LABORATORY MANUAL

FOR

PHYSICS 1 (PHYS 1100)

ioLab Version

Aydan Bekirov(Dr.B.)

Nefiseh Tohidi

Revision: 2020
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Acknowledgements

Thanks go to Andy Sellwood, Jennifer Debenedictis, Colin DeMill, Shirley Lam and Robyn
Wood for their assistance with the pictures and development of the experiments.

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Contents

1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................ 6

1.1 Lab Scheduling, Attendance and Organisation .............................................................. 6

1.2 Assessment .......................................................................................................................... 7

1.3 Preparation for Experiments ............................................................................................ 7

1.4 Experiment Description Format ....................................................................................... 7

1.5 Report Format .................................................................................................................... 9

1.6 Uncertainties ..................................................................................................................... 15

1.7 Graphing ......................................................................................................................... 377

1.8 Example Lab Report........................................................................................................ 37

2.1 LAB 1: IOLAB DESCRIPTION ........................................................................ 42

2.2 LAB 2: ACCELERATION ON AN INCLINED SURFACE……………………..…46

2.3 LAB 3: PROJECTILE MOTION LAB ................................................................ 51

2.4 LAB 4: FRICTION ............................................................................................. 55

2.5 LAB 5: UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION........................................................... 59

2.6 LAB 6: THE IDEAL SPRING............................................................................. 63

2.7 LAB 7: TORQUE ............................................................................................... 69

2.8 LAB 8: SIMPLE PENDULUM ............................................................................ 76

2.9 APPENDIX 1: SAMPLE LAB REPORT ............................................................ 80

2.10 APPENDIX 2: IOLAB SYSTEM OVERVIEW ................................................... 91

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2.11 APPENDIX 3: EXEL BASICS .......................................................................... 92

2.12 APPENDIX 4: GRAPHING WITH LINEGRAPH.XLS .................................... 100

2.13 APPENDIX 5: INSERTING SYMBOLS AND EQUATIONS INTO WORD .... 103

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1. Introduction

If you take any physicist, whether at a university or private company, you will find that he or
she must use a wide variety of research skills not only in the laboratory, but also outside it.
For example, when entering the lab the physicist must have a clear idea of what needs to be
discovered or verified, a good knowledge of what the apparatus can (or cannot) do and a plan
of how the experiments are going to be carried out. As the experiments are performed, the
physicist must take precise notes and data measurements. The physicist should also be aware
of the accuracy of the readings taken. Finally, calculations and perhaps graphing should be
performed to obtain results. The results and their accuracy are considered in order to make
appropriate conclusions.

While outside the lab, the physicist may need to do additional reading (requiring library and
internet searches), formal writing of research findings for a journal or even present results to
other researchers and supervisors.

The purpose of this laboratory course is to introduce you to the above skills as well as to help
you develop them. While doing this you will perform experiments on familiar (and in some
cases unfamiliar) physics topics relevant to Physics 1100.

1.1 Lab Scheduling, Attendance and Organization

Your course outline should indicate which labs will be performed on which dates. The time
allotted to complete an experiment will be indicated on the schedule. If unsure, check with
your instructor.

You must complete the preparation work required prior to each experiment. Your degree of
preparation will affect your mark.

Students are responsible for attending regular lab sessions. If you miss a session, you will
receive a mark of zero for that session. If you think you will miss a session for some
justifiable reason, then contact your instructor as soon as possible before the lab session. In
such a case, if your instructor allows it, you may organize a make-up lab to be scheduled at
the end of the term.

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1.2 Assessment

As noted on your course outline, 25% of your final mark for this course will be based upon
lab-related assignments. This 25% is broken down as follows:

During the course you must write lab reports. Deadlines will be specified during the course.
Your instructor will outline what is expected. Late formal reports will not be accepted.

1.3 Preparation for Experiments

Before coming into the lab to do an experiment, you should have completed all relevant
preparation work. This preparation includes knowing what the objective for the experiment is
and reading the appropriate material. You should also be aware of what measurements you
will need to make and what kind of analysis to perform.

The lab manual section on Report Format explains how this preparation work should be
entered into your prelab report.

Coming to the lab without doing any of the above will leave you at a serious disadvantage,
with respect to both experimental success and mark allocation.

Each experiment will clearly outline what preparation work must be completed. All labs
require preparation of the full experiment.

1.4 Experiment Description Format

This manual describes each of the experiments scheduled for the course. The descriptions all
follow the same general format, as follows:

The title of the experiment.

This is followed by an introduction that will briefly cover the particulars of the experiments
you will be doing.

Preparation Work: This section will detail the work you should do before coming into the lab.
It is broken down into 3 parts;
Background reading: This will indicate which chapters in Knight you should read and any
other reading that should be done.
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Write Goal, Method and Theory sections in lab notebook: For every lab you will need to
use the information obtained from background reading and the Lab Skills section to prepare
your lab notebook. This is so you can begin entering data as soon as you arrive at the lab
session. What is expected in these sections is explained below in 1.5 (Report Format).

Prepare data tables:

Apparatus: What equipment you will be using.

Procedure: This will cover what you need to do. However, this section will not be very
detailed so it is essential to do the preparation work before coming to the lab to understand
what you are really trying to find out and why.

Analysis: After you have completed a part of an experiment you should analyze your results
(do they make sense?), perform uncertainty calculations, perhaps graph data and make
conclusions. This section will outline what is expected for each part of the experiment.

Both the Procedure and Analysis sections in the experiment description will outline what is
expected for each part of the experiment.

The analysis section can be seen as a template for what you will mention in your discussion.

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1.5 Report Format

This section covers how you should lay-out your lab report entries for each experiment. All
graphs should be drawn in Excel.

Please note that some experiments are broken into two or more parts. So, for each part of the
Goal, Method and Theory sections you should indicate which part you are writing about.
You should write separate Data( Excel file), Analysis and Discussion sections for each part of
the experiment. Your conclusion should cover the entire experiment.

Report Format is as follows:

Title

Date

Goal
Explain briefly in two or three sentences what the purpose of the experiment is and what you
are going to measure. Do not just repeat the introduction to the lab.

Method
This section should discuss how you will measure the appropriate quantities. If the lab
manual already explains much of this, you may reference it. A diagram of the set-up must be
included. Do not forget to label the diagram, that is, explain what it shows.

Theory
From your background reading you should introduce the specific topic for each part of the
experiment. This will include mentioning relevant equations and defining what the symbols
mean (stay consistent throughout the report). Use subscripts to avoid confusion. For example,
don't use T for period and tension in the same experiment. Some experiments may require
you to derive an equation before coming to the lab. In this case you should show your
working.

You should explain what you predict will happen in the experiments and justify it.
Include any assumptions made in the equations and what effect these assumptions might have
on certain variables or data. Predict, if possible, which variables will show the most
uncertainty and discuss how that will affect the final result.

Data
Record in the designated Excel lab file all measurements clearly including appropriate
symbols, units and prefixes. You should also note the uncertainty in each measurement and
where the uncertainty comes from. If it is possible you should design tables to collect data
before coming into the lab. All measurements must be entered directly into your excel file.
The section on uncertainties shows how to present data in your notebook.

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Analysis
Here you should show one sample calculation for each different equation used. This includes
uncertainty calculations. You may need to construct new tables and draw graphs. It is
important to make it clear what data you are analyzing. Use appropriate symbols, units, and
prefixes. If your analysis includes a straight-line graph include the equation of the best-fit
line.

Any final answers should be given with uncertainty. Again, see the section on uncertainties.

Discussion
The discussion should open with a brief re-introduction of what you were trying to do in the
lab. The main point of this section, however, is to interpret your data and analysis. To this
end you should state data/analysis values with uncertainty or reference relevant tables. This
includes explaining the shape of a graph or discussing data trends (again, reference any
graphs or tables by referring to them, for example “see Graph 1” , “Table 1” etc….). As
mentioned earlier, the analysis section can be seen as a template for what you will mention in
your discussion.

Comparison of your results with theory should be made, that is state the experimental values
with uncertainty as well as the theoretical or known values with uncertainty. If your results do
not agree you should explain why. Do not include calculations here but again, the main
results, with uncertainty, should be included. If your analysis includes a straight-line graph
include the equation of the best-fit line. See section 5 for the discussion of graphs.

You should explain which measurements limited the precision of the results and why. This
involves finding which measured value had the largest relative uncertainty. You could also
indicate how the measurements, or the experiment in general, could be improved. Any
modifications you made to the experiment, if not covered in the Method section, should also
be added.

Conclusion
Often when reading a report, other physicists will first read first the Goal and then the
Conclusion. This is because they want to get a quick idea of what was being investigated and
what the main result was. If interested, they would then read the rest of the report.
Thus, your conclusion should be a short, concise summary of your main results and how they
compare to your predictions (that is, the theory section). Uncertainties are included for all
results.

An example lab report is shown in section 1.7.

Writing the Goal, Theory, Discussion and Conclusion

There are two main concerns when writing these sections; that the writing is clear and
structured and that all the important points are made.

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One of the most important skills to learn as a student of science is to communicate results in a
clear and concise manner. An excellent resource available in the library is 'The Craft of
Scientific Writing' by Alley.

1. General Writing Points

− Do not use shorthand or abbreviations.

− Use paragraphs; i.e. do not write the discussion as one solid block of text. When you
move onto a new point which you wish to make or if the current paragraph is a little
long, start a new paragraph.
− Use 'white space'. It is good to spread out your lab report sections (new section, new
page if possible). This makes it easier for the reader to follow the report as a whole and
it is more pleasing to the eye.
− Be concise; i.e. do not mention the same thing several times.
− Be clear. Read over what you have written- does it make sense? If you came back a
month later could you follow what you have written?

2. General Points to make in the Discussion

− Your discussion should begin with some kind of introduction. This could include a
review of what you were attempting to verify or discover in the lab.
− You should discuss and interpret the results from both the data and analysis sections and
explain how these results were produced.
− Section 5 covers how to mention graphs in the discussion.
− If a statement is made about a result, the result should be included with uncertainties. If
the result is being compared to a stated or theoretical value, then it should be mentioned
whether or not the result agrees within experimental uncertainty.
− The uncertainty in the final result(s) should be discussed. Which value gave the most
significant source of uncertainty? How could this uncertainty be reduced?
− Do not re-state the method in the discussion.
− Do not include calculations in the discussion.
− Try to be specific about any possible sources of error; i.e. do not generalize to human
error, old equipment etc....
− Good examples of real sources of error in a lab are friction, unlevel surfaces, air
resistance etc.....

3. General Points to make in the Conclusion

− The conclusion should include one or two short statements about how the results relate
to what is mentioned in the Goal section.
− Re-state the main results with uncertainty.

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− If a relationship was verified, then re-state the relationship.
− The conclusion should always be shorter than the discussion.

How to Cite Literature And List References?

There are several variations on the way to cite literature in scientific publications. For this
course, use the following protocols.

Citing Literature

In all written reports, you MUST provide the source of your information for any idea that is
not your own original work. Every time you provide descriptions of structures, functions or
any other material that you did not think of for the very first time, you must credit the person
or work from which you obtained the material. The good news is that crediting the source of
information is a simple process. All that is required to cite any published work is to add the
name of the author and the year the work was published right in the sentence where you use
their ideas.

Be sure that when you use information from other researchers, that you do not use their
words verbatim. In science, direct copying of words is not considered legitimate even if the
source is cited. Copying material without putting it in your own words is plagiarism and
carries heavy penalties. For this course, plagiarism will result in a failing grade for the
assignment and may carry more serious penalties. This can be easily avoided by citing the
author properly, and by using their ideas but not their words. Some excellent information on
plagiarism, citing and paraphrasing can be found at www.plagiarism.org (iParadigms,
October 8, 2003, electronic communication).

Citation Styles

If you are citing a work with a single author, the simplest way to handle the citation is to end
the sentence with the citation including the author and the year of publication:

The plasma membrane consists of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins

(Saladin, 2007).

Alternatively, you can incorporate the citation directly into the sentence:

Saladin (2007) describes the plasma membrane as a phospholipid bilayer with

embedded proteins.

If the work has two authors list both, citing the senior author first, that is the author whose
name appears first on the book or journal article:

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The cell membrane consists of a phospholipid bilayer with various proteins projecting
through, known as intrinsic proteins (Raven and Johnson, 2002).

For works with more than two authors, just list the senior author, followed by et al. This is a
Latin term, short for et alia, which literally means and all the others. Note that et al. should
be in italic font for the citation, or underlined if you do not have a word processor that
produces italic font.

The phospholipid bilayer is an important component of the cell membrane (Campbell et

al. 2003).

If you are citing unrefereed websites the approach to crediting them differs, since websites
can change so easily. For these sources, it is important to include the day that you accessed
the information, so that readers of your report will be aware of the potential for change, and
can track down what information was available at the time you referenced this material. If
you do not know the author of the page, include the corporate entity that put the information
on the web, or cite it as anonymous, if there is no indication of authorship:

Using other people’s words, without crediting them, is considered plagiarism

(iParadigms, October 8, 2003, electronic communication).

Many people have tried to determine the meaning of life (Anonymous, October 8,
2003, electronic communication).

Refereed websites, that is electronic journal articles, should be cited just as you would
a hardcopy publication. For written publications where the author is unknown, list a
corporate entity or organisation if you know them, or use anonymous if you do not. If you
have more than one publication with the same author and date, you should use letters to
differentiate them.

There are five species of the pacific salmon, genus Onchorhynchus, found in the lower
mainland of British Columbia (Department of Fisheries and Oceans, 1998).

The semipalmated sandpiper is a scarce migrant through western British Columbia

(Kaufman, 2000a).

