Theme-I

Chapter-1

➢ Bricks, Beads and Bones: The Harappan Civilisation

Harappan culture-

➢ The Indus Valley Civilisation is also called the Harappan culture.

➢ Distinctive objects seals,beads,weights,stone blades,baked bricks found
from jammu, Baluchistan, Gujarat.
➢ Harappan civilization is dated between c. 2600-1900BCE.

Harappan culture classification-

➢ Early Harappan
➢ Mature Harappan
➢ Late Harappan

Subsistence Strategies-

➢ Grains found at Harappan sites includes wheat,barley,lentil,chickpea.

➢ Millets found from Gujarat, finds of rice are rare.
➢ Cattle, sheep, buffalo,goat and pigs were domesticated.
➢ Harappans hunted boar, deer and gharial.
➢ Bones of fish and fowl are also found.

Agricultural Strategies-

➢ Representation on seals indicates bull was known.

➢ Oxen were used for ploughing.
➢ Terracotta models of plough found in Cholistan and Banawali.
➢ Ploughed field found in kalibangan indicate two different crops were
grown together.
➢ Traces of canals found in Shortughai in Afghanistan.
 ➢ Water reservoirs found in Dholavira used for irrigation.

Mohenjodaro: A planned Urban Centre

Towns ( Lower town)

➢ The settlement is divided into two parts: higher but smaller called citadel
and lower but larger called lower town.
➢ Upper and lower towns were walled
➢ Buildings were constructed on mud brick platforms.

Bricks

➢ Bricks were sun –dried, standardized ratio.

➢ Its length and breadth were four times and twice height.

Roads

➢ Streets were laid down in grid pattern.

➢ Intersect each other at right angles.

Domestic Architecture

➢ Residential buildings were centred on courtyard, with rooms on all sides.

➢ Courtyard was used for various activities like cooking and weaving.
➢ Every house had own bathroom connected with street drains.
➢ Some houses have remains of staircases to reach a second storey.
➢ Many houses had wells, 700 wells were discovered.

The Citadel

➢ Two structures are found- The Great bath of Mohenjodaro and The Ware
house.
➢ The Ware House- it is used in storage of grains for adverse conditions.
➢ The Great Bath of Mohenjodaro- It was a large rectangular tank.
➢ Two flights on north and south leading into the tank.
➢ There were rooms on three sides, in one of was a large well
➢ Water from the tank flowed into a huge drain.
 ➢ In north smaller building had eight bathrooms connected with drain.
➢ It is used for special ritual bath.

Drains

➢ Every house was connected to the street drains.

➢ Main channels were made of bricks set in mortar covered with loose
bricks could be removed for cleaning.
➢ House drains stop the solid matter.
➢ Drainage channels at interval provided sumps for cleaning.

Tracking Social Differences:

Burials

➢ The dead were generally laid in pits

➢ Burials pits were differently made example- the hollowed out spaces
were lined with bricks.
➢ In the mid 1980 in a burial, ornament consisting three shell rings,
hundreds of micro beads found near a male skull
➢ The dead were also buried with copper mirrors.

Artefacts

➢ Artefacts classified into luxuries and utilitarian

➢ Utilitarian Artefacts- includes objects of daily use made of stone or
clay.
➢ Includes querns, pottery, needles, flesh rubbers etc.
➢ Made up with simple technology.
➢ Luxuries Artefacts- rare, made from costly non- local materials with
complicated technologies.
➢ Faience ( material made of silica mixed with colour, gum then fired),
copper, gold, terracotta materials were used.
➢ Found at Mohenjodaro and Harappa

Finding Out About Craft Production

➢ Chanhudaro devoted to bead –making,shell –cutting, seal- making and
weight- making.
➢ Materials used- Stones-Carnelian,Jasper, crystal, quartz and
steatite/Metals- Copper, gold, shell, faience, terracotta (burnt clay)
➢ Shapes-disc shape, cylindrical shape, spherical, barrel shaped
➢ Techniques for making beads differed accordingly to the material.
➢ Steatite- a very soft stone, beads were easily moulded made with steatite
powder.
➢ Carnelian- it is obtained by firing the yellowish raw material, flaked in to
final form.
➢ Grinding, polishing and drilling completed the process.
➢ Shells- found in Nageshwar and Balakot.
➢ Made shell objects like bangles, ladles.

