CE8603 NOTES AMSCE - by WWW - Easyengineering.net 1

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.
net
ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et
**Note: Other Websites/Blogs Owners Please do not Copy (or) Republish

this Materials, Students & Graduates if You Find the Same Materials with
EasyEngineering.net Watermarks or Logo, Kindly report us to
easyengineeringnet@gmail.com
Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net
ww
w.E
UNIT 1 a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

UNIT –1
CROP WATER REQUIREMENT
PART-A
1) Define irrigation? (AU MJ 2008)
Irrigation is defined as the science of artificial application of water to the land in accordance
with the crop requirements.
2) What are the necessity of irrigation? (AU MJ 2008)
 Inadequate Rainfall
 Increasing Yield Of Crops
 Growing Perennial Crops
ww  Uneven Distribution of Rainfall.

3) What are the advantages of irrigation? (AU ND 2008)
w.E


Increase In Food Production
Optimum Benefits

 a
General Prosperity
Afforestation.
syE
ngi
4) What are the disadvantages of irrigation? (AU ND 2008)
 Over Irrigation May Lead To Water Logging

 It May Reduce Crop yield
 It Is Expensive And Complex. nee
5) What are the types of irrigation? (AU MJ 2009)
rin
 Surface Irrigation
 Sub-Surface Irrigation. g.n
6) What are the techniques of water distribution in the farms? (AU MJ 2009)
 Free Flooding
et
 Border Flooding
 Check Flooding
 Basin Flooding, Furrow Irrigation Method, Drip Irrigation Method.
7) What are the types of sprinkler system? (AU ND 2009)
 Permanent System
 Semi-Permanent System
 Portable System
8) What are the advantages of sprinkler irrigation? (AU ND 2009)
 Land Levelling Is Not Required

 Fertilisers Can Be Uniformly Applied

 It Is Less Labour Oriented

9) What are the limitations of sprinkler irrigation? (AU MJ 2009)
 Initial Cost Of The System Is Very High

 It Requires Larger Electrical Power
 High Wind May Distort Sprinkler Pattern
10) What is arid region? (AU ND 2010)
The area where irrigation is must for agriculture is called arid region
11) What is semi-arid region? (AU ND 2010)
The area in which inferior crops can be grown without irrigation
ww
12) What is crop period? (AU MJ 2010)
The time period that elapses from the instant of its sowing to the instant of its harvesting is
w.E
called crop period.
13) What is base period? (AU MJ 2010)
a syE
The time between the first watering of a crop at the time of its sowing to its last watering
before harvesting is called the base period
14) What is rotation period? (AU ND 2011)
ngi
The time interval between two such consecutive watering is called frequency irrigation.
15) Define duty of water? (AU ND 2011) nee
rin
It is the relationship between the volume of water and the area of crops it matures is called
duty of water.
16) Define delta of a crop? (AU MJ 2012) g.n
et
Each crop requires a certain amount of water after a certain fixed interval of time, through its
period of growth is called delta of a crop
17) What are the factors on which duty depends? (AU MJ 2012)
 Type Of Crop
 Climate And Seasons
 Useful Rainfall
 Type Of Soil
 Efficiency Of Cultivation Method
18) What are kharif crops? (AU MJ 2012)
The kharif crops are rice,bajra,jawar,maize,cotton,tobacco, groundnut,etc.
19) Define irrigation efficiency? (AU ND 2012)
It is the efficiency of water output to the water input and is usually expressed as percentage.

20) What is called effective rainfall? (AU ND 2012)
Precipitation falling during the growing period of a crop that is available to meet the evapo-
transpiration needs of the crop, is called effective rainfall.
PART B
1 Explain the term duty and delta and derive their relationship? (AU MJ 2008, MJ
2009, ND 2009)
Delta of a crop and Duty of water and their relation
Delta:
Some quantity of water is required for any crop to come to its maturity. The total quantity of
water required for any crop during its base period(B) for its full fledged nourishment when
ww
expressed in depth of water(i.e. in 'cm' or in 'inches') is called its Delta. The total quantity of
water(i.e. volume of water) is divided by the total irrigated area to obtain Delta of crop of the
irrigated area.
w.E
We have talked about base period(B), it is the time period between the first watering of the
crop during its sowing to last watering before its harvesting. It is generally expressed in
'days'.
a syE
The another related term is Crop period. For practical purpose Base period and Crop period
ngi
are taken as same but they have a little difference. Crop period is the time period between
sowing of a crop to its harvesting. In this manner, Crop period is slightly greater than the
Base period.
Duty: nee
rin
Duty of a water simply expresses the number of hectare of land that can be irrigated for the
g.n
full growth of the given crop by supplying 1 cumec water continuously during the entire base
period of that crop. It is generally represented by 'D'. Its unit is hectare/cumec. For example,
if water flowing at the rate of 1 cumec, runs continuously for B days of the crop matures 100
hectares then Duty of that crop is 100 hectare/cumec to the base of B days.
Duty varies from point to point. It increases as one moves to downstream from the head of
et
main canal to the head of branches. It is due to the transmission losses in the channels.
Relation between Delta and Duty:
Let a crop of Base period B for which 1 cumec water is supplied continuously for its full
growth.
Then the total volume of water supplied during B days for that Crop = (1*B*24*60*60) cubic
meter.
By the definition of duty, it is clear that it matures D hectares of land.
Then the total depth of water supplied during base period B = (1*B*24*60*60)/(D*10000)
=8.64B/D meters

We know total depth of water supplied during base period of a crop is Delta.
Then, Delta= 8.64B/D meter
2. Discuss the need for the irrigation projects in the Indian context? (AU ND 2008)
Main importances of irrigation supplies are discussed below.
 Agriculture is often greatly hampered due to irregular, insufficient or uncertain rain.

Proper irrigation systems can secure uninterrupted agriculture.
 The productivity of irrigated land is more than the un-irrigated land. Crop yields
everywhere in the developing world are consistently higher in irrigated areas than in
rainfed areas1.
 Seeds cannot grow in dry soil as moisture is necessary for the germination of seeds.
With the help of irrigation supply, the required moisture content of soil for the growth
ww 
of seed can be ensured.
Multiple cropping in a year is possible through irrigation. This will enhance
w.E
production & productivity. In many areas of India, two or three crops in a year are
cultivated with irrigation facilities.
 Through the irrigation, it is possible to supply the required amount of hydrogen &

a
oxygen, which is important for the proper development of plant root.
syE
A plant can absorb mineral nutrients from the irrigated soil. Thus irrigation is
essential for the general growth of the plant.
Bringing more land under cultivation is possible through irrigation.

ngi
Insufficient rain may also cause drought & famines. Irrigation can play a protective
role during the period of drought & famines.

nee
Irrigation contributes to the economic growth and poverty reduction2. As income and
employment are closely related to output and irrigation increases production,
substantial increase in income is achieved in the countryside.
rin
3 List out the various type of irrigation efficiencies and discuss any four? (AU MJ 2010,
ND 2012)
g.n
Definition
et
The ratio of the amount of water available (output) to the amount of water supplied (input) is
known as Irrigation Efficiency. It is expressed in percentage.
Types of Irrigation Efficiency
The following are the various types of irrigation efficiencies:
(a) Water Conveyance Efficiency (ηc):
It is the ratio of the amount of water applied, to the land to the amount of water supplied from
the reservoir. It is obtained by the expression,
ηc = WlWr × 100 Where, ηc = Water conveyance efficiency Wl = Amount of water applied

to land Wr = Amount of water supplied from reservoir

(b) Water Application Efficiency (ηa):
It is the ratio of the water stored in root zone of plants to the water applied to the land. It is
obtained by the expression,
ηa = WzWl × 100 Where, ηa = Water application efficiency Wz = Amount of water stored in

root zone Wl = Amount of water applied to land
(c) Water Use Efficiency (ηu):
It is the ratio of the amount of water used to the amount of water applied. It is obtained by the
expression,
ηu = Wu Wl × 100 Where, ηu = Water use efficiency Wu = Amount of water used Wl =

Amount of water applied to land
ww
(d) Consumptive use Efficiency (ηcu):
w.E
It is the ration of the consumptive use of water to the amount of water depleted from the root
zone. It is obtained by the expression, ηcu = Cu Wp × 100
a syE
4. What are the methods of improving duty? (AU MJ 2011,ND2012)
(1) Proper Ploughing:
ngi
Ploughing should be done properly and deeply so that the moisture retaining capacity of soil
is increased.
(2) Methods of supplying water:

nee
rin
The method of supplying water to the agriculture land should be decided according to the

field and soil conditions. For example,
Furrow method For crops sown ion rows g.n


Contour method For hilly areas
Basin For orchards
et
 Flooding For plain lands
(3) Canal Lining:

It is provided to reduce percolation loss and evaporation loss due to high velocity.
(4) Minimum idle length of irrigation Canals:

The canal should be nearest to the command area so that idle length of the canal is minimum
and hence reduced transmission losses.
(5) Quality of water:

Good quality of water should be used for irrigation. Pollution en route the canal should be
avoided.
(6) Crop rotation:

The principle of crop rotation should be adopted to increase the moisture retaining capacity
and fertility of the soil.
(7) Method of Assessment of water:

Particularly, the volumetric assessment would encourage the farmer to use the water
carefully.
(8) Implementation of Tax:
ww
The water tax should be imposed on the basis of volume of water consumption
w.E
5 Discuss in detail the planning and the development of irrigation project in the Indian
context? (AU ND 2010)
a syE
Water is very important for survival of all forms of life- plant as well as animal. India, by
virtue of its peculiar placement in the foothills of the Himalayas and the Deccan Plateau
ngi
running through it, has vast water resources which have been very meagrely tapped.
Conventional and recognised means of irrigation are tanks, wells and canals.
nee
Wells: Well irrigation is an important type of irrigation in India. Wells are particularly
rin
suitable for small farms. The important well-irrigated States are Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Tamil
Nadu and Maharashtra. In these States water-table is high, soil is soft and, therefore, wells are
easily sunk.
g.n
Tubewells are an important development in India. They are worked by electricity or diesel oil
and thus, they relieve our cattle of much of the strain. They are being quickly developed in
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana and Punjab. This is because these have ample sub-soil water.
et
Wells and tubewells account for about 48 percent of the total irrigation in India.
Tanks: Tanks are also an important and ancient source of irrigation. They are of considerable
importance in central and southern India, specially in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
About 8 percent of the total irrigated area is irrigated by tanks.
Canals: Canals are the most important means of irrigation in the country. Some canals were
constructed by the early Hindu and Mohammedan kings. Most of the canals, however, are the
product of the British rule. At present, canals irrigate about 39 percent of total irrigated area
of India. Most of the canals of the country are found in Uttar Pradesh and Punjab. Storage
canals have been constructed in Deccan and Madhya Pradesh.

Major , Medium and Minor Irrigation Projects: The methods of irrigation used in India
can be broadly classified into major, medium and minor irrigation schemes. Irrigation
projects having Culturable Command Area (CCA) of more than 10,000 hectares each are
classified as major projects. Those having a CCA between 2,000 hectares and 10,000 hectares
fall under the category of medium irrigation projects. And the projects which have a CCA of
less than 2,000 hectares are classified as minor irrigation schemes. For the purpose of
analysis the major and the medium irrigation projects are generally grouped together. These
projects comprise a network of dams, bunds, canals and other such schemes. Such projects
require substantial financial outlay and are, therefore, constructed by the government or any
other agency which may draw financial assistance form the government and financial
institutions.
ww
The minor irrigation projects, on the other hand, comprise all ground water development
w.E
schemes such as dug wells, private shallow tubewells, deep public tubewells, and boring and
deepening of dugewells, and small surface water development works such as storage tanks,
a
lift irrigation projects, etc. Minor irrigation projects or the groundwater development schemes
syE
are essentially people's programmes implemented primarily through individual and
cooperative efforts with finances obtained mainly through institutional sources.
IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT
ngi
nee
Creation for irrigation potential of 10 million hectares was targeted under Bharat Nirman
during 2005-06 to 2008-09. The target was proposed to be met through completion of on-
rin
going major and medium irrigation projects, and extension, renovation and modernization of
g.n
existing projects. As per information provided by State Governments, the total irrigation
potential created during the period is 7.31 million hectares against the target of 10 million
hectares.
SOME IRRIGATION AND MULTIPURPOSE PROJECTS et
Bargi Project (Madhya Pradesh): It is a multipurpose project consisting of a masonry dam
across Bargiriver in the Jabalpur district and a left bank canal.
Beas Project (Joint venture of Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan): It consists of Beas-Sutlej
Link and Beas Dam at Pong.
Bhadra Project (Karnataka): A multipurpose project across the river Bhadra.
Bhakra Nangal Project (Joint project of Haryana, Punjab, and Rajasthan): India's biggest,
multipurpose river valley project comprises a straight gravity dam across the Sutlej river at
Bhakra, the Nangal dam, the Nangal hydel channel, two power houses at Bhakra dam and
two power stations at Ganguwal and Kotla.

Bhima Project (Maharashtra): Comprises two dams, one on the Pawanariver near Phagne in
Pune district and the other across the Krishna river near Ujjaini in Sholapur district.
Chambal Project (Joint project of Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan): The project comprises
Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana PratapSagar dam and jawaharSagar dam.
Damodar Valley Project (West Bengal and Bihar): A multipurpose project for the unified
development of irrigation, flood control and power generation in West Bengal and Bihar. It
comprises multipurpose dams at Konar, Tilaiya, Maithon and Pancher; hydel power stations
at Tilaiya, Konar, Maithon and Panchet; barrage at Durgapur; and thermal power houses at
Bokaro, Chandrapura and Durgapur. The project is administrated by the Damodar Valley
Corporation.
ww
Dulhasti Power Project (Jammu & Kashmir): It is a 390 MW power project in Kishtwar
w.E
region of Jammu & Kashmir on Chenab river. Work for this project started in 1981. The
foundation stone was laid on April 15, 1983 by the then Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi. Work
on this project was suspended due to threats of kidnapping and killings by Kashmiri militants
a syE
resulting in long delay in completion of project.
Farakka Project (West Bengal): The project was taken up for the preservation and
ngi
maintenance of Calcutta port and for improving the navigability of the Hoogly. It comprises a
nee
barrage at Jangipur across the Bhagirathi and a feeder channel taking off from the Ganga at
Farakka and tailing into the Bhagirathi below the Jangipur barrage.
rin
Gandak Project (Joint project of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh): Nepal also derives irrigation and
power benefits form this project.
g.n
Ghataprabha Project (Karnataka): A project across Ghataprabha in Belgaum and Bijapur
districts.
Hirakund (Odisha): World's longest dam, is located on the Mahanadi river.

et
Jayakwadi Project (Maharashtra): A masonry spillway across the river Godavari.
Kahalgaon Project (Bihar): The 840-MW Kahalgaon Super Thermal Power Project, a joint
venture between National Thermal Power Corporation and the Russian State Enterprise
Foreign Economic Association, was on August 12,1996 commissioned and put into
commercial operation.
Kakrapara Project (Gujarat): On the Tapti river near Kakrapara, in Surat district.
Kangsabati Project (West Bengal): The project, put in operation in 1965, is located on the
Kangsabati and Kumari rivers.

Karjan Project (Gujarat): A masonry dam across Karjan river near Jitgarh village in Nandoo
Taluka of Bharuch district.
Kosi Project (Bihar): A multipurpose project, which serves Bihar and Nepal.
Koyna Project (Maharashtra): It is built on a tributary of river Krishna with a capacity of

880 MW. It feeds power to Mumbai-Pune industrial belt.
Krishna Project (Maharashtra): Dhom dam near Dhom village on Krishna and Kanhar dam
near Kanhar village on Varna river in Satna district.
Kukadi Project (Maharashtra): Five independent storage dams, i.e. Yodgaon, Manikdohi,
Dimbha, Wadaj and Pimpalgaon Jog. The canal system comprises (i) Kukadi left bank Canal,
ww
(ii) Dimbha left bank canal, (iii) Dimbha right bank canal, (iv) Meena feeder and (v) Meena
branch.
w.E
Kundoh Project (Tamil Nadu): It is in Tamil Nadu whose initial capacity of 425 MW has
since been expanded to 535 MW.
a syE
Let Bank Ghaghra Canal (Uttar Pradesh): A link channel taking off from the left bank of
Ghaghra river of Girja barrage across Sarju.
ngi
Madhya Ganaga Canal (Uttar Pradesh): A barrage across Ganga in Bijnore district.
nee
Mahanadi Delta Scheme (Odisha): The irrigation scheme will utilize releases from the
Hirakud reservoir.
rin
Mahanadi Reservoir Project (Madhya Pradesh): It has three phases: (1) RavishankarSagar
g.n
Project and feeder canal system for supply of water of Bhilai Steel Plant and Sandur dam
et
across Sandur village. (2) Extension of Mahanadi feeder canal. (3) Pairi dam.
Mahi Project (Gujarat): A two –phase project, one across the Mahi river near Wanakbori
village and the other across Mahi river near Kadana.
Malaprabha Project (Karnataka): A dam across the Malaprabha in Belgaum district.
Mayurakshi Project (West Bengal): An irrigation and hydro-electric project comprise the
Canada dam.
MinimatoBangoHasdeo Project (Madhya Pradesh): This project is locted at

HasdeoBangoriver in Korba district and envisages construction of a masonry dam. A hydel
power plant of 120 MW capacity has been commissioned on the Bango dam.
Nagarjunasagar (Andhra Pradesh): On the Krishna river near Nandikona village (about 44
km from Hyderabad).