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Creating A References Section

Throughout your report, you have provided information about the works you have
referenced by providing the author and year. These citations don’t provide a reader with
enough information to find the original material. The references section provides a more
detailed set of information for each work you cited in your report. Note that a references
section is different from a bibliography that would include every article you looked at.
Scientific reports only list the material that you actually used in writing your report.

The references section should be a single list in alphabetic order. Each entry should be single
spaced, with the first line flush to the left hand margin and subsequent lines in each entry
indented. A blank line should be left between entries. The examples provided below show
you what this format looks like.

When referencing a book, include (in order), the complete list of authors, the year of
publication, the title of the book, the publisher of the book and the city in which it was
published. The list of authors should be in the same order that you found them on the title
page of the book. Put the surname of the author first, followed by their initials. The title of
the book should be italicized, or underlined if you are not using a word processor with italic
fonts:

Saladin, K.S. 2004. Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function, 3rd edition.
McGraw-Hill, Boston.

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1.6 Uncertainties

1. Measurement and Uncertainty

Throughout history there has been a strong relation between technological innovation and
scientific discovery. We see that either observations (i.e. measurements) are made and that a
theory is sought to explain them or that a theory is proposed and that observations need to be
made to verify the theory. Big leaps in scientific theory have occurred due to the increased
accuracy of the measurements made. Over the years we have been able to create or verify
more and more exact scientific theories due to the improvement in measurement accuracy.

As an example, Tycho Brahe (a Danish astronomer) was not satisfied with the accuracy of the
measurements made of the motions of the planets. So, Tycho designed and built the most
advanced instruments of the time and improved the accuracy by a factor of ten. One of the
most important things he did was to quote the uncertainty for each measurement, about 1-2
arcmin. Later, when Johannes Kepler attempted to apply a circular orbit model (theory) to the
Mars measurements he found it was off by about 6-8 arcmin. Kepler realized that the circular
orbit theory was wrong. He discovered this only because Tycho knew the (small) uncertainty
for all his measurements and because he had quoted it. This led Kepler to start again on his
model. He proposed that the planetary orbits were ellipses. This fitted Tycho's data within the
uncertainty. More recently, very accurate instruments have been used to verify Einstein's
predictions on gravity.

The results of all of your experiments will depend on your measurements. Thus, the accuracy
of your results will depend on the accuracy of your measurements. All measurements will
have some uncertainty simply due to the accuracy of the instrument used. In the example
above, although the accuracy of the planetary positions has improved, there is still some
uncertainty in the measurements.

Note that the word error (which normally implies a mistake) is used here to mean uncertainty;
the limit of our measurement accuracy.

Absolute and Relative Uncertainties

Most of the time uncertainties will be seen in the following format:

Mass, m = 79.6 ± 0.1 g

Here, 0.1 g is known as the absolute uncertainty. In equation form, absolute uncertainties are
written as the symbol δ (small Greek letter delta) followed by the symbol for the quantity
which has uncertainty. In this case, δm = 0.1 g.

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The relative uncertainty is defined as the absolute uncertainty divided by the value which has
the uncertainty. So, again in the above case we have:

m 0.1g
= = 0.0013
m 79.6 g
That is, 0.0013 is the relative uncertainty of the mass m. Note the units cancel out so relative
uncertainties never have units.

We can express a relative uncertainty as a percentage uncertainty by multiplying by one

hundred:

Percentage uncertainty of m is 100 x 0.0013 = 0.13 %.

Sometimes we see results given with a percentage uncertainty, rather than an absolute
uncertainty. When this happens we can calculate the absolute uncertainty if needed:

Example: Voltage, V = 8.40 V ± 3 %

The relative uncertainty is 3 % expressed as a decimal; 0.03

The absolute uncertainty in the voltage (δV) is then given by multiplying the relative
uncertainty by the actual value 8.40 V:

8.40 x 0.03 = 0.25

Thus, our final answer is

Voltage, V = 8.40 ± 0.25 V

2. Estimating Uncertainty in a Measurement

Before considering the uncertainty in a measurement we need to know how many digits we
should record for our actual measurement. If the instrument used shows a digital display then
you can record all the digits shown. However, if the instrument is an analog device (e.g.
meter stick, ammeter etc…) as shown below then we record digits until we need to estimate.

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For example, the reading marked A would be recorded as 2.24, where the 4 is the estimated
digit. If the measurement is right on a division line (as with the reading marked B) then the
estimated digit is 0. That is, reading B would be 3.20.

Now we must consider the uncertainty in the number you have written down. That is, how
accurate is the measurement or how much could it be off by?

To find out the uncertainty for a given measurement we must again consider which kind of
instrument we are using. If the instrument is an analog device then we take the uncertainty as
half the smallest division on the instrument.

In the example above the smallest divisions are 0.1 apart. Thus, half a division would be 0.05.
So we would record reading A as 2.24 ± 0.05.

Often an instrument will have its uncertainty given by the manufacturer (either on the
instrument or in its instructions). In general, the uncertainty in a digital device will be ± 1 in
the last displayed digit.

For some measurements it may not be possible to use the above techniques to calculate
uncertainty. In this case, you will have to estimate your uncertainty. While estimating your
uncertainty you may want to consider if there is a way to reduce the uncertainty in the
measurement. A common example is when using stopwatches.

One final point here is where we see systematic errors. Systematic errors occur when either
the instrument is not calibrated (or working) properly or when incorrect experimental
techniques are used. If a final result does not make sense, perhaps you need to go back and
look for any systematic errors.

If an instrument shows an unstable reading then we must make a note of the range of the
fluctuation. We can do this by recording 3 or 4 readings. We find the uncertainty by dividing
the difference between the largest reading and smallest reading by 2. We find the actual
reading by taking the average of the readings.

As an example, we are measuring the current flowing through a circuit using a digital
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ammeter. Initially, the reading is stable and is 7.6 mA. We note that the smallest division is 1
mA. Thus, our uncertainty is 0.5 mA. We would write out reading down as 7.6 ± 0.5 mA.
Later on, for some reason the reading starts fluctuating. We decide to take 4 readings over a
period of about a minute. We get 6.5, 7.3, 6.7 and 7.0 mA. We subtract the smallest reading
from the largest and divide by 2; we get 0.4 mA. We then take the average; we get 6.875 or
6.9 mA. We would write out reading down as 6.9 ± 0.4 mA.

3. Uncertainty and Significant Figures

It is reasonable that the accuracy in the uncertainty should only be recorded to one significant
figure. However, if the first digit in the uncertainty is a one or a two it is common to keep two
significant figures in the uncertainty. So, an uncertainty of 0.456 is rounded to 0.5. But, an
uncertainty of 0.13 is not rounded to 0.1.

For example, we return to the fluctuating ammeter. Our uncertainty was found to be 0.4 mA.
The average of the readings was 6.875. We note the position of the significant figure in the
uncertainty and see that the average should be rounded to two significant figures; 6.9 mA.

As discussed below, we will see how to calculate uncertainties in results produced from one
or more values with uncertainties themselves. Our process in this case is:
− calculate the actual result
− calculate the uncertainty in the result
− if the uncertainty is preceeded by a 1 or a 2, round to 2 significant figures. If the
uncertainty is preceeded by 3 to 9 then round to one significant figure
− adjust the result; the last digit of the result should be in the same position as the last digit
in the uncertainty

Example 1:
− the result calculated is 0.8766 N
− the uncertainty is calculated to be 0.0059 N
− we round the uncertainty to 0.006 N
− we adjust the result: our result becomes 0.877 N. We write down our result with
uncertainty as 0.877 ± 0.006 N.

Example 2:
− the result calculated is 4.33156 x 10-4 J
− the uncertainty is 1.575 x 10-6 J
− the uncertainty is rounded to 1.6 x 10-6 J
− the uncertianty and result should have the same power of ten. We adjust the uncertainty
to 0.016 x 10-4 J. Now adjust the result; 4.332 x 10-4 J. Result is (4.332 ± 0.016) x 10-4 J.
Note that the power of ten is factored out.

4. Uncertainty Propagation

In the past, you may have taken readings during a lab in order to find the value of a variable
which cannot be measured directly. For example, you may have used an ammeter and
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voltmeter to find the resistance of a circuit, through Ohm's law. As discussed above, using
both the ammeter and voltmeter introduces uncertainty in the values of current and voltage. If
we were using our fluctuating ammeter which gave a reading of I = 6.9 ± 0.4 mA and we
were using I = V/R to find resistance, then we can see that our resistance result would also be
uncertain.

However, to calculate the uncertainty in a result like resistance we have to follow certain
rules for different types of calculations (adding, dividing etc...). We will begin by defining
I ± I as our reading with uncertainty, where I is the absolute uncertainty in I.

Rule I- Addition and Subtraction

Let's say we took three current readings; I1, I2 and I3.Each current reading has an absolute
uncertainty associated with it; I1, I2 and I3. After taking these readings we are required to
perform the following calculation:

I1 + I2 + I3 = I.

We can find the uncertainty in I by simply adding the absolute uncertainties:

I = I1 + I2 + I3.

Even if the calculation involved subtracting values, we would still ADD the uncertainties.
That is, if our calculation was I = I1 + I2 - I3 , then we would still use the above formula for
I. Likewise, even if a reading is negative, we always take the uncertainty of the reading as
positive.

When adding or subtracting values we always add the absolute uncertainties:

Example 1: (105.6 ± 0.1 cm) + (26.8 ± 0.1 cm) = 132.4 ± 0.2 cm

Example 2: (67.3 ± 0.2 cm) - (45.9 ± 0.2 cm) = 21.4 ± 0.4 cm

Rule II- Multiplication and Division

To perform multiplication or division we must add the relative uncertainties. These are the
uncertainty divided by the actual reading, i.e. I/I is the relative uncertainty of I. So, if we had
taken the readings I ± I and V ± V then the relative uncertainty in the power (P = IV) would
be:

P/P = I/I + V/V.

Likewise, the relative uncertainty in the resistance (R = V/I) would be:

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R/R = I/I + V/V.

Whenever we have an exact value, that is a value which has an uncertainty of zero, we ignore
the exact value in our relative uncertainty calculation. This may occur when we have
equations with constants. For example, if we had measured the area (A) and separation (d) of
two capacitor plates then the capacitance (C) of the plates is given by:

C = 0 A/d.

Our relative uncertainty in the capacitance is:

C/C = A/A + d/d,

where A is the absolute uncertainty in the area and d is the absolute uncertainty in the
separation. We ignore the constant 0 , since it is an exact value.

When multiplying or dividing (or where there is a combination of the two) we always add the
relative uncertainties. This is equivalent to adding the percentage uncertainties.

Example 3: A = (5.6 ± 0.1 cm) and B = (4.7 ± 0.1 cm). If C = AB, what is C?

C = (5.6)(4.7) = 26.32 = 26

C  A B 0.1 0.1
= + = + = 0.0391
C A B 5.6 4.7

δC = 0.0391(C) = 0.0391(26) = 1

Thus, our final answer is C = 26 ± 1 cm2.

Let us answer this example again, but instead solve it by adding the percentage uncertainties.

A = (5.6 ± 0.1 cm) can be expressed as A = (5.6 cm ± 1.8%).

(Here, (0.1/5.6)100 = 1.8% gives the percentage uncertainty).

Similarly, B = (4.7 ± 0.1 cm) can be expressed as B = (4.7 cm ± 2.1%).

Then, C = AB = (5.6 cm ± 1.8%) x (4.7 cm ± 2.1%) = (26 cm2 ± 3.9%).

Finally, if we take 3.9% of 26 cm2 we get 1 cm2.

Thus, our final answer is C = 26 ± 1 cm2.

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Multiplying (or dividing) by a constant

Here, the absolute uncertainty is multiplied (or divided) by the constant. The percentage
uncertainty (as well as the relative uncertainty) is not changed.

Example 4: Weight W = mg, where mass m = 45.2 ± 0.1 g and the acceleration due to gravity
(a constant) g = 9.81 m/s2.

W = (45.2 ± 0.1 g)(9.81 m/s2) = (0.0452 ± 0.0001 kg)(9.81 m/s2)

W = 0.4434 ± 0.000981 N

We must round off the answer to 0.443 N and so the uncertainty becomes 0.001 N.

Our final answer is W = 0.443 ± 0.001 N.

The mass can be expressed as m = 45.2 g ± 0.22%.

In this case W = mg = (0.0452 kg ± 0.22%)(9.81) = 0.443 N ± 0.22%. We note that the

percentage uncertainty does not change.

Rule III- Functions

In some cases it may be necessary to calculate the value of a function using a reading which
has an uncertainty. To calculate the absolute uncertainty in the result of the function we
multiply the uncertainty of the reading by the derivative of the function.

For example, if L = sinθ and we have an uncertainty in θ (δθ), what is the uncertainty in L
(δL)?

If we take the derivative of L with respect to θ we have:

dL
= cos 
d

For small changes in θ, δθ, we can say that the derivative dL/dθ is equivalent to δL/δθ. That
is, the tangent to the curve at a certain value of θ has a slope which is equal to δL/δθ, the
small change in L that results in the small change in θ. Again, this is only true if the change is
small. Thus,

L
= cos 


And δL = (cos θ).δθ

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As another example, if our function was f(x) = x2, then the absolute uncertainty in the result F
= f(x) for some reading x = a ± a is given by:

F = a.f '(x) = a.2a.

We can come up with a general formula for powers and roots. For example, let us take the
function G = f(x) where f(x) = Dxn (where D is a constant). Since
f '(x) gives D.n.xn-1 then the uncertainty in the function G for a reading x = a ± a is:

G = a.f '(x) = a.D.n.xn-1.

If we divide both sides by G then we see that the relative uncertainty of G is:

G/G = a.n/x = n. a/a.

That is, for exponents we can find the relative uncertainty from the above. Note, we take the
absolute value of n to arrive at a positive uncertainty. See the ‘Powers and Roots’ section
below for examples.