Identifying Centres Of Production:

➢ Unfinished objects, reject and waste material such as stone nodules,
whole shells, copper ore and tools have been found.
➢ Discarded waste fossils have been found in numbers.

Strategies for Procuring Materials

➢ Two ways to get materials for Craft Production- Indoor and Outdoor
➢ Indoor Trade-
Place Materials
Nageshwar, Balakot Shells
Shortughai (Afghanistan) Lapis Lazuli
Carnelian Bharuch (Gujarat)
Steatite Rajasthan, Gujarat
Copper Khetri region of Rajatshan
Gold South region

Outdoor trade: Contact With Distant lands (Western Asia)

➢ Copper brought from Oman and Harappan artefacts had traces of
Nickel.
 ➢ Harappan jar coated with thick layer of Black Clay found at Omani
sites, such thick coating prevent the percolation of liquids.
➢ Mesopotamian text mentions contact with Oman (Magan), Dilmun,
Meluhha.
➢ Meluhha (a Harappan region) provided gold, copper, silver,
carnelian and wood.
➢ Mesopotamian text mentions Haja- Bird (representation of big
ships on seals) means use of sea for trade and Meluhha refers to
seafarers.

Seals and Sealings

➢ It is used to facilitate long distance communication.

➢ A bag of goods, mouth was tied with rope.
➢ The knot was affixed with wet clay on seals were pressed leaving an
impression.
➢ The sealing also conveyed the identity of the sender.

An Enigmatic Script

➢ Most inscriptions are short, longest contain 26 signs.

➢ It was not alphabetical (each sign stood for a vowel or consonant)
➢ It has too many signs 375 to 400.
➢ Written from right to left.
➢ A wider spacing on the right and cramping on left.
➢ Writing has been found-seals, copper tools,rims of jars and bone of
rods.
➢ It is undeciphered.

Weights

➢ Weights made of stone called Chert.

➢ Weights were binary (1,2,4,8,16,32 up to 12,800)
➢ Smaller weights were used for weighing jewellery and beads.

Ancient Authority (Palaces and Kings)

➢ A large palace found at Mohenjodaro labelled as palace, no founds
associated with it.
➢ Priest-king found in Indus region and Mesopotamia, no founds
associated with it about political power.
➢ Some archaeologists opinion, Harappan society had no rulers.
➢ Entire society implemented complex decision.

The End of the Civilisation

➢ By c. 1800 mature Harappan sites such as Cholistan declined.

➢ Expansion of population into Gujarat, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
➢ Evidence of transformation of material culture,disappearance of
weights, seals, beads , long distance trade being disappeared.
➢ Large public structures were no longer produced.
➢ Climatic change, deforestation, excessive floods, drying up of rivers and
overuse of landscape are reason for collapse of entire civilization.

Religious Beliefs

➢ Terracotta figurines of women heavily jeweled regarded as mother

goddesses.
➢ Men seated with one hand on the knee- the Priest King.
➢ The great bath and fire altars found at Kalibangan and Lothal.
➢ Plant motifs, peepal tree motifs indicate nature worship.
➢ One –horned animal called unicorn seems to be mythical creature.
➢ Conical stone objectives have been classifies as lingas.
➢ A figure shown seated cross-legged in a yogic posture regarded as
depiction of “ Proto- Shiva”.

Discovering the Harappan Civilisation: different Archaeologists

Role of Alexander Cunningham

➢ Alexander Cunningham was the first Director General of

Archaeological Survey of India.
 ➢ He used accounts of Chinese pilgrims who visited India between 4th
and 7th centuries C.E to locate early settlements.
➢ He thought that Indian history began with the first cities in Ganga
valley.

