003. Archived from the original (http://www.chinaculture.org/gb/en_aboutchina/2003-09/24/conte
nt_22854.htm) on 4 July 2008. Retrieved 27 March 2008.
26. Wright, David Curtis (2001). The History of China (https://archive.org/details/historyofchina00wrig/
page/49). Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 49. ISBN 9780313309403.
27. Sobernheim, Moritz (1987). "Khumārawaih" (https://books.google.com/books?id=7CP7fYghBFQC
&pg=PA973). In Houtsma, Martijn Theodoor (ed.). E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–
1936, Volume IV: 'Itk–Kwaṭṭa. Leiden: BRILL. p. 973. ISBN 978-90-04-08265-6. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20160603004305/https://books.google.com/books?id=7CP7fYghBFQC&pg=P
A973) from the original on 3 June 2016.
28. Yuhas, Alan (24 April 2015). "Liquid mercury found under Mexican pyramid could lead to king's
tomb" (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/apr/24/liquid-mercury-mexican-pyramid-teotihuac
an). The Guardian. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20161201200540/https://www.theguardi
an.com/world/2015/apr/24/liquid-mercury-mexican-pyramid-teotihuacan) from the original on 1
December 2016. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
29. Hicks, R. D. (1907). Aristotle De Anima (https://archive.org/stream/aristotledeanima005947mbp/ari
stotledeanima005947mbp_djvu.txt). Chapter 3.
30. Pendergast, David M. (6 August 1982). "Ancient maya mercury". Science. 217 (4559): 533–535.
Bibcode:1982Sci...217..533P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982Sci...217..533P).
doi:10.1126/science.217.4559.533 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.217.4559.533).
PMID 17820542 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17820542). S2CID 39473822 (https://api.seman
ticscholar.org/CorpusID:39473822).
31. "Lamanai" (http://www.guidetobelize.info/en/maya/belize-mayan-lamanai-guide.shtml). Archived (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20110611124757/http://www.guidetobelize.info/en/maya/belize-mayan-l
amanai-guide.shtml) from the original on 11 June 2011. Retrieved 17 June 2011.
32. Hesse R W (2007). Jewelrymaking through history (https://books.google.com/books?id=DIWEi5H
g93gC&pg=PA120). Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 120. ISBN 978-0-313-33507-5.
33. Eisler, R. (2006). Mercury hazards to living organisms (https://books.google.com/books?id=gqc8w
UvsI8cC). CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-9212-2.
34. Dirk van Delft; Peter Kes (September 2010). "The discovery of superconductivity" (https://ilorentz.
org/history/cold/DelftKes_HKO_PT.pdf) (PDF). Physics Today. 63 (9): 38–43.
Bibcode:2010PhT....63i..38V (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PhT....63i..38V).
doi:10.1063/1.3490499 (https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.3490499). ISSN 0031-9228 (https://www.wor
ldcat.org/issn/0031-9228). Wikidata Q55869044.
35. Ehrlich, H. L.; Newman D. K. (2008). Geomicrobiology (https://books.google.com/books?id=GerdD
mwMTLkC&pg=PA265). CRC Press. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-8493-7906-2.
36. Rytuba, James J (2003). "Mercury from mineral deposits and potential environmental impact".
Environmental Geology. 43 (3): 326–338. doi:10.1007/s00254-002-0629-5 (https://doi.org/10.100
7%2Fs00254-002-0629-5). S2CID 127179672 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1271796
72).
37. "Metacinnabar: Mineral information, data and localities" (https://www.mindat.org/min-2670.html).
38. "Mercury Recycling in the United States in 2000" (https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/c1196u/Circ_1196_U.
pdf) (PDF). USGS. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090326135650/http://pubs.usgs.gov/ci
rc/c1196u/Circ_1196_U.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 26 March 2009. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
39. Burkholder, M. & Johnson, L. (2008). Colonial Latin America. Oxford University Press. pp. 157–
159. ISBN 978-0-19-504542-0.
40. Jamieson, R W (2000). Domestic Architecture and Power (https://books.google.com/books?id=a4
hPCX2XWDIC&pg=PA33). Springer. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-306-46176-7.
41. Brooks, W. E. (2007). "Mercury" (https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/mercury/mer
cumcs07.pdf) (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080527203
059/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/mercury/mercumcs07.pdf) (PDF) from the
original on 27 May 2008. Retrieved 30 May 2008.
42. Sheaffer, Kristin N. (2023) Mercury (https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2023/mcs2023-mercury.
pdf). USGS
43. About the Mercury Rule (http://act.credoaction.com/campaign/thanks_mercury/?rc=fb_share1)
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120501171523/http://act.credoaction.com/campaign/than
ks_mercury/?rc=fb_share1) 1 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Act.credoaction.com (21
December 2011). Retrieved on 30 December 2012.
44. Sheridan, M. (3 May 2009). " 'Green' Lightbulbs Poison Workers: hundreds of factory staff are
being made ill by mercury used in bulbs destined for the West" (http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/n
ews/world/asia/article6211261.ece). The Sunday Times (of London, UK). Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20090517122911/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article6211261.ec
e) from the original on 17 May 2009.
45. Boulland M (2006). New Almaden (https://books.google.com/books?id=C6N03Lww1YsC&pg=PA
8). Arcadia Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-7385-3131-1.
46. For a general overview, see Riedel, S.; Kaupp, M. (2009). "The Highest Oxidation States of the
Transition Metal Elements". Coordination Chemistry Reviews. 253 (5–6): 606–624.
doi:10.1016/j.ccr.2008.07.014 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ccr.2008.07.014).
The claimed 1976 synthesis is Deming, Richard L.; Allred, A. L.; Dahl, Alan R.; Herlinger,
Albert W.; Kestner, Mark O. (July 1976). "Tripositive mercury. Low temperature electrochemical
oxidation of 1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecanemercury(II) tetrafluoroborate". Journal of the
American Chemical Society. 98 (14): 4132–4137. doi:10.1021/ja00430a020 (https://doi.org/10.102
1%2Fja00430a020); but note that Reidel & Kaupp cite more recent work arguing that the cyclam
ligand is instead oxidized.
The claimed 2007 isolation is Xuefang Wang; Andrews, Lester; Riedel, Sebastian; Kaupp, Martin
(2007). "Mercury Is a Transition Metal: The First Experimental Evidence for HgF4". Angew. Chem.
Int. Ed. 46 (44): 8371–8375. doi:10.1002/anie.200703710 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fanie.20070
3710). PMID 17899620 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17899620), but the spectral
identifications are disputed in Rooms, J. F.; Wilson, A. V.; Harvey, I.; Bridgeman, A. J.; Young,
⋯
N. A. (2008). "Mercury-fluorine interactions: a matrix isolation investigation of Hg F2, HgF2 and
HgF4 in argon matrices". Phys Chem Chem Phys. 10 (31): 4594–605.
Bibcode:2008PCCP...10.4594R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PCCP...10.4594R).
doi:10.1039/b805608k (https://doi.org/10.1039%2Fb805608k). PMID 18665309 (https://pubmed.n
cbi.nlm.nih.gov/18665309).
47. Henderson, W. (2000). Main group chemistry (https://books.google.com/books?id=twdXz1jfVOsC