Other examples are;

H = ex which gives an absolute uncertainty H = x.ex

H = sin(x) which gives an absolute uncertainty H = x.cos(x). Note, if we measure an angle

x and its uncertainty x, then the uncertainty x must be converted to radians when
calculating H. This is explained in the following example:

Example 5: Given L = sinθ and θ = 20.0 ± 0.5o, what is L?

First sin(20.0) = 0.342

And δL = (cos θ).δθ = (cos(20.0)).(0.0087) = 0.008

Note that 0.0087 is 0.5o converted into radians.

Thus, our final answer is L = 0.342 ± 0.008.

Powers and Roots

The percentage uncertainty is multiplied by the power or in the case of roots, by the fraction
which represents the root.

Example 6: Given A = z2 and z = (34.8 ± 0.1 cm), what is A?

We can express z as z = (34.8 cm ± 0.29%).

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Then A = (34.8 cm ± 0.29%)2 = 1211 ± (2 X 0.29%) = 1211 cm2 ± 0.58%

We can then take 0.58% of 1211 cm2 to get 7 cm2.

Thus, A = (1211 ± 7 cm2).

(Note that powers can be seen as an extension of Rule II if we define, as in example 6 above,
that A = (z)(z).)

Example 7: Given x = A , where A = 345 ± 20 m2, what is x?

First express A as A = (345 ± 5.8%).

Then, x = (A)1/2 = (345)1/2 + (½ X 5.8%) = 18.57 ± 2.9%.

We take 2.9% of 18.57 to get 0.5.

Thus, x = 18.6 ± 0.5 m.

Rule IV- Order of Operation

Often it may be required that several uncertainty calculation steps are needed in order to
arrive at a final result.

As an example, we have to find the uncertainty of the height y in the constant acceleration
kinematics equation y = v0.t + 1/2.at2. We have readings, with uncertainties, of initial
velocity v0., time t and acceleration a. We begin by finding the uncertainties of the two parts
of the equation; v0.t and 1/2.at2 . We will label these as the functions:

H = v0.t

G = 1/2.at2 .

Once we have the uncertainties of these parts we can simply add their respective absolute
uncertainties as per Rule I to find the uncertainty in the height y:

y = H + G.

The uncertainty of v0.t is simply given by adding the relative uncertainties of v0. and t as
shown in Rule II:

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H/H = v0./v0. + t/t

where t is the uncertainty in time t and v0. is the uncertainty in the initial velocity.

To find the uncertainty of 1/2.at2 we must first find the uncertainty of t2 . If we label t2 as the
function F = f(t) then the uncertainty in t2 (which is F) is given by Rule III:

F/F = 2. t/t .

We must now combine the uncertainty in t2 (F) with the uncertainty in a as per Rule II. We
therefore find that the relative uncertainty in G is:

G/G = a/a + F/F = a/a + 2. t/t ,

where a is the uncertainty in acceleration a.

In order to add H and G we must cross-multiply the above formula's. That is:

H = v0.t(v0./v0. + t/t)

G = 1/2.at2(a/a + 2. t/t).

And, as mentioned above we can find the uncertainty in the height from:

y = H + G.

The following example presents the problem ‘where do we start?’

Example 8: Given Y = A + x2, what is Y given A = 345 ± 20 m2 and x = 19 ± 1 m?

We see that both rules I and III apply here. We must first calculate the uncertainty of x2 and
then add it to the uncertainty of A.

x = 19 ± 5.26%.

Thus, x2 = (19)2 + 10.5% = 360 ± 40 m2.

Y = (345 ± 20 m2) + (360 ± 40 m2) = 705 ± 58 m2 = 710 ± 60 m2.

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5. How to present uncertainties in your lab book

Single value: Name and include the symbol for the value you have measured (or calculated)
and include the uncertainty with units. Directly beneath the value explain how you arrived at
the uncertainty.

__________________________________________________________________________

Example:

Current measured for circuit 1. I = 6.9 ± 0.4 mA

The ammeter reading was fluctuating. Four readings were taken over a period of about a
minute; 6.5, 7.3, 6.7 and 7.0 mA. Subtracting the smallest reading from the largest and
dividing by 2 gives us an uncertainty of 0.4 mA.
__________________________________________________________________________

Note that for this entry in the lab book the method for finding the value I = 6.9 mA (by
averaging) should also be included.

In a table: For any column in a table you should name and include the symbol for the value
you have measured as well as the units. An example is shown below in Figure 1.1. If the
uncertainty for each reading is the same then we can simply include the uncertainty at the top
of the column (in the column heading) with the above value information.

If the uncertainty varies for each reading then the uncertainty must be written alongside each
value. Note that the table is numbered and given a title.

Table 1: Absolute Pressure versus depth

Depth, d (± 1 cm) Absolute Pressure, p (± 0.15 kPa)

Fig 1.1
5 101.85
10 102.20
15 102.85
20 103.35
25 103.70
30 104.20
35 104.80
40 105.15

Directly beneath the table explain how you arrived at the uncertainty values.
Uncertainty calculations: For each equation that is used in a lab report, at least one
calculation must be shown in your lab book. This also applies to uncertainty calculations.
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Directly following the calculation of a value you should include the uncertainty calculation
and then the final value as discussed above in 'single value'.

If the data is taken from a table then the calculations should follow the table.

6. Final Points

Often a calculation may involve several measured values that have uncertainties. As a good
experimentalist, it is wise to consider which of the values has the biggest effect on the
uncertainty in your final result. It may be possible to reduce the uncertainty with better
equipment or with a better method.

To find which value has the biggest effect we simply compare the relative uncertainties. For
example, we have I = 38.5 ± 0.5 mA and V = 2.5 ± 0.2 V. Before calculating the uncertainty
in the power from:

P/P = I/I + V/V ,

We can compare there relative uncertainties; I/I and V/V. We find I/I = 0.01 and
V/V = 0.08. Thus, we say that the voltage V gives the most significant source of uncertainty.

Once a final result has been calculated, along with its uncertainty, it may be necessary to
compare it to the expected result. The expected result may have an uncertainty as well. In this
case we see if the results, with their uncertainties, overlap.

Using the numbers above, we find that the power P = 96.3 ± 8.7 W. We round this to
P = 96 ± 9 W. If the expected result was 86 ± 6 W then we see that there is overlap and the
two values agree within Experimental Uncertainty.

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1.7 Graphing

Graphing is a powerful means of analyzing data because it allows you to see the relationship
between two variables at a glance. Graphing also provides a way to see what the data would
look like if the fluctuations due to uncertainty were “smoothed out”.

Theories and their Predictions

A theory makes predictions about how a system will behave. By taking measurements, we can
confirm whether the system behaved the way the theory predicted it would.

In Physics 1101/1120, you will mostly be dealing with linear graphs, so let’s look at a linear
theory:

When a body is moving in a straight line at a constant velocity v, the equation governing its
total displacement d is given by:

d = v t + do

where do is the initial position of the body and t is the amount of time the body has been in
motion. Note that d and t are variables, and v and do stay constant.

Now compare the above equation to that of a straight line on a graph:

d = v t + do
y = m x + b

Note the similarities! The equation is a linear theory because if you make a graph with
displacement d on the y-axis, and time t on the x-axis, you will get a straight line graph with the
slope equal to v and the y-intercept equal to do. The following diagram shows the connection
between the two equations.

d and t are the variables. v and do are the

constants.
d corresponds to the y
variable, and should be d = v t + do The slope m will be
plotted on the y-axis. equal to v.
y = m x + b
t corresponds to the x The y-intercept b will
variable, and should be be equal to do.
plotted on the x-axis.

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A theory that is linear makes three predictions:

1) It predicts that if you graph its two variables, you will get a linear graph.
2) It predicts what the value of the graph’s slope will be.
3) It predicts what the value of the graph’s y-intercept will be.

Let’s look at another example. Newton’s second law can be written as F = M a, where F is the
force applied to an object, M is the mass of that object, and a is the acceleration the object
experiences due to the force.

Comparing to y = m x + b, we see that F = M a is a linear theory:

F = M a + 0
y = m x + b

The three predictions made by the equation F = M a are:

1) If you graph F vrs. a, you will get a linear graph.
2) If F is plotted on the y-axis and a is plotted on the x-axis, then the slope of the graph
will be equal to the mass M, and
3) the y-intercept will be equal to zero.

Linearising Non-Linear Equations

Most equations that are non-linear can be plotted in such a way that their graph becomes linear.
In these cases, you plot a function of the variable on one or both axes.

Example 1: The period of a pendulum T is the time it takes for the pendulum to complete one
full back-and-forth swing. If the length L of the pendulum changes, then the period T will also
change. For small oscillations, the relationship is given by:
L
T 2 = 4 2
g
T and L are the variables, but if you made a graph of T vrs. L, you would not see a linear
relationship. You would see a square root relationship.

However, if you graph T 2 vrs. L, then the graph will be linear. The diagram below shows how
to relate the equation to a straight line on a graph.

T and L are the

variables. The predicted
slope m is 4 2
4 2
T2 should be plotted on T2 = L + 0 g
the y-axis.
g
The predicted y-
y = m x + b
L should be plotted on intercept b is
the x-axis. zero.

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Example 2: In Coulomb’s Law, the force F between two electrical charges Q1 and Q2,
separated by a distance r, is given by the formula
kQ Q
F = 12 2
r
where k is the Coulomb constant. If Q1 and Q2 are constant also, then F and r are the variables.

1
To obtain a linear graph from this expression, you would have to graph F vrs. r2
.

F and r are the

variables. The predicted
slope m is kQ1Q2
F should be plotted on F = kQ1Q2 1 + 0
the y-axis. r2
The predicted y-
1 should be plotted y = m x + b
intercept b is zero.
r2
on the x-axis.

Drawing Graphs

You will learn to graph by hand first. Later, your lab instructor will show you how to use a
computer program to make your graphs. When done correctly, a hand-drawn graph can be just
as accurate as one done by computer, but the program saves you time in the lab.

Draw graphs in pencil, since it is common to need to make corrections. There is an example
graph at the end of this document.

Axes and Scales

Draw your axes right along the edges of your page. Larger graphs can be more accurately read.

Choose your scales so that data fills at least half the page in both directions. You can start your
axes at values other than (0,0), if it is more convenient to.

Give your axes a scale that will make it easy to graph the data. For example, have each block of
the graph equal a multiple of 1, 2, 4, 5, etc., but not a multiple of 3, 7, or any other value that
makes it difficult to figure out where to graph decimal values.

Labels
Label the axes clearly, with quantity name, symbol and units. Give the graph a number and an
informative title related to the experiment (i.e., don’t just re-state the axes labels).

Drawing in the Data Points

After you have located where a data point should be drawn, put a dot there. Next, draw in your

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uncertainty bars. These should be drawn to scale, showing how large the uncertainties on the
x- and y-axes are for that one data point (see diagram).

Note that the two uncertainty bars form an uncertainty box. The “real” data point lies
somewhere inside that box.
6.0 6.5

y-axis data: 3
2.2  0.6
+ 0.6
x-axis data: – 0.6 2
6.3  0.4

uncertainty box
– 0.4 + 0.4

Best Fit Line

Once your data is plotted, you are ready to draw the best fit line. This line represents your best
estimate of where the data would fall if you had no uncertainties. To draw the best fit line, use
one of the two following methods:
i) Estimate the linear regression line (e.g., the line which has the minimum sum of the
distances from the points to the line)
ii) Use two rulers or pieces of paper to block off a “stripe” that contains a majority of
your uncertainty boxes. The edges of the stripe should be a best fit line for the
corners of the uncertainty boxes. In Figure 1, the upper corners are circled so you
can see how they are distributed equally above and below the stripe’s edge. Once
you have blocked off the stripe, draw a line down its centre. This is the best fit line,
and it should represent the overall trend of your data.

Figure 1 The best fit line is drawn down the centre of the “stripe” containing the uncertainty boxes

Bounding Lines (Upper and Lower Slope Lines)

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You will be calculating your slope from the best fit line. However, to determine the estimated
uncertainty on that slope, you will need an upper and lower bounding line (also called the
upper and lower slope lines).

If you have not already done so, draw the stripe as in ii) above. Make sure your stripe is drawn
only over the range of data (i.e., not the entire width of the page of graph paper). Then draw one
line from the top of the stripe on the right-hand side to the bottom of the stripe on the left-hand
side. Draw a second line from the bottom of the stripe on the right-hand side to the top of the
stripe on the left-hand side, forming an “X” shape.

Your graph should look like Figure 2.

Figure 2 – The bounding lines span the “stripe” containing the uncertainty boxes.

Finding the Slope and its Uncertainty

The slope of the graph is determined from the best fit line and is called mb.

To calculate the slope mb, find two points on the line (not data points) that are far apart.
The slope of a straight line is defined as:
y − y1
m= 2
x2 − x1
where (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are the coordinates of your two points.

After you have calculated the slope of the best fit line, you will need its uncertainty, which is
given by:
mb = 12 mu − ml
where mu and ml are the slopes of your upper and lower bounding lines, respectively.

Finding the Y-intercept and its Uncertainty

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The y-intercept b of a straight line is defined as the value of y when the value of x is zero.

If your x-axis starts from zero, you can read your y-intercept directly off the graph. Simply
extend your best fit line until it crosses the y-axis and read off bb.

The uncertainty of bb is given by:

 bb = 12 bu − bl
where bu and bl are the y-intercepts of your upper and lower bounding lines, respectively.

If your x-axis does not start from zero, you will have to calculate bb. Choose a point on the
best fit line and, using its coordinates and your slope value, calculate bb using y = m x + b.

Do the same for bu and bl, in order to find bb.

The Best Fit Equation

Write the equation of the best fit line directly on your graph using the quantity symbols in place
of x and y. Include numerical values for the slope and y-intercept, and include their units and
uncertainties.