Panam Project (Gujarat): A gravity masonry dam across Panamriver near Keldezar village
in Panchmahal district.
ParambikulamAliyar (Joint venture of Tamil Nadu and Kerala): The integrated harnessing
of eight rivers, six in the Annamalai Hills and two in the plains.
Pochampad (Andhra Pradesh): Across Godavari river.
Pong Dam (Punjab): It is an important hydro-electric project located on Beas river.
Rajasthan Canal (Indira Gandhi Canal- Rajasthan): The Project uses water released from
Pong dam and provides irrigation facilities to the north-western region of Rajasthan, i.e., a
part of the Thar desert. It consists of Rajasthan feeder canal (with the first 167 km in Punjab
ww
and Haryana and the remaining 37 km in Rajasthan) and 445 km Rajasthan main canal
entirely in Rajasthan.
w.E
Rajghat Dam Project (Madhya Pradesh): The Rajghat Dam and Rajghat Hydro Electric
Projects are Inter-State projects of MP and UP. The Rajghat Dam is almost complete. All the
a syE
three units of Rajghat Hydro-Electric Project had been synchronized during 1999 and power
generation has been continuing ever since.
ngi
Ramganga (Uttarakhand): A dam across Ramganga, a tributary of the Ganga river located in
Garhwal district. The project has, besides reducing the intensity of floods in central and
nee
western Uttar Pradesh, provided water for the Delhi water supply scheme.
rin
RanjitSagar Dam (Thein Dam) (Punjab): A multi-purpose highest dam in the country, built
on the Ravi river for the benefit of Punjab, Haryana and Jammu and Kashmir.
g.n
Rihand Project (Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh): It is the largest man-made lake in
India on the borders of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh with a capacity of 300 MW
annually. et
Sabarmati (Gujarat): A storage dam across Sabarmati river near Dhari Village in Mehsana
district and wasna barrage near Ahmedabad.
Salal Project (Jammu & Kashmir): With the successful completion of the 2.5-km long
tailrace tunnel, the 690-MW Salal (Stage I and II ) project in Jammu and Kashmir became
fully operational on August 6, 1996.
SardaSahayak (Uttar Pradesh): A barrage across the river Ghaghra, a link channel, a barrage
across River Sarda and a feeder channel of two major aqueducts over rivers Gomti and Sai.
Sharavathi Project (Karnataka): It is located at the Jog Falls with a capacity of 891 MW. It
primarily feeds Bengaluru industrial region and also Goa and Tamil Nadu.

Sone High Level Canal(Bihar): An extension on Sone Barrage project.
Tawa Project (Madhya Pradesh): A project across the Tawariver, a tributary of the Narmada
in Hoshangabad district.
Tehri Dam Project (Uttarakhand): Earth and rock-fill dam on Bhagirathi river in Tehri
district.
Tungabhadra Project (Joint Project of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka): On the

Tungabhadra River.
Ukai Project (Gujarat): A multipurpose project across Tapti river near Ukai village.
Upper Krishna Project (Karnataka): A project consisting of Narayanpur dam across the
ww
Krishna river and a dam at Almatti.
w.E
Upper Penganga Project (Maharashtra): Two reservoirs on Penganga river at Isapur in
Yavatmal district and the other on Rayadhuriver at Sapli in Parbhani district.
a
Uri Power Project (Jammu & Kashmir): It is located on the river Jhelum in the Uri Tehsil of
syE
Baramulla district in Jammu & Kashmir. It is a 480-MW hydroelectric project which was
dedicated to the nation of February 13, 1997
ngi
nee
6 Explain the merits and demerits of irrigation in the present day. Also discuss
theenvironmental consequences of major irrigation project? (AU ND2011)
Direct effects
rin
g.n
An irrigation scheme draws water from groundwater, rivers, lakes or overland flow, and
distributes it over an area. Hydrological, or direct, effects of doing this[1] include reduction in
et
downstream river flow, increased evaporation in the irrigated area, increased level in
the water table as groundwater recharge in the area is increased and flow increased in the
irrigated area. Likewise, irrigation has immediate effects on the provision of moisture to the
atmosphere, inducing atmospheric instabilities and increasing downwind rainfall,[2] or in
other cases modifies the atmospheric circulation, delivering rain to different downwind
areas.[3] Increases or decreases in irrigation are a key area of concern
in precipitationshed studies, that examine how significant modifications to the delivery of
evaporation to the atmosphere can alter downwind rainfall.[4]
Indirect Effects[edit]
Indirect effects are those that have consequences that take longer to develop and may also be
longer-lasting. The indirect effects of irrigation include the following:
 Waterlogging
 Soil salination
 Ecological damage
 Socioeconomic impacts

The indirect effects of waterlogging and soil salination occur directly on the land being
irrigated. The ecological and socioeconomic consequences take longer to happen but can be
more far-reaching.
Some irrigation schemes use water wells for irrigation. As a result, the overall water level
decreases. This may cause water mining, land/soil subsidence, and, along the coast, saltwater
intrusion.
Irrigated land area worldwide occupies about 16% of the total agricultural area and the crop
yield of irrigated land is roughly 40% of the total yield.[5] In other words, irrigated land
produces 2.5 times more product than non-irrigated land. This article will discuss some of the
environmental and socioeconomic impacts of irrigation.
Adverse impacts[edit]
Reduced river flow[edit]
ww
The reduced downstream river flow may cause:
 reduced downstream flooding
w.E
 disappearance of ecologically and economically important wetlands or flood forests
 reduced availability of industrial, municipal, household, and drinking water
 reduced shipping routes. Water withdrawal poses a serious threat to the Ganges. In
[6]
a syE
India, barrages control all of the tributaries to the Ganges and divert roughly 60 percent
of river flow to irrigation[6]
 reduced fishing opportunities. The Indus River in Pakistan faces scarcity due to over-
ngi
extraction of water for agriculture. The Indus is inhabited by 25 amphibian species and
147 fish species of which 22 are found nowhere else in the world. It harbors the
nee
endangered Indus river dolphin, one of the world's rarest mammals. Fish populations, the
main source of protein and overall life support systems for many communities, are also
being threatened[6]
rin
 reduced discharge into the sea, which may have various consequences like coastal
erosion (e.g. in Ghana[7]) and salt water intrusion in delta's and estuaries (e.g. in Egypt,
g.n
see Aswan dam). Current water withdrawal from the river Nile for irrigation is so high
that, despite its size, in dry periods the river does not reach the sea.[6] The Aral Sea has
suffered an "environmental catastrophe" due to the interception of river water for
irrigation purposes.
Increased groundwater recharge, waterlogging, soil salinity[edit]
et
Looking over the shoulder of a Peruvian farmer in the Huarmey delta
at waterlogged and salinised irrigated land with a poor crop stand.
This illustrates an environmental impact of upstream irrigation developments causing an
increased flow of groundwater to this lower-lying area, leading to adverse conditions.
Increased groundwater recharge stems from the unavoidable deep percolation losses
occurring in the irrigation scheme. The lower the irrigation efficiency, the higher the losses.
Although fairly high irrigation efficiencies of 70% or more (i.e. losses of 30% or less) can
occur with sophisticated techniques like sprinkler irrigation and drip irrigation, or by well
managed surface irrigation, in practice the losses are commonly in the order of 40% to 60%.
This may cause the following issues:

 rising water tables

 increased storage of groundwater that may be used for irrigation, municipal, household
and drinking water by pumping from wells
 waterlogging and drainage problems in villages, agricultural lands, and along roads - with
mostly negative consequences. The increased level of the water table can lead to reduced
agricultural production.
 shallow water tables - a sign that the aquifer is unable to cope with the groundwater
recharge stemming from the deep percolation losses
 where water tables are shallow, the irrigation applications are reduced. As a result, the
soil is no longer leached and soil salinity problems develop
 stagnant water tables at the soil surface are known to increase the incidence of water-
borne diseases like malaria, filariasis, yellow fever, dengue,
and schistosomiasis (Bilharzia) in many areas.[8] Health costs, appraisals of health
impacts and mitigation measures are rarely part of irrigation projects, if at all.[9]
ww
 to mitigate the adverse effects of shallow water tables and soil salinization, some form
of watertable control, soil salinity control, drainage and drainage system is needed
 as drainage water moves through the soil profile it may dissolve nutrients (either
w.E
fertilizer-based or naturally occurring) such as nitrates, leading to a buildup of those
nutrients in the ground-water aquifer. High nitrate levels in drinking water can be harmful
to humans, particularly infants under 6 months, where it is linked to "blue-baby
a syE
syndrome" (see Methemoglobinemia).
Reduced downstream river water quality[edit]
ngi
Owing to drainage of surface and groundwater in the project area, which waters may be
salinized and polluted by agricultural chemicals like biocides and fertilizers, the quality of the
river water below the project area can deteriorate, which makes it less fit for industrial,
nee
municipal and household use. It may lead to reduced public health.
Polluted river water entering the sea may adversely affect the ecology along the sea shore
(see Aswan dam).
rin
The natural contribution of sediments can be eliminated by the detention of sediments behind
g.n
the dams critical to surface water irrigation diversions. Sedimentation is an essential part of
the ecosystem that requires the natural flux of the river flow. This natural cycle of sediment
the plants and animals that rely on the sediments carried downstream. The benefits of heavy
deposits of sedimentation can be seen in large rivers like the Nile River. The sediment from
the delta has built up to form a giant aquifer during flood season, and retains water in the
et
dispersion replenishes the nutrients in the soil, that will in turn, determine the livelihood of
wetlands. The wetlands that are created and sustained due to built up sediment at the basin of
the river is a habitat for numerous species of birds.[10] However, heavy sedimentation can
reduce downstream river water quality and can exacerbate floods up stream. This has been
known to happen in the Sanmenxia reservoir in China. The Sanmenxia reservoir is part of a
larger man-made project of hydro-electric dams called the Three Gorge Project [11] In 1998,
uncertain calculations and heavy sediment greatly affected the reservoir’s ability to properly
fulfill its flood-control function [12] This also reduces the down stream river water quality.
Shifting more towards mass irrigation installments in order to meet more socioeconomic
demands is going against the natural balance of nature, and use water pragmatically- use it
where it is found[13]
Affected downstream water users[edit]

Water becomes scarce for nomadic pastoralist in Baluchistan due to new irrigation
developments
Downstream water users often have no legal water rights and may fall victim of the
development of irrigation.
Pastoralists and nomadic tribes may find their land and water resources blocked by new
irrigation developments without having a legal recourse.
Flood-recession cropping may be seriously affected by the upstream interception of river
water for irrigation purposes.
 In Baluchistan, Pakistan, the development of new small-scale irrigation projects depleted

the water resources of nomadic tribes traveling annually between Baluchistan
and Gujarat or Rajasthan, India[14]
 After the closure of the Kainji dam, Nigeria, 50 to 70 per cent of the downstream area of
ww flood-recession cropping was lost[15]
w.E
Lost land use opportunities
Irrigation projects may reduce the fishing opportunities of the original population and the
a
grazing opportunities for cattle. The livestock pressure on the remaining lands may increase
syE
considerably, because the ousted traditional pastoralist tribes will have to find
their subsistence and existence elsewhere, overgrazing may increase, followed by serious soil
erosion and the loss of natural resources.[16]
ngi
The Manatali reservoir formed by the Manantali dam in Mali intersects the migration routes
of nomadic pastoralists and destroyed 43000 ha of savannah, probably leading to overgrazing
and erosion elsewhere. Further, the reservoir destroyed 120 km2 of forest. The depletion of
nee
groundwater aquifers, which is caused by the suppression of the seasonal flood cycle, is
damaging the forests downstream of the dam.[17][18]
Groundwater mining with wells, land subsidence
rin
Flooding as a consequence of land subsidence
g.n
When more groundwater is pumped from wells than replenished, storage of water in
et
the aquifer is being mined and the use of that water is no longer sustainable. As levels fail, it
becomes more difficult to extract water and pumps will struggle to maintain the design
flowrate and consume more may energy per unit of water.

ww
w.E
UNIT 2 a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

UNIT – 2
IRRIGATION METHOD
PART-A
1) List some types of irrigation? (AU MJ2008)
 Canal Irrigation
 Lift Irrigation
 Tank Irrigation
2) What are the types of irrigation? (AU MJ2008)
 Surface Irrigation
 Sub-Surface Irrigation.
ww
3) What are the techniques of water distribution in the farms? (AU ND2008)
 Free Flooding
w.E



Border Flooding
Check Flooding
a
Basin Flooding


Furrow Irrigation Method
Drip Irrigation Method.
syE
ngi
4) What are the types of sprinkler system? (AU ND2008)
 Permanent System
 Semi-Permanent System
 Portable System nee
5) What are the advantages of sprinkler irrigation? (AU MJ2009)
rin
 Land Levelling Is Not Required
 Fertilisers Can Be Uniformly Applied g.n
 It Is Less Labour Oriented
6) What are the limitation of sprinkler irrigation? (AU MJ2009) et
 Initial Cost Of The System Is Very High
 It Requires Larger Electrical Power
 High Wind May Distort Sprinkler Pattern
7) What are the types of canals? (AU ND2009)
 Alluvial Canal
 Non-Alluvial Canal
8) What are alignment of canals? (AU ND 2009)
 Watershed Canal Or Ridge Canal
 Contour Canal
 Side Slope Canal

9) What are distribution system of canal irrigation? (AU MJ2010)

 main canal
 branch canal
 major canal
 watercourses
 minor canal
10) Define tank irrigation? (AU MJ2010)
It is defined as the storage irrigation scheme,which utilizes the waterstored on the upstream
side of a smaller earth dam
11) Define tank banks? (AU ND 2010)
The earthen bunds,spanning across the steams are called tank bunds ortank banks
ww
12) What is called alluvial soil? (AU ND 2010)
w.E
The process of silt deposition may continue over long periods oftime,resulting in the
formation is called alluvial soil
13) What is called non-alluvial soil? (AU MJ2011)
a syE
Mountainous regions may go on disintegrating over a period oftime,resulting in the formation
of a rocky plain area called non-alluvial soil
ngi
14) What is called watershed canal? (AU MJ 2011,MJ 2012)
nee
The dividing ridge line between the catchment areas of two streams iscalled watershed canal]
15) What is the other name for drip irrigation? (AU ND 2011,2012)
Drip irrigation is also called as trickle irrigation.
rin
16. What is called sprinkler irrigation system? (AU ND 2011,2012)
g.n
Water is applied to the soil in the form of a spray through a network ofpipes and pumps is
called sprinkler irrigation system
17. What is called borders? (AU MJ 2012)
et
Land is divided into a number of strips separated by low leeves calledborders.
PART-B
1. What are the merits and demerits of irrigation? (AU MJ2008)
Merits of irrigation
1. During the period of low rainfall or drought, yield of crops may increased or remains
same, due to irrigation system.
2. The food production of a country can be improved by ensuring the growth of crops.
This helps a country to prevent famine situation.

3. Securing increased agricultural production and thus improving the nutrition of the
population.
4. Irrigation helps to improve the cultivation of cash crops like vegetables, fruits,
tobaccos, sugar cane.
5. In some river valley projects, multi purpose reservoirs are formed by constructing high
dams. At these river valleys, hydro electric power may be generated.
6. Retention of water in reservoirs and possible multi purpose use thereof.
7. Irrigation canal may be the source of water supply for domestic and industrial
purposes.
8. The reservoirs and canals can be utilized for the development of the fisher project.
9. Culturing the area, increasing the social and cultural level of the population.
10. Recreation facilities in irrigation canals and reservoirs.
11. Increases employment by providing jobs to people.
12. Improvement of the micro climate. Possibility provided for waste water use and
disposal.
ww13. Improvement of water regime of the irrigated soils.
w.E
Demerits of irrigation
1. Danger of water logging and salination of soils.
a
2. It may change properties of water in reservoirs due to waste water use and disposal.
syE
3. Deforestation of area is to be done which is to be irrigated. With it, change of water
regime in the area.
4. Possible spread of diseases from certain types of surface irrigation.
ngi
5. Danger of pollution of water resources by return run off from irrigation.
6. New diseases caused by retention of waste water in large reservoirs.
which is not good for health. nee

7. Due to excessive irrigation, climate becomes damp and cold. Thus humidity increases,
8. Careless irrigation may lead to retention of water and create places for breeding of
mosquitos.
rin
9. Excess of irrigation may result in raising the sub soil water table and lead to water
logging of the area.
g.n
2 What are the factors affecting duty? (AU ND 2008)
1. Soil Characteristics:
et
If the soil of the canal bed is porous and coarse grained, it leads to more seepage loss and
consequently low duty. If it consists of alluvial soil, the percolation loss will be less and the
soil retains the moisture for longer period and consequently the duty will be high.
2. Climatic Condition:
When the temperature of the command area is high the evaporation loss is more and the duty
becomes low and vice versa.
3. Rainfall:
If rainfall is sufficient during the crop period, the duty will be more and vice versa.