&pg=PA162). Great Britain: Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-85404-617-1.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160513101559/https://books.google.com/books?id=twdX
z1jfVOsC&pg=PA162) from the original on 13 May 2016.
48. Brown, I. D.; Gillespie, R. J.; Morgan, K. R.; Tun, Z.; Ummat, P. K. (1984). "Preparation and crystal
structure of mercury hexafluoroniobate (Hg3NbF6) and mercury hexafluorotantalate (Hg3TaF6):
mercury layer compounds". Inorganic Chemistry. 23 (26): 4506–4508. doi:10.1021/ic00194a020
(https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fic00194a020).
49. Rogalski, A (2000). Infrared detectors (https://books.google.com/books?id=4b3WLgomvd0C&pg=
PA507). CRC Press. p. 507. ISBN 978-90-5699-203-3.
50. National Research Council (U.S.) – Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology (2000).
Toxicological effects of methylmercury (https://books.google.com/books?id=BPvWJbBMd7wC).
National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-07140-6.
51. Surmann, P; Zeyat, H (November 2005). "Voltammetric analysis using a self-renewable non-
mercury electrode". Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 383 (6): 1009–13.
doi:10.1007/s00216-005-0069-7 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00216-005-0069-7).
52. Lind, J (1787). "An Account of the Efficacy of Mercury in the Cure of Inflammatory Diseases, and
the Dysentery" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5545546). The London Medical
Journal. 8 (Pt 1): 43–56. PMC 5545546 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5545546).
53. FDA. "Thimerosal in Vaccines" (https://www.fda.gov/Cber/vaccine/thimerosal.htm). Food and Drug
Administration. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20061026030022/https://www.fda.gov/CBE
R/vaccine/thimerosal.htm) from the original on 26 October 2006. Retrieved 25 October 2006.
54. Parker SK; Schwartz B; Todd J; Pickering LK (2004). "Thimerosal-containing vaccines and autistic
spectrum disorder: a critical review of published original data". Pediatrics. 114 (3): 793–804.
CiteSeerX 10.1.1.327.363 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.327.363).
doi:10.1542/peds.2004-0434 (https://doi.org/10.1542%2Fpeds.2004-0434). PMID 15342856 (http
s://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15342856). S2CID 1752023 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusI
D:1752023). Erratum: Parker S, Todd J, Schwartz B, Pickering L (January 2005). "Thimerosal-
containing vaccines and autistic spectrum disorder: a critical review of published original data".
Pediatrics. 115 (1): 200. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-2402 (https://doi.org/10.1542%2Fpeds.2004-240
2). PMID 15630018 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15630018). S2CID 26700143 (https://api.se
manticscholar.org/CorpusID:26700143)..
55. "Thimerosal in vaccines" (https://www.fda.gov/cber/vaccine/thimerosal.htm). Center for Biologics
Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 6 September 2007. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20070929105040/https://www.fda.gov/Cber/vaccine/thimerosal.htm) from
the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 1 October 2007.
56. Liu J; Shi JZ; Yu LM; Goyer RA; Waalkes MP (2008). "Mercury in traditional medicines: is cinnabar
toxicologically similar to common mercurials?" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC275
5212). Exp. Biol. Med. (Maywood). 233 (7): 810–7. doi:10.3181/0712-MR-336 (https://doi.org/10.3
181%2F0712-MR-336). PMC 2755212 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2755212).
57. "Two States Pass First-time Bans on Mercury Blood Pressure Devices" (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20111004113348/http://www.ahanews.com/ahanews_app/jsp/display.jsp?dcrpath=AHA%2FNe
wsStory_Article%2Fdata%2Fann_030602_mercuryban&domain=AHANEWS). Health Care
Without Harm. 2 June 2003. Archived from the original (http://www.ahanews.com/ahanews_app/js
p/display.jsp?dcrpath=AHA/NewsStory_Article/data/ann_030602_mercuryban&domain=AHANEW
S) on 4 October 2011. Retrieved 1 May 2007.
58. "Title 21—Food and Drugs Chapter I—Food and Drug Administration Department of Health and
Human Services Subchapter D—Drugs for Human Use Code of federal regulations" (http://www.a
ccessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=310.545&SearchTerm=mercury).
United States Food and Drug Administration. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070313135
424/http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=310.545&SearchT
erm=mercury) from the original on 13 March 2007. Retrieved 1 May 2007.
59. "The CRB Commodity Yearbook (annual)". The CRB Commodity Yearbook: 173. 2000.
60. Leopold, B. R. (2002). "Chapter 3: Manufacturing Processes Involving Mercury. Use and Release
of Mercury in the United States" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070621093346/http://www.epa.go
v/nrmrl/pubs/600r02104/600r02104chap3.pdf) (PDF). National Risk Management Research
Laboratory, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, Ohio. Archived from the original (http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/pubs/600r02104/600r02104
chap3.pdf) (PDF) on 21 June 2007. Retrieved 1 May 2007.
61. "Chlorine Online Diagram of mercury cell process" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060902010053/
http://www.eurochlor.org/animations/mercury-cell.asp). Euro Chlor. Archived from the original (htt
p://www.eurochlor.org/animations/mercury-cell.asp) on 2 September 2006. Retrieved
15 September 2006.
62. "Mercury Reduction Act of 2003" (https://openlibrary.org/b/OL17617678M). United States.
Congress. Senate. Committee on Environment and Public Works. Retrieved 6 June 2009.
63. "Liquid-mirror telescope set to give stargazing a new spin" (https://web.archive.org/web/20030818
233315/http://www.govertschilling.nl/artikelen/science/030314_sc.htm). Govert Schilling. 14 March
2003. Archived from the original (http://www.govertschilling.nl/artikelen/science/030314_sc.htm) on
18 August 2003. Retrieved 11 October 2008.
64. Gibson, B. K. (1991). "Liquid Mirror Telescopes: History". Journal of the Royal Astronomical
Society of Canada. 85: 158. Bibcode:1991JRASC..85..158G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/19
91JRASC..85..158G).
65. "Laval University Liquid mirrors and adaptive optics group" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110918
101521/http://wood.phy.ulaval.ca/index.php/Rotating_Liquid_Mirrors). Archived from the original (h
ttp://wood.phy.ulaval.ca/index.php/Rotating_Liquid_Mirrors) on 18 September 2011. Retrieved
24 June 2011.
66. Brans, Y W; Hay W W (1995). Physiological monitoring and instrument diagnosis in perinatal and
neonatal medicine (https://books.google.com/books?id=M5pOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA175). CUP
Archive. p. 175. ISBN 978-0-521-41951-2.
67. Zoski, Cynthia G. (7 February 2007). Handbook of Electrochemistry. Elsevier Science. ISBN 978-
0-444-51958-0.
68. Kissinger, Peter; Heineman, William R. (23 January 1996). Laboratory Techniques in
Electroanalytical Chemistry, Second Edition, Revised and Expanded (2nd ed.). CRC. ISBN 978-0-
8247-9445-3.
69. Hopkinson, G. R.; Goodman, T. M.; Prince, S. R. (2004). A guide to the use and calibration of
detector array equipment. SPIE Press. p. 125. Bibcode:2004gucd.book.....H (https://ui.adsabs.har
vard.edu/abs/2004gucd.book.....H). ISBN 978-0-8194-5532-1.
70. Howatson A H (1965). "Chapter 8". An Introduction to Gas Discharges. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
ISBN 978-0-08-020575-5.
71. Milo G E; Casto B C (1990). Transformation of human diploid fibroblasts (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=-_9lhR_z6j8C&pg=PA104). CRC Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-8493-4956-0.
72. Shionoya, S. (1999). Phosphor handbook. CRC Press. p. 363. ISBN 978-0-8493-7560-6.
73. Robert L. Tjoelker; et al. (2016). "Mercury Ion Clock for a NASA Technology Demonstration
Mission". IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control. 63 (7): 1034–
1043. Bibcode:2016ITUFF..63.1034T (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016ITUFF..63.1034T).
doi:10.1109/TUFFC.2016.2543738 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTUFFC.2016.2543738).
PMID 27019481 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27019481). S2CID 3245467 (https://api.semanti
cscholar.org/CorpusID:3245467).
74. "Mercury in your eye?" (http://www.cidpusa.org/mercury.htm). CIDPUSA. 16 February 2008.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20100105085048/http://www.cidpusa.org/mercury.htm) from
the original on 5 January 2010. Retrieved 20 December 2009.
75. McKelvey W; Jeffery N; Clark N; Kass D; Parsons PJ. 2010 (2011). "Population-Based Inorganic
Mercury Biomonitoring and the Identification of Skin Care Products as a Source of Exposure in
New York City" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3040607). Environ Health
Perspect. 119 (2): 203–9. doi:10.1289/ehp.1002396 (https://doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.1002396).
PMC 3040607 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3040607). PMID 20923743 (https://
pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20923743).
76. Mohammed, Terry; Mohammed, Elisabeth; Bascombe, Shermel (9 October 2017). "The evaluation
of total mercury and arsenic in skin bleaching creams commonly used in Trinidad and Tobago and
their potential risk to the people of the Caribbean" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC
5736993). Journal of Public Health Research. 6 (3): 1097. doi:10.4081/jphr.2017.1097 (https://doi.
org/10.4081%2Fjphr.2017.1097). PMC 5736993 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5
736993). PMID 29291194 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29291194).
77. Senthilingam, Meera. "Exclusive: Skin whitening creams containing high levels of mercury
continue to be sold on the world's biggest e-commerce sites, new report finds" (https://www.cnn.co
m/2022/03/09/world/zmwg-skin-whitening-creams-mercury-ecommerce-sites-intl-cmd/index.html).
CNN. Retrieved 19 June 2023.
78. Healy, Paul F.; Blainey, Marc G. (2011). "Ancient Maya Mosaic Mirrors: Function, Symbolism, And
Meaning". Ancient Mesoamerica. 22 (2): 229–244 (241). doi:10.1017/S0956536111000241 (http
s://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0956536111000241). S2CID 162282151 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/
CorpusID:162282151).
79. Lew K. (2008). Mercury (https://books.google.com/books?id=pgUfSrD4gzQC&pg=PA10). The
Rosen Publishing Group. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-4042-1780-5.
80. Pearson L. F. (2003). Lighthouses (https://books.google.com/books?id=oY8nG-6B6v0C&pg=PA2
9). Osprey Publishing. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-7478-0556-4.
81. Ramanathan E. AIEEE Chemistry (https://books.google.com/books?id=G8QyI1Nf0VQC&pg=PA25
1). Sura Books. p. 251. ISBN 978-81-7254-293-1.
82. Shelton, C. (2004). Electrical Installations (https://books.google.com/books?id=cxPEiSXh44cC&pg
=PA260). Nelson Thornes. p. 260. ISBN 978-0-7487-7979-6.
83. "Popular Science" (https://books.google.com/books?id=9ycDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA40). The Popular
Science Monthly. Bonnier Corporation. 118 (3): 40. 1931.
84. Mueller, Grover C. (September 1929). Cheaper Power from Quicksilver (https://books.google.com/
books?id=FigDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA22). Popular Science.
85. Mercury as a Working Fluid (http://www.aqpl43.dsl.pipex.com/MUSEUM/POWER/mercury/mercur
y.htm). Museum of Retro Technology. 13 November 2008. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0110221034317/http://www.aqpl43.dsl.pipex.com/MUSEUM/POWER/mercury/mercury.htm) from
the original on 21 February 2011.
86. Collier (1987). Introduction to Nuclear Power (https://books.google.com/books?id=2KYVftKE9NUC
&pg=PA64). Taylor & Francis. p. 64. ISBN 978-1-56032-682-3.
87. "Glenn Contributions to Deep Space 1" (http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/history/ds1.htm
l). NASA. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20091001110901/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/gle
nn/about/history/ds1.html) from the original on 1 October 2009. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
88. "Electric space propulsion" (http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/E/electricprop.html).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090530080218/http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/E/electricprop.html) from the original on 30 May 2009. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
89. "IMERC Fact Sheet: Mercury Use in Batteries" (http://www.newmoa.org/prevention/mercury/imerc/
factsheets/batteries.cfm). Northeast Waste Management Officials' Association. January 2010.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20121129031541/http://www.newmoa.org/prevention/mercu
ry/imerc/factsheets/batteries.cfm) from the original on 29 November 2012. Retrieved 20 June
2013.
90. Gray, T. (22 September 2004). "The Amazing Rusting Aluminum" (http://www.popsci.com/scitech/a
rticle/2004-09/amazing-rusting-aluminum). Popular Science. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20090720053255/http://www.popsci.com/scitech/article/2004-09/amazing-rusting-aluminum)
from the original on 20 July 2009. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
91. Dufault, Renee; Leblanc, Blaise; Schnoll, Roseanne; Cornett, Charles; Schweitzer, Laura;
Wallinga, David; Hightower, Jane; Patrick, Lyn; Lukiw, Walter J. (2009). "Mercury from Chlor-alkali
plants" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120729135522/http://tankdc.com/getdoc/c21877bc-357a-4f
46-980f-988e85d00a54/Article_51-10_Autism,_Mercury_and_High_Fructose_Co.aspx).
Environmental Health. 8: 2. doi:10.1186/1476-069X-8-2 (https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1476-069X-8-
2). PMC 2637263 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2637263). PMID 19171026 (http
s://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19171026). Archived from the original (http://tankdc.com/getdoc/c218
77bc-357a-4f46-980f-988e85d00a54/Article_51-10_Autism,_Mercury_and_High_Fructose_Co.as
px) on 29 July 2012.
92. Council, World Chlorine (2021). "World Chlorine Council Report to UNEP on Chlor-Alkali
Partnership-Data 2020" (https://wedocs.unep.org/xmlui/handle/20.500.11822/36451). World
Chlorine Council Report.
93. Francis, G. W. (1849). Chemical Experiments (https://archive.org/details/chemicalexperim01frango