For example, if the theory governing the graph is T 2 = 4 2

g
L , then the equation you write on
your graph might look like this: T 2 = (3.8  0.4 sm ) L + (0.4  1.2 s2)
2

Analyzing the Graph’s AGREEMENT

Recall that a linear equation is a theory that makes three predictions:

1) It predicts that if you graph its two variables, you will get a linear graph.
2) It predicts what the value of the graph’s slope will be.
3) It predicts what the value of the graph’s y-intercept will be.

To analyze your graph’s agreement, you need to determine how well your data agrees with
these three predictions. Ask yourself the following questions:

1) Is my graph linear within the limits of uncertainty?

Your graph is linear within the limits of uncertainty if (and only if) the best fit line passes
through every data point’s uncertainty box.

2) Does my slope agree with the predicted value (if there is one) within the limits of
uncertainty?

Compare your slope to the predicted value and see if they agree within uncertainty.

Note: In some experiments, the predicted slope (or y-intercept) may be a constant that depends
on the equipment, so there won’t be a known value to compare your value to.

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3) Does my y-intercept agree with the predicted value (if there is one) within the limits of
uncertainty?

Compare your y-intercept to the predicted value and see if they agree within uncertainty.

4) Does my data verify the theory?

If you answered “yes” to all the above questions, then your data has verified the theory over the
range of the data measured (state this range)!

Analyzing the Graph’s PRECISION

Determining what affects the precision of the y-intercept most

The precision of the y-intercept is set only by the uncertainty of whatever is plotted on the y-
axis.

Determining what affects the precision of the slope most

To determine what affects the precision of the slope most, calculate 𝛿𝑥
𝑥
and 𝛿𝑦
𝑦
for all your data
values, then compare the two columns of data. If one fractional uncertainty is consistently
larger than the other, then the quantity graphed on that axis affected your experiment’s
precision most.

An example of a hand-drawn graph is on the next page.

33
34

Example Graph

34
35

Trouble-Shooting Your Graph

Is your graph reasonable? How can you tell if it is reasonable? Below are some examples of
common problems that show up in graphs.

The most common problem is that your graph is not linear within uncertainty (see Example 1
below). If your graph has that problem, try the following to fix it:

a) Check you haven’t misplotted your value or drawn its uncertainty too small.
b) Check any calculations you did to come up with that data point.
c) If there is still a problem, go back to the experimental apparatus and re-measure the
data for any points that do not fall on the line within uncertainty.
d) If there is still a problem, even after re-measuring, explain why in your report.

1) This graph is not linear within uncertainty. The

best line does not pass through one data point’s
uncertainty box.
Velocity (m/s)

This is most likely due to misplotting or

miscalculating the point.

If you’ve already checked your plotting and

calculations and found them to be correct, then
re-measure the data for that point.
Time (s)

2) This graph doesn’t make sense! The data

fluctuates around the best line by much more
than the length of the uncertainty bars.
Velocity (m/s)

This may be due to underestimated

uncertainties, a calculation mistake in the plotted
points, or perhaps there was an uncontrolled
variable (e.g. fluctuating temperature).

Try to determine the problem and, if necessary,

retake your data.
Time (s)

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36

3) This graph shows a systematic departure from a

Velocity (m/s) straight line.

Perhaps one of the plotted quantities should

have been raised to a different power, or there
may be a systematic calibration error in one of
the instruments.

If the calibration of your instruments is okay, the

problem may be that the theory is not valid for
the conditions maintained in the experiment. Try
Time (s) to figure out what the problem is.

4) This graph is linear within experimental

uncertainty, but a bit strange looking. The data
points fluctuate around the best line by much
less than the length of the uncertainty bars.
Velocity (m/s)

In some instances, the experimental uncertainty

is large and a graph such as this is valid.
However, overestimating the uncertainty of a
measurement can also produce such a graph.

If you see a graph like this, double-check that

Time(s)
you haven’t overestimated your uncertainties.

5) This graph makes sense! The scatter of the data

points around the best line is about the same size
as the uncertainty bars.
Velocity (m/s)

This graph is linear within the experimental

uncertainty because the best line passes through
all the uncertainty boxes. This is the sort of
graph you hope to get!

Time(s)

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1.8 Example Lab Report

Title: Atwood’s Machine Lab

Date: April 21st 2011

Goal

In this lab two blocks of unequal mass are connected by a piece of string. The string is passed
over a pulley such that the blocks hang vertically downward to create an Atwood’s machine.
The acceleration of the Atwood’s machine will be measured using a photogate (the blocks
accelerate when the smaller mass moves up and the larger mass moves down). By measuring
the masses of the blocks a theoretical value for the acceleration will be found and then
compared to the experimental value.

Method

For the procedure see page XX of ‘Laboratory Manual for Physics 1’ by Andy Sellwood.

Diagram 1: Experimental Set-up

Pulley

Photogate

String

M1 M2

Hanging masses

37
38

Theory

An Atwood’s Machine consists of two unequal masses connected by a piece of string which is
passed over a pulley (see Diagram 1). We will define m2 to be the mass of the right hand
hanging mass and m1 to be the mass of the left hand hanging mass. Free-body diagrams of the
two hanging masses are as follows (we will treat the hanging masses as particles):

y y

T1 T2

As if

W1
W2

M1
M2

The only forces acting on mass m1 is the tension T1 and the weight W1. Likewise the only
forces acting on mass m2 is the tension T2 and the weight W2. If m1 is less than m2 then m1 will
accelerate up and m2 will accelerate down. Since the two systems are connected by the string
their accelerations will be equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. Thus, a1= -a2 is the
acceleration constraint.

T1 and T2 act as if they are an action/reaction pair. Applying Newton’s second law to both
systems we have:

 (F on1 ) = T1 − W1 = m1 a1

 (F on 2 ) = T2 − W2 = m2 a 2

Assuming the string is massless and that the pulley is massless we can say that T1 and T2 are
equal. That is, T1 = T2 = T.

38
39

Thus,

T – W1 = m1a

And

T – W2 = -m2a

Where we have made the substitution a = a1= -a2. Solving for acceleration a we have:

m2 − m1
a= (g ) .
m1 + m2

This equation makes sense since the greater the difference of the masses the greater the
acceleration and the greater the total mass the greater the total inertia which leads to a lower
acceleration.

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40

Data

Hanging mass 1, m1 = 94.9 ± 0.1 g.

Hanging mass 2, m2 = 100.0 ± 0.1 g.

The experimental acceleration, aexpt (found from the slope of the velocity-time graph)
= 0.200 ± 2% m/s2.

Analysis

Firstly, the experimental acceleration is aexpt = 0.200 ± 0.004 m/s2.

To find the theoretical value for the acceleration atheo we will use the formula in the theory
section. Namely,

m2 − m1
atheo = (g )
m1 + m2

We will call

A = m2 – m1 = 5.1 ± 0.2 g.

And,

B = m2 + m1 = 194.9 ± 0.2 g.

Thus,

A
atheo = g = 0.2567 m/s2
B

Uncertainty propagation tells us;

atheo A B 0.2 0.2

= + = +
atheo A B 5.1 194.9

From which we find δatheo = 0.010 m/s2.

Thus, atheo = 0.257 ± 0.010 m/s2.

Recall that aexpt = 0.200 ± 0.004 m/s2.

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Discussion

In this lab an ‘Atwood’s machine’ was constructed (see diagram 1). The two masses used were
measured and found to be m1 = 94.9 ± 0.1 g and m2 = 100.0 ± 0.1 g. These masses were then
connected with a piece of string which was passed over a pulley. The system was released from
rest. A photogate was used to moniter the rotations of the pulley and a graph of velocity-versus-
time was produced using the Logger Pro software. The slope of the graph was obtained using
the software and a value of aexpt = 0.200 ± 2% m/s2 was found.

Using the equation for the acceleration of an Atwood’s machine derived in the theory section a
value for the theoretical acceleration was obtained. This was atheo = 0.257 ± 0.010 m/s2.
Compared to the experimental acceleration aexpt = 0.200 ± 0.004 m/s2 we see that these values
do not overlap within experimental uncertainty.

The experimental acceleration is less than the theoretical value. There are several reasons for
error. In the theory section it was assumed that the pulley was frictionless, that the string was
massless and that the pulley was massless. Each of these factors could decrease the actual
acceleration of the masses. Comparing the relative uncertainties of the values we see that the
experimental acceleration has the largest relative uncertainty. However, the value A = m2 – m1
= 5.1 ± 0.2 g has a relative uncertainty of 4%. Therefore, this is the largest source of uncertainty
in the lab. Improvements could be made by making this mass difference larger.

Conclusion

An Atwood’s machine was constructed using two masses m1 = 94.9 ± 0.1 g and
m2 = 100.0 ± 0.1 g. The system was found to have an experimental acceleration of aexpt = 0.200
± 0.004 m/s2. Compared to the theoretical acceleration, atheo = 0.257 ± 0.010 m/s2, the values
did not overlap within experimental uncertainty.

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The first thing you should do (if you want to skip all lab Zoom sessions) this semester to
prepare for the labs is to rent an iOLab sensor from MacMillan Learning using the
following link:

iOLab can be purchased at these links:

USA : Canada : Other (select region)

You will need this sensor to complete your labs, and it will take a few days for
MacMillan to ship it to you, so order it as soon as you can. Save a screen-capture of
your confirmation screen, so that if there is a delay in shipping, you can show your lab
instructor that you ordered your sensor in a timely fashion.

There is no lab manual required for this course (you'll be provided with digital lab
manual files for each experiment), so the iOLab will hopefully be your only expense.

Lab 1: ioLAB Unit Description

Getting and Running the Application

Windows Software (Win 8.1 or higher)

IOLab-1.78.1597-setup.exe (recommended)
IOLab_win32_1.78.1597.zip (old-style distribution for experts)

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Download setup file and double click on it. If Windows issues a warning then tell it to Run Anyway.
The application will be installed in your local AppData folder and a shortcut will be placed on your
desktop. This video shows how the new installer works. The new installer implements a code
signing certificate and should eliminate problems with most anti-virus applications.

Mac Software (OSX 10.14 or higher recommended)

IOLab_macosx_11.78.1597.zip

Extract the application from the ZIP file and double-click on it. The first time you do this you may
have to Ctrl-click on the application and choose Open to get past security. (This video will show
you how to download and run the Mac application.)

Quick Start Guide

1. Plug in the dongle and turn on the iOLab device.

2. Start the application as described above (slightly different for
Mac & PC).
3. Select the sensors you want to read out from the list on the left
- the system readout will be optimized for the selected sensors
and charts to display the data from the selected sensors will
created.
4. Click on the Record button to start data acquisition, and click
on the Stop button to stop.
5. The Data Smoothing button selects how many points are
included in the smoothing average.

Calibrating Your Sensors

It is important to calibrate your devices force probe and accelerometer. Click the reset
button twice, then select the sensor to calibrate from the tools menu:

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Navigating Your Plots

When the "graph" icon is selected (the default), the mouse is used to select regions for analysis.
Left-click and dragging will select a region the region (shaded blue) for which averages are
displayed. Left-clicking without dragging will move the FFT region (shaded gray) when FFT
analysis is enabled.

When the "magnifying glass" icon is selected, the mouse is used to select a rectangular region
for zooming. Double clicking on the plot in this mode will reset the zoom to the initial default values.
Zooming in on one of the plots sets the time axis for all of the plots to be set to the same region as
the plot being zoomed on, keeping the time axis the same on all plots.

When the "compass" icon is selected the mouse is used to pan left & right & up & down on a plot.
Moving one plot horizontally causes all of the plots to be moved horizontally, keeping the time axis
the same on all plots.

Restoring & Saving Your Data

Each time data is acquired it is automatically saved to the Documents/iOLab-

WorkFiles/rawdata folder on your local computer. You can restore any previous acquisition by
clicking on the file icon and selecting the data you want.

You can export the data from any chart to a CSV (Excel) file by clicking on the export icon. The
data is saved to the Documents/iOLab-WorkFiles/export folder on your local computer.

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Step 1. If your device is not brand new you can skip this step. If you just bought your device,
this video will help you figure out whats in the box and what to do with the red felt pads in the
accessory kit. Note 1: New devices come with a little plastic battery saver protruding through the
battery door on the back of the device - you should remove and discard this. Note 2: The newest
devices will not have a yellow foam piece in the accessory pack - this is normal.
Step 2. Download and install the iOLab Application.
Step 3. This video will show you how to run and calibrate your iOLab system. The calibration
values are stored on your computer, so this procedure needs to be done on each computer that
you use the device with. Do not over-tighten when you screw something into the force probe.
Step 4. This video will show you how to analyze at your data and how to recall data from previous
acquisitions.
Step 5. This video will show you how to share your data using the iOLab cloud repository. You
should already have created a free account in the iOLab cloud repository by going
to iolabrepository.azurewebsites.net and following the directions. You can access any data posted
to the repository by going to the same the same website.

iOLab can be purchased at these links:

USA : Canada : Other (select region)

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Lab 2: ACCELERATION ON AN INCLINE

Objective

To directly measure the acceleration of a cart rolling down an inclined track, and to compare it
to four theoretically predicted acceleration values for that cart.

Theory

A cart will be placed on an inclined track; see Figure 1 for a picture of the apparatus. When you
release the cart, it will roll down the incline with constant acceleration.

Figure 1 - Setup of experiment. Cart is shown at initial position.