4. Base Period:
When the base period is longer, the water requirement will be more and the duty will be low
and vice versa.
5. Type of Crop:
The water requirement for various crops is different. So the duty varies from crop to crop.
6. Topography of Agricultural Land:
ww
If the land is uneven the duty will be low. As the ground slope increases the duty decreases
because there is wastage of water.
w.E
7. Method of Ploughing:
a
Proper deep ploughing which is done by tractors requires overall less quantity of water and
hence the duty is high.
syE
8. Methods of Irrigation: ngi
nee
The duty of water is high in case of perennial irrigation system as compared to that in
inundation irrigation system.
rin
9. Water Tax:
g.n
If some tax is imposed the farmer will use the water economically thus increasing the duty.
3 Briefly explain about irrigation efficiencies? (AU MJ2009) et
Definition
The ratio of the amount of water available (output) to the amount of water supplied (input) is
known as Irrigation Efficiency. It is expressed in percentage.
Types of Irrigation Efficiency
The following are the various types of irrigation efficiencies:
(a) Water Conveyance Efficiency (ηc):
It is the ratio of the amount of water applied, to the land to the amount of water supplied from
the reservoir. It is obtained by the expression,

ηc = WlWr × 100 Where, ηc = Water conveyance efficiency Wl = Amount of water applied

to land Wr = Amount of water supplied from reservoir
(b) Water Application Efficiency (ηa):
It is the ratio of the water stored in root zone of plants to the water applied to the land. It is
obtained by the expression,
ηa = WzWl × 100 Where, ηa = Water application efficiency Wz = Amount of water stored in

root zone Wl = Amount of water applied to land
(c) Water Use Efficiency (ηu):
It is the ratio of the amount of water used to the amount of water applied. It is obtained by the
expression,
ww
ηu = Wu Wl × 100 Where, ηu = Water use efficiency Wu = Amount of water used Wl =
w.E
Amount of water applied to land
(d) Consumptive use Efficiency (ηcu):
a syE
It is the ration of the consumptive use of water to the amount of water depleted from the root
zone. It is obtained by the expression, ηcu = Cu Wp × 100
ngi
4. What are the consumptive use of water? (AU ND 2009)
Definition:
nee
It is the quantity of water used by the vegetation growth of a given area. It is the
rin
amount of water required by a crop for its vegetated growth to evapotranspiration and
building of plant tissues plus evaporation from soils and intercepted precipitation. It is
g.n
expressed in terms of depth of water. Consumptive use varies with temperature,
humidity, wind speed, topography, sunlight hours, method of irrigation, moisture
availability.
Mathematically,
et
Consumptive Use = Evapotranspiration = Evaporation + transpiration It is expressed
in terms of depth of water.
Factors Affecting the Consumptive Use of Water

Consumptive use of water varies with:
 Evaporation which depends on humidity

 Mean Monthly temperature
 Growing season of crops and cropping pattern
 Monthly precipitation in area

 Wind velocity in locality

 Soil and topography
 Irrigation practices and method of irrigation
 Sunlight hours
 Types of Consumptive Water Use
 Following are the types of consumptive use,
Types of consumptive use

 Optimum Consumptive Use
 Potential Consumptive Use
 Seasonal Consumptive Use
1. Optimum Consumptive Use:
It is the consumptive use which produces a maximum crop yield.
ww 2. Potential Consumptive Use:

If sufficient moisture is always available to completely meet the needs of vegetation
w.E fully covering the entire area then resulting evapotranspiration is known as Potential
Consumptive Use.
3. Seasonal Consumptive Use:
a syE
The total amount of water used in the evapo-transpiration by a cropped area during
the entire growing season.
ngi
5 Write a short note on sub-surface irrigation, state clearly the conditions under which
nee
thismethod is suitable. What are the essential requirements for a successful sub-
surfaceirrigation? (AU MJ2010)
A field irrigated by a subsurface drip system. Source: SELA (n.y.) rin

g.n
Subsurface drip is a highly efficient irrigation system that uses buried drip tubes or drip tape
to meet crop water needs. Since the water is applied below the soil surface (as opposed
et
to surface irrigation or traditional drip irrigation), the effects of surface infiltration, such as
crusting, saturated condition of ponding water, and water losses via evaporation and surface
runoff (including soil erosion) are eliminated. With an appropriately sized and well-
maintained subsurface drip irrigation system, water application is highly efficient and
uniform.
Wetting occurs around the tube and water moves out in all directions. Moreover, water is
applied directly to the root zone of the crop as opposed to the soil surface where most weed
seeds hibernate. As a result, germination of annual weed is reduced. This lowers the pressure
on valuable crops. Furthermore, some crops may benefit from the additional heat provided by
dry surface conditions, and produce more biomass. When managed properly the application
of fertiliser can be optimised. Fields can still be worked when irrigation systems are installed.
Basic Design Principles

A subsurface drip irrigation system has a similar design as a common drip irrigation system.
A typical system layout consists of a settling pond (where possible), pumping unit, pressure
relief valve, check valve or back flow prevention valves, hydrocyclone separator (if a settling
pond is not feasible), chemical/fertiliser injection unit (see also fertigation and nutrient
requirements), filtration unit equipped with back flush valves, pressure regulators, air vent
valves and PVC pipes delivering the water to the crop. The piping is 10 to 60 cm below the
ground, depending on crop and soil (capillary attraction). As a water source, treated
greywater or even blackwater is possible, with the risk of clogging being greater if the
influent flow has not properly settled. Therefore, treatment of the water (e.g. a non-planted
filter system, constructed wetlands (horizontal flow or vertical flow) or at least a septic tank)
before the settling pond is necessary.
ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
A typical subsurface drip irrigation field layout. Source: REICH et al. (2009)
g.n
to medium and large scale production (see also automatic irrigation). However, several low-
cost and simple methods of subsurface (drip) irrigation like pitcher or bottle irrigation
(see manual irrigation) exist that are equally effective for small-scale farming. There are
et
Subsurface drip irrigation is generally a high-tech, automatically operated technology applied
several subsurface techniques used for secondary wastewater treatment such as leach
field or evapotranspiration bed that also provide uncontrolled irrigation to fields.
Cost Considerations
REICH et al. (2009) estimates that investment costs of a subsurface drip irrigation system are
high (1000 to 2000 US$ per acre). The costs vary depending on water source, quality,
filtration needs, choice of material, soil characteristics and degree of automation (see
also automatic irrigation). Normal life expectancy is between 12 and 15 years. With good
maintenance and high water quality the system can be used even longer.
Operation and Maintenance

The performance and life of any system depends on how well it is designed, operated and
maintained. It should either be automatically controlled or regularly inspected. Repairing the
buried pipes is difficult, cumbersome and time-consuming. To prevent rodents from chewing
the pipes, precautionary measures should be undertaken. The mechanical components such as
pumps, valves and filters need to be maintained as well as checked and cleaned regularly.
6 Write the merits and demerits of surface irrigation. (AU ND2010)
Advantages of Surface Irrigation

Followings are the surface irrigation advantages.
 Management is quite easy, you do not need any modern technology. If you have local
traditional knowledge, you can do it.
 You do not need high financial support. You can be beneficial with small lands too.
ww 


If you have short time water supplies, then this is the best process for you.
If your drainage system is far, then you just need longer tubes.
This is a nature-friendly system, you can utilize rainwater.
w.E



It also works effectively in a low filtration rate.
Low capital and no energy cost needed.
You can use this irrigation process in sloping lands and long fields.
a syE
Disadvantages of Surface Irrigation
 ngi
Followings are the surface irrigation disadvantages.
Level lands require high accuracy, you cannot use it there.



This is a big no-no for big fields.
nee
Not applicable on soil with a high filtration rate.


rin
Plants are always covered with water even when they do not need it.
Sometimes limited space gets more water than required.
 No drainage outlet.
g.n
7 Briefly explain about canal irrigation? (AU MJ2011)
et
A canal is an artificial waterway. The word "canal" origins from the Old French word chanel,
which means “channel.” Sometimes it is also known as navigation.
In ancient time, A canal is used to connect waterfalls with the intention of shortening routes.
Now it is constructed to allow the passage of boats or ships inland or to convey water
for irrigation, human-made strip of water used for irrigation or boat access to a more
significant body of water.
A canal plays a vital role when it comes to transportation and global commerce. We use the
canal for irrigation, land drainage, urban water supply, hydroelectric power generation,
transportation of cargo and people, power generation, the canal is also used to connect
industrial centers with ports to speed movement of raw materials. Water filled canals at high
levels can deliver water to any place where there is a water crisis. However, Canals weaken
the foundation of the dam.
Canals of Burano. Source- Linda D Lester

Types of Canals
We can identify different types of canals based on usage, discharge, branches, provider,
alignment, etc.
Based on usage there are two types of canals:
1. Aqueducts
2. Waterways
Based on discharge there are five types of canals:
1. Main canal
2. Branch canal
3. Major distributary
ww
4. Minor distributary
5. Watercourse or field channel
w.E
Based on provider canals can be classified into two types
1. Unlined canals
a
2. Lined canal
syE
Based on alignment there are three canal types:
1. Contour canal
2. Watershed canal ngi
3. Side slope canal
nee
Canal Types Based on Usage
rin
Aqueducts
g.n
Aqueduct is a significant watercourse which carries water from a source to the far distribution
into the earth. They run through underground tunnels. However, modern aqueducts use the et
point. There are many versions of aqueducts. The simplest types are mostly small ditches cut
pipeline as their path. This types of canals are used for the conveyance and delivery of water
for consumption, and agricultural irrigation.
Waterways
Inland waterways canal. Source- Conway Photography
Waterways are the type used for carrying ships and boats and conveying people. Waterway
paths are known as a secondary by-product of our country‟s extensive historical waterway
network, and their essential contribution to everyday life has mostly gone unrecognized. They
include water features like river, canal, streams, as well as lakes, reservoirs, and docks.
Related features of waterways include weirs, locks, rapid, etc. Waterways provide a safe
operating environment by reflecting the local conditions. Mostly waterways are used for
transformation, irrigation, headrace, trail race, penstock, spillway, etc. They cater to a wide
range of boating and water activities as well as control of pests. Waterways act as refuges for

terrestrial fauna species during times of drought and as corridors for dispersal. Waterway
paths attract more commuting, tourism. It helps to decrease carbon footprints, reduce road
congestion and improve the health of local communities.
Canal Types Based on Discharge
Main Canal
Canals are having discharge more significant than ten cumecs are called as main canals. The
main canal is also known as the arterial canal. In drainage, the main canal is the superior
canal of the drainage system; it collects water from the drainage canals and conducts it to the
water intake. The main canal carries discharge directly from the river. It takes off directly
from the upstream side of weir head works or dam. Usually, no direct cultivation is proposed.
It supplies water from a river, reservoir, or canal to irrigated lands by gravity flow. It supplies
water to a branch canal. We cannot use the main canal for direct irrigation.
ww
Branch Canal
w.E
Halifax Branch canal. Source: pinterest.ca
Branch canals have discharge in the range of 5-10 cumecs. The branches of the main canal go
a
in either direction at regular intervals. It offtakes from the main canal where the head
syE
discharge is not more than 14-15 cumecs. Branch canal also plays the role of feeder channel
for major and minor distributaries. Branch canals do not carry out direct irrigation, but they
provide direct outlets.
Major Distributary ngi

nee
Canals who offtake from the main canal or branch canal with head discharge from 0.028 to
rin
15 cumecs are termed as significant distributaries. It takes off water from branch canals.
Sometimes getting supply from the main canal, their discharge is less than branch canal.
g.n
These are mostly known as irrigation channels because of their supply of water to the field
directed through outlets.
Minor Distributary
Canals in which discharge ranged from 0.25 up to 3 cumecs are termed as minor distributors.
It offtakes from a major distributary carrying discharge less than 0.25 cumecs are termed as
et
minor distributary. Sometimes minor distributary gets supply from the branch canals. The
discharge in minor distributary is less than in the major distributary. They also provide water
to the courses through outlets provided along with them.
Watercourse or Field Channel

The discharge in watercourses is less than 0.25 cumecs. A field channel either take off from a
significant distributary or minor- it solely depends on which extent the irrigation will happen.
In a few cases, it also takes off water from the branch canal for the field. Small channels
which carry water from the outlet of a major or minor distributary or a branch canals to the
areas to be sprayed. There are small channels for feeding water to the irrigation fields.
Canal Types Based on the Provider

Unlined Canals
Unlined canals consist of bed and banks made of natural soil. They are not provided with a
lining of impervious materials. It produces the growth of aquatic weed retards the flow which
leads to massive maintenance cost. Unlined canals can tolerate velocities no more than 0.7
m/s because of erosion. In unlined canals, there is a danger of canal bank breakage caused by
overtopping, erosion and animal burrowing. Weeds had severely slowed down the water flow
of the canals, preventing up to 50% of the water from reaching the tail end of the canal. It
also causes waterlogging of the adjacent net.
Lined Canal
Lined canals are provided with a lining of impervious materials on its bed and banks to
prevent the seepage of water. The most commonly used types of padding are concrete,
shotcrete, brick or burnt clay tile, boulder, concrete blocks, stone masonry, sand-cement,
ww
plastic, and compacted clay. Possible benefits of lining a canal include water conservation; no
seepage of water into adjacent land or roads; reduced canal dimensions; and reduced
maintenance
w.E
8. Briefly explain about lift irrigation? (AU ND 2011)
a
Lift Irrigation:
syE
In lift irrigation water is lifted from a river or a canal to the bank to irrigate the land
ngi
which are not commanded by gravity flow. Lift irrigation is being increasingly practiced in
India. Every State such areas exist where irrigation can be extended only by lift canals. Lift
nee
irrigation also includes tube well irrigation but the latter is not feasible in areas where scarcity
of water exists, climate is dry and groundwater is low, i.e., groundwater is in insufficient
rin
quantity and unsuitable quality. Lift canal then constitutes the only means of extension of
irrigation to sound perched lands. A lift canal can cater for much larger areas than a tube well
g.n
and is suitable when supplies either from a river or a canal are available for lifting to higher
elevation.
Lift area is defined as the area the level of which is too high to permit irrigation by
gravity flow from the source, but which can be irrigated by lifting water to the necessary
et
level by means of pump Gross lift area is the portion of gross irrigable area which can be
irrigated only by pumping.
Surface water may be lifted from a reservoir, a river, or from a gravity flow canal.
From river, water may be lifted by installing pumps either on the ground or on floating
barges. Floating barge installation envisages economical and expeditious execution of the
project for lift irrigation. Moreover, the pumping installation can be made mobile by rowing
to the ne xt pumping sit after completing irrigation at one installation. In a canal, water may
be lifted at the point f the off take of the lift distributary or in between the length of a canal
wherefrom high tract to be irrigated starts. Figure shown the longitudinal section of a lift
canal

ww
w.E Figure: Typical pumping station
a syE
Optimal alignment of the lift canal is of paramount important because it involves
ngi
dealing with costly process of water lifted and then diverted to flow by gravity. The essence
of the arrangement is to command maximum area with minimum lift.
nee
In lift irrigation mechanical devices like pumps, or electric motors and pumps are
required to be installed for lifting water. Electrical pumps are generally provided for lifting
rin
water. Diesel pumping sets are also installed as standby. The provision of standby pumps is
essential to cater forget lack of facilities for immediate replacement of defective pumping sets
g.n
and to switch over to diesel set in case of power failure. Figure shows a typical pumping
station at a lift canal.
et
Lift irrigation canals are essentially lined due to obvious advantages of a lined section
and hence low pumping lift and greater area commanded. Lifted water is costly and
transmission losses are required to be cut down to the minimum. Water surface slope is kept
the minimum possible to command greater area with minimum lift. Escape is provided
upstream of pumping station so that in the event of failure of pumping equipment, the supply
reaching upstream is disposed off.
9) Briefly explain about tank irrigation? (AU MJ2012)
Tank Irrigation:
Tanks on local streams form a significant source of irrigation especially in the
peninsula area in the States of Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Tank irrigation

belongs to category of storage irrigation. Tanks are small sized reservoirs formed by small
earthen embankments to store runoff for irrigation. The site is selected within a watershed
protected by vegetation and containing minimum of cultivated land so as to ensure minimum
rate of sedimentation which lowers its storage capacity. Adequate soil conservation measures
are essentially adopted to ensured quantity and quality of water inflow into the tank. The
essential components of irrigation that are tank embankment, surplus or escape weir, and
outlet sluice. A suitable breaching section also sometimes provided to ensure that the tank
embankment is not overtopped in the event excessive discharge from the catchment. The
breaching section is a low level embankment of certain length designed to have a localized
breach to escape excessive inflow.
Irrigation tanks are classified, as under, according to the nature of supply of water:
ww 1. System tanks: The system tanks get assured supply from nearby rivers or canal
w.E
2.
system at as such they may not have their own catchment.
Non �'system tanks: Also called „isolated‟�'systemtanksdepend. onThethe no
3.
a syE
runoff from their own catchment. They are not connected to any other tank.
Grouped tank: The grouped tanks, as the name implies, consist of a series of tanks
ngi
connected together such that outflow from the upper tank is stored in the lower one
for irrigation.
nee
rin
They usually have limited depth of 5 to 10 m and fill up two or three times in the
rainy season and redistribute to some extent the available supplied and tide over breaks in the
g.n
monsoon. The maximum flood discharge from the catc formula. The length of escape weir is
worked out from the formula, Q= CLH3/2, where C is a coefficient of discharge with value for
broad crested weir and 1.84 for short crested weir. Water losses from tanks are enormous as
the usually have more wetted area for the given storage capacity. The water losses due to
evaporation and absorption are taken as 1.75 m per year in Southern India and about 1.25 m
et
in Mumbai.
10 Briefly explain about flooding methods(AU MJ2012)

Several methods of irrigation are used today depending on water availability, the type of
irrigated crop and the financial investment the grower is willing to make. A firm
knowledge regarding the irrigation techniques available can help one understand the
different types of deficit irrigation.
Flood irrigation:
In flood irrigation, a large amount of water is brought to the field and flows on the ground
among the crops. In regions where water is abundant, flood irrigation is the cheapest
method of irrigationand this low-tech irrigation method is commonly used by societies in

developing countries. It should be applied only to flat lands that do not concave or slope
downhillso that the water can evenly flow to all parts of the field, yet even so, about 50%
of the water is wasted and does not get used by the crops. Some of this wasted water
accumulates at the edges of a field and is called run-off. In order to conserve some of this
water, growers can trap the run-off in ponds and reuse it during the next round of flood
irrigation. However a large part of the wasted water cannot be reused due to massive loss
via evaporation and transpiration.
One of the advantages of flood irrigation is its ability to flush salts out of the soil, which is
important for many saline intolerant crops. However, the flooding causes an anaerobic
environment around the crop, which can increase microbial conversion of nitrogen from
the soil to atmospheric nitrogen, or de-nitrification, thus creating low nitrogen soil.
Surge flooding is an attempt at a more efficient version of conventional flood irrigation in

which water is released onto a field at scheduled times, thus reducing excess run-off.
ww
Furrow irrigation:
Furrow irrigation is actually a type of flood irrigation in which the water poured on the
w.E
field is directed to flow through narrow channels dug between the rows of crops, instead of
distributing the water throughout the whole field evenly. The furrows must all have equal
dimensions, in order to guarantee that the water is distributed evenly. Like flood irrigation,
a
furrow irrigation is rather cheap in areas where water is inexpensive.
Spray irrigation:
syE
The more modern spray irrigation in all its various forms is a more expensive type of
irrigation, requiring more complex machinery than flood irrigation, but it utilizes water
ngi
more efficiently, reducing the amount of water needed to irrigate a field. That said, even
more water is lost through evaporation in spray irrigation compared to flood irrigation and
nee
plant diseases due to excess moisture can occur at over watering.
In spray irrigation systems, a long hose is set to a water source on one side and on the side
reaching the field, water is released through spray guns.
rin
The center-pivot system is an efficient way to irrigate a large field with minimum
machinery. This system is built of many triangular metal frames on wheels that hold the
g.n
central hose above the field. The hose transports water from a pump at the center of the
system and water is sprayed through sprinklers along the tube. The whole structure
circulates the field spraying water, with the water source as the center of the circle. The
et
disadvantages of this method, and other types of traditional spray irrigation, are the electric
motors needed to help the system roll in a circle and the large amounts of water (about
35%) that evaporate or get blown away by winds before they even reach the ground.
The Low Energy Percision Application (LEPA) center pivot system is a more efficient
irrigation method than the conventional center pivot system, boosting the irrigation
efficiency from about 60% to more than 90%. This rise in effectiveness is also due to the
decline in the electricity usage, but mostly because the water is applied directly onto the
crops and not sprayed out into the air. This system also consists of a central hose, but
instead of high power sprinklers, pipes hang from the central hose and attached to the
bottom of each pipe, very close to the ground, is a nozzle that sprays water directly onto
the crops. This way, less water is lost through evaporation compared to traditional spray
irrigation- more than 90% of the water applied is used by the crop and less electricity is
required.
Drip irrigation:
While drip irrigation may be the most expensive method of irrigation, it is also the most
advanced and efficient method in respect to effective water use.