og). D. Francis. p. 62.
94. Castles, W. T.; Kimball, V. F. (2005). Firearms and Their Use. Kessinger Publishing. p. 104.
ISBN 978-1-4179-8957-7.
95. Lee, J. D. (1999). Concise Inorganic Chemistry. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-632-05293-6.
96. Waldron, H. A. (1983). "Did the Mad Hatter have mercury poisoning?" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.go
v/pmc/articles/PMC1550196). Br. Med. J. (Clin. Res. Ed.). 287 (6409): 1961.
doi:10.1136/bmj.287.6409.1961 (https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.287.6409.1961). PMC 1550196
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1550196). PMID 6418283 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/6418283).
97. Alpers, C. N.; Hunerlach, M. P.; May, J. Y.; Hothem, R. L. "Mercury Contamination from Historical
Gold Mining in California" (https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2005/3014/). U.S. Geological Survey. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20080222034946/http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2005/3014/) from the
original on 22 February 2008. Retrieved 26 February 2008.
98. "Mercury amalgamation" (http://corrosion-doctors.org/Elements-Toxic/Mercury-amalgamation.ht
m). Corrosion Doctors. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090519051437/http://corrosion-do
ctors.org/Elements-Toxic/Mercury-amalgamation.htm) from the original on 19 May 2009. Retrieved
7 July 2009.
99. Pimple, K. D.; Pedroni, J. A.; Berdon, V. (9 July 2002). "Syphilis in history" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20050216215916/http://www.indiana.edu/~poynter/sas/lb/syphilis.html). Poynter Center for
the Study of Ethics and American Institutions at Indiana University-Bloomington. Archived from the
original (http://www.indiana.edu/~poynter/sas/lb/syphilis.html) on 16 February 2005. Retrieved
17 April 2005.
100. Mayell, H. (17 July 2007). "Did Mercury in "Little Blue Pills" Make Abraham Lincoln Erratic?" (htt
p://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/07/0717_lincoln.html). National Geographic News.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080522125650/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/new
s/2001/07/0717_lincoln.html) from the original on 22 May 2008. Retrieved 15 June 2008.
101. "What happened to Mercurochrome?" (http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/2518/what-hap
pened-to-mercurochrome). 23 July 2004. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090411060622/
http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/2518/what-happened-to-mercurochrome) from the
original on 11 April 2009. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
102. "Mercury 294594" (https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/aldrich/294594). Sigma-Aldrich.
103. "Mercury: Spills, Disposal and Site Cleanup" (http://www.epa.gov/mercury/spills/index.htm).
Environmental Protection Agency. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080513130136/http://e
pa.gov/mercury/spills/index.htm) from the original on 13 May 2008. Retrieved 11 August 2007.
104. Dufault, Renee J.; Wolle, Mesay M.; Kingston, H. M. Skip; Gilbert, Steven G.; Murray, Joseph A.
(20 July 2021). "Connecting inorganic mercury and lead measurements in blood to dietary sources
of exposure that may impact child development" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8
299913). World Journal of Methodology. 11 (4): 144–159. doi:10.5662/wjm.v11.i4.144 (https://doi.o
rg/10.5662%2Fwjm.v11.i4.144). PMC 8299913 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC82
105. Saghazadeh, Amene; Rezaei, Nima (3 October 2017). "Systematic review and meta-analysis links
autism and toxic metals and highlights the impact of country development status: Higher blood
and erythrocyte levels for mercury and lead, and higher hair antimony, cadmium, lead, and
mercury". Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry. 79 (Pt B): 340–368.
doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.07.011 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pnpbp.2017.07.011).
PMID 28716727 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28716727). S2CID 3488220 (https://api.semanti
cscholar.org/CorpusID:3488220).
106. Shah-Kulkarni, Surabhi; Lee, Seulbi; Jeong, Kyoung Sook; Hong, Yun-Chul; Park, Hyesook; Ha,
Mina; Kim, Yangho; Ha, Eun-Hee (1 March 2020). "Prenatal exposure to mixtures of heavy metals
and neurodevelopment in infants at 6 months". Environmental Research. 182: 109122.
Bibcode:2020ER....182j9122S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020ER....182j9122S).
doi:10.1016/j.envres.2020.109122 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.envres.2020.109122).
PMID 32069757 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32069757). S2CID 211193057 (https://api.sema
nticscholar.org/CorpusID:211193057).
107. He, Ka; Xun, Pengcheng; Liu, Kiang; Morris, Steve; Reis, Jared; Guallar, Eliseo (15 May 2016).
"Mercury Exposure in Young Adulthood and Incidence of Diabetes Later in Life" (https://www.ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3661833). Diabetes Care. 36 (6): 1584–1589. doi:10.2337/dc12-
1842 (https://doi.org/10.2337%2Fdc12-1842). PMC 3661833 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ar
ticles/PMC3661833). PMID 23423697 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23423697).
108. Tsai, Tsung-Lin; Kuo, Chin-Chi; Pan, Wen-Harn; Wu, Trong-Neng; Lin, Pinpin; Wang, Shu-Li (1
May 2019). "Type 2 diabetes occurrence and mercury exposure – From the National Nutrition and
Health Survey in Taiwan" (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412018311747).
Environment International. 126: 260–267. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2019.02.038 (https://doi.org/10.101
6%2Fj.envint.2019.02.038). PMID 30825744 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30825744).
109. "Baby Foods Are Tainted with Dangerous Levels of Arsenic, Lead, Cadmium, and Mercury" (http
s://oversightdemocrats.house.gov/sites/democrats.oversight.house.gov/files/2021-02-04%20EC
P%20Baby%20Food%20Staff%20Report.pdf) (PDF). US House of Representatives Staff Report.
4 February 2021.
110. "Statement: New congressional report paints scary picture of toxic metals in baby food" (https://pir
g.org/media-center/statement-new-congressional-report-paints-scary-picture-of-toxic-metals-in-ba
by-food/). PIRG. Retrieved 14 January 2023.
111. "New government report finds "toxic heavy metals" like arsenic and mercury in popular baby
foods" (https://www.cbsnews.com/news/baby-food-toxic-heavy-metals-report-arsenic-mercury-rep
ort/). www.cbsnews.com. Retrieved 14 January 2023.
112. Dufault, Renee; Schnoll, Roseanne; Lukiw, Walter J.; Leblanc, Blaise; Cornett, Charles; Patrick,
Lyn; Wallinga, David; Gilbert, Steven G.; Crider, Raquel (27 October 2009). "Mercury exposure,
nutritional deficiencies and metabolic disruptions may affect learning in children" (https://www.ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2773803). Behavioral and Brain Functions: BBF. 5: 44.
doi:10.1186/1744-9081-5-44 (https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1744-9081-5-44). PMC 2773803 (https://
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2773803). PMID 19860886 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.g
ov/19860886).
113. Dufault, Renee; Schnoll, Roseanne; Lukiw, Walter J.; Leblanc, Blaise; Cornett, Charles; Patrick,
Lyn; Wallinga, David; Gilbert, Steven G.; Crider, Raquel (27 October 2009). "Mercury exposure,