Consider the following free-body diagram for a block on an incline with no friction:

N = mgcosθ

h = height
W = mg L = length of track

ma = mgsinθ θ
Figure 2 – Free-body diagram for a block on frictionless incline

The component of the force that accelerates the block down the track is:

𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎1 = 𝑚𝑔 ∙ sin 𝜃 (1a)

This gives the following acceleration for the cart along the track in the absence of friction:

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𝑎1 = 𝑔 ∙ sin 𝜃 (1b)

However, we can use trigonometry, which tells us that sin 𝜃 = ℎ𝐿 , to simplify equation (1b) to
the following:
𝑔ℎ (1c)
𝑎1 =
𝐿
Of course, it is not realistic to believe that a cart rolling on a track would have no friction; its
wheels will have friction against their own axels and bearings.

By taking careful measurements, including a direct measurement of the acceleration due to

friction caused by the wheels, af, you will determine the net acceleration a and its uncertainty
a using the following equation:
𝑔ℎ (1d)
𝑛𝑒𝑡 (𝑎1 ) = − 𝑎𝑓
𝐿
Additionally, by taking careful measurements and using the kinematics equations:

D = v0 t D + 12 at D2 (2a)

v f = v0 + at D (3a)

2aD = v 2f − v02 (4a)

you will determine the acceleration a and its uncertainty a in three more ways.

If you release the cart from rest, v0 will be zero. That means that the equations above can be
rewritten as:
2𝐷 (2b)
𝑎2 =
𝑡𝐷2
𝑣𝑓 (3b)
𝑎3 =
𝑡𝐷

𝑣𝑓2 (4b)
𝑎4 =
2𝐷

Verify these rearrangements! The displacement of the cart D is how far the cart travels during
the run; tD is the time it travels for, and vf is the velocity of the cart at time tD.

You will take measurements for ten separate runs of the cart accelerating down the track. The
displacement D is to remain constant for each run.

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Apparatus
iOLab sensor
iOLab data acquisition program
inclined track
ruler

Procedure

Before proceeding,
• In your notebook, identify yourself, the date, and the title of the experiment.
• Identify and write down the experiment’s objective.
• Include a reference to this lab manual so readers can look up details on this
experiment’s apparatus and procedure.
In the future, you will be expected to have prepared the above before the lab.

Please, watch the short video https://youtu.be/0iA82pmIjFY

1) Prepare your iOLab sensor for data taking by plugging the wifi dongle into your computer,
turning on the iOLab sensor, and opening the data acquisition program. Select the “wheels”
sensor, and deselect “position” so that you see only a graph for the cart’s velocity and
acceleration.

2) With your track laid flat, push the cart and let it roll freely to a halt as you are recording
data using the iOLab data acquisition program.

3) From your results, measure the acceleration due to friction, af, that the cart experiences, and
record it in your lab notebook with appropriate labelling, uncertainty, and units. Be sure to
explain how you arrived at your uncertainty estimate.

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4) Incline the track. Set up a backstop at the lower end of the track that will stop the cart. This
backstop will establish the cart’s final position.

5) Determine where you want the initial position of the cart to be and devise a way for you to
release the cart accurately from that spot for every run.

6) Measure and record the distance the cart will travel, D. Be sure to explain how you arrived
at your uncertainty estimate.

7) Take measurements to determine the height of the inclined track h and the length of the
track L. Be sure to explain how you arrived at your uncertainty estimates.

8) For 10 runs, keeping D the same, record the cart’s acceleration ameasured, its final velocity vf,
and its time of travel tD using the iOLab data acquisition program. Be sure to explain how
you arrived at your uncertainty estimates.

Use this template spreadsheet to do all the necessary calculations on your data for the
Acceleration on an Incline experiment now. (Note: It's the same template used in the
video above.)

Template Spreadsheet - Acceleration on an Incline.xlsx

Analysis

Note. This section is included to help you perform all the necessary estimates and calculations
required for a full analysis and conclusion. Later experiments will not have this section in the
manual, but you will be expected do a similar analysis in each.

1) Perform all your calculations in Microsoft Excel by typing your data into a spreadsheet and
then typing in the formulae needed to have Excel calculate your final values for you. Every
week, you will be handing in your spreadsheet file as part of your lab report.

2) Calculate the average acceleration ameasured, the average final velocity vf, and the average
time of travel tD of the cart.

3) Calculate the free-body accleration a1 and its uncertainty a1. Then, calculate the net free-
body acceleration (net a1) and its uncertainty (net a1) by subtracting off the acceleration
due to friction af.

4) Calculate the three kinematics accelerations, a2, a3, and a4.

5) Calculate their uncertainties, a2, a3, and a4, also.

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6) Compare your four theoretical acceleration values to the average measured acceleration.
Which of the theoretical accelerations agree within experimental uncertainty with the
average measured acceleraion, and which don’t?

7) In the cases that do not agree within uncertainty, suggest what might have caused this mis-
match. (Hint: Thinking about the assumptions and approximations we made in this
experiment is a good place to start.)

8) Based on your results, did your experiment verify the theory?

9) For each of the four theoretical values of the acceleration, (net a1), a2, a3, and a4, identify
which measured value affected its precision the most. (Note: It is possible for the same
measured value to affect the precision of more than one of these accelerations the most.)

10) For each theoretical acceleration, what could you do to improve its precision? Come up
with a suggestion for altering the experiment, or the equipment used, that would improve
the precision of each theoretical accleration.

Once you have analysed your data as outlined here, you have all the information needed to
write the Discussion section of your typed report.

Create your typed report in Microsoft Word. Every week, you will hand in a typed report as
part of your lab report (along with a file showing your lab notebook pages, an Excel
spreadsheet, and – if you made one that week – a graph.)

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LAB 3: PROJECTILE MOTION

Equipment List:

• iOLab sensor
• iOLab data acquisition software
• A table or desk to launch the iOLab sensor off of
• A pillow, a bed, or some other soft surface for the iOLab sensor to land on
• A tape measure or other means of measuring distances of approximately 1 metre or
more

Please watch the video below to learn how to perform the experiment this week. The
lab manual and template spreadsheet for this experiment are provided below.

https://youtu.be/P4jns50lE1Q

https://youtu.be/hFYHHbiMFVQ

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After you have watched the video, please read through the lab manual and use it as
your guide as you complete the experiment yourself.

You will roll the iOLab sensor off the edge of a table so that it flies through the air and
eventually comes to rest on a soft surface such as a pillow or bed. Using projectile motion
kinematics, you will predict and measure the range of the iOLab sensor after it leaves the table
and how long it will be in the air.

The iOLab’s horizontal velocity v, just as it leaves the table edge, can be measured with the
data acquisition program. The time the cart spends in projectile motion can also be measured. A
typical graph of such motion might look like this:

As indicated, the launch velocity of the sensor v can be obtained by hovering the cursor over the
point in the velocity-time graph where the sensor left the table.

The experimental time of flight for the sensor can likewise be measured by selecting the period
of time that the sensor was in the air for, as determined by when the acclerometer registers an
acceleration of 0 m/s2.

The kinematics equation for the horizontal position of the cart is:

x = xo + voxt + 12 axt 2 (1)

We assume that the effect of air resistance on the cart is negligible; hence, no horizontal forces
act on the cart while it is in flight, so the cart has no horizontal acceleration (ax = 0) and its
horizontal velocity stays constant (v0x = v). As well, if the horizontal displacement of the cart is

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measured from the edge of the table to the point of impact on the cushion, we can set x0 = 0 and
let x = Rth, the (theoretically determined) range. Equation (1) then becomes:

Rth = vt (2)

where t is the time of flight of the cart. The time t is calculated in terms of the cart’s vertical
displacement from the edge of the table to its point of impact on the cushion. The kinematics
equation for the cart’s vertical position is:

y = yo + voy t + 12 a y t 2 (3)

Recall that the vertical component of the cart’s motion is identical to the motion it would have
if it were dropped from rest from the same height above the cushion. A cart dropped from rest
has an initial velocity v0y = 0 and an acceleration ay = g. Figure 3 is a diagram of the cart’s flight
path.

If we take the table edge to be y0 = 0 and substitute these values into Equation (3), then solving
for the (theoretically determined) time of flight t gives:

(4)
2ℎ
𝑡=√
𝑔

Equations (2) and (4) are used to predict the range and time of flight of the cart when it is a
projectile.
v, initial velocity

Table edge

h, height

Cushion
R, range

Figure 3 - The flight path of the cart

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Apparatus

iOLab sensor
iOLab data acquisition program
access to a table or desk to project the iOLab off of
pillow or other way to cushion the iOLab upon impact
tape measure or other way of measuring distances of 1 to 2 metres

The iOLab will be set wheels-down on the table so it rolls like a cart. While the Wheel >
Velocity and Accelerometer data is being captured, you will roll the iOLab sensor off the edge
of the table onto the cushion.

The height that the cart drops through will be measured experimentally, as will the horizontal
range that the cart travels through. The cart’s initial velocity as it was leaving the table edge
will be determined from the data acquisition program, as will the cart’s time of flight.

Procedure

1) Prepare the data acquisition program to capture data for the Wheel > Velocity and
Accelerometer sensors.

2) Do a test run to ensure the cart will land safely on the cushion.

3) Take all necessary measurements to determine the predicted theoretical time-of-flight tth,
the predicted theoretical range Rth, the experimental time-of-flight texp, and the experimental
range Rexp.

Use this template spreadsheet to do all the necessary calculations on your data for the
Acceleration on an Incline experiment now. (Note: It's the same template used in the
video above.)

Template Spreadsheet - Acceleration on an Incline.xlsx

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LAB 4: FRICTION

Equipment List:

• iOLab sensor with force probe hook attached

• iOLab data acquisition program
• flat surface that can be inclined later
• a sock or other container with a small amount of mass in it
• a paperclip, bullclip, or other means of attaching your mass holder to the iOLab
• string (about 30cm, non-stretchy; this is optional)
• ruler

Please watch the video below to learn how to perform the experiment this week. The
lab manual and template spreadsheet for this experiment are provided below.

https://youtu.be/FXJgjiQR3pE

Excel Template Spreadsheet:

Friction.xlsx

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Objective

To confirm that the coefficient of kinetic friction k between two surfaces does not vary with
weight or angle of incline.

Theory

The free-body diagram for a block dragged up an inclined plane looks as follows:

y
x N = Normal force
T = Tension force

f = friction force


W = Weight


If the block is dragged at a constant velocity, then the acceleration is zero, and the force
equation in the x-direction (along the surface of the incline) becomes:

Σ𝐹⃗ = 0 = 𝑇 − 𝑓 − 𝑊 sin 𝜃 (1)

where T is the tension force pulling the block up the incline, W is the weight of the block (and
𝑊 sin 𝜃 is the x-component of that weight, parallel to the surface), and f is the force due to
friction opposing the motion.

The force due to friction is known to be the product of the normal force N (which is equal to the
y-component of the weight, 𝑊 cos 𝜃) and the coefficient of friction  (which will be kinetic
friction in this case). This gives the following:

𝑓 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑊 cos 𝜃 (2)

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Combining equations (1) and (2) allows us to derive an expression for the coefficient of kinetic
friction:

(𝑇 − 𝑊 sin 𝜃) (3)
𝜇𝑘 =
(𝑊 cos 𝜃)

In the special case where the angle of the incline  is zero, this equation simplifies to:

𝑇 (4)
𝜇𝑘 =
𝑊

Apparatus
iOLab sensor with force probe hook attached
iOLab data acquisition program
flat surface that can be inclined later
ruler
a sock or other container with a moderate amount of mass in it
a paperclip, bullclip, or other means of attaching your mass holder to the iOLab
string (about 30cm, non-stretchy; this is optional)

Figure 1 The three friction cases to be studied

The iOLab will be dragged, with its wheels pointed up, across a smooth surface that can be
inclined later, such as a book, a board, or a table that can be propped up at one end. The tension
force required to drag the sensor at a constant velocity will be measured with the force probe.

It is convenient to loop a piece of string through the force probe to drag the sensor by.
Additionally, the scientist may wish to attach the small felt pads included with their iOLab
sensor to the bottom of the sensor to produce more consistent results.

The weight of the sensor will be measured, and the weight and the tension force will be used to
determine the coefficient of kinetic friction k using Equation (4).

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The experiment will then be repeated with an added mass on the iOLab sensor to increase the
normal force. The new tension force and weight will be measured, and the coefficient of kinetic
friction will again be calculated using Equation (4).

Finally, the level surface will be inclined to decrease the normal force on the iOLab sensor, and
the angle of incline of the surface will be calculated. The experiment will be repeated with no
added mass, and the sensor dragged at a constant velocity up the incline. The tension force will
be measured, and the coefficient of kinetic friction will this time be calculated using Equation
(3).

Procedure

1) Measure the weight of the iOLab sensor without added mass.

2) Set up the sensor and surface as shown in the first case of Figure 1, with a level surface and
no added mass on the sensor. The sensor’s wheels should be pointed in the air.

3) While measuring force with the data acquisition program, drag the sensor at a constant
velocity across the surface, ensuring that the resulting graph is relatively smooth with a slope
that is approximately zero.

4) Repeat steps 1 – 3, except with a mass now added to the sensor.

5) Incline the surface, then take all necessary measurements to calculate the angle of incline.

6) Repeat steps 1 – 3, this time dragging the sensor without added mass up the inclined surface
at a constant velocity.

7) Use an Excel spreadsheet to calculate k (and its uncertainty) for all three cases, using
Equation (3) or Equation (4) as appropriate.

The handout on the website called “Quick-Reference: Propagating Uncertainties Through

Equations” may be helpful in calculating the uncertainties for this experiment, particularly in
the case of k determined using Equation (3) and in the calculation of the incline .

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LAB 5: UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

Equipment List:

• iOLab sensor with force probe hook attached

• iOLab data acquisition program
• string (non-stretchy; at least 50 cm, but 2m works better)

Please watch the video below to learn how to perform the experiment this week. The
lab manual and template spreadsheet for this experiment are provided below.

https://youtu.be/t63qSjvhaqI

Excel Template Spreadsheet:

Uniform Circular Motion.xlsx

Theory

When an object travels in a circle with constant speed, it is said to have uniform circular
motion. An interesting feature of the motion is that the acceleration is also constant in
magnitude and directed radially toward the centre of the circle. This centripetal, or centre-
seeking, acceleration is given by the formula

v2
ac = (1)
r

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where v is the speed of the object and r is the radius of the circle (the distance from the centre
of the circle to the centre of mass of the object).