Role of John Marshall

➢ John Marshall was the Director General of the A.S.I

➢ In 1924 he announced the discovery of Indus Valley, S.N.Roy in his
book “ The Story Of Indian Archaeology” published this fact.
➢ He brought his experience of working in Crete and Greece.
➢ He excavate regular horizontal units throughout the mound ignoring
the stratigraphy of the site, R.E.M.Wheeler solved this problem.

R.E.M.Wheeler

➢ He took overDirector General of the ASI in 1944.

➢ He rectified the problem of John Marshall saying to follow the
stratigraphy of the mound.
➢ Since 1980, recent excavations have been made in Rakhigarhi, lothal,
Dholavira and Kalibangan.

Role of Rakhal Das Banerji and Daya Ram Sahni

➢ Daya Ram Sahni excavated Harappa in 1920, and Rakhel Das Banerji
excavated Mohenjodaro in 1921 (both were Indian Archaeologists)

Important Terms To Remember:

➢ BP- before present

➢ BCE- Before Common Era
➢ CE- Common Era
➢ C.- Circa means Approximate
➢ Hoards- these are objects kept carefully by people, often inside
containers such as pots, it can be of jewellery or metal objects saved for
reuse by metalworkers.
➢ Linga- a polished stone that is worshipped as a symbol of Shiva.
 ➢ Shamans- men and women who claim magical and healing powers .

Important Harappan Centre:

a) Mohenjodaro- Pakistan
b) Harappa- Pakistan
c) Chanhudaro- Pakistan
d) Kalibengan- Rajasthan
e) Dholavira- Gujarat
f) Lothal- Gujarat
g) Nageshwar, Balakot- Gujarat
h) Rakhigarhi- Haryana
i) Banawali- Haryana
j) Suktagendor- Pakistan
HISTORY (QUESTION BANK)

Chapter-1

Bricks, beads and bones- The Harappan Civilisation

Very Short Answer Questions:

Q1- Which architectural features of Mohenjodaro indicates town planning ?

Q2- How was the lower town of Mohenjodaro distinct from the citadel ?

Q3- Explain any two kinds of bricks used in the Harappan settlements.

Q4-Who was John Marshall? What were the problems in the excavation work of John
Marshall.

Q5- Who was Cunningham ? Mention any one account used by him to locate the early
settlements of Harappan Civilisation.

Q6- Which two archaeologists gave a great contribution in the discovery of Indus Valley
Civilisation ?

Short Answer Type Questions:

Q1-In your opinion, why is the script of Harappan culture considered mysterious or enigmatic
? State the main features of this script.
Q2- Explain the strategies used by the archaeologists to understand socio-economic
differences among the Harappans.

Q3- Describe the religious beliefs of the Harappan people.

Q4- Explain trade relations of Harappa with western Asia.

Q5- Mention three evidences that reflected the disappearance of Harappan civilization by
1800 BCE.

Q6- Discuss in detail about the town planning of Indus Valley Civilisation.

Q7- What were the main subsistence methods of Harappan people ?

Q8- Give brief description of the Great Bath of Mohenjodaro.

Q9- What reasons are given regarding existence of authority and ruler class in Harappan
culture? Explain.

Q10- Explain the exclusive features of the craft production in Chanhudaro.

Q11- Who was John Marshall? How did he mark a change in the Indian Archaeology ?

Q12- How archaeologists identify centres of craft production ?

Q13- Describe briefly the drainage system of the Harappan cities .

Q14- How have historians provided new insight into the subsistence strategies of the
Harappan culture ?

Q15- Describe any five evidences that reflected the disappearance of Harappan civilization by
1800 BCE.

Q16-Describe briefly what has been found in burials at the Harappan cities .

ATTACHED MAP OF IMPORTANT HARAPPAN SITES:

 BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES

Q.1 What are the various sources of the Indus Valley civilization?