nutritional deficiencies and metabolic disruptions may affect learning in children" (https://www.ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2773803). Behavioral and Brain Functions: BBF. 5: 44.
doi:10.1186/1744-9081-5-44 (https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1744-9081-5-44). PMC 2773803 (https://
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2773803). PMID 19860886 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.g
ov/19860886).
114. "Glacial Ice Cores Reveal A Record of Natural and Anthropogenic Atmospheric Mercury
Deposition for the Last 270 Years" (https://toxics.usgs.gov/pubs/FS-051-02/). United States
Geological Survey (USGS). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070704010753/http://toxics.u
sgs.gov/pubs/FS-051-02/) from the original on 4 July 2007. Retrieved 1 May 2007.
115. Pacyna E G; Pacyna J M; Steenhuisen F; Wilson S (2006). "Global anthropogenic mercury
emission inventory for 2000". Atmos Environ. 40 (22): 4048. Bibcode:2006AtmEn..40.4048P (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006AtmEn..40.4048P). doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.03.041 (http
s://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.atmosenv.2006.03.041).
116. "What is EPA doing about mercury air emissions?" (http://www.epa.gov/mercury/). United States
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070208013531/
http://www.epa.gov/mercury/) from the original on 8 February 2007. Retrieved 1 May 2007.
117. Solnit, R. (September–October 2006). "Winged Mercury and the Golden Calf" (http://www.orionma
gazine.org/index.php/articles/article/176/). Orion Magazine. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20071005122256/http://www.orionmagazine.org/index.php/articles/article/176/) from the original
on 5 October 2007. Retrieved 3 December 2007.
118. Maprani, Antu C.; Al, Tom A.; MacQuarrie, Kerry T.; Dalziel, John A.; Shaw, Sean A.; Yeats, Phillip
A. (2005). "Determination of Mercury Evasion in a Contaminated Headwater Stream".
Environmental Science & Technology. 39 (6): 1679–87. Bibcode:2005EnST...39.1679M (https://ui.
adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005EnST...39.1679M). doi:10.1021/es048962j (https://doi.org/10.1021%
2Fes048962j). PMID 15819225 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15819225).
119. "Indoor Air Mercury" (http://www.newmoa.org/prevention/mercury/MercuryIndoor.pdf) (PDF).
newmoa.org. May 2003. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090325210734/http://www.newm
oa.org/prevention/mercury/MercuryIndoor.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 25 March 2009.
Retrieved 7 July 2009.
120. Meissner, Dirk (12 May 2015). "West Moberly First Nations concerned about mercury
contamination in fish" (https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/west-moberly-first-nation
s-concerned-about-mercury-contamination-in-fish-1.3070702). CBC News. The Canadian Press.
Retrieved 20 July 2021.
121. "Williston-Dinosaur Watershed Fish Mercury Investigation: 2017 Report" (http://a100.gov.bc.ca/ap
psdata/acat/documents/r54457/CO94394_FinalReport-FIsh_Mercury_Investigation-Az_15318526
33378_1851380586.pdf) (PDF). Fish and Wildlife Compensation Program, Peace Region. June
2018. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
122. Schuster, Paul; Schaefer, Kevin; Aiken, George; Antweiler, Ronald; Dewild, John; et al. (2018).
"Permafrost Stores a Globally Significant Amount of Mercury" (https://doi.org/10.1002%2F2017GL
075571). Geophysical Research Letters. 45 (3): 1463–1471. Bibcode:2018GeoRL..45.1463S (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018GeoRL..45.1463S). doi:10.1002/2017GL075571 (https://doi.or
g/10.1002%2F2017GL075571).
123. St. Pierre, Kyra A.; Zolkos, Scott; Shakil, Sarah; Tank, Suzanne E.; St. Louis, Vincent L.; Kokelj,
Steven V. (18 December 2018). "Unprecedented Increases in Total and Methyl Mercury
Concentrations Downstream of Retrogressive Thaw Slumps in the Western Canadian Arctic".
Environmental Science & Technology. 52 (24): 14099–14109. Bibcode:2018EnST...5214099S (htt
ps://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018EnST...5214099S). doi:10.1021/acs.est.8b05348 (https://doi.o
rg/10.1021%2Facs.est.8b05348). PMID 30474969 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30474969).
124. Ci, Zhijia; Peng, Fei; Xue, Xian; Zhang, Xiaoshan (5 May 2020). "Permafrost Thaw Dominates
Mercury Emission in Tibetan Thermokarst Ponds". Environmental Science & Technology. 54 (9):
5456–5466. Bibcode:2020EnST...54.5456C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020EnST...54.545
6C). doi:10.1021/acs.est.9b06712 (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facs.est.9b06712). PMID 32294379
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32294379). S2CID 215793015 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/C
orpusID:215793015).
125. "Mercury-containing Products" (http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/reduce/epr/products/mercur
y.htm). United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20070212061414/http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/non-hw/reduce/epr/products/mercury.htm)
from the original on 12 February 2007. Retrieved 1 May 2007.
126. IMERC Fact Sheet – Mercury Use in Thermostats (http://www.newmoa.org/prevention/mercury/im
erc/factsheets/thermostats.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120617061326/http://ww
w.newmoa.org/prevention/mercury/imerc/factsheets/thermostats.pdf) 17 June 2012 at the
Wayback Machine January 2010
127. Shen, Huazhen; Tsai, Cheng-Mou; Yuan, Chung-Shin; Jen, Yi-Hsiu; Ie, Iau-Ren (2017). "How
incense and joss paper burning during the worship activities influences ambient mercury
concentrations in indoor and outdoor environments of an Asian temple?" (https://www.sciencedirec
t.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0045653516313716). Chemosphere. 167: 530–540.
Bibcode:2017Chmsp.167..530S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017Chmsp.167..530S).
doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.09.159 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chemosphere.2016.09.15
128. Lin, Chunshui; Huang, Ru-Jin; Duan, Jing; Zhong, Haobin; Xu, Wei; Wu, Yunfei; Zhang, Renjian
(2022). "Large contribution from worship activities to the atmospheric soot particles in northwest
China" (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S026974912200121X).
Environmental Pollution. 299: 118907. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2022.118907 (https://doi.org/10.101
6%2Fj.envpol.2022.118907). PMID 35091017 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35091017).
129. "Parkinson's disease in occupational exposure to joss paper, a report of two cases" (https://www.r
esearchgate.net/publication/233885602).
130. "Introduction" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070708173535/http://www.hss.energy.gov/healthsaf
ety/ohre/new/findingaids/epidemiologic/oakridge1/intro.html). United States Department of Energy.
Archived from the original (http://www.hss.energy.gov/healthsafety/ohre/new/findingaids/epidemiol
ogic/oakridge1/intro.html) on 8 July 2007.
131. "Minamata Disease The History and Measures" (http://www.env.go.jp/en/chemi/hs/minamata200
2/). Ministry of the Environment, Government of Japan. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/200
90624205922/http://www.env.go.jp/en/chemi/hs/minamata2002/) from the original on 24 June