Newton’s Laws tell us that acceleration must be created by a net force acting on the object, and
that the direction of the net force must also be in the same direction as the acceleration. So for
uniform circular motion, the net force must also be towards the centre of the circle.

The relation between the magnitude of the net force, Fnet, and ac is simply

v2
Fnet = mac = m , (2)
r

where m is the mass of the object (the sensor, in this case) travelling in the circle.

In this lab, you use the tension in a string to spin the sensor in a horizontal circle of constant
radius. During the time of one revolution, T, the sensor moves a distance equal to the
circumference of its orbit, 2r, so its tangential velocity v is

2r
v= (3)
T

Substituting Equation (3) into (2), the net force is:

 2 
2

Fnet = mr   (4)
 T 

From the mass of the sensor m, the radius of the circle r, and the period T, you will be able to
calculate Fnet using Equation (4).

If the tension in the string is the only radial force acting on the sensor, the tension and Fnet
should be equal. You will check to see if this is true.

Apparatus

iOLab sensor with force probe hook attached

iOLab data acquisition program
string (non-stretchy; at least 50 cm, but 2 m works better)

A non-stretching string is tied in a loop, and then that loop of string is attached to the force
hook as shown in Figure 1. This arrangement will allow easy removal of the string later, and it
also allows the scientist to wrap the loop of string around their wrist during the experiment to
better protect against accidentally losing hold of the string while the sensor is being swung in a
circle.

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Figure 1 – Attaching loop of string to sensor

While acquiring data with both the force probe and the accelerometer probe, the sensor is
swung in a horizontal circle at a constant speed for thirty revolutions, as shown in Figure 2.
This may take some practice and require several data-taking attempts. (After each attempt,
double-check that the force hook is still screwed in tightly, as the rotations can cause the hook
to un-screw itself.)

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Figure 2 - Side View of Motion

Once a satisfactory set of data has been acquired, the radius of rotation r is measured from the
point where the string was held to the centre of mass of the sensor.

Next, the results of the accelerometer probe are used to isolate 30 revolutions of the sensor, and
the time t for these revolutions is obtained. The average tension force FT on the force hook
during this time is also obtained. Finally, after re-zeroing the force sensor, the weight W of the
sensor is measured.

From the radius of rotation r, and the calculated mass m and period T of the sensor, the
predicted net force Fnet on the sensor is obtained and can be compared to the measured
tension force FT.

Procedure

1) Measure the tension force directly, and also take all necessary measurements to determine
the net force acting on the sensor according to Equation (4).

2) Calculate the expected value of the net force.

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LAB 6: THE IDEAL SPRING

Equipment List:

• The iOLab sensor with force probe hook (included in the iOLab sensor's kit) screwed
in
• The iOLab data acquisition software
• Metal spring (this is included in the iOLab sensor's kit)
• A sock (to act as a bag to hold masses; a small, light sock works best. You can also
substitute a plastic cup)
• A paper-clip or bull-clip to hang the sock/cup off of your sensor/spring
• Many small masses to put in the sock (for example, coins, or marbles, or small rocks)
• A sheet of graph paper (for your report)

Please watch this short video to learn how to perform the experiment.

The lab manual file for the experiment, and the template spreadsheet, are provided
below.

https://youtu.be/17N31m5deaw

Excel Template Spreadsheet:

Template Spreadsheet - The Ideal Spring.xlsx

If you do not have graph paper at home, but you do have access to a printer, you can
print the following file to use as graph paper:
Graph Paper.docx

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In physics, “ideal” springs often appear in lecture and in problems, but what makes a spring
“ideal”? Any spring that obeys Hooke’s Law can be considered ideal. As well, an ideal spring
will exhibit Simple Harmonic Motion. By considering these two ideas, the spring constant k
for a given spring (a value that is dependent on the material and the dimensions of the spring
itself) will be determined in this experiment.

Part A: Hooke’s Law

Objective

To complete a graphing exercise testing whether a given spring obeys Hooke’s law and, if it
does, to determine the spring constant of the spring.

Theory

Hooke’s Law is a simple linear relationship for springs discovered by Robert Hooke in 1676.
Hooke noticed that there was a range of force that could be applied to a spring over which “the
magnitude of the applied force F was directly proportional to the change in length x of the
spring.”

Consider a spiral spring pulled horizontally, as shown in Figure 1.

Let xo be the position of the end of the unstretched spring (this is the spring’s equilibrium
position), shown in Figure 1(a).

A force F is applied to the end of the spring as shown

in Figure 1(b). Under the action of the force, the spring
stretches a distance

x = xf – xo (1)

where xf is the position of the end of the stretched

spring.

The force F is opposed by the restoring force kx of the

spring itself (where k is the spring constant). Since the
end of the spring is still (i.e., the system is in
equilibrium), then by Newton’s Second Law,
Figure 1

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∑𝐹 = 0
𝐹 − 𝑘𝑥 = 0 (2)
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥

If the spring obeys Hooke’s law, then the graph of F vs. x will be linear within uncertainty, the
slope of the graph will be the spring constant k and the y-intercept will be equal to zero within
uncertainty.

Due to the varying “stiffness” of the springs, the y-intercept of the graph may be greater than
zero; that is, for your spring, the line may not pass through the origin within uncertainty.

Apparatus iOLab sensor with force hook

iOLab data acquisition program
spring
ruler

Procedure

To prevent permanent deformation of the spring, do not extend the spring by more than
approximately one length of the iOLab sensor itself (about 12 cm). Use your force probe to
directly measure the force exerted by the spring as you stretch it to different lengths. Collect
between 6 and 8 data points. Always choose your increments of the quantity you control so
they are approximately equal and so that they span the maximum possible range.

Create a hand-drawn graph (on real graph paper). From this graph, determine the spring
constant of the spring and its uncertainty, and the y-intercept and its uncertainty. Your
calculations for the slope and y-intercept can be done either directly on the graph or in on a
separate notebook page. Include a photograph/scan of your graph and calculations with your
notebook file.

Note:
Part A is done as a graphing exercise only. You will record your data in your notebook, and
complete your hand-drawn graph and calculations, but you do not need to do the rest of a full
lab write-up for Part A.

Part B of the experiment will be written up as a complete lab report, i.e. with data recorded in
your notebook, a spreadsheet, a typed report, and a Linegraph file containing your graph for
Part B.

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Part B: Simple Harmonic Motion

Objective

To determine the spring constant k of a given spring through measurements of the simple
harmonic motion of the spring under a load.

Theory

In simple harmonic motion (SHM), an object oscillates with constant amplitude. Under gravity,
the vertical oscillations of a loaded spring will follow SHM similar to that of a simple pendulum
where instead:
k
= (3)
m

 is the angular frequency (or velocity) of oscillation, k is the spring constant and m is the
suspended mass on the spring. If we substitute  = 2/T (where T is the period of oscillation)
into Equation (3), solve for the period T and square we obtain:

4 2
T2 = m (4)
k

Apparatus iOLab sensor with force hook

iOLab data acquisition program
spring
a sock or plastic cup to hold small masses
a paperclip, bullclip, or other means of attaching your mass holder to the spring
a collection of small masses, such as coins, marbles, small rocks, etc.

Procedure

Test Equation (4) by means of a graph. Find the period of oscillation for each of 6 to 8 different
masses suspended from your spring. Choose a range that does not extend the spring by more
than approximately one length of the iOLab sensor itself (about 12 cm), or you could damage
the spring. Always choose your increments of the quantity you control so they are
approximately equal and so that they span the maximum possible range.

Use your force probe to measure the weight (in Newtons) suspended from the spring. Calculate
its mass. Then, set the mass bouncing, and use your force probe to record these oscillations.
Highlight at least 10 periods and measure the elapsed time for them, then calculate the average

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period of the spring’s oscillation. Push UP on the mass 1-3 cm, then release it to start the
oscillations—pulling on the mass might put too much force on the spring and may cause
permanent damage.

Record your observations of what happens to the oscillations as you increase the load on the
spring. Determine your spring constant k from the graph.

Note: In Part B: Simple Harmonic Motion, please make your graph using the LineGraph
program available in the top section of the Moodle webpage.
For the remainder of the semester, you will create all your linear graphs using the LineGraph
program (i.e. no more hand-drawn graphs after this week!) We do want you to make at least
one hand-drawn graph, so you know how to, but computer-drawn graphs are a lot faster.

Note: In this experiment, there is no supplied value of the spring constant, k, for you compare
your experimental values to. However, you can compare your experimental values to each
other.
The theories for Parts A and B do predict what the y-intercepts of your graphs should be,
however, so don’t forget to compare your measured values to these predicted values.

Extra tips:

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LAB 7: TORQUE

Equipment List:

• iOLab sensor
• iOLab data acquisition software
• A table or desk to launch the iOLab sensor off of
• A pillow, a bed, or some other soft surface for the iOLab sensor to land on
• A tape measure or other means of measuring distances of approximately 1 metre or
more

Please watch the video below to learn how to perform the experiment this week. The
lab manual and template spreadsheet for this experiment are provided below.

https://youtu.be/HxoVopOnkYk

Excel Template Spreadsheet:

Torque.xlsx

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Torque is the rotational equivalent of force. An example of torque is when you use a wrench to
turn a nut (see Figure 1).
F
F is the magnitude of the force you apply to the wrench.
( r is the distance from the pivot point to where the force is
applied.
r  is the angle at which the force is applied.

The torque you exert on the nut is given by

𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃

Figure 1: Example of torque

Often the axis of rotation (i.e., the nut in this example) is chosen as the pivot point. However,
when calculating the net torque you can choose any point as the pivot point, as long as you use
the same pivot point for each force.

Torques that act counterclockwise are usually considered positive, and torques that act
clockwise are usually considered negative.

Objective

To graphically verify the net torque equation for a non-rotating bar.

Theory

Consider a bar that is suspended at an angle by a string in the following way:

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this string exerts a

force to hold the bar
stationary in this
position

bar
pivot
point the ground

Figure 2: Bar, resting on ground, suspended at an angle by a string

The point of support, where the bar rests against the ground, will be considered the pivot point.

There are three forces on the bar that could result in a torque. These are drawn in red on the
force diagram below. They are: (1) the tension in the string T, (2) the weight of the bar W, and
(3) the friction force f between the ground and the end of the bar.
T = tension

W = weight L/2


f = friction

Figure 3: Force diagram of bar, resting on ground, suspended at an angle by a string

The weight acts on the bar’s centre of mass, which is a distance L/2 from the pivot point of the
bar (where L is the length of the bar) for a bar of uniform density.

The tension acts on a point that is a distance r from the pivot point.

The friction force acts at the pivot point, so its distance away from the pivot point is zero.

If the bar is not rotating, then the net torque on the bar must be zero (just as the net force on a
body that is not moving must be zero).

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Assuming that the string pulls on the bar with an angle of 90 relative the to the length of the
bar, we can write the sum of the torques on the bar as:

𝐿 (1a)
Σ𝜏 = − 𝑟𝑇 sin 90° + 𝑊 sin 𝜃 − (0)𝑓 sin 𝜃 = 0
2
Or, by substituting sin 90° = 1 and recognizing that the third term equals zero:

𝑊𝐿 (1b)
𝑇𝑟 = sin 𝜃
2

Let us further assume that the angle of the bar is being held at  = 45, so that sin 𝜃 =
1
sin 45° = √2 , and let us also rearrange the equation to put the two variables, T and r, on
opposite sides of the equation. This gives us:
𝑊𝐿 1 (2)
𝑇 =
2√2 𝑟

𝑦 = 𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑏

Comparing Equation 2 to the equation of a straight line on a graph, we see that the torque
equation can be verified graphically. Specifically, if the tension force T of the string is
measured for different different distances r away from the pivot point, then the theory predicts
that:
1
1. A graph of T versus 𝑟 should result in a linear graph, with
𝑊𝐿
2. a slope equal to 2√2, and
3. a y-intercept equal to zero.

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Data-taking

A ruler will be used as the bar in this experiment, and a rubber band or loop of string will be
used to exert a tension force T on the ruler.

To aid the scientist in holding the ruler accurately at an angle of 45°, a guide-line will be drawn
on a piece of paper and then taped to the wall behind the area where the experiment will be
performed.

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Next, the scientist will suspend the ruler from a rubber band or loop of string attached to the
force hook of the iOLab, while taking care to ensure both that the ruler is parallel to the 45°
guide-line, and that the rubber band/loop of string is pulling on the ruler at an angle of 90°
relative to the ruler.

The tension force T on the ruler will be measured for 6 to 8 different values of the distance r,
which is the distance between the rubber band/loop of string’s position and the pivot point.

Note: It is expected that for some distances r, the friction force at the pivot point will not be
sufficient to prevent the ruler from slipping. Therefore, it is expected that the distances r will
need to be measured near the end of the ruler that is farthest from the pivot point.

Apparatus
iOLab sensor with force hook attached
iOLab data acquisition program
rubber band or short length of string tied in a loop
30 to 40 cm long ruler
piece of paper with a 45 angle guide-line drawn on it, taped to wall near testing area

Procedure

1. Position the rubber band/loop of string a distance r away from the pivot point. Suspend the
ruler from the rubber band/loop of string so that the ruler is parallel to the 45° guide-line.
Take care to ensure that the rubber band/loop of string is pulling on the ruler at 90° relative
to the length of the ruler.

Hold the ruler steady in this position and measure the force being exerted on the ruler.