Usually used to irrigate fruits and vegetables, this system consists of perforated pipes that
are placed by rows of crops or buried along their root lines and emit water directly onto the
crops that need it. As a result, evaporation is drastically reduced and 25% irrigation water
is conserved in comparison to flood irrigation. Drip irrigation also allows the grower to
customize an irrigation program most beneficial to each crop.
Water high in salts should be filtered before use since otherwise they may clog the emitters
and create a local build-up of high salinity soil around the plants if the irrigation water
contains soluble salts.
ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
UNIT 3 a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

UNIT-3
DIVVERSION AND IMPOUNDING STRUCTURES
PART-A
1) What is meant by canal escape? (AU MJ2008)
Canal escapes are the safety valves of canals &must be provided at regular intervals
depending upon the importance of channel& availability of suitable drainage for the disposal
of the exposed water.
2) State various kinds of dams. (AU MJ2008)
 Earth Dams
 Rock Fill Dams

ww
Solid Masonry Gravity Dams
 Timber Dams
 Steel Dams
w.E
 Arch Dams
3). State diff types of spillways. (AU ND2008)



a
Straight Drop Spillway
Ogee Spillway
Trough Spillway
syE


Side Channel Spillway
Shaft Spillway ngi
 Syphon Spillway
4) Define gross commanded area. (AU ND2008) nee
rin
It is the total area bounded with in the irrigation boundary of a project. It includes the
cultivable as well as uncultivable areas.
5)What is weir? (AU MJ 2009) g.n
et
The major part of the water is achieved by a raised crest or a small part is achievedby raising
shutters then this barrier is known as weir.
6) What is tank sluices? (AU MJ 2009)
It is an opening in the form of culvert under the tank bund and supplying water to the
distributor channel.
7) Forces acting on arch dams. (AU ND 2009)
 Water Pressure
 Uplift Pressure
 Earthquake Forces
 Silt Pressure
 Wave Pressure
 Ice Pressure

8) Define sluiceway. (AU ND 2009)

Pipe or tunnel provided for the withdrawal of water from the dams is known assluiceway.
9) What is spillway? (AU MJ 2010, ND 2012)
Spillway is a structure constructed at a dam site for disposing the surplus waterfrom upstream
to downstream.
10) Types of earthen dams. (AU MJ 2010)
 Homogeneous Embankment Type
 Zoned Embankment Type
 Diaphragm Type.
11) Define barrage. (AU ND 2010, MJ 2012)
ww
The most of the ponding is done by gates and a smaller of it is done by raisedcrest then the
barrier is known as barrage.
w.E
12) What are the modes of failure in gravity dams? (AU ND 2010, ND 2012)
 By Over Turning About The Toe



a
By Crushing
By Development Of Tension
By Sliding syE
13) Define diversion headwork. (AU MJ 2011)
ngi
nee
Any hydraulic structure, which offers water to the off taking canal, is calleddiversion
headwork.
14) What is gravity dam? (AU MJ 2011)
rin
g.n
A structure which is designed in such a way that its own weight resist external forces and it is
more durable.
15)Define stream line. (AU ND 2011)
it represent the path along which the water flows through the subsoil.at a givenpoint in
upstream of hydraulic structure will travel its own path &will represented the stream line.
et
16). Types of aeration tanks. (AU ND 2011)
 Air Diffusion
 Mechanical Aeration
 Combined Aeration
17) Limitations of Bligh’s creep theory. (AU MJ 2012)
 No Difference B\W Horizontal & Vertical Creep
 Horizontal Distance B\W Pipe Line Is Greater Than 2 Times The Depth
 No Idea About Exit Gradient

PART B
1 Explain Diversion Headwork (AU MJ 2008)
Diversion headwork.
Any hydraulic structure, which supplies water to the off-taking canal, is calleda
headwork.A diversion headwork serves to divert the required supply in to the canal
fromthe river.
The purposes of diversion headwork.
 It raises the water level in the river so that the commanded area can
beincreased.
 It regulates the intake of water in to the canal.
 It controls the silt entry in to the canal.
 It reduces fluctuations in the level of supply in the river.
 It stores water for tiding over small periods of short supplies.
ww
Weir
The weir is a solid obstruction put across the river to raise its water level anddivert the
water in to the canal. If a weir also stores water for tiding over small periods of short
w.E
supplies, it is called a storage weir.
a
The component parts of diversion headwork
 Weir or barrage
syE
 Divide wall or divide groaned
 Fish ladder
ngi
 Head sluice or canal head regulator
 Canal off-takes
 Flood banks
 River training works nee
WEIR: rin
g.n
It is a dam over the crest of which water is discharged. It is also known as
anuncut. It primarily raises the water level in the river and diverts it in to the
et
canal,which takes off from the river. It is a solid obstruction built across the river.
When the discharge in the river is large, it spills over the crest of the weir.
The weirs are also provided with crest shutters. During heavy floods, the
shutter maybe laid flat on the crest or may be raised vertically clear off the flood.If a
weir also stores water tiding over small periods of short supplies, it is called astorage
weir. A storage weir is shorter and stores the water supply for a short period.
BARRAGE OR REGULATOR:
It functions similar to a weir. The heading up of water is affected by theshutters alone.

It consists of a number of piers having grooves with suitable flooringbetween them.
The shutters move in the grooves. The shutters are raised or lowered asper
requirements. In most of the cases, a road way is provided for the traffic. Thus
itfunctions as a regulator and a bridge. The regulator serves as a weir without

reallyobstructing the waterway. There is less silting and better control over the water
levels.
It can be combined with a bridge. The only drawback is costly.
DIVIDE WALL OR DIVIDE GROYNE:
It is a long wall or embankment-constructed normal to the weir between theweir and
the scour sluices. It extends a little beyond the head sluice on the upstreamside and to
the end of the talus on the downstream side.It is normally built of solid masonry. If
made of embankment, it is protectedon all sides by stone or concrete blocks. It is
designed to withstand the water pressurefrom one side only. As a safe measure, the
water thrust from the other side is ignoredin the design.
FISH LADDER
In big rivers, fish will always move up and down respectively in search ofclear and
warm water. It is, therefore, essential for the provision of some space in
ww
theconstruction of weir. It is usually located between the weir and divide wall. It is
suitednear the divide wall as there is always some water in the river section below the
w.E
scoursluicesIt consists of an inclined trough with baffles with holes provided in them.
Thebaffles reduce the velocity and provide compartments for the fish to rest. To
haveeffective control, grooved gates are provided at the extreme upstream and
a
downstreamend walls. The fish ladder should be designed to have a velocity of 3 m/s
or less in thetrough.
syE
HEAD SLUICE OR CANAL HEAD REGULATOR:
ngi
A head regulator is structures constructed at the head of a canal off take from
nee
reservoir behind a weir or a dam. It may consist of a number of spans separated
bypiers and operated by gates.
FUNCTIONS OF A HEAD SLUICE:

 To make the regulation of supply in the canal easy. rin
 To control the silt entry in to the canal.
 To shut out river floods. g.n
 To provide full supply required for irrigation at moderate velocities
withsufficient allowance. et
CANAL OFF TAKES:
These may be provided on one or both the sides of the river above the weir orbarrage.
These should carry sufficient water for the aqueduct. These must be at suchlevels that
they ensure the supply, by direct flow, to aqueduct
SCOURING SLUICES OR UNDER SLUICES:

They maintain a deep channel in front of head sluice and dispose of heavysilt and a
part of flood discharge on the downstream side of the barrage or weir.
FUNCTIONS OF SCOURING SLUICES
 To preserve a clear and defined river channel approaching the regulator.

 To control the silt entry in to the canal.

 To scour the silt deposited in the river bed above the approach channel.
 To help in passing low floods without dropping the shutters of main weir.
 To provide additional waterway for floods, thus lowering the flood levels.
FLOOD BANKS:
The obstruction caused by the construction of a solid weir across the

riverblocks the waterway. This raises the water level causing backwater. If the natural
ground on either side of the weir is sufficiently higher than estimated
maximumbackwater level, no protection work is required. If the ground level is lower
than the maximum flood level, protective works are required. Such protective works
are called flood banks. If flood banks are not provided at weir site, outflanking of the
weir will result. This will cause serious damage to the weir resulting in its ultimate
collapse. Hence, flood banks of suitable cross section are to be constructed on either
ww side of the weir.
w.E
2) What are the different weir foundation? (AU ND 2009)
Types of weirs on permeable foundation.
a syE
On permeable foundation, the effective weight of the weir is reduced by upliftpressure. The
uplift pressure on the heel of the weir is equal to the depth of water of the upstream and that
ngi
on the toe is equal to the tail water depth. The weir is to bechecked for overturning, sliding
and maximum stress. Generally the weirs constructedon permeable soils or sand are low and
very long.
TYPES OF WEIRS ON PERMEABLE FOUNDATION: nee
 Type A – vertical drop on horizontal apron.
 Type B – sloping masonry apron. rin
 Type C – rock sloping apron.
g.n
TYPE A:
In this type, the water is made to fall vertically on to a horizontal apron.
Further, it may be divided as type A and type A1. In type A, surface of downstreamapron is
et
at or below the low water level. In type A1, the downstream is partially orwholly above low
water level. In these weirs the water impinges on the main apron with a vertical overfall
producing greater stresses in the main apron. This type ispreferable if the riverbed is
moderately hard and the overfill is less than 0.75 m.
TYPE B:
In this type, the apron is sloping and is built of masonry. The upstreamground must be of
hard soil. The stress in this weir is very much less as there is novertical fall of water. The
sloping apron does not offer any check on the velocity ofwater flowing down the weir. This
entails greater velocities, and greater depth ofscour on the toe of the weir apron. Hence, the
cost of maintenance will be too high. Ifthe foundation is sandy and the difference of level
between the body wall crest andlow water level is considerable, type B is preferable.

ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

TYPE C:
In this type, the apron is sloping and is made of rock fill. This type is usedwhere the stones
are available in plenty in different sizes. Type C possesses the meritsof both type A and type
B weirs
3 What are the different types of surplus work? (AU ND 2010)
TANK SURPLUS WORKS:
The surplus arrangements may be either weirs or flush escapes. The length ofsurplus works
depends upon the estimated maximum flood.Weirs are classified in to two heads, depending
upon the criterion of thedesign of their floors.
 Gravity weirs
 Non-gravity weirs
ww
A gravity weir is the one in which the uplift pressure due to the seepage ofwater below the
floor is resisted entirely by the weight of floor. In the non-gravitytype, the floor thickness is
w.E
kept relatively less, and the uplift pressure is largelyresisted by the bending action of the
reinforced concrete floor.
in to: a
Depending upon the material and certain design features gravity weir can be subdivided
syE



Vertical drop weir
Sloping weir:
ngi


Masonry or concrete slope weir
Dry stone slope weir.
Parabolic weir. nee
VERTICAL DROP WEIR: rin
g.n
A vertical drop weir consists of a vertical drop wall or crest wall, with orwithout crest gates.
At the upstream and downstream ends of the impervious floor,cutoff piles are provided. To
safeguard against scouring action, launching aprons areprovided both at upstream
downstream end of the floor. A graded inverted filter isprovided immediately at the
downstream end of the impervious floor to relieve theuplift pressure.
et
MASONRY OR CONCRETE SLOPE WEIR:
They are suitable for soft sandy foundation, and are generally used where thedifference in
weir crest and downstream river bed is limited to 3 m the surplus arrangements may be either
weirs or flush escapes. The length ofsurplus works depends upon the estimated maximum
flood.
.
VERTICAL DROP WEIR:
A vertical drop weir consists of a vertical drop wall or crest wall, with orwithout crest gates.
At the upstream and downstream ends of the impervious floor,cutoff piles are provided. To
safeguard against scouring action, launching aprons areprovided both at upstream

downstream end of the floor. A graded inverted filter isprovided immediately at the
downstream end of the impervious floor to relieve theuplift pressure.
DRY STONE SLOPE WEIR:
A dry stone weir or a rock fill weir consists of a body wall and upstream anddownstream rock
fills laid in the form of glacis, with few intervening core walls.
PARABOLIC WEIR:
A parabolic weir is similar to the spillway section of a dam. The body wall forsuch a weir is
designed at a low dam. A cistern is provided at the downstream side todissipate the energy.
The upstream and downstream protection works are similar tothat of a vertical drop or
sloping glacis weir.
STEPPED WEIR:
ww
In this type, water is delivered from the crest to a stepped apron. The water isdropped in a
series of vertical falls or steps on to successive horizontal apron. Thistype of weir is usually
w.E
the most suitable one for sites of soft soil and for dropsexceeding 900 mm.
4 what are causes of failure of earth dams and it remedies (AU MJ 2009,ND2008)
a syE
The causes of failure of earth dams are:
 Overtopping



Piping
ngi
Failure of upstream slope due to sudden draw-down


Failure of upstream and downstream slopes
Foundation slide
Wave action nee


Toe erosion
Gullying rin


Uneven settlement of foundation
Flow slide g.n


Damage caused by burrowing animals and decayed roots
Faulty construction and improper maintenance.
Overtopping:
et
It is due to inadequate capacity of the spillway and insufficient free board.Hence, free board
and surplus arrangements with breaching sections should beadequate.
PIPING:
When the core is cracked or when there are pervious seams in the foundationor when
boundary seepage along conduits in poor soil takes place, the conduits areformed by flowing
water. Erosion takes place progressively from downstream end. Itoften leads to internal
washout of the dam. The remedy is proper compaction andtreatment of foundation, and the
selection of right type of materials for the core. Alsothe use of adequate filters at all such
places whenever there is a sudden change ingradation of materials
FAILURE OF UPSTREAM SLOPE DUE TO SUDDEN DRAWDOWN:

This failure occurs due to sudden draw down when the upstream slope steep,the soil used in
the construction is poor and cohesive, and the compaction isinadequate. Flat slope using right
type of soil with proper consolidation will producestable embankment.
FAILURE OF UPSTREAM AND DOWNSTREAM SLOPES:
When the upstream and downstream slopes are steeper than required and thesoil used is poor
with inadequate compaction, saturation and softening of soil due to rainfall and seepage
causes the sliding of slopes. Adequate compaction using righttype of soil to the required
slope as per structural necessity, and provision of invertedhorizontal filter at the bottom of the
dam and rock-toe will prevent such failures.
FOUNDATION SLIDE:
When the foundation is made up of soft soil or weak soil or when there isexcess water
pressure on confined sand, sliding of entire dam or part takes place dueto excessive shear
ww
stress induced in the foundation soil. This should be kept down bycompacting the soil
properly and by flattening the slopes. A reverse filter should beprovided at the bottom
w.E
extending from the center of the dam to the toe drain. This willkeep the saturation level of the
downstream portion to its minimum. Key trenchesshould also be made in the natural soil to
bond effectively the new soil in the damsection.
a
TOE EROSION:
syE
The seepage force due to downstream end causes erosion and slip. Provisionof proper and
ngi
necessary artificial drainage of filter on the downstream slope maysafeguard this failure
nee
GULLYING:
The run off resulting from heavy rainfall may run along the downstream slopeforming
rin
gullies. These gullies may damage the dam by erosion. By providing chutesfrom top to toe
and turfing the downstream slope, this damage may be avoided.
UNEVEN SETTLEMENT OF FOUNDATION:
g.n
After the construction of the earth dam, due to excessive load on loosefoundation, settlement
of foundation takes place because of its consolidation. If thesettlement is uneven, it causes
cracks in the main section of the dam. Hence failureoccurs. If the foundation is poor, the
foundation should be compacted well after removingloose materials. Key trenches may be
et
provided to avoid sliding and to act as seepagebarrier. Bentonite grouting may be done before
commencing the laying of earth forconstruction work.
FLOW SLIDE:
If there is loose sand or silt in the dam and foundation, the soil in the damgenerally collapses
and flows down on the upstream slope due to liquidation. Use ofright type of soil will prevent
this kind of failure.
DAMAGE CAUSED BY CRACKS, BURROWING ANIMALS AND DECAYED
ROOTS:

Failures may also occur due to bores created in the embankments either due tocracks or due
to burrowing by animals or due to decaying of roots of trees. Water seepthrough these holes
thus formed. The following precautions may be taken to preventsuch failures:
Constructing the dam with right type of soil to prevent cracking.
Covering the upstream slope with stone revetment with good gravel filterbacking to avoid
wave erosion and burrowing of animals.Keeping the embankment free from trees and
removing the roots of deadtrees and thoroughly compacting the embankment.
FAULTY CONSTRUCTION AND IMPROPER MAINTENANCE:
Even the design is exact and correct, if proper attention is not paid to theconstruction and
maintenance of an earth dam, it may fail. Hence, it should beconstructed by paying proper
attention. Also, whenever the dam section gets spoiled,it should be brought back to its
original profile by regular maintenance.
ww
5 What are factors affecting the selection of type of a dam: (AU MJ 2010)
w.E
The selection of a type of a dam at a given site depends upon many physicalfactors such as
topography, geological and foundation conditions, available materials,suitable site for
spillway, data about earthquake etc.Before selecting the best type of dam at a particular site,
a syE
one must considerthe characteristics of each type of dam, as related to the physical feature of
the siteand the adaption to the purposes the dam is suppose to serve, as well as
economy,safety and other pertinent limitation. The choice of the dam may also be guided
ngi
bymany local problems such as availability of labour and equipment, assessibity of
site,limitation imposed by outlet works and cost of protection needed from spillwaydischarge
nee
as well as time required for its construction. Some of the physical factorgoverning the
selection of type of dam discussed below:
TOPOGRAPHY:
rin
g.n
First choice of dam is usually governed by topography for the site. A lowrolling plains
country suggests an earth dam with a separate spillway. A low narrow Vshaped valley
suggest an arch dam, provided the top width of valley is less than one fourth its height and
separate site for spillway is available. A narrow stream flowingbetween high rocky walls
(giving rise to U-shaped valley) would suggest a concreteoverflow dam. For intermediate
et
conditions other factors such as foundation condition,location of suitable site for spillway and
availability of materials of construction playan important role in the selection of the type.
GEOLOGY AND FOUNDATION CONDITIONS:
If the foundation consists of sound rock, with no fault or fissures, any type ofdam can be
constructed on it. Rocks like granite, gneiss and schist make verysatisfactory foundation for
gravity dam. However, these rocks may have seams orfractures. The removal of disintegrated
rock together with the sealing of seams andfractures by grouting will frequently be necessary.
Poor rock or gravel foundations aresuitable for earth dam, rock fill dam or low concrete
gravity dam. Since there will beconsiderable under seepage in this case, effective water cutoff
or seals have to beprovided. Silt or fine sand foundation have the problem of settlement,
seepage and toeerosion. Hence such foundations are suitable only for either earth dam or low
concretegravity dam but not rock fill dams. Clay foundations have often the problems of

longrange consolidation under the weight of the dam, resulting in cracks. Hence, onlyearth
dams are suitable with proper foundation treatment. Gravity dams or rock filldams are not
suitable on clay foundations.
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION:
The cost of construction of a particular type of dam will depend upon theavailability of the
materials in nearby area so that transportation charges are reduced.If sand, gravel and crushed
stone is available, a concrete gravity dam may be moresuitable. If, however, coarse and fine
grained soils are available an earth dam may besuitable. The preliminary selection of a
particular type, based on the first two physicalfactors, must correspond with the easy
availability of the materials required for itsconstruction otherwise that type of dam should be
dropped.
SPILLWAY SIZE AND LOCATION:
ww
The safe discharge of flood water through dam is very essential, and for thatsuitable site for
spillway should be required. If the area is such that a large spillwaycapacity is required an
w.E
overflow concrete gravity dam should be preferred. Wheresmall spillway capacity is required
and where separate site for spillway location isavailable, an earth dam may be preferred.
Where large discharges are to be derivedduring the construction of dam, a concrete gravity
a syE
dam is preferred to an earth dam. Ifno other site is available for spillway, it has to be
accommodated with the main damacross the main river section. In that case, a concrete
gravity dam having overflowsection in this middle would be a better choice, through an earth
ngi
dam can also beconstructed with central overflow section of concrete.
ROADWAY:
nee
If a roadway is to be passed over the top of the dam, an earth dam or gravitydam would be
preferred
LENGTH AND HEIGHT OF DAM: rin
g.n
If the length of the dam is very long and its height is low, an earth dam wouldbe a better
choice. If the length is small but height is more, gravity dam is preferred.
LIFE OF DAM:
Concrete or masonry gravity dams have very long life. Earth ands rock filldams have
et
intermediate life. However, timber dams are adopted only for temporarystorages.
6 What are the Favourable conditions, advantages, disadvantages, pressure distribution
andelementary profile of a masonry dam. (AU ND,MJ 2011)
FAVOURABLE CONDITIONS FOR A GRAVITY DAM:
 Good rock is available for foundation.
 A narrow gorge exists to reduce cost and length of dam.
 Construction materials are available closely in plenty.
 A good site for the surplus weir exists.
ADVANTAGES OF GRAVITY DAM:

 Relatively more strong and stable.

 More suitable as an overflow spillway crest
 Can be constructed to any height on good foundation
 Specially suitable for areas which may experience heavy rains.
 Requires least maintenance.
 Failure of dam, if any, is not sudden.
 Deep-set sluices can be provided to retard silt deposition.
 Cheaper in the long run since it is more permanent.
 More suitable across gorges having very steep slopes.
DISADVANTAGES OF GRAVITY DAM:
 Requires sound rock foundations.
 High initial cost.
 Takes more time for construction.
ww 

Requires skilled labour or mechanized plants for construction.
Unless specific provisions have been made in the design, it is very difficult to increase
w.E the height subsequently.

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION OF A GRAVITY DAM
a syE
Let AB, the base of the section = b
O, the center of the base i.e. AO= b/2
ngi
R, the resultant acts at D with eccentricity, e.
nee
Now, let us introduce forces W at O both in upward and downward directions.
The three vertical forces are,
W acting at O (downwards),
rin
W acting at O (upwards),
W acting at D (downwards), g.n
Consider unit length of the dam,
Moment produced by the couple acting at O and D = We
et
Bending stress due to any moment = M y/I
Bending stress produced at the base = We x b/ [(1/12) 1xb3]
= 6 We/b2
Direct stress due to W at the base = W / area of base
= W / (1x b)
=W/b
Therefore, stress produced at the base. = (W / b)  (6We / b2)
= W / b (1  6e/b2)

Case (1):
If, e = b / 6,  = 2W/b or 0
i.e., maximum stress = 2W/b
minimum stress = 0
Case (2):
If, e = 0,  = W/b
ELEMENTARY PROFILE OF A MASONARY DAM:
The most economical profile of a masonry dam is obtained,
 When the vertical resultant force cuts every horizontal section and the base offront
ww extremity of the middle third if the reservoir is empty, and

 When the resultant pressure cuts the base at the rear extremity of the middlethird if
the reservoir is full
w.E
 A right angled triangle having the water face vertical with apex at the water
surfaceand base width, b = H / s fulfills the conditions of an economical section. Such
asection is called elementary profile.
a
Let, b = base width
H = depth of water
syE
S = specific gravity of the material of the damngi
 = specific weight of water
W = weight of masonry
nee
rin
Considering unit length of the dam, horizontal water pressure, p =  H2 / 2 acts at H/3
from base.
g.n
Weight of masonry, W = ( bH/2)x  s, acts at b/3 from upstream face.
Taking moments about the rear extremity of middle third,
et
Wb / 3 = PH / 3
(bH / 2) * s * b/3 = ( H2 / 2)* H / 3
b=H/s
This section is safe against overturning and failure due to tension.
Safe design of earth dam.
 The embankment must be safe against overturning during occurrence ofthe inflow
design flood by the provision of sufficient spillway and outletworks capacity.
 The dam must have sufficient free board so that it is not overtopped bywave action.
 The seepage line should be well within the downstream face so that nosloughing of
the slope takes place.

 Seepage flow through the embankment, foundation and abutments must becontrolled
by suitable design provisions so that no internal erosion takesplace. The amount of
water lost through seepage must be controlled so thatit does not interfere with planned
project functions.
 There should be no opportunity for the free passage of water fromupstream to the
downstream either through the dam or through thefoundation.
 The portion of the downstream of the impervious core should be properlydrained.
 The upstream and downstream slopes should be so designed that they aresafe during
and immediately after the construction.
 The downstream slope should be so designed that it is safe during steadyseepage case
under full reservoir condition.
 The upstream slope should be stable during rapid drawdown condition
 The upstream and downstream slopes of the dam should be flat enough sothat shear
stress induced in the foundation is enough less than the shearstrength of the material
ww in the foundation to ensure a suitable factor ofsafety.

 The dam as a whole should be earthquake resistant.
w.E
 The upstream slope must be protected against erosion by wave action, andcrest and
down stream slope must be protected against erosion due to windand rain.
a syE
7 what are the different Forces acting on a gravity dam. (AU ND,MJ 2012)
 Water pressure


Weight of dam
Uplift pressure ngi



Pressure due to earthquake
Ice pressure nee
rin
Wave pressure
 Silt pressure
Water pressure:
g.n
et
This is the major external force acting on a dam. When the upstream face ofthe dam is
vertical, the water pressure acts horizontly.The intensity of pressures variestriangular
with a zero intensity at the water surface, to a value wh at any depth hbelow water
surface. When the upstream face is partly vertical and partly inclined, theresultant
water pressure can be resoled into component.(i) Horizontal component P(ii) Vertical
component P1 due to weight water supported by the inclined face.Horizontal force P=
wH2 / 2This force acts at a height H/3 from the base of the dam.Vertical component,
P1 = weight of water contained by column AA’C’B and acting atthe C.G.of the
area.Horizontal pressure P2 = WH’2/2Vertical pressure P3 = weight of water
contained by column EF’
Weight of the dam:

The weight of the dam is major resisting force. For analysis purpose,generally, unit
length of the dam is considered. The cross section of the dam may bedivided into
several triangles and rectangles and the weights w1, w2, w3, etc.of eachof these may

be computed conveniently, along with determination of their lines ofaction. The total
weight w of the dam acts at the C.G of its section
Uplift pressure:
Water has a tendency to seep through the pores and fissures of the foundationmaterial.
It also seeps through the joints between the body of the dam and itsfoundation at the
base, and through the pores of the material in the body of the dam.The seeping water
exerts pressure and must be account for in the stabilitycalculations.The uplift pressure
is defined as the upward pressure of water as it flows orseeps through body of the dam
or its foundation. A portion of the weight of the damwill be support on the upward
pressure of water; hence net foundation reaction due tovertical force will reduce.
Pressure due to earthquake:
ww
The wave imparts accelerations to the foundations under the dam and causesits
movement. In order to avoid rupture, the dam must also move along with it.
w.E
Thisacceleration introduces an inertial force in the body of dam and sets up
stressesinitially n lower layers and gradually in the whole body of the dam.
Earthquake wavemay travel in any direction.
a
Ice pressure:
syE
The ice pressure is more important for dams constructed in cold countries, orat higher
ngi
elevations. The ice formed on the water surface of the reservoir is subjectedto
expansion and contraction due to temperature variations. The coefficient of
nee
thermalexpansion of ice being five times more than that of concrete, the dam face has
to resistthe force due to expansion of ice. This force acts linearly along the length of
the dam,at the reservoir level, and its magnitude varies from 2.5 to 15 kg/cm3
rin
depending upontemperature variations. An average value of 5 kg/cm2 may be taken
as allowableunder ordinary conditions.
g.n
et
Wave pressure:
Waves are generated on the reservoir surface because of the wind blowingover it.
Wave pressure depends on the height of the wave developed.
Wave height
may be calculated by,
hw = (0.032 V.F. ) + 0.763 – (0.271 F1/4) For F < 32 km
hw = (0.032 V.F. ) For F > 32 km
hw = height of waves in m, between trough and crest
V = wind velocity in km per hour
F = fetch or straight length of water expanse in km
The pressure intensity due to waves PW = 2.4 w hw (t/m2)
Where, Pw = the maximum pressure which occurs at (1/8) hw meters above still water
surface.
The pressure distribution is curvilinear. For design purpose, the pressure distribution

may be assumed to be triangle of height = (5/3) hw.

Hence, total pressure
Pw = (2.4 w hw) 1/2 (5hw/3)
= 2 w hw
2 (t/m)
= 2000hw
2 (kg/m)
Its act at a distance of 3hw / 8 above the reservoir surface.
Silt pressure:
The river brings silt and debris along with it. The silt load gets deposited to
anappreciable extent when dam is constructed. The dam is, therefore, subjected to
siltpressure in addition to the water pressure. If  ’ is the submerged unit weight of
siltand  is the angle of internal friction and h is the height to which the silt is
ww
deposited,
the silt pressure is given by,
w.E
Ps = (1/2)  ’ h2 (1-sin  ) / (1+sin  )
Wind pressure;
a
It is a minor force and need hardly be taken in to account for the design ofdams. Wind
syE
pressure is required to be considered only on that portion of the superstructure, which
is exposed to the action of wind. Normally wind pressure is taken as100 to 150 kg /
ngi
m2 for the area exposed to the wind pressure.
nee
rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
UNIT 4 a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

UNIT IV
CANAL IRRIGATION
PART A
1) What are the classification of canals based on nature of source of supply? (AU MJ 2008)
 .Permanant canal
 .Inundation canal
2) What are the classification of canals based on financial aspect? (AU MJ 2008)
 Productive canal
 Protective canal
3) What are the classification of canals based on function served by the canal? (AU ND 2008)
ww 

Link canal
w.E
Feeder canal
 Power canal
4) Why the canals are aligned? (AU ND 2008)
a syE
Water should reach the land by gravity .To accomplish this requirement irrigation
canalalways aligned in such a way that the water gets proper command over the
wholeirrigable area.
ngi
5) What are the methods of alignment? (AU MJ 2009,2012)


Alignment of contour channels
Alignment of ridge or watershed channels
nee
 Alignment of side slope channels
rin
g.n
6) Write any two factors to be considered while aligning the canal. (AU MJ 2009)


The canal should be aligned on the ridge.
Canal alignment should be kept in the centre of the commanded area.
7) What is cross drainage work? (AU ND 2009)
et
A cross drainage work is a structure carrying the discharge of a natural stream across acanal
intercepting the stream.
8) What are the types of cross drainage works? (AU ND 2009,MJ2011)
 C.D works carrying canal over the drainage
 C.D works carrying canal over thecanal
 C.D works admitting the drainage water into the canal
9) What is canal head works? (AU MJ 2010,ND2011)
When a permanent canal system is taken off from the river some works are to beprovided at
the off take to care of irregularities in river flow condition.Since these worksare constructed

the point of take off,that is at the head of the canal system they aretermed as canal
headworks.
10) What is diversion headworks? (AU MJ 2010,MJ 2011)
The main object of the canal headworks is to divert the water from the river into thecanal.So
it sometimes termed as diversion headworks.
11) Where the canal headworks are located? (AU ND 2010,ND2011)
The canal headworks are located in the sub-mountainous stage.
12) What are all the considerations needed before selecting the canal headworks? (AU ND
2010)
 Economical considerations

ww 
Functional considerations
Structural considerations
w.E
13) What are all the components of canal headworks? (AU MJ 2012)
 Weir or an anicut



a
Divide wall
syE
Under sluices or scouring sluices
Fish ladder



Head regulator for a canal
Silt exclusion device
ngi
River training works
nee
14) Differentiate between a weir and the barrage. (AU MJ 2012)
rin
Barrage: It is a low obstructive barrier constructed across the river.Gates are provided on the
crest of the barrier.
g.n
Weir : All small obstructions are simply termed as weirs.The obstructions may befalling
shettres or trained gates or drum gates.
15) Why training works are provided? (AU ND 2012) et
When a river is very wide some training is to be done before constructing the
headworks.The aim of training works is to induce the flow of water along the desired bank or
channel without causing abrupt changes.Generally guide banks,marginal bunds
andsometimes spurs are provided for the purpose.
PART-B
1. Describe in brief different types of river training works? (AU MJ 2008,ND2012)