2009. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
132. Dennis Normile (27 September 2013). "In Minamata, Mercury Still Divides". Science. 341 (6153):
1446–7. Bibcode:2013Sci...341.1446N (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013Sci...341.1446N).
doi:10.1126/science.341.6153.1446 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.341.6153.1446).
133. Pourkhabbaz, A.; Pourkhabbaz, H. (2012). "Investigation of Toxic Metals in the Tobacco of
Different Iranian Cigarette Brands and Related Health Issues" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/a
rticles/PMC3586865). Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences. 15 (1): 636–644. PMC 3586865
m.nih.gov/23493960).
134. Talhout, Reinskje; Schulz, Thomas; Florek, Ewa; Van Benthem, Jan; Wester, Piet; Opperhuizen,
Antoon (2011). "Hazardous Compounds in Tobacco Smoke" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/art
icles/PMC3084482). International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 8 (12):
613–628. doi:10.3390/ijerph8020613 (https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fijerph8020613). PMC 3084482
m.nih.gov/21556207).
135. Bernhard, David, Rossmann, Andrea, Wick, Georg (2005). "Metals in Cigarette Smoke" (https://do
i.org/10.1080%2F15216540500459667). IUBMB Life. 57 (12): 805–809.
doi:10.1080/15216540500459667 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F15216540500459667).
136. Vane, Christopher H.; Beriro, Darren J.; Turner, Grenville H. (2015). "Rise and fall of mercury (Hg)
pollution in sediment cores of the Thames Estuary, London, UK" (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS175
5691015000158). Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh. 105 (4): 285–296. doi:10.1017/S1755691015000158 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS175
5691015000158).
137. Vane, C.H.; Jones, D.G.; Lister, T.R. (2009). "Mercury contamination in surface sediments and
sediment cores of the Mersey Estuary, UK" (http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/7405/1/Vane_et_al__2
009_Mersey_Hg_9_3_09.pdf) (PDF). Marine Pollution Bulletin. 58 (6): 940–946.
Bibcode:2009MarPB..58..940V (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009MarPB..58..940V).
doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.03.006 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.marpolbul.2009.03.006).
138. Vane, C.H.; Harrison, I.; Kim, A.W.; Moss-Hayes, V.; Vickers, B.P.; Horton, B.P. (2008). "Status of
organic pollutants in surface sediments of Barnegat Bay-Little Egg Harbor Estuary, New Jersey,
USA" (http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/4452/1/Vane_MPB_2008_for_NORA__2_.pdf) (PDF).
Marine Pollution Bulletin. 56 (10): 1802–1808. Bibcode:2008MarPB..56.1802V (https://ui.adsabs.h
arvard.edu/abs/2008MarPB..56.1802V). doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2008.07.004 (https://doi.org/10.1
016%2Fj.marpolbul.2008.07.004). PMID 18715597 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18715597).
139. Vane, C.H.; Harrison, I.; Kim, A.W.; Moss-Hayes, V.; Vickers, B.P.; Hong, K. (2009). "Organic and
metal contamination in surface mangrove sediments of South China" (http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/epri
nt/5547/1/Vane_et_al.%2C_2009.pdf) (PDF). Marine Pollution Bulletin. 58 (1): 134–144.
Bibcode:2009MarPB..58..134V (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009MarPB..58..134V).
doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2008.09.024 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.marpolbul.2008.09.024).
140. Cocoros, Glenn; Cahn, Phyllis H.; Siler, William (November 1973). "Mercury concentrations in fish,
plankton and water from three Western Atlantic estuaries". Journal of Fish Biology. 5 (6): 641–647.
doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1973.tb04500.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8649.1973.tb04500.x).
141. "How We Do Things at IISD-ELA: Collecting a fish muscle biopsy" (https://www.iisd.org/library/how
-we-do-things-iisd-ela-collecting-fish-muscle-biopsy). IISD. 30 September 2015. Retrieved 7 July
2020.
142. Mole, Beth (20 December 2019). "Woman had 524x the normal level of mercury in her blood from
skin cream use" (https://arstechnica.com/science/2019/12/the-horrifying-case-of-organic-mercury-
poisoning-from-tainted-skin-cream/). ArsTechnica. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
143. Mudan, Anita, Copan L, Wang R, et al. (20 December 2019). "Notes from the Field: Methylmercury
Toxicity from a Skin Lightening Cream Obtained from Mexico — California, 2019" (https://www.cd
c.gov/mmwr/volumes/68/wr/mm6850a4.htm). Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 68 (50):
1166–1167. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6850a4 (https://doi.org/10.15585%2Fmmwr.mm6850a4).
PMC 6936160 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6936160). PMID 31856147 (https://
pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31856147).
144. Ngim, CH; Foo, SC; Boey, K.W.; Keyaratnam, J (1992). "Chronic neurobehavioral effects of
elemental mercury in dentists" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1039326). British
Journal of Industrial Medicine. 49 (11): 782–90. doi:10.1136/oem.49.11.782 (https://doi.org/10.113
6%2Foem.49.11.782). PMC 1039326 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1039326).
145. Liang, Y. X.; Sun, R. K.; Sun, Y.; Chen, Z. Q.; Li, L. H. (1993). "Psychological effects of low
exposure to mercury vapor: Application of computer-administered neurobehavioral evaluation
system". Environmental Research. 60 (2): 320–7. Bibcode:1993ER.....60..320L (https://ui.adsabs.
harvard.edu/abs/1993ER.....60..320L). doi:10.1006/enrs.1993.1040 (https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fen
rs.1993.1040). PMID 8472661 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8472661).
146. McFarland, RB & Reigel, H (1978). "Chronic Mercury Poisoning from a Single Brief Exposure". J.
Occup. Med. 20 (8): 532–4. doi:10.1097/00043764-197808000-00003 (https://doi.org/10.1097%2F
00043764-197808000-00003). PMID 690736 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/690736).
147. Mercury (http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc001.htm), Environmental Health Criteria
monograph No. 001, Geneva: World Health Organization, 1976, ISBN 92-4-154061-3
148. Inorganic mercury (http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc118.htm), Environmental Health
Criteria monograph No. 118, Geneva: World Health Organization, 1991, ISBN 92-4-157118-7
149. Bluhm, RE; et al. (1992). "Elemental Mercury Vapour Toxicity, Treatment, and Prognosis After
Acute, Intensive Exposure in Chloralkali Plant Workers. Part I: History, Neuropsychological
Findings and Chelator effects". Hum Exp Toxicol. 11 (3): 201–10.
doi:10.1177/096032719201100308 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F096032719201100308).
PMID 1352115 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1352115). S2CID 43524794 (https://api.semantic
scholar.org/CorpusID:43524794).
150. Bluhm, Re; Bobbitt, Rg; Welch, Lw; Wood, Aj; Bonfiglio, Jf; Sarzen, C; Heath, Aj; Branch, Ra
(1992). "Elemental mercury vapour toxicity, treatment, and prognosis after acute, intensive
exposure in chloralkali plant workers. Part I: History, neuropsychological findings and chelator
effects". Human & Experimental Toxicology. 11 (3): 201–10. doi:10.1177/096032719201100308 (ht