Ans: 1. The ruins of various buildings, streets, public buildings etc. throw a lot of light on the Harappan
civilization. The ruins give us an idea of city dwelling with good planning and civic sense.

2. Various specimens of art such as clay toys, metal articles, pots etc. which reveal that they were skilled
craftspeople.

3. Another important source are the Harappan seals. About 2000 seals have been found and of these a
great majority carry engravings of a one horned bull, the buffalo, the tiger and the elephant.

4. The Harappan artisans made beautiful images of metal. A Dancing girl made of bronze is the best
specimen.

5. Terracotta figurines made of fire baked earthen clay have been evacuated. These figures give
knowledge that the people of Harappa worshipped Mother Goddess and some also show a posture of
Shiva surrounded by animals.

Q.2 Why is the Indus Valley civilization also called the Harappan culture?

Ans: 1. The Indus Valley civilization also called the Harappan culture. Archaeologists use the term
“culture” for a group of objects, distinctive in style, that are usually found together within a specific
geographical area and period of time. In case of the Harappan culture, these distinctive objects include
seals, beads, weights, stone blades and even baked bricks. These objects were found from areas as far
apart as Afghanistan, Jammu, Baluchistan and Gujarat.

2. Named after Harappa, the first site where this unique culture was discovered, the civilization is dated
between c.2600 and 1900 BCE.

3. There were earlier and later cultures, often called Early Harappan and Late Harappan in the same
area. The Harappan civilization is sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture

To distinguish it from these cultures.

Q.3 What do you know of the subsistence strategies of the Harappans?

Ans: The Mature Harappan culture developed in some of the areas occupied by the Early Harappan
cultures. These cultures also shared certain common elements including subsistence strategies.

1. The Harappans ate a wide range of plant and animal products, including fish. Archaeologists
have been able to reconstruct dietary practices from finds of charred grains and seeds. Grains
found at Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame. Millets are found
from sites in Gujarat. Finds of rice are relatively rare.
2. Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig.
Studies done by archaeo-zoologists indicate that these animals were domesticated. Bones of
wild species such as boar, ghariyal and deer are also found. We do not know whether the
Harappans hunted these animals or obtained meat from other hunting communities. Bones of
fish and fowl are also found.
Q.4 Describe the agricultural technologies adopted by the Harappans.

Ans: While the prevalence of agriculture is indicated by finds of grains, it is more difficult to reconstruct
actual agricultural practices.

1. Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and
archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for ploughing. Moreover, terracotta
models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at Banawali (Haryana).
2. Archaeologists have also found evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan (Rajasthan),
associated with Early Harappan levels. The field had two sets of furrows at right angles to each
other, suggesting that two different crops were grown together. Archaeologists have also tried
to identify the tools used for harvesting.
3. Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was probably required for
agriculture. Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan,
but not in Punjab or Sind. It is possible that ancient canals silted up long ago. It is also likely that
water drawn from those wells was used for irrigation. Besides, water reservoirs found in
Dholavira (Gujarat) may have been used to store water for agriculture.

Q.5 How were the Harappan cities planned?

Ans: Perhaps the most unique feature of the Harappan civilization was the development of urban
centers.

1. Although Mohenjodaro is the most well-known site, the first site to be discovered was Harappa.

The settlement is divided into two sections, one smaller but higher and the other much larger but
lower. Archaeologists designate these as the Citadel and the Lower Town respectively. The Citadel
owes its height to the fact that buildings were constructed on mud brick platforms. It was walled,
which meant that it was physically separated from the Lower Town.

2. The Lower Town was also walled. Several buildings were built on platforms which served a as
foundations. It has been calculated that if one laborer moved roughly a cubic meter of earth
daily, just to put the foundations in place, it would have required four million person-days, in
other words, mobilizing labor on a very large scale.
3. Once the platforms were in place, all building activity within the city was restricted to a fixed
area on the platforms. So it seems that the settlement was first planned and then implemented
accordingly. Other signs of planning include bricks, which, whether sun dried or baked, were of a
standardized ratio, where