„River training‟ refers to the structural measures which are taken to improve a river and its
banks. River training is an important component in the prevention and mitigation of flash
floods and general flood control, as well as in other activities such as ensuring safe passage of

a flood under a bridge. For flash flood mitigation, the main aim is to control the water
discharge regime in the watercourse by limiting its dynamic energy, thereby controlling the
morphological evolution of the watercourse (Colombo et al. 2002). River training measures
also reduce sediment transportation and thus minimize bed and bank erosion. Many river
training structures are implemented in combination with bioengineering techniques to lessen
the negative effects on environment and landscape (see Chapter 3). There are a number of
types of river training structure. The selection and design of the most appropriate structure
depends largely on the site conditions. River training structures can be classified into two
main categories: transversal protection structures and longitudinal protection structures.
Transversal Protection Structures Transversal protection structures are installed perpendicular
to the water course. They are used to lower the river gradient in order to reduce the water
velocity and protect the river bed and banks from erosion. Most of the rivers in the Hindu
Kush Himalayan region originate in the high mountains, where they have steep gradients
ww
giving the flow a massive erosive power. Moreover, intense rainfall and breakout events can
accelerate the river flow to such an extent that the water has a significant impact on the
watercourses and surrounding areas. Transversal protection structures are effective for
w.E
controlling the velocity of rivers and streams and reducing the development of flash floods.
The major structures likely to be useful in the region are described briefly in the following.
a syE
Check dams Check dams are described in detail in the previous chapter, mainly in relation to
gully control. The dams used along river courses follow the same principles. They can be
made of gabions, concrete, logs, bamboo, and many other materials. These dams decrease the
ngi
morphological gradient of the torrent bed and reduce the water velocity during a flood event
by increasing the time of concentration of the hydrographic basins and reducing the flood
nee
peak and solid transportation capacity of the river. They also help to reduce erosion and
debris flow. The main purpose of check dams on rivers is to stabilize the riverbed over a long
rin
distance. Check dams generally require additional protection structures in the bed or on the
banks to hinder undermining.
g.n
Spurs A spur, spur dyke, or groyne is a structure made to project flow from a river bank into
a stream or river with the aim of deflecting the flow away from the side of the river on which
the groyne is built. Two to five structures are typically placed in series along straight or
convex bank lines where the flow lines are roughly parallel to the bank (McCullah and Gray
2005). Spurs help train a river to flow along a desired course by preventing erosion of the
et
bank and encouraging flow along a channel with a more desirable width and alignment
(Julien 2002). They are used to control natural meandering at a river bend, to channel wide
rivers, and to convert poorly defined streams into well defined channels. The spurs create a
zone of slack flow which encourages silting up in the region of the spur to create a natural
bank. They generally protect the riparian environment and often improve the pool habitat and
physical diversity. Spurs can be made from many materials including stone, for example in
the form of gabions (Figure 42) or in bamboo „cages‟ (Figure 43); tree trunks and branches
(Figure 44); concrete; or any material that is not easily detached by the river and is strong
enough to withstand the flow and the impacts of debris. They can be categorized on the basis
of permeability (Figure 45), submergence (Figure 46), orientation (Figure 47), and the shape
of the head (Figure 48). Some guidelines for designing and constructing spurs are provided in
Box 16. Sills A sill (also called a bed sill or ground sill) is a transverse gradient control
structure built across the bed of a river or stream to reduce bed or headward erosion. Sills are

installed along river stretches with a medium to low morphological gradient. The purpose is
similar to that of a check dam, but a sill is much lower. A sill is usually constructed together
with other hydraulic structures such as bridges to prevent them from being undermined and
increase their durability. Sills can be built with different shapes, for example stepped or
sloping, and from a variety of materials including concrete, stone, gabions, wood, and rock.
The selection of material depends on morphological and ecological factors. Sills made from
wood, rock, and gabions tend to be more environmentally friendly than those made from
concrete or cemented stones.
Concrete or stone sills. Sills made of concrete or concreted stone are easy to construct and
relatively common, even though the construction cost is generally higher than for other types.
This type of sill can be used for a wide range of morphological conditions, and is particularly
suitable for lower reaches. They are often used in combination with structures such as bridges
or walls.
ww
Gabion sills. Sills made with gabions can be installed under many different hydrodynamic
conditions. The gabions can be filled with rock from along the river or stream bed. Gabion
w.E
sills are considered environmentally less harmful than concrete sills for the natural riverine
environment and ecology because of their greater width and limited height.
a
Wood and rock sills. Sills are often made of local wood and rock in the mountainous reaches
syE
of watercourses or at sites with morphological constraints. Any kind of water resistant wood
can be used, the most suitable being chestnut, larch, and natural or treated resinous plants.
ngi
This type of sill has a low environmental impact because of its tendency towards
naturalization, which favours the ecology and environment of the watercourse
nee
2 What is mean by guide banks? What are their functions and effects? (AU MJ
2009,ND2010)
rin
Guide Banks
g.n
et
Also called Bell‟s bund. It is defined as the site of a barrage, weir, bridge, ect. To
guide the river flow through the confined waterway without causing damage to the structure
and its approaches. They are provided in the direction of flow, both upstream and
downstream of the barrage of one or both flanks depending or requirement. The guide banks
are usually provided in pairs, symmetrical in plan and may either be parallel or converge
slightly towards the structure, extending a little downstream but laygely on the upstream of
the structure and curved inlands on both ends to provided a bellmouth entry and smooth exit.
The layout of training works for a barrage, weir or bridge are almost identical and consist of a
pair of guide banks and armoured groynes. The guide banks are two heavily armoured
embankments in the river in the from of a bellmouth figure. Simple approach embankments
span the portion of the river between the normal river banks and the guide banks.

ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
Figure: Layout of guide bank.
g.n
Functions of a Guide Bank: The functions served by a guide bank are (i) Economical
spanning of a wide river, (ii) Safe and expeditions passage of floods, (iii) Protect adjacent
et
lands, upstream of a weir or barrage from spills due to afflux caused by the barrage
construction, (iv) control and confine the flow axially through a restricted waterway so that
the river has no possibility to swing about and outflank the structure, (v) Prevent occurrence
of crossflow immediately upstream of barrage, and (vi) Protect the approach embankments
(on either side of a bridge extending from the river bank to the guide banks) from direct
attack by the river.
Effects of Guide Banks: The effects of guide banks are (i) Increase in the rate at
which flood wave passes down the river, (ii) Increase in maximum discharge at all points
downstream, (iii) Rise in the water surface elevation of the river during flood, (iv) Increase in

the velocity and scouring action through the embanked section, and (v) Reduction in water
surface slope of the river above the embanked portion.
Classification of Guide Banks

1. According to Form in plan: The pair of guide banks may be parallel, divergent or
convergent in plan upstream of the structure.
(a) Parallel guide banks. Where the river is likely to meander on both sides, parallel
guide banks with suitable curved heads are essentially required to give uniform flow from the
head of the guide bank to the work. Symmetrical and parallel guide bands figure are usually
adopted unless local conditions warrant adoption of convergent or divergent banks; their
suitability being indicated by model studies.
ww (b) Convergent guide banks: Convergent guide banks are rarely used. They have
the disadvantage of excessive attack and heavy scour at the head and shoaling all along the
w.E
shank rendering the end bays inactive.
Divergent guide banks. Divergent guide banks exercise an attracting influence on the
a syE
flow and are indicated where approaching flow is oblique to the structure or work is located
at one edge of khadir, in order to keep the flow active in the spans adjacent to them. However
they provide relatively less protection to the approach embankment, under worst possible
ngi
embayment Embayment. A localized widening of a river or channel brought out artificially or
naturally, as compared to the equal length of parallel guide banks. The divergent guide banks
nee
thus require longer length in comparison to parallel guide banks for the same degree of
protection to the approach embankment. They induce oblique flow onto the barrage and give
rin
rise to tendency of shoal formation in the centre due to larger waterway between curved
heads.
g.n
et

Figure: Different forms of guide banks.
ww
w.E Figure: Extent of protection provided by the straight and divergent guide
banks.
a syE
2. According to Geometrical Shape. On the basis of geometrical shape, the guide
ngi
banks are classified as straight and elliptical with circular or multiradii curved head. Any
other shape, if warranted by site conditions, is determined with the aid of hydraulic model
studies.
nee
rin
Elliptical guide banks are preferred to the straight ones on account of the
g.n
considerations (i) More suitable for wide flood plain rivers compared to straight guide banks,
(ii) Flow hugs the guide banks all along their length due to gradual change in curvature, while
separations of flow occurs in straight guide banks after the curved head which leads to
obliquity of flow, and (iii) Provide better control on development and extension of meander
loop towards the approach embankment.
et

wwFigure: Geometrical shapes of guide bank (a) straight guide bank, (b) elliptical guide
bank
w.E
3 State the necessity and location of canal falls? (AU MJ 2010, ND2008)
a
Canal fall is a solid masonry structure which is constructed on the canal if the natural ground
syE
slope is steeper than the designed channel bed slope. If the difference in slope is smaller, a
single fall can be constructed. If it is of higher then falls are constructed at regular suitable
intervals.
Location of Canal Falls ngi
Location of canal fall depends upon the following factors
nee
rin
g.n
Topography of canal
Economy of excavation or filling
The above two will decide the location of canal fall across canal. By understanding
topographic condition we can provide the required type of fall which will give good results.
At the same time, the provided falls is economical and more useful. So, economical
et
calculation is also important. Unbalanced earth work on upstream and downstream result the
project more uneconomical.
Types of Canal Falls and their Importance

The important types of falls which were used in olden days and those which are being used in
modern days are described below:
o Ogee falls
o Rapids

o Stepped falls
o Trapezoidal notch falls
o Well type falls
o Simple vertical drop falls
o Straight glacis falls
o Montague type falls
o English falls or baffle falls

Ogee Canal Falls
ww
Ogee curve is the combination of convex and concave curves. So, Ogee fall consists of both
convex and concave curves gradually. This gradual combination helps to provide smooth
transition of flow and also reduce the impact. If the canal natural ground surface is suddenly
w.E
changed to steeper slope, ogee fall is recommended for that canal. Stone pitching is provided
in the upstream and downstream of the fall.
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
Rapid Canal Falls g.n
Rapid fall consists a long sloping glacis. It is constructed if the available natural ground
et
surface is plane and long. For this, a bed of rubble masonry is provided and it is finished with
cement mortar of 1:3 ratio. To maintain the slope of bed curtain walls are provided at both
upstream and downstream. Rapid falls are high priced constructions.

ww
Stepped Canal Falls
As in the name itself, stepped fall consist vertical steps at gradual intervals. Stepped fall is the
w.E
modification of rapid fall. It is suitable for the canal which has it upstream at very high level
as compared to downstream. These two levels are connected by providing vertical steps or
a
drops as shown in figure.
Trapezoidal Notch Canal Falls
syE
In case of trapezoidal notch falls, a high crested wall is built across the channel and
ngi
trapezoidal notches are provided in that wall. Trapezoidal falls are very economical and
suitable for low discharges. Now a days this type of falls are using widely because of their
simplicity and popularity.
nee
Well Type Canal Falls rin
g.n
Well type falls are also called as syphon drop falls. In this case, an inlet well with pipe at its
et
bottom is constructed in upstream. The pipe carries the water to downstream well or
reservoir. If the discharge capacity is more than 0.29 cumecs then downstream well is
preferred otherwise reservoir is suitable.
Simple Vertical Drop Falls
Simple vertical drop fall or sarda fall consists, single vertical drop which allows the upstream
water to fall with sudden impact on downstream. The downstream acts like cushion for the
upstream water and dissipate extra energy. This type of fall is tried in Sarda Canal UP (India)
and therefore, it is also called Sarda Fall.
Straight Glacis Canal Falls
This is the modern type of construction, in which a raised crest is constructed across the canal
and a gentle straight inclined surface is provided from raised crest to the downstream. The
water coming from upstream crosses the raised crest and falls on inclined surface with
sufficient energy dissipation.

Montague Type Canal Falls

Montage fall is similar to straight glacis fall but in this case the glacis is not straight. It is
provided in parabolic shape to introduce the vertical component of velocity which improves
the energy dissipation to more extent.
English or Baffle Canal Falls
In this case, straight glacis fall is extended as baffle platform with baffle wall. This is suitable
for any discharge. The baffle wall is constructed near the toe of the straight glacis at required
distance in designed height. The main purpose of the baffle wall is to create hydraulic jump
from straight glacis to baffle platform.
4 Briefly explain about classification of canals? (AU ND 2009,MJ 2012)
A canal is an artificial waterway. The word "canal" origins from the Old French word chanel,
ww
which means “channel.” Sometimes it is also known as navigation.
In ancient time, A canal is used to connect waterfalls with the intention of shortening routes.
w.E
Now it is constructed to allow the passage of boats or ships inland or to convey water
for irrigation, human-made strip of water used for irrigation or boat access to a more
significant body of water.
a syE
A canal plays a vital role when it comes to transportation and global commerce. We use the
canal for irrigation, land drainage, urban water supply, hydroelectric power generation,
transportation of cargo and people, power generation, the canal is also used to connect
ngi
industrial centers with ports to speed movement of raw materials. Water filled canals at high
levels can deliver water to any place where there is a water crisis. However, Canals weaken
the foundation of the dam.
Canals of Burano. Source- Linda D Lester nee
Types of Canals rin
g.n
We can identify different types of canals based on usage, discharge, branches, provider,
alignment, etc.
Based on usage there are two types of canals:
1. Aqueducts
et
2. Waterways
Based on discharge there are five types of canals:
1. Main canal
2. Branch canal
3. Major distributary
4. Minor distributary
5. Watercourse or field channel
Based on provider canals can be classified into two types
1. Unlined canals

2. Lined canal
Based on alignment there are three canal types:
1. Contour canal
2. Watershed canal
3. Side slope canal
Canal Types Based on Usage
Aqueducts
Aqueduct is a significant watercourse which carries water from a source to the far distribution
point. There are many versions of aqueducts. The simplest types are mostly small ditches cut
ww
into the earth. They run through underground tunnels. However, modern aqueducts use the
pipeline as their path. This types of canals are used for the conveyance and delivery of water
for consumption, and agricultural irrigation.
w.E
Waterways
a syE
Inland waterways canal. Source- Conway Photography
Waterways are the type used for carrying ships and boats and conveying people. Waterway
paths are known as a secondary by-product of our country‟s extensive historical waterway
ngi
network, and their essential contribution to everyday life has mostly gone unrecognized. They
include water features like river, canal, streams, as well as lakes, reservoirs, and docks.
nee
Related features of waterways include weirs, locks, rapid, etc. Waterways provide a safe
operating environment by reflecting the local conditions. Mostly waterways are used for
rin
transformation, irrigation, headrace, trail race, penstock, spillway, etc. They cater to a wide
range of boating and water activities as well as control of pests. Waterways act as refuges for
g.n
terrestrial fauna species during times of drought and as corridors for dispersal. Waterway
paths attract more commuting, tourism. It helps to decrease carbon footprints, reduce road
congestion and improve the health of local communities.
Canal Types Based on Discharge et

Main Canal
Canals are having discharge more significant than ten cumecs are called as main canals. The
main canal is also known as the arterial canal. In drainage, the main canal is the superior
canal of the drainage system; it collects water from the drainage canals and conducts it to the
water intake. The main canal carries discharge directly from the river. It takes off directly
from the upstream side of weir head works or dam. Usually, no direct cultivation is proposed.
It supplies water from a river, reservoir, or canal to irrigated lands by gravity flow. It supplies
water to a branch canal. We cannot use the main canal for direct irrigation.
Branch Canal
Halifax Branch canal. Source: pinterest.ca

Branch canals have discharge in the range of 5-10 cumecs. The branches of the main canal go
in either direction at regular intervals. It offtakes from the main canal where the head
discharge is not more than 14-15 cumecs. Branch canal also plays the role of feeder channel
for major and minor distributaries. Branch canals do not carry out direct irrigation, but they
provide direct outlets.
Major Distributary
Canals who offtake from the main canal or branch canal with head discharge from 0.028 to
15 cumecs are termed as significant distributaries. It takes off water from branch canals.
Sometimes getting supply from the main canal, their discharge is less than branch canal.
These are mostly known as irrigation channels because of their supply of water to the field
directed through outlets.
Minor Distributary
ww
Canals in which discharge ranged from 0.25 up to 3 cumecs are termed as minor distributors.
w.E
It offtakes from a major distributary carrying discharge less than 0.25 cumecs are termed as
minor distributary. Sometimes minor distributary gets supply from the branch canals. The
discharge in minor distributary is less than in the major distributary. They also provide water
a
to the courses through outlets provided along with them.
Watercourse or Field Channel syE

ngi
The discharge in watercourses is less than 0.25 cumecs. A field channel either take off from a
significant distributary or minor- it solely depends on which extent the irrigation will happen.
nee
In a few cases, it also takes off water from the branch canal for the field. Small channels
which carry water from the outlet of a major or minor distributary or a branch canals to the
rin
areas to be sprayed. There are small channels for feeding water to the irrigation fields.
Canal Types Based on the Provider

g.n
Unlined Canals
Unlined canals consist of bed and banks made of natural soil. They are not provided with a
et
lining of impervious materials. It produces the growth of aquatic weed retards the flow which
leads to massive maintenance cost. Unlined canals can tolerate velocities no more than 0.7
m/s because of erosion. In unlined canals, there is a danger of canal bank breakage caused by
overtopping, erosion and animal burrowing. Weeds had severely slowed down the water flow
of the canals, preventing up to 50% of the water from reaching the tail end of the canal. It
also causes waterlogging of the adjacent net.
Lined Canal
Lined canals are provided with a lining of impervious materials on its bed and banks to
prevent the seepage of water. The most commonly used types of padding are concrete,
shotcrete, brick or burnt clay tile, boulder, concrete blocks, stone masonry, sand-cement,
plastic, and compacted clay. Possible benefits of lining a canal include water conservation; no

seepage of water into adjacent land or roads; reduced canal dimensions; and reduced
maintenance
5 Briefly discuss the design considerations of a canal trough for an aqueduct syphon? (AU
MJ 2011,ND 2011)
Design Principles for Aqueduct:
(i) Estimation of Design (Maximum) Flood Discharge of a Drain:
The drain to be crossed may be small or like a river. In all cases correct assessment of
maximum flood or peak flow of a drain should be obtained beforehand.
(ii) Waterway Requirement for a Drain:
Lacey‟s regime perimeter equation gives good basis for calculating the drainage waterway.
The equation is
ww
Pw = 4.825 Q1/2
w.E
Where, Pw is the waterway to be provided for the drain at the site in metres. Q is flood
discharge of the drain in m3/sec. As the piers reduce the actual waterway available, the length
between the abutments (Pw) may be increased by 20 per cent. When the waterway is fixed
a
from Lacey‟s regime perimeter equation, the regime condition in the drain upstream and
syE
downstream of the structure is not disturbed appreciably. To confine the drainage water to the
desired waterway guide banks may be constructed.
(iii) Velocity of Flow through Barrel:
ngi
nee
The velocity of flow through the barrel may range from 1.8 m/sec to 3 m/sec, The reason for
selecting this range is that the lower velocities may cause silting in the barrels. Whereas when
rin
the velocity is higher than 3 m/sec the bed load may cause abrasion of the barrel floor and
subsequently it may be damaged.
(iv) Height of Opening:
g.n
Once the waterway discharge and velocity are fixed the depth of flow may be obtained easily.
There should be sufficient headway or clearance left between the HFL and the bottom of the
canal bed. A clearance of 1 m or half the height of the culvert, whichever is less would be
sufficient. Hence, Height of opening = Depth of flow + Clearance or headway.
et
(v) Number of Spans:
After determining the total length of an aqueduct between the abutments number of spans to
be provided may be fixed on the basis of the following two considerations:
i. Structural strength required, and
ii. Economical consideration.
Generally fluming ratio is taken to be 1/2. This ratio is adopted m such a way that the
velocity of flow in the trough does not go above critical velocity limit. Generally velocity of
flow should not be more than 3 m/sec. This precaution is taken to avoid the possibility of
formation of a hydraulic jump. The obvious reason is that when hydraulic jump forms it

absorbs energy. In this process valuable head is lost and large stresses are produced in the
structure.
Length of Contraction or Approach Transition:

Once the width at throat is fixed length of contraction can be determined after knowing the
convergence ratio. The convergence ratio is generally taken as 2: 1 (horizontal: lateral), i.e.,
not steeper than 30°.
Length of Expansion or Departure Transition:
Length of expansion on the downstream side of the aqueduct may be fixed after knowing the
expansion ratio. The expansion ratio is generally taken as 3 : 1 (horizontal : lateral), i.e., not
steeper than 22.5°. To maintain streamlined flow and also to reduce loss of head the
ww
transitions are generally made up of curved and flared wing walls.
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
UNIT 5 a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

UNIT -5
WATER MANAGEMENT IN IRRIGATION
PART -A
1) What are the causes of water loss? (AU MJ 2008,MJ 2011)
 Seepage From The Canal
 Over Irrigation Of Field
 Heavy Surface Runoff
2) What are ways of water loss in the canal? (AU MJ 2008,MJ 2012)
 Seepage Loss
 Evaporation Loss
ww
3) What are factors on which seepage loss depends? (AU ND 2008,ND 2010)
 Position Of Water Table
w.E



Porosity Of Sub-Soil
Porosity Of Soil
Extend Of Absorbing Medium
a syE
4) What are two different condition of seepage? (AU ND 2008, ND2012)
 Percolation
 Absorption
ngi
nee
5. What are the remedial measures for losses? (AU ND 2009,MJ 2012)
 Efficient Surface Drainage
 Restriction Of Irrigation
 Change In Crop Pattern rin
g.n
6) What are the advantages of irrigation water managements? (AU ND 2009,ND 2011)
 Achievement of optimum irrigation efficiency
 Economical and efficient operation and maintenance of irrigation system
 Equitable distribution of supplies to irrigators especially at the end
et
7) Discuss some components of water management? (AU MJ 2010,ND2012)
 Water shed management
 Land management
 Rain water management
 Reservoir management
8. What are the impact of water user association? (AU MJ 2010,MJ 2011)
 Conveyance efficiency
 Operation efficiency
 Equity
 Area water unit ratio

9.) What are the advantages of water user association? (AU MJ 2009,MJ 2011)
 Better maintenance of the distributary
 Possibility of high value of crop programme
 Availability of water and irrigation process
10) What are optimization of water user association? (AU MJ 2009,ND 2010)
 To reduce the seepage loss and conveyance
 Control over the usage of water
PART-B
1 write notes on Productivity, Equity, Conjunctive use of water, Short – term stability,
ww
Long – term stability. (AU MJ 2008)
w.E Productivity
a syE
Productivity is defined as the ratio of output and input. The output can bewater
delivered, area irrigated, yield, or income, and the input can be water in the rootzone,
at the farm gate at the outlet or at upstream points in the system including thepoint of
ngi
diversion or storage. Improved water supply influences the adoption of high –yielding
agricultural practices by farmers which justify the productivity criterion
ofperformance.
nee
Equity
rin
Equity in canal irrigation systems implies equality, fairness, and even-handeddealing
g.n
in matters of allocation and appropriation of irrigation water. There can beseveral
ways to decide the equality of supplies to different farmers. Two of them,practiced
throughout the world, are the methods of prior appropriation and ofproportionate
equality.
Conjunctive use of water

et
Conjunctive use means that water lifted from below the ground is used inconjunction
with canal waters. It results in the coordinated, combined, and creativeexploitation of
ground water and surface water so as to minimize the dislocationcaused by nature‟s
inconsistent rainfall pattern. Such coordinated use of surface andground waters results
in increased amount of available water, smaller surfacedistribution system, smaller
drainage system, reduced canal linings, greater floodcontrol, and smaller evaporation
losses.
Short – term stability

The short – term or interseasonal stability refers to the variations inproductivity and
equity between irrigation seasons, and is a function of climate, watersupply, storage
and control, system management, and other factors such as pests,diseases, and

availability of labour and other inputs. It can be measured by comparingperformance

between seasons.
Long – term stability.

The long – term stability is defined as “environmental stability” and“durability” and
refers to the prevention or minimizing of adverse physical changessuch as
waterlogging, leaching of nutrients form soils, salinity, erosion, silting, the„mining‟ of
ground water, and infestations with weeds.
2 what are the Main components of soil reclamation (AU ND 2008)
 The main components of soil reclamation works are as follows
ww  Isolation of land areas according to their categorization and levelling

andbonding of the affected land as per the category.
 Provision of drainage (surface or subsurface or vertical) network to
w.E removeleaching water and to keep the water table to a safer level.
 Breaking up of impervious subsoil layer in alkali soils by deep ploughing.
a  Adding suitable chemicals (such as gypsum, sulphur, etc.) depending upon
syE
theresults of chemical tests of the affected soil.
 Operation & maintenance of irrigation system is necessary
 A proper plan for operation and maintenance is, therefore, necessary
ngi
toAchieve stipulated levels of project services including maintenance
atminimum achievable cost.
 Achieve optimum use of canal water.
nee
 Provide detailed operation and maintenance guidelines during
rin
variousanticipated scenarios of water availability, including equitable
waterdistribution up to the tail-end of the system, and
 Effect efficient coordination of staff, equipment, physical and
g.n
financialresources and related disciplines, active involvement of farmers.
3 i)What are the different Water losses be control: (AU MJ 2009)
The following are the measures that are generally taken to control the waterlosses from the
et
reservoir.
1. Measure to Reduce Evaporation Loss
a) The reservoir should be constructed of less surface area and more depth.
b) Tall trees should be grown on the windward side of the reservoir whichact as wind
breakers and hence the rate of evaporation will be reduced.
c) The reservoir basin should be surrounded by plantation or forest area sothat cooler
environment exists within the reservoir area.
d) Certain chemical like cetyl alcohol is spread over the reservoir surface. Itforms a thin film
on water surface reducing evaporation.
2. Measure to Reduce Absorption Loss

a) The weeds and plants at the periphery of the reservoir should be removedcompletely
b) The weeds from the surface of the reservoir should be removed.
3. Measure to Reduce Percolation Loss
a) Geological investigations should be carried out to locate the zones of perviousformations,
cracks and fissures in the bed and periphery of the reservoir basin.
b) Suitable treatments should be adopted to stop the leakage of water throughthese zones.
c) Soil stabilization methods should be adopted if the basin is composed ofpermeable bed
soil.
3ii) Explain Water logging (AU MJ 2009)
In agricultural land, when the soil pores within the root zone of the crops getsaturated with
ww
the subsoil water, the air circulation within the soil pores gets totallystopped. This
phenomenon is termed as water logging. The water logging makes thesoil alkaline in
w.E
character and the fertility of the land is totally destroyed and the yieldof crop is reduced.
Effects of water logging
a
The following are the effects of water logging:
 Stabilization of soil
syE
 Lack of aeration
 Fall of soil temperature ngi
 Growth of weeds and aquatic plants
nee
 Diseases of crops
rin
 Difficulty in cultivation
 Restriction of root growth g.n
Methods used for controlling water logging
et
The following measures may be taken to control water logging:
 Prevention of percolation from canals
 Prevention of percolation from reservoirs
 Control of intensity of irrigation
 Economical use of water
 Fixing of crop pattern
 Providing drainage system
 Improvement of natural drainage

 Pumping of ground water

 Construction of sump well
4 What are the Inadequacies of present – day canal irrigation management in India.
(AU ND 2009)
From the point of view of performance, the management of the canal
irrigation systems in India is far from satisfactory. The major inadequancies are as
follows.
 Insufficient planning and preparation at the stage of execution of the projectwhich results
in longer construction time and escalated project cost,
ww
 Involvement of more than one ministry/department and poor coordinationamong them,
w.E
 Non-responsive, authoritarian, and poor administration resulting in increasedmalpractices,
 Lack of interaction between engineering and agricultural experts,
a
 Lag between creation of potential and its utilization,
syE
 Improper assessment of personnel, equipment, and other facilities for properoperation and
maintenance of reservoirs and canal systems resulting in erratic(unreliable and insufficient)
ngi
supplies inequitable distribution of availablewater,
 Higher conveyance losses,
nee
 Absence of conjunctive use of ground water and surface water
Insufficient drainage, excessive seepage, and waterlogging,
rin
 Poor on-farm management,
 Absence of farmer‟s participation in the management,
g.n
 Lack of communication facilities in the command area,
 Poor extension services – lack of pilot projects, demonstration farms, etc.,
et
 Problems related to land settlement and rehabilitation of displaced persons,
and
 Recovery of the project cost.
5 Explain Performance of an irrigation system. (AU MJ 2010)
There are several conventional measures to improve the performance of canalirrigation
systems. Some of these measures are lining of canals and field channels, onfarmdevelopment,
farmers organization, warabandi system of water distribution,charging farmers volumetrically
for water, and education farmers in water usemanagement. Before seeking a solution to
improve the irrigation management, it isworthwhile to consider the objectives of irrigation
and the criteria for judging theperformance of an irrigation project.

The criteria for judging the performance of canal irrigation systems can bevastly different for
different groups of people depending upon their concerns . However, the most common
criteria generally accepted for judging theperformance of an irrigation system are
productivity, equity, and stability whichtogether contribute to the objective of well-being.
Productivity
Productivity is defined as the ratio of output and input. The output can bewater
delivered, area irrigated, yield, or income, and the input can be water in the rootzone,
at the farm gate at the outlet or at upstream points in the system including thepoint of
diversion or storage. Improved water supply influences the adoption of high –yielding
agricultural practices by farmers which justify the productivity criterion
ofperformance.
Equity
ww Equity in canal irrigation systems implies equality, fairness, and even-handeddealing

in matters of allocation and appropriation of irrigation water. There can beseveral
ways to decide the equality of supplies to different farmers. Two of them,practiced
w.E throughout the world, are the methods of prior appropriation and ofproportionate
equality.
a
Conjunctive use of water
syE
ngi
nee
losses.
rin
Short – term stability
g.n
The short – term or interseasonal stability refers to the variations inproductivity and
equity between irrigation seasons, and is a function of climate, watersupply, storage
and control, system management, and other factors such as pests,diseases, and
availability of labour and other inputs. It can be measured by comparingperformance
et
between seasons.
Long – term stability.

The long – term stability is defined as “environmental stability” and“durability” and
refers to the prevention or minimizing of adverse physical changessuch as
waterlogging, leaching of nutrients form soils, salinity, erosion, silting, the„mining‟ of
ground water, and infestations with weeds.
6 Methods adopted for improving canal irrigation management Explain in detail. (AU
ND 2010)
Irrigation management is an interdisciplinary system process with a built-inlearning
mechanism to improve system performance by adjusting physical,technological, and

institutional inputs to achieve the desired levels of output. Canalirrigation is a

complex process involving physical, bio-economic, and humanactivities which are
interrelated and vary widely over space and time. As such, canalirrigation
management demands special methods. Every management problemrequires be
analyzing in detail and then solving accordingly. Nevertheless, there aresome aspects
which, if considered properly at different stages, can help significantlyin the
improvement of canal irrigation. These aspects have been briefly dealt with inthe
following.
Cropping Pattern
Cropping pattern is described in terms of the area under various crops atdifferent
periods of a year. An optimum cropping pattern for an area can ideally bedetermined
by using systems analysis. If the local preferences and requirements of thearea are
included in the analysis, and the necessary inputs are made available, thefarmers will
ww
adopt the cropping pattern arrived at using systems analysis.
Conjunctive Use
w.E
a
syE
ngi
losses. There are, however, some disadvantages tooin resorting to conjunctive use.
nee
These require lesser hydroelectric power, greaterpower requirement, need for artificial
recharge, and danger of land subsidence. Theparameters related to conjunctive use,
rin
such as cropping pattern, canal capacities,capacities and spacing of wells, drainage
requirements, optimum ground water level,etc. are the best determined by systems
analysis to derive maximum benefits.
Channel Capacity g.n
The discharge capacity of the channel system should be decided on theconcept of
evapotranspiration rather than the „kor‟ period.
et
Canal Lining
Lining of canals is a means to reduce the seepage losses from canals. In orderto
prevent damage to lining, the slope of a lined channel is reduced. This reduces
thesediment carrying capacity of an existing channel which is being lined.
Therefore,measures for sediment exclusion are to be considered whenever an existing
canal isbeing lined. Alternative to the lining of canals is the conjunctive use of surface
andground unit cost of pumped water.
Regulators and escapes
For ensuring proper distribution of irrigation water according to the
adoptedmanagement policy, a suitable number of canal regulators and canal escapes
must beprovided on the channel network in general and on main canals and branches

inparticular. Canal escapes are needed for the safety as well as for regulating
canalsupplies in areas which have received excess rainfall.
Canal Outlets
Another important aspect of designing canal irrigation system is the selectionof
suitable type of outlet which is crucial in controlling the distribution of water
andproviding a link between the administration and the farmer. From the
considerationsof equitable distribution of water, a regulated outlet would be an ideal
choice providedthat it can be operated efficiently and honestly.
Main System Management
Operational management of the main system refers to management aspects ofthe
future allocation, scheduling, delivery of water on main systems down to
andincluding outlets, and the disposal of water in drains below chaks (i.e. the
ww
irrigatedfields). It includes planning, decision making, the operation of controls,
andcommunications both upwards to managers and downwards to groups of farmers
w.E
sothat equitable supplies can be ensured throughout the command area. Main
systemmanagement (MSM) is capable of reducing gross inequities of water supply to
tailedfarmers and increasing the farm yield from the command area.
a syE
A more rational method for the running schedule of distributaries and minorscan,
alternatively, be worked out as follows.
ngi
 Obtain the cropping pattern, preferably an optimum one, for irrigation during
nee
the ensuring season.
 Estimate weekly evapotranspiration and corresponding effective rainfall based
on past records.
rin
 Determine the irrigation demand.
 Decide upon the amount of canal water and ground water to meet the g.n
irrigation demand such that the desired intensity of irrigation on the optimum
cropping pattern can be obtained along with a stable water table, and
et
 Prepare a roster of regulation of distributaries and minors and notify the
concerned farmers well in advance to enable them to plan their sowing and
irrigation programmes accordingly.
Night Irrigation
In most of the canal irrigation projects, the canal water continues to flow at
nights as well and is either badly used or wasted. Darkness, cold, fear, normal
working hours and desire for sleep discourage the irrigation staff, farmers, and

labourers to work at night. Farmers usually dislike night irrigation for the following
reasons.
 Loss of sleep and disruption in the normal sleeping duration,
 Discomfort due to cold night and difficulty in moving around in sticky soilsand
mud,
 Danger and fear of snakes, scorpions, accidents, violence including murder,and
other problems related to law and order,
 Inefficient application of water due to darkness, and
 Higher costs due to higher night wages, non-availability of family labour,especially
women, old people and those very young to work at night, and needof firewood,
ww
beverages and lighting.High and dense crops and crops in the later stages of growth
are relativelydifficult to be irrigated at night. Sometime night irrigation is preferred by
farmers dueto the following reasons. Sometimes night irrigation is preferred by
w.E farmers due to thefollowing reasons

 In warmer regions, farmers find it more comfortable to irrigate at night.
a syE
 Part-time farmers having other work during the day would prefer nightirrigation.
 Tail-end farmers may get relatively more adequate and reliable supply duringnight.
ngi
7 Evaluation of performance of canal irrigation systems. (AU ND 2011)
nee
To manage a system properly, the physical effectiveness of past operationsmust be
considered against the original criteria set forth for the project, or assubsequently amended
following modification of the facilities. Procedures for actingon the indicators uncovered in
rin
evaluation are critical to the financial and operationalefficiencies of a system. Priorities for
g.n
adjustments in the system and scheduling theneeded maintenance can best be made by using
inputs for timely and properevaluation reports. Some of the diagnostic analyses that can be
considered are:
Farmers operations performance
 Adequacy of crop production techniques for irrigated farming including
et
adequacy of supply of inputs such credit, certified seeds, fertilizers,
pesticides, etc.,
 Adequacy of irrigation methods
 Farm management and economic results
 Soil management and erosion control, and
 On-farm efficiency of water use.
 Delivery operational performance
 Water use efficiency in distribution

 Water losses (physical including evaporation)

 Project overall water use efficiency
 Deep percolation
 Canal seepage
 Spillage from canals
 Dam and foundation seepage
 Water operational losses (such as leakage from gates, etc.)
 Adequacy of delivery scheduling, and
 Energy use
ww  Drainage operational performance

 Drainage requirement area-wise
w.E  Water table fluctuations by season and years

 Water quality changes reach-wise for drain effluents, and
a syE
 Soil salinity changes area-wise
ngi
8 What are the Merits and demerits of canal lining (AU MJ 2011)
nee
The following are the main objects of canal lining:
To Control Seepage
rin
The seepage loss is the maximum loss in unlined canals. Due to seepage theduty of
g.n
canal water is much reduced which involves enhancement of storage capacityof a reservoir
by constructing high dam. Thus, the expenditure of the project isincreased. So, to control the
seepage loss through the bed and sides of the canal, thelining of the canal is necessary.
To Prevent Water-Logging
et
Along the course of the canal, there may be low lying areas on one side orboth sides
of the canal. Due to the seepage of water through the sides of the canal,these areas may get
converted into marshly lands. This water-logging makes the landalkaline which is unsuitable
for agriculture. This water-logged area may become thebreeding place of mosquitoes which
are responsible for many infectious diseases.
To Increase the Capacity of Canal
In unlined canal, the velocity of flow should be fixed such that the silting andscouring
is avoided. In practice, the velocity should always be kept below 1 m/sec.Due to the low
velocity; the discharge capacity of the canal becomes low. In unlinedcanal, if the capacity of
the canal is to be increased the cross-sectional area has to beincreased which involves more
land width. So, the lining of the canal should be suchthat the velocity and the discharge of the
canal are more with minimum crosssectionalarea.