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2. Repeat Step 1 to measure the force required to hold the ruler in this position when the
rubber band/loop of string is positioned at 6 to 8 different distances r away from the pivot
point.

3. Measure any other quantities required to graphically verify Equation 2.

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LAB 8: SIMPLE PENDULUM

Equipment List:

• iOLab sensor with force probe hook attached

• iOLab data acquisition program
• string (non-stretchy; at least 1 metre)

Please watch the video below to learn how to perform the experiment this week. The
lab manual and template spreadsheet for this experiment are provided below.

https://youtu.be/2GhYh4rPGiI

Excel Template Spreadsheet:

The Simple Pendulum.xlsx

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Theory

A simple pendulum consists of a small mass at the end of a light string. The other end of the
string is held stationary, as shown in Figure 1.

If the mass is moved through a small angle and released, the mass will swing back and forth
with constant period T. One complete period T is the time needed for the mass to return to its
starting position. For small angles (not more than 5 degrees) the period is given by the formula

L
T = 2 , (1)
g

where L is the distance from the centre of the mass to the anchor point of the string, and g is the
acceleration due to gravity.

Slider

Ruler

Interface
box

Figure 1 – Set-up for the Simple Pendulum

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By varying the length L of the pendulum, the period T will consequently also vary.

You are to verify Equation (1) graphically, and then use your graph to determine the value of
the acceleration due to gravity. The accepted value of g is 9.81 m/s2.

You will choose lengths L to study so that they are approximately equally spaced and span the
largest possible range (up to about 1 metre, although you can choose longer lengths if you
wish).

The period of the pendulum will be measured using the force probe of the iOLab sensor. Note
that the magnitude of the force on the probe is expected to be at a minimum when the pendulum
is at its highest point in the swing, as shown by the free-body diagram in Figure 2.

Furthermore, the pendulum is expected to attain that maximum height twice during a single
period T. This means that the period of the graph will be one half the period of the pendulum.

F


t
Tension = W cos 

T = one period of
the pendulum,
which is 2x the
Weight = W = mg period of the graph

Figure 2 – Force Diagram of the Simple Pendulum at its Highest Point

Apparatus

iOLab sensor with force hook attached

data acquisition software
non-stretching string at least 1 metre long

Procedure

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1) Measure the period T for 6 to 8 different lengths L. Pick the lengths so that they are
approximately equally spaced and span the largest possible range. Avoid lengths shorter
than 25 cm, and keep the angle of oscillation small.

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APPENDIX: 1

Sample Lab Report

Fraser Valley University

1p Lab Name: Two Methods of Finding the Acceleration

Due to Gravity
Team Members:
Instructor: Dr. Aydan Bekirov(Dr.B.)
Lab Date:
Total Grade: 20 of 20p=100%

2p PURPOSE: .
Explain briefly in two or three sentences what the purpose of the experiment is and what
you are going to measure. Do not just repeat the introduction to the lab.

1/ The objective of the experiment is to find the the acceleration due to gravity (g), using
two methods.

2/ For the first part of this experiment, the acceleration due to gravity (g) will be
calculated by dropping a mass (m) from a height, with the help of a ticker tape machine.
Three-dot lengths will be measured.

3/ For the second part, a simple pendulum will be used to calculate the acceleration due to
gravity (g). The period for ten oscillations and the length of string will be recorded.

2p THEORY and HYPOTHESIS:

1/ From your background reading you should introduce the specific topic for each part of
the experiment. This will include mentioning relevant equations and defining what the
symbols mean (stay consistent throughout the report). Use subscripts to avoid confusion.

Part One:
Velocity is equal to the displacement, in this case, the three-dot lengths, divided by
the interval time (t) of 0.05s. The interval time came from the fact that the ticker tape
machine produces 60 dots per second, therefore, measuring three-dot lengths means

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0.05s has transpired.

Equation 1: Velocity (v) = displacement (d) / time (t))

Knowing that acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity over the rate of
change of time, the slope of a velocity-time graph would be the acceleration.
Equation 2: (Acceleration(a) = velocity(v) / time (t))

Part Two:
Using the formula, T = 2pi(sqrt(L/g)), where T is period, L is the length of the string
and g is the acceleration due to gravity, it can be found the the g is equal to the slope of a
T2-L graph. (See Analysis for further explanation)
The angle at which the bob will be released at may affect the resulting g, but not as
much as when the period or the length will be varied. The mass of the bob, as long as it is
constant, will not affect the pendulum motion.

Equation 3: T = 2pi(sqrt(L/g))

2/ You should explain what you predict will happen in the experiments and justify it.
Include any assumptions made in the equations and what effect these assumptions might
have on certain variables or data. Predict, if possible, which variables will show the most
uncertainty and discuss how that will affect the final result.

The experimental g value will be equal or close to the experimental theoretical g

value of 9.80 m/s2.

Part One:
Choosing an appropriate mass will surely affect the result, as well as properly
setting up the system. External force like air resistance must be taken into account as it
will decrease the acceleration of the object.

Part Two:
Consistency in measuring the length of the string and the time it would take for ten
oscillations will be crucial in finding experimental g. Having constant mass of the bob and
the angle at which it will be released will increase the accuracy of the experiment, since
the only factors mainly affecting a simple pendulum are the length and the period.

1p MATERIALS:
Here you may write “as given” unless any changes were made from the details given in the lab
description

Ticker tape machine

Carbon disc and Ticker tape
C-clamp
Mass
Stopwatch
Small Pendulum Bob
Masking tape
Thread
Support stand
Clamp and rod for pendulum support

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1p METHOD:
This section should discuss how you will measure the appropriate
quantities. If the lab manual already explains much of this you may copy
them from the manual and paste here. Before submitting the final version,
update the everything that has been change during the lab. A diagram or
picture of the setup must be included. Don't forget to label the diagram,
that is, explain what it shows.

Part One:
1. Your instructor will direct you to a vertical surface in the classroom. Using a C-
clamp, fasten the ticker tape machine to the vertical surface. Take care not to
squash machine as you do so.
2. Place a carbon paper disk on the ticker tape machine (a hole in the center of the
disk can be fitted over a piece of metal on the machine such that part of the disk is
directly beneath the vibrating screw.
3. Measure a length of ticker tape equal to the distance from the floor to the ticker
tape machine. Using masking tape, attach the mass provided to one end of this
piece of ticker tape.
4. Feed the ticker tape first through one of the two “guide staples”, then under the
carbon paper (thus under the vibrating screw) and then out through the other guide
staple. This should be done such that when the mass falls it will pull the ticker tape
through the guide staples.
5. Turn on the ticker tape machine. At the same time release the mass.
6. Your piece of ticker tape should have a series of dots (these were made as the
vibrating screw hit the carbon paper and ticker tape 60 times per second).
7. Conduct a number of trials equal to the number of people in your group so that
everyone has a piece of ticker tape to analyze.
8. Find the start of the series of dots (near to where the mass was attached). Since
the ticker tape machine produces 60 dots per second, if you were to count 60 dots
(not including the first dot) you would be covering a time period of one second.
Alternatively, if you count 3 dots you will be covering a time of 0.05 seconds. That
is, the interval time is 0.05 seconds. Thus, starting with the first dot you can break
your ticker tape into 0.05 second pieces by measuring the length of ticker tape for
each 3-dot interval. Record your 3-dot lengths (d) in a data table alongside the
time (t). (Note that time, t, is the total time, not the interval time.)

Part Two:
1. Set up a ring stand and clamp. You may wish to clamp the ring stand to your table.
2. Attach a pendulum bob to a length of string and hang the string from the ring stand
and clamp assembly. Start with a length L of 75 cm (measure from the center of
the bob to where the string is attached).
3. Pull the bob to one side so that the string is no more than 10 0 from the vertical.
Release the bob and using the stopwatch measure the time it takes for ten
oscillations. Record the length and time in a table.
4. Repeat step 3 for pendulum lengths of 65 cm, 55 cm, 45 cm etc… all the way down
to 5 cm.

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2p DATA: (In the attached Excel file)

In this section all of the experimental data is recorded. Most of this data will be in the form
of a data table. All data should be recorded clearly and should include appropriate units.
Data Tables: You should construct your own data tables in preparation for data taking.
Every column in your data table should include a header in which the name and/or symbol
for the particular quantity is given. The units for the quantity should also be given in the
header. The table should be numbered and given a title. All of the lab descriptions show
what the table for the given lab should look like. Some columns may represent calculated
quantities.

4P ANALYSIS:
Here you should show one sample calculation for each different equation used. This
includes uncertainty calculations. You may need to construct new tables and draw graphs.
Copy them from your Excel file and paste here. It is important to make it clear what data
you are analyzing. Use appropriate symbols, units and prefixes. If your analysis includes a
straight-line graph include the equation of the best-fit line.

Table 1: Electric Ticker Tape Data

● Calculations:
○ Velocity, v (m/s)
■ The measured interval distance (d) (3-dot lengths) was
divided by the interval time (t) (0.05s).

Graph1: Velocity-Time Graph

● Calculations:
○ Acceleration, g (m/s2)
■ Using Microsoft Excel, a graph with velocity (v) on the y-
axis and time (t) on the x-axis was generated. The best-
fit line and its equation were also produced. (y=4.0339x -
0.0533)
■ The slope of the graph is equal to g. (g = 4.0339 m/s2)

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○ Percent Error (%)

■ Using g = 9.80 m/s2 and g = 4.03 m/s2 as the theoretical
and experimental value, respectively, the percent error
w
a
s

c
a
l
c
u
lated.

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Table 2: Pendulum Data

● Calculations:
○ Period, T (s)
■ Since period, T (s) is the time it takes for one oscillation
to occur, the time (t) measured was divided by ten.
(Note: time, t in the data table is for ten oscillations)

○ Period2, T2 (s2)
■ Using the given formula, g was solved. Since the equation
involves a square root sign, both sides were squared to
get rid of the sign. Therefore, g was easily isolated. This
step explains why was better to use period2, T2 than
period, T. It was also found that the graph produced was
a straight line, making it easier to find the best-fit line
and its equation.

■ Period2 = (Period)(Period)

Graph 2: Period2-Length Graph

● Calculations:
○ Slope, m (s2/m)
■ Using Microsoft Excel, a graph of Period2 on the y-axis
versus Length on the x-axis was generated. The best-fit

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line and its equation were also produced. (y=

4.0238x+0.1083)

■ T
h
e

y
i
elded graph was a straight-line. This was because solving
g from the given formula and using T2 instead of T,
produced an equation which mimicked that of a line.
(y= mx +b)
■ The slope of the graph (m) is equal to (4pi2)/g (m =
4.0238 s2/m)
○ Acceleration, g (m/s2)

■ Using pi= 3.142 and slope (m) = 4.024 s2/m, acceleration

due to gravity was determined.

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○ Percent Error (%)

■ Using g = 9.80 m/s2 and g = 9.813 m/s2 as the
theoretical and experimental value, respectively, the
percent error was calculated.

4p DISCUSSION:
The discussion should be a clear, concise section in which you state and interpret your
results. It is the most important part of the lab report.

The discussion should open with a brief re-introduction of what you were trying to do in
the lab. You should then reference all data tables (which state the numerical values of all
data and calculated quantities). Interpreting your results includes for example, explaining
the shape of a graph or discussing data trends (again, reference any graphs or tables by
referring to them, for example “see Graph 1”, “Table 1” etc….). You may be comparing two
values. If so, state the two values and give the percentage difference (or percentage error,
this will be specified in the lab description).

Comparison of your results with your hypothesis section should be made. If your results do
not agree you should explain why. Here you may want to refer to possible sources of error.
- Do not re-state the method in the discussion.
- Do not include calculations in the discussion.
- Try to be specific about any possible sources of error; i.e. do not generalise to
human error, old equipment etc....
- Good examples of real sources of error in a lab are friction, unlevel surfaces,
air resistance etc.....
- Do not use point form or bullets.
- Do not use shorthand or abbreviations.
- Use paragraphs; i.e. do not write the discussion as one solid block of text.
When you move onto a new point that you wish to make or if the current
paragraph is a little long, start a new paragraph.
- Be concise; i.e. do not mention the same thing several times.
- Be clear. Read over what you have written. Does it make sense? If you came
back a month later could you follow what you have written?

The discovery of the theoretical value (g= 9.80 m/s2) of the

acceleration due to gravity is an integral part of physics in general. This
study mainly involved two methods in finding this acceleration: using a
ticker tape machine and using a simple pendulum set-up.

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The first part of the experiment aimed to measure three-dot lengths

from a series of dots produced on the ticker tape. Since the ticker tape
machine produces 60 dots per second, the interval time (t = 0.05s) was
used to calculate instantaneous velocities (See Table 1). A velocity-time
graph was then generated, producing the best-fit line and its equation. Its
slope is equal to g. (See Graph 1) The experimental g was found to be
g=4.03 m/s2. Knowing that the theoretical value of g is 9.80 m/s2, it is
clear that there were a lot of factors which contributed to this big
discrepancy. In fact, the percent error is at 58.9%. (See 1: Percent Error
Calculation)

The theoretical value of g was measured during a free fall, which is

when the only force acting upon an object is gravity. However, in this
experiment, there was a significant force of air resistance acting upon the
hanging mass. This is because the air is made of particles which “rub” on
falling objects, producing a friction slowing down the rate of acceleration
due to gravity. According to Newton’s Second Law, acceleration is equal to
the net force acting on an object divided by its mass. Using this knowledge,
it is clear that the presence of another force decreases an object’s
acceleration. (See equations below)

Equation 4: (Free fall)

acceleration (a) = (gravitational force) Fg/(mass) m
Equation 5: (With air resistance)
acceleration (a) = [(gravitational force) Fg - air resistance (Fair)]/
(mass)m

It is also important to note that air resistance depends on an object’s

surface area. The greater the surface area, the greater the resistance.
However, even though the hanging mass used was light, its small surface
still did not contribute to a relatively large g. This is because the weight (Fg)
is too small to counter the effect of the air on its acceleration. It makes it
susceptible to other external forces, in this case, air resistance. Other
factors include: the ticker tape machine setup was not stable enough to
imprint a series of dots on the tape; and the time of turning it on and the
time of releasing the mass were not as in sync as it should have been. All of
these factors affected the result, which was 58.9% different from the
supposed value of 9.80 m/s2.