tps://doi.org/10.1177%2F096032719201100308). PMID 1352115 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go
v/1352115). S2CID 43524794 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43524794).
151. "Minamata Convention Agreed by Nations" (http://www.unep.org/newscentre/Default.aspx?Docum
entID=2702&ArticleID=9373&l=en). United Nations Environment Program. Archived (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20130130192928/http://www.unep.org/NewsCentre/default.aspx?DocumentID=270
2&ArticleID=9373&l=en) from the original on 30 January 2013. Retrieved 19 January 2013.
152. Section, United Nations News Service (19 January 2013). "UN News — Governments at UN
forum agree on legally-binding treaty to curb mercury pollution" (https://www.un.org/apps/news/sto
ry.asp?NewsID=43963&Cr=mercury&Cr1=#.UPt4ikfdP5M). UN News Service Section. Archived (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20161016131029/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=439
63&Cr=mercury&Cr1=#.UPt4ikfdP5M) from the original on 16 October 2016. Retrieved
22 November 2016.
153. "Mercury: Laws and regulations" (http://www.epa.gov/mercury/regs.htm). United States
Environmental Protection Agency. 16 April 2008. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/200805131
23415/http://epa.gov/mercury/regs.htm) from the original on 13 May 2008. Retrieved 30 May
2008.
154. "Reductions in Mercury Emissions" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080828060223/http://www.ijc.o
rg/php/publications/html/12br/english/report/chemical/rme.html). International Joint Commission on
the Great Lakes. Archived from the original (http://www.ijc.org/php/publications/html/12br/english/r
eport/chemical/rme.html) on 28 August 2008. Retrieved 21 July 2008.
155. "Clean Air Mercury Rule" (http://www.epa.gov/air/mercuryrule/). United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070630045554/http://www.epa.
gov/air/mercuryrule/) from the original on 30 June 2007. Retrieved 1 May 2007.
156. "State of New Jersey et al., Petitioners vs. Environmental Protection Agency (Case No. 05-1097)"
(http://pacer.cadc.uscourts.gov/docs/common/opinions/200802/05-1097a.pdf) (PDF). United
States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. Argued 6 December 2007, Decided 8
February 2008. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110203021258/http://pacer.cadc.uscourt
s.gov/docs/common/opinions/200802/05-1097a.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 3 February 2011.
Retrieved 30 May 2008.
157. Castro Mark S., Sherwell John (2015). "Effectiveness of Emission Controls to Reduce the
Atmospheric Concentrations of Mercury". Environmental Science & Technology. 49 (24): 14000–
14007. Bibcode:2015EnST...4914000C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015EnST...4914000
C). doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b03576 (https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facs.est.5b03576). PMID 26606506
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26606506).
158. "Oldest, dirtiest power plants told to clean up" (https://www.bostonglobe.com/news/nation/2011/12/
22/oldest-dirtiest-power-plants-told-clean/mORfVS1jUOOlXuTPIRQKbL/story.html). Boston Globe.
22 December 2011. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140714151501/http://www.bostonglo
be.com/news/nation/2011/12/22/oldest-dirtiest-power-plants-told-clean/mORfVS1jUOOlXuTPIRQK
bL/story.html) from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
159. Howard Berkes (10 November 2011). "EPA Regulations Give Kilns Permission To Pollute" (https://
www.npr.org/2011/11/10/142183546/epa-regulations-give-kilns-permission-to-pollute). NPR.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20111117112612/http://www.npr.org/2011/11/10/142183546/
epa-regulations-give-kilns-permission-to-pollute) from the original on 17 November 2011.
Retrieved 2 January 2012.
160. "Directive 2002/95/EC on the Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical
and Electronic Equipment" (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2003:03
7:0019:0023:EN:PDF). 27 January 2003. Article 4 Paragraph 1. e.g. "Member States shall ensure
that, from July 1, 2006, new electrical and electronic equipment put on the market does not
contain lead, mercury, cadmium, hexavalent chromium, polybrominated biphenyls (PBB) or
polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE)."
161. "Mercury compounds in European Union" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080428065154/http://ww
w.eiatrack.org/s/1785). EIA Track. 2007. Archived from the original (http://www.eiatrack.org/s/178
5) on 28 April 2008. Retrieved 30 May 2008.
162. Jones H. (10 July 2007). "EU bans mercury in barometers, thermometers" (https://www.reuters.co
m/article/environmentNews/idUSL0988544920070710). Reuters. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20090103193545/http://www.reuters.com/article/environmentNews/idUSL09885449200707
10) from the original on 3 January 2009. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
163. "Norway to ban mercury" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080121173517/http://www.eubusiness.co
m/news-eu/1198237627.85). EU Business. 21 December 2007. Archived from the original (http://w
ww.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1198237627.85) on 21 January 2008. Retrieved 30 May 2008.
164. Berg, T; Fjeld, E; Steinnes, E (2006). "Atmospheric mercury in Norway: contributions from different
sources". The Science of the Total Environment. 368 (1): 3–9. Bibcode:2006ScTEn.368....3B (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006ScTEn.368....3B). doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.09.059 (https://
doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.scitotenv.2005.09.059). PMID 16310836 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16
310836).
165. Edlich, Richard F; Rhoads, Samantha K.; Cantrell, Holly S.; Azavedo, Sabrina M.; Newkirk,
Anthony T. "Banning Mercury Amalgam in the United States" (https://web.archive.org/web/201311
01215237/https://www.fda.gov/downloads/advisorycommittees/committeesmeetingmaterials/medic
aldevices/medicaldevicesadvisorycommittee/dentalproductspanel/ucm236379.pdf) (PDF). USA:
Food and Drug Administration. Archived from the original (https://www.fda.gov/downloads/advisory
committees/committeesmeetingmaterials/medicaldevices/medicaldevicesadvisorycommittee/denta
lproductspanel/ucm236379.pdf) (PDF) on 1 November 2013.
166. "Sweden to ban mercury — The Local" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160828040807/http://www.t
helocal.se/20090114/16892). 14 January 2009. Archived from the original on 28 August 2016.
Retrieved 22 November 2016.
167. "Sweden may be forced to lift ban on mercury — The Local" (https://web.archive.org/web/2016082
8101154/http://www.thelocal.se/20120421/40396). 21 April 2012. Archived from the original on 28
August 2016. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
168. Jessop, Tara (8 August 2016). "Calder Mercury Fountain: The World's Most Beautiful Yet Deadly
Monument" (https://theculturetrip.com/europe/spain/articles/calder-mercury-fountain-the-worlds-m
ost-beautiful-yet-deadly-monument/). Culture Trip. Retrieved 8 August 2022.
Further reading
Johnston, Andrew Scott (15 September 2013). Mercury and the Making of California: Mining,
Landscape, and Race, 1840–1890 (https://books.google.com/books?id=_ZK-AwAAQBAJ).
TotalBoox, TBX. University Press of Colorado. ISBN 9781457183997. OCLC 969039240 (https://w

ww.worldcat.org/oclc/969039240).
External links
Chemistry in its element podcast (http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/podcast/element.asp) (MP3)
from the Royal Society of Chemistry's Chemistry World: Mercury (http://www.rsc.org/images/CIIE_
Mercury_48kbps_tcm18-133983.mp3)
Mercury (http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/080.htm) at The Periodic Table of Videos
(University of Nottingham)
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – Mercury Topic (https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/me
rcury/)
EPA fish consumption guidelines (http://www.epa.gov/ostwater/fishadvice/advice.html)
Hg 80 Mercury (http://www.theodoregray.com/PeriodicTable/Elements/080/index.s7.html)
Material Safety Data Sheet – Mercury (http://hazard.com/msds/mf/baker/baker/files/m1599.htm)
Stopping Pollution: Mercury (http://eu.oceana.org/en/our-work/mercury/overview) – Oceana
Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC): Mercury Contamination in Fish guide (http://www.nrd
c.org/health/effects/mercury/index.asp) – NRDC
NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Mercury (http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/r?db
s+hsdb:@term+@rn+@rel+7439-97-6)
BBC – Earth News – Mercury "turns" wetland birds such as ibises homosexual (http://news.bbc.c
o.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_9243000/9243902.stm)
Changing Patterns in the Use, Recycling, and Material Substitution of Mercury in the United States
(https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo41802) United States Geological Survey
Thermodynamical data on liquid mercury. (http://www.impmc.jussieu.fr/%7Eayrinhac/documents/H
g_data.pdf)
"Mercury (element)" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Mercur
y_(element)). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercury_(element)&oldid=1160990731"
Toggle limited content width

Mercury (Element) - Wikipedia

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mercury (Element) - Wikipedia

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

6/22/23, 11:03 PM Mercury (element) - Wikipedia

Toggle the table of contents

Mercury is a chemical element with the symbol Hg

Mercury occurs in deposits throughout the world

Mercury is used in thermometers, barometers, Standard atomic weight Ar°(Hg)

Properties Molar heat 27.983 J/(mol·K)

at T (K) 315 350 393 449 523 629

It has a freezing point of −38.83 °C and a boiling Spectral lines of mercury

0 °C, 181.71 × 10−6

Main isotopes[4] Decay

abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct

Thermal and physical properties of liquid mercury:[15][16] [show]

20 13579.04 0.1394 1.14E-07 8.69 4.61E-06 0.0249 0.000181

50 13505.84 0.1386 1.04E-07 9.4 5.02E-06 0.0207 0.000181

150 13264.28 0.1365 8.53E-08 11.49 6.35E-06 0.0134 0.000181

200 13144.94 0.157 8.02E-08 12.34 6.91E-06 0.0116 0.000181

315.5 12847 0.134 6.73E-08 14.02 8.15E-06 0.0083 0.000186

Mercury dissolves many metals such as gold and silver to form

Mercury embrittlement is the most common type of liquid metal embrittlement.

Occurrence and production

In 2022, China was the top producer of mercury, providing 91% of

Because of the high toxicity of mercury, both the mining of

Mercury fulminate is a detonator widely used in explosives.[9]

Mercury is used primarily for the manufacture of industrial

Mercury and its compounds have been used in medicine, although

Mercury is an ingredient in dental amalgams. Thiomersal (called

Production of chlorine and caustic soda

The deep violet glow of a mercury Skin tanner containing a low-

Assorted types of fluorescent The miniaturized Deep Space

Mercury(II) fulminate is a primary explosive which is mainly used as a primer of a cartridge in

Many historic applications made use of the peculiar physical

Quantities of liquid mercury ranging from 90 to 600 grams (3.2

Mercury sphygmomanometers (blood pressure meter), barometers,

Other applications made use of the chemical properties of mercury:

Historic medicinal uses

Toxicity and safety

Dietary exposures to mercury

Releases in the environment

3.0% from waste disposal, including municipal and hazardous

The above percentages are estimates of the global human-caused

Recent atmospheric mercury contamination in outdoor urban air

A serious industrial disaster was the dumping of waste mercury

Due to the health effects of mercury exposure, industrial and

EPA workers clean up residential

Fish and shellfish have a natural tendency to concentrate mercury

Effects and symptoms of mercury poisoning

Products containing mercury were banned in Sweden in 2009.[166][167]

6. Guzmán-Maldonado, H.; Paredes-López, O. (September 1995). "Amylolytic enzymes and

21. Stillman, J. M. (2003). Story of Alchemy and Early Chemistry (https://books.google.com/books?id=

47. Henderson, W. (2000). Main group chemistry (https://books.google.com/books?id=twdXz1jfVOsC

93. Francis, G. W. (1849). Chemical Experiments (https://archive.org/details/chemicalexperim01frango

TotalBoox, TBX. University Press of Colorado. ISBN 9781457183997. OCLC 969039240 (https://w

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mercury_(element)&oldid=1160990731"

Toggle limited content width

You might also like

abundance half-life (t1/2) mode product