To Increase the Command Area

If the lining is provided in the canals the various losses can be controlled
andultimately the command area of the project may be enhanced.
To Protect the Canal from the Damage by Flood
The unlined canals may be severely damaged by scouring and erosion causeddue to
the high velocity of flood water at the time of heavy rainfall. So, to protect thecanals from the
damage, the lining should be provided.
To Control the Growth of Weeds
The growth of various types of weeds along with the sides of the canals is acommon
problem. Again, some types of weeds are found to grow along the bed of thecanals. These
weeds reduce the velocity of flow and the capacity of the canals. So, theunlined canals
ww
require excessive maintenance works for clearing the weeds. If liningis provided in the canal
may be increased.
w.E The advantages and disadvantages of the canal lining were discussed below.
 Advantages of Canal Lining
a syE
 It reduces the loss of water due to seepage and hence the duty is enhanced.
 It controls the water logging and hence the bad effects of water-logging are
eliminated.
ngi
nee
 It provides smooth surface and hence the velocity of flow can be
determined.
rin
 Due to the increased velocity, the evaporation loss also be reduced
 It eliminates the effect of scouring in the canal bed.
g.n
 The increased velocity eliminates the possibility of silting in the canal bed.
 It controls the growth of the weeds along the canal sides and bed.
 It provides the stable section of the canal.
et
 It reduces the requirement of land width for the canal, because smaller
section of the canal can produce greater discharge.
 It prevents the sub-soil salt to come in contact with the canal water.
 It reduces the maintenance cost for the canals.
 Disadvantages of Canal Lining
 The initial cost of the canal lining is very high. So, it makes the project
very expensive with respect to the output.
 It involves much difficulty for repairing the damaged section of lining.

 It takes too much time to complete the project work.

 It becomes difficult, if the outlets are required to be shifted or new outlets
are required to be provided, because the dismantling of the lined section isdifficult.
9 what are Different types of canal lining (AU ND 2011)
The following are the different types of lining which are generallyrecommended
according to the various site conditions.
 Cement concrete lining
 Pre-cast concrete lining
 Cement mortar lining
 Lime concrete lining
ww  Brick lining
w.E  Boulder lining

 Shot crete lining
a
 Asphalt lining
syE
 Bentonite and clay lining
 Soil-cement lining
ngi
Cement Concrete lining
nee
This lining recommended for the canal in full banking. The cement concretelining
rin
(cast in-situ) is widely accepted as the best impervious lining. It can resist theeffect of
scouting and erosion very efficiently. The velocity of flow may be keptabove 2.5 m/sec. It
g.n
can eliminate completely growth of weeds. The lining is done bythe following steps.
a) Preparation of sub-grade
The sub-grade is prepared by ramming the surface properly with a
layer of sand (about 15 cm). Then, the slurry of cement and sand (1:3) is
et
spread uniformly over the prepared bed.
b) Laying of concrete
The cement concrete of grade M15 is spread uniformly according to the
desired thickness (generally, the thickness varies from 100 mm to 150 mm).
After laying, the concrete is tapped gently until the slurry comes on the top.
The curing is done for two weeks. As the concrete is liable to get damaged by
the change of temperature, the expansion joints are provided at appropriate
places. Normally no re-inforcement is required for this cement concrete. But

in special cases, a network of 6 mm diameter rods may be provided with

spacing 10 cm centre to centre.
Pre – Cast Concrete Lining

This lining is recommended for the canal in full banking. It consists of
precastconcrete slabs of size 60 cm x 60 cm x 5 cm which are set along the canal bankand
bed with cement mortar (1:6). A network of 6 mm diameter rod is provided in theslab with
spacing 10 cm centre of centre. The proportion of the concrete isrecommended as 1:2:4.
Rebates are provided on all the four sides of the slab so thatproper joints may be obtained
when they are placed side by side. The joints arefinished with cement mortar (1:3).
Expansion joints are provided at a suitable interval.
ww The slabs are set in the following sequence,

a) The sub-grade is prepared by properly ramming the soil with a layer of
w.E sand. The bed is leveled so that the slabs can be placed easily.
b) The slabs are stacked as per estimate along the course of the canal. The
a syE
slabs are placed with cement mortar (1:6) by setting the rebates properly.
The joints are finished with cement mortar (1:3).
ngi
Cement Mortar Lining
nee
This type of lining is recommended for the canal fully in cutting where hard
rin
soil or clayey soil is available. The thickness of the cement mortar (1:4) is generally
g.n
2.5 cm. The sub-grade is prepared by ramming the soil after cutting. Then, over the
compacted sub-grade, the cement mortar is laid uniformly and the surface is finished
with neat cement polish. This lining is impervious, but is not durable. The curing
et
should be done properly.
 Lime Concrete Lining
When hydraulic lime, surki and brick ballast are available in plenty along the
course of the canal or in the vicinity of the irrigation project, then the lining of the
canal may be made by the lime concrete of proportion 1:1:6. The procedure of laying
this concrete is same as that of the cement concrete lining. Here, the thickness of
concrete varies form 150 mm to 225 mm and the curing should be done for longer
period. This lining is less durable than the cement concrete lining. However, it is

recommended because of the availability of the materials and also because of the
economics.
 Brick Lining
This lining is prepared by the double layer brick flat soling laid with cement
mortar (1:6) over the compacted sub-grade. The first class bricks should be
recommended for the work. The surface of the lining is finished with cement plasters
(1:3). The curing should be done perfectly.
This lining is always preferred for the following reasons,
a) This lining is economical
ww b) Work can be done very quickly

c) Expansion joints are not required
w.E d) Repair works can be done easily
a
e) Bricks can be manufactured
Boulder Lining
syE
In hilly areas where the boulders are available in plenty, this type of lining isgenerally
ngi
recommended. The boulders are laid in single or double layer maintainingthe slope of the
banks and the bed level of the canal. The joints of the boulders aregrouted with cement
nee
mortar (1:6). The surface is finished with cement mortar (1:3).Curing is necessary in this
lining too. This lining is very durable and impervious. Butthe transporting cost of the material
is very high. So, it cannot be recommended for allthe cases.
rin
Shot Crete Lining g.n
In this system, the cement mortar (1:4) is directly applied on the sub-grade byan equipment
known as cement gun. The mortar is termed as shot crete and the liningis known as shot crete
lining. The process is also known as guniting, as a gun is usedfor laying the mortar.
et
Sometimes, this lining is known as gunited lining. The lining isdone in two ways,
a) By Dry Mix
In this method, a mixture of cement and moist sand is prepared and
loaded in the cement gun. Then it is forced through the nozzle of the gun with
the help of compressed air. The mortar spreads over the sub-grade3 to a
thickness which varies from 2.5 cm to 5 cm.
b) By Wet Mix
In this process, the mixture of cement, sand and water is prepared

according to the approved consistency. The mixture is loaded in the gun andforced on the
sub-grade.This type of lining is very costly and it is not durable. It is suitable forresurfacing
the old cement concrete lining.
Asphalt Lining
This lining is prepared by spraying asphalt (i.e. bitumen) at a very hightemperature (about
150oC) on the subgrade to a thickness varies from 3 mm to 6 mm.The hot asphalt when
becomes cold forms a water proof membrane over the subgradeThis membrane is covered
with a layer of earth and gravel. The lining is very cheapand can control the seepage of water
very effectively but it cannot control the growthof weeds.
Bentonite and Clay Lining
ww
In this lining a mixture of Bentonite and clay are mixed thoroughly to form asticky mass.
This mass is spread over the sub-grade to form an impervious membranewhich is effective in
w.E
controlling the seepage of water, but it cannot control the growthof weeds. This lining is
generally recommended for small channels.
Soil – Cement Lining
a syE
This lining is prepared with a mixture of soil and cement. The usual quantityof cement is 10
percent of the weight of dry soil. The soil and cement are thoroughlymixed to get a uniform
ngi
texture. The mixture is laid on the sub-grade and it is madethoroughly compact. The lining is
efficient to control the seepage of water, but itcannot control the growth of weeds. So, this is
nee
recommended for small channels only.
10 How can water be lost from a reservoir How can the losses be controlled? (AU MJ
2012)
The water losses from the reservoir may be of the following types: rin
Evaporation Loss g.n
et
The water is lost by evaporation due to the heat energy of the sun. This lossincreases with the
increase of temperature and velocity of wind. The evaporation lossis directly proportional to
the exposed water surface of the reservoir. The more thesurface area, the more is the
evaporation loss.
Absorption Loss
There are some types of plants which grow by the side and some plants orweeds grow on the
surface and bottom of the reservoir. These plants absorb waterfrom the reservoir. This is
water loss by absorption.
Percolation Loss
Complete water tight or impervious basin is not feasible. The basin willconsist of pervious
loose soil or rock, cracks, fissures, etc through which aconsiderable amount of water
percolates. The percolation loss is a major problem inreservoir basin.
The following are the measures that are generally taken to control the water

losses form the reservoir.

Measure to Reduce Evaporation Loss
e) The reservoir should be constructed of less surface area and more depth
f) Tall trees should be grown on the windward side of the reservoir whichact as wind breakers
and hence the rate of evaporation will be reduced.
g) The reservoir basin should be surrounded by plantation or forest area sothat cooler
environment exists within the reservoir area.
h) Certain chemical like cetyl alcohol is spread over the reservoir surface. Itforms a thin film
on water surface reducing evaporation.
Measure to Reduce Absorption Loss
ww
a) The weeds and plants at the periphery of the reservoir should be removedcompletely.
b) The weeds from the surface of the reservoir should be removed.
w.E
Measure to Reduce Percolation Loss
a
a) Geological investigations should be carried out to locate the zones ofpervious formations,
syE
cracks and fissures in the bed and periphery of thereservoir basin.
b) Suitable treatments should be adopted to stop the leakage of water throughthese zones.
ngi
c) Soil stabilization methods should be adopted if the basin is composed ofpermeable bed
soil.
The following are the objects of water management:
nee
a) Supply of water
rin
g.n
The irrigation water should be supplied to the cultivators at the righttime for the maximum
yield of crop.
b) Equitable distribution
The irrigation water should be equally shared by the cultivators.
et
c) Irrigation efficiencies
Optimum irrigation efficiencies should be achieved to enhanceagricultural product.
d) Maintenance of Irrigation system
The maintenance of the irrigation system should be done properly tomake the project
economical.
11 what are different Kinds of participation are necessary for irrigation management
activities (AU ND 2012)
The interaction of physical and organizational aspects of irrigation makes it asocio-
economic process, exemplified by the three focuses of irrigation activity whichare closely
linked with one another:

 Some activities focus on the water which is to be provided in an adequateand timely

manner to crops;
 Other activities focus on the structures which give control over the waterfor its application
to crops; and
 Still other activities maintain the organization of effort which can managethe structures
that control the water.
The first set of activities focuses on water use:
 ACQUISITION of water from surface or sub-surface sources, either bycreating and
operating physical structures like dams, weirs or well, or byactions to obtain for users some
share of an existing supply.
 ALLOCATION of water by assigning rights to users, thereby determiningwho shall have
ww
access to water.
 DISTRIBUTION of water brought from the source among users at certainplaces, in certain
w.E
amounts, and at certain times.
 DRAINAGE of water, where this is necessary to remove any excesssupply.Other activities
a
deal with structures for water control. These are already astandardized classification for
syE
delineating such activities with regard to physicalstructures.
 DESIGN of structures such as dams or wells to acquire water, channelsand gates to
distribute it, and drains to remove it.
ngi
 CONSTRUCTION of such structures to be able to acquire, distribute andremove water.
nee
 OPERATION of these structures to acquire, distribute and remove wateraccording to some
determined plan of allocation
rin
g.n
MAINTENANCE of these structures in order to have continued andefficient acquisition,
distribution and removal of water.Each of these activities relates to and facilities the
preceding water useactivities. They are as relevant to organizational structures as to physical
ones. Whilethe structures required for acquisition, distribution and drainage of water are
basicallyphysical, those for its allocation are essentially legal or contractual. A capacity
forallocation needs to be planned, established, operated and maintained just as surely asdoes
et
the capacity of a reservoir or a drainage system. Even if allocation activities arenot as
material as those for acquisition, distribution and drainage, the parallels interms of the
activities involved are substantial
COMMUNICATIONThis concerns the needs and problems in any of the activity areas
notedabove, conveying information about decisions made, about resource mobilization,bout
conflicts to be resolved, etc. to farmers or any other persons involved inirrigation. One
purpose of communication may be COORDINATION.
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
This must deal with differences of interest that arise form activities ofacquisition, allocation,
distribution, drainage, design, construction, operation ormaintenance, or from organizational
activities generally.Organizational management activities refer both to physical objects like

wateror gates and to social relations among people. Resource mobilization deals mostlywith
materials resources but also with non-material things like information and ideas.Even
acquiring water through dam or pumping facilities is thoroughly socio-technicalbecause
decision-making, resource mobilization, communication, and conflictmanagement are
intimately associated with the physical structures and resource flows.
ww
w.E
a syE
ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et

ww
w.E
asy
E ngi
nee
rin
g.n
et


CE8603 NOTES AMSCE - by WWW - Easyengineering.net 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

CE8603 NOTES AMSCE - by WWW - Easyengineering.net 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.

**Note: Other Websites/Blogs Owners Please do not Copy (or) Republish

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

ww  Uneven Distribution of Rainfall.

 Over Irrigation May Lead To Water Logging

 Land Levelling Is Not Required

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

 It Is Less Labour Oriented

 Initial Cost Of The System Is Very High

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

20) What is called effective rainfall? (AU ND 2012)

Relation between Delta and Duty:

By the definition of duty, it is clear that it matures D hectares of land.

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

Then, Delta= 8.64B/D meter

Main importances of irrigation supplies are discussed below.

 Agriculture is often greatly hampered due to irregular, insufficient or uncertain rain.

Types of Irrigation Efficiency

The following are the various types of irrigation efficiencies:

(a) Water Conveyance Efficiency (ηc):

ηc = WlWr × 100 Where, ηc = Water conveyance efficiency Wl = Amount of water applied

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

(b) Water Application Efficiency (ηa):

ηa = WzWl × 100 Where, ηa = Water application efficiency Wz = Amount of water stored in

(c) Water Use Efficiency (ηu):

ηu = Wu Wl × 100 Where, ηu = Water use efficiency Wu = Amount of water used Wl =

(1) Proper Ploughing:

(2) Methods of supplying water:

(3) Canal Lining:

(4) Minimum idle length of irrigation Canals:

(5) Quality of water:

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

(6) Crop rotation:

(7) Method of Assessment of water:

(8) Implementation of Tax:

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

Bhadra Project (Karnataka): A multipurpose project across the river Bhadra.

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

Hirakund (Odisha): World's longest dam, is located on the Mahanadi river.

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

Koyna Project (Maharashtra): It is built on a tributary of river Krishna with a capacity of

Malaprabha Project (Karnataka): A dam across the Malaprabha in Belgaum district.

MinimatoBangoHasdeo Project (Madhya Pradesh): This project is locted at

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

Pochampad (Andhra Pradesh): Across Godavari river.

Pong Dam (Punjab): It is an important hydro-electric project located on Beas river.

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

Sone High Level Canal(Bihar): An extension on Sone Barrage project.

Tungabhadra Project (Joint Project of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka): On the

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

 reduced downstream flooding

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

 rising water tables

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

 In Baluchistan, Pakistan, the development of new small-scale irrigation projects depleted

ww flood-recession cropping was lost[15]

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

9) What are distribution system of canal irrigation? (AU MJ2010)

Download From: www.EasyEngineering.net

ww13. Improvement of water regime of the irrigated soils.