Meanwhile, the second part of the experiment involved a simple

pendulum setup. It aimed to measure the time it would take for ten
oscillations for eight different string lengths. Its period, which is the time it
would take for one oscillation, and period2 were presented in the data table.

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(See Table 2) A period2-length graph was generated; the best-fit line and
its equation were also found. (See Graph 2) The slope of the line was used
to then calculate experimental g. (See Analysis for calculations) The
experimental value of g was found to be 9.813 m/s2. Unlike the first part,
this result is close to the actual value of g. In fact, the percent error is at
0.1356%. (See 2: Percent Error Calculation)

The discrepancy, even though relatively small, is caused by several

factors. One of which is the inconsistency of the angle where the bob was
released at. Since it is just an approximation of 100, each trial was not done
in exactly similar setups. Another reason is that the time of release was not
as in sync as it should have been with the timer. Since the formula relating
the acceleration due to gravity, the length of the string, and the period
does not involve the object’s mass, the mass has no effect with the
experimental result. Initially measuring the period for ten oscillations,
instead of for just one, increases the accuracy of the experiment.

Also, having longer lengths makes it easier to measure the period.

According to the formula T= 2pi(sqrt(L/g)), as you increase the length of
the string, the period it takes for one oscillation also increases.
Furthermore, solving the equation for g, suggests that increasing the length
(L) increases g, while increasing period2 decreases g. (See Analysis)

Both methods reveal to be effective in finding the acceleration due to

gravity, even with the presence of other factors which then affected the
result. The accuracy of both methods can be increased by increasing the
number of trials per scenario. To add, the precision of the results can be
enhanced by being consistent with all the measurements done.

2p CONCLUSION:
Often when reading a report, other physicists will first read first the Goal and then the
Conclusion. This is because they want to get a quick idea of what was being investigated
and what the main result was. If interested, they would then read the rest of the report.
Thus, your conclusion should be a short, concise summary of your main results and how
they compare to your predictions (that is, the theory section).

The results found in part one and two are g= 4.03 m/s2 and g= 9.813
m/s2, respectively. The g found in the first part is 58.9% off the theoretical
value of g=9.80 m/s2, meanwhile, the g found in the second part is only
0.1356% off the said value.

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Air resistance played a major role in decreasing the acceleration due

to gravity in part one. Having a small hanging mass and not being able to
create an ideal setup contributed to the large percent error. Meanwhile,
some inconsistencies in measurement caused the discrepancy in part two.
Even though the angle at which the bob was released does not contribute
much to the pendulum system, having an inaccurate measurement for
every trial also affected the result.

SOURCES USED:
● Giancoli, D. G. (2014). Physics: Principles with Applications, 7th
Edition. California: Pearson.
● National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (2015, May 5). Forces
on a Falling Object (with Air Resistance). Retrieved from National
Aeronautics and Space Administration:
https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/falling.html
● University of Leicester. (n.d.). Air Resistance. Retrieved from
https://www.le.ac.uk/se/centres/sci/selfstudy/air.html
● Free Fall and Air Resistance. (n.d.). Retrieved from The Physics
Classroom:
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/newtlaws/Lesson-3/Free-
Fall-and-Air-Resistance

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APPENDIX: 2

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APPENDIX: 3 Excel Basics

Excel is a spreadsheet program. It performs mathematical functions and displays the results in a
table format. Figure 1 shows a few important features of the program.
Figure 1: Microsoft Excel

Using Excel to Analyze Data

When the program opens, you will notice that the working area of the screen looks like a table,
with columns and rows.
Columns are labelled with letters (A, B, C, …) and rows are labelled with numbers (1, 2, 3, …),
so that each individual cell (each box in the table) has a unique label (a “cell address”)
consisting of a letter and a number, e.g. B5, or H23.
If you click on a cell, its name appears in a white box located in the upper left-hand corner of
the screen, beneath the ribbon (see Figure 1).
There are four kinds of information you can enter in Excel:

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To tell Excel you’re typing a formula (rather than text), start by typing the “=” sign, then use
the following operators to create simple mathematical expressions:
To add, use the plus sign, + To divide, use the slash, /
Addition
= A5+B5+6.52 Division =A5 / B5 / 6.52
To subtract, use the minus A5
Excel interprets this as ( B 56.52 )
Subtraction sign, –
=A5 – B5 – 6.52 To raise to a power, use a carat, ^
(shift-6 on your keyboard)
To multiply, use the asterisk, * Powers = A5^2
Multiplication (shift-8 on your keyboard) Excel interprets this as A52
=A5*B5*6.52

SPECIAL FUNCTIONS are commands you can type into your formulas to make Excel
perform more sophisticated mathematical operations. Some useful ones are given in Table 1
below. First, however, we discuss how to input lists of values.
LISTS: Some functions, such as SUM(list), require you to input a list of values. These can be
entered in one of several ways:
a) EITHER enter the values individually, separated by commas,
=SUM(A5, A6, A7, A8)
b) OR, for consecutive values, enter the first and last value, separated by a colon,
=SUM(A5:A8)
c) OR, type:
=SUM(
then use the mouse to highlight the range of cells. The program automatically fills in the
“A5:A8” part, and you can then close the brackets on “SUM”

Table 1: Special Functions Commonly Used in Excel

Table of Special Functions Commonly Used in Excel

SUM(list) Calculates the sum of a list of values
AVERAGE(list) Calculates the average of a list of values
STDEV.S(list) Calculates the standard deviation of a list of values

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SQRT(value) Calculates the square root of a value

EXP(value) Calculates evalue
LN(value) Calculates the natural logarithm (base e) of a value
SIN(value in radians), COS(value Calculates the sine, cosine and tangent of a value.
in radians), TAN(value in radians) Note: the program assumes the value is in radians.
RADIANS(value in degrees) Converts a value in degrees to radians
PI( ) Gives the numerical value of  = 3.1415…
Note: Do not put anything between the brackets!
Notes:
▪ You can nest one function inside another. For example, SIN(RADIANS(30)) would
calculate the sine of 30 degrees.
▪ You can look up other special functions under the Formulas tab in the ribbon.

Correcting Mistakes
Occasionally you will mistype something. One way to fix your mistake is to click the cell and
retype it correctly. However, there is a less time-consuming way to fix it.
If you click on a cell that contains a formula, the formula bar (refer to Figure 1) will display
what you had typed into the cell. To correct a mistake, without erasing the contents of the entire
cell, do the following:
Figure 2: Fixing a Mistake in a Formula

Notes:
▪ If you realize that you’ve made a mistake entering a formula before you hit the Enter
button, hit Escape. The cell will reset to what it was before you started typing.
▪ If you need to change which cells are being used by a formula, when you get to Step 2
(above), you can use the mouse to drag the coloured boxes encircling the selected cell
over to the correct data’s cell.

Copying and Pasting:

In Excel, you can type a formula once and then apply it to a list of data without having to retype
the formula. This is called copying and pasting.

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Consider Figure 3 below. Data has been entered and labelled, and in the Calculations column, a
formula has been typed. If you press Enter, Excel evaluates the equation and returns an answer.
Figure 3: Pressing “Enter” causes Excel to evaluate the formula and return the answer.

→
To apply the same formula to the data in rows 3 and 4, without having to retype it, first click on
the cell whose formula you want to copy, i.e., C2. Then, there are two ways that you can copy
the formula:

1) EITHER copy the selected cell (using the Clipboard group on the Home tab of the
ribbon), and paste it over the other cells that you want to contain the formula
2) OR, click the square in the bottom right corner of the selected cell, and drag it down
over the other cells that you want to contain the formula, as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Copying a Formula

Step 1: Hover mouse over small box in lower corner

Step 2: Click and drag the outline down

Step 3: The formulae will fill in with correct row numbers

When you paste a formula into a cell below the original, Excel automatically increments the

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row reference (from 2 to 3, for example). If you paste a formula to the right of the original, the
column references will increment (from C to D, for example).
Notes:
• If you just want to copy just a value to another cell, not the formula, use Paste Values
(on the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, under Paste).
• If you Cut instead of Copy, Excel will not increment the row/column references, and
you will still reference the same cells. Also, if you Cut/Paste a cell that is referred to in
a formula, Excel automatically adjusts that formula to refer to the new cell location.

Preventing the Data from Automatically Incrementing

In some cases, you do not want Excel to automatically increment the cell references, such as
when all the data is to be multiplied by a constant.
To keep the program from automatically incrementing a cell reference when you Copy/Paste a
formula, use the “ $ “ symbol, as shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5: Excel Does NOT Increment Cell Addresses That Include the “$” Operator

The “ $ “ symbol is called the “absolute reference”

operator, because it forces the program to reference
only the column and row specified.

Rounding
Do not attempt to round off values in Excel. (The program won’t let you.) Only round off your
final, calculated values when you report them in your notebook or typed report.

Scientific Notation in Excel

Excel understands the letter “E” to mean “ 10?? “, so to type the value 5.72  10-9 in scientific
notation, you could type it as 5.72E-9, as shown below.

Inserting Special Symbols into Excel

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If you wish to include special symbols, such as  or , in your Excel spreadsheets, it is possible
to insert them from the Symbols group of the Insert tab on the ribbon. In the dialogue box that
pops up, make sure the font selected is “Symbol”.

Printing Your Work

If your lab instructor requires you to do your mathematical analysis on Excel, you may need to
print your Excel spreadsheets (but only if your lab instructor wants you to turn in a hard-copy
rather than a digital copy).
Because your lab instructor needs to see both what your answers are and how you arrived at
them, you would need to print out two copies of your spreadsheet: one that shows all your
numerical values, and one that shows all your formulas.
To print a copy of your spreadsheet that shows your numerical values:

1) Go to the Page Layout tab on the ribbon, in the Page Setup section.
a. Under Orientation, select the Portrait or Landscape option.

b. Set both the Width and Height, in the Scale to Fit section, to “1 page.”

c. For both Gridlines and Headings, in the Sheet Options section, select Print (in two
places).

2) Go to the File tab, select Print along the sidebar, then click the large Print button.

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You’re not finished yet! Go to the next page to learn to print a copy showing formulas.

To print a copy of your spreadsheet that shows your formulas:

1) Go to the Formulas tab and, in the Formula Auditing section, click Show Formulas.

2) Some of your formulas will be cut off short because the columns are not wide enough
for them. Resize the columns to fit the formulas as follows:

a. In the upper left-hand corner of the work area (between the letters and the
numbers) is a small grey box. Click this box to highlight the entire spreadsheet.

b. Place your cursor on the line between A and B and then double-click that line.
This will resize all the columns so they are wide enough to display everything
typed into them.

c. Click on any cell to de-select the spreadsheet.

3) Go to the File tab, select Print along the sidebar, then click the large Print button.

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Note that the program will still print your gridlines and row and column headings, because
those options are still selected from the first time you printed.

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APPENDIX: 4

Graphing with Linegraph.xls

Linegraph.xls is a macro for Microsoft Excel that allows you to graph and fit linear data.

Getting started
An icon on the computer desktop starts the program. At the bottom of the window are two tabs.
You see the “Data” tab first, but if you click “Graph”, you’ll see the bottom half of Figure
6.Figure 6: The “Data” tab (upper screen) and “Graph” tab (lower screen) of Linegraph

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To Graph Your Own Data:

Add you and your partner’s names, as well as your graph’s title and axes labels in the
appropriate locations. Then add your data to the table. Click the Graph tab at the bottom of the
window to see your data graphed. Note that the slope and y-intercept of your graph’s best fit
line are automatically calculated in Table 2.

Reformatting the Scale of the Axes:

Sometimes you’ll find that the program doesn’t plot your data the way you want it to look. For
example, you might find all your points scrunched into a narrow band along the far edge of the
graph area because the axes start at zero. Do the following to re-scale your graph’s axes:

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To Save Your Graph and Data Table:

Click the File tab and then Save As.... Change the destination and give your file a name.

Accessing Data in an Open Excel Spreadsheet:

Sometimes the data you want to graph is already typed up in an Excel spreadsheet. There is an
easy way to link that data directly into Linegraph.

Your data will appear in Linegraph. The nice thing about pasting a link to your data is that if
you go back into Excel, and change your spreadsheet values, the values in Linegraph will
automatically update!

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Appendix: 5
Inserting Symbols and Equations into Word Documents
In your typed reports, you are required to typeset equations and special symbols properly (i.e.,
you may not write them in by hand). The following explains how to do this.

To insert special symbols into a sentence:

1) Go to the Insert tab on the ribbon. 2) Select Symbol from the Symbols area.

1) The most commonly-used symbols are in the drop-down menu, but if you click More
Symbols..., this brings up a dialogue box with the entire Greek alphabet (, , , ), as
well as mathematical symbols such as  and . Be sure to set the font to “Symbol”.

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To insert an equation into your document:

1) Go to the Insert tab on the ribbon. 2) Select Equation from the Symbols area.

3) A box will appear in your document, and the Equation tools tab will appear on the
ribbon. Type your equation into the box, using the ribbon to insert items like fractions,
square roots, operators, superscripts and subscripts. Use your arrow keys and mouse to
navigate within the expression.

4) You can add Greek and basic math symbols using the menu in the Symbols section of
the Equation Tools tab (see image above as well as image below).

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To insert bold, italic or underlined text, or superscripts or subscripts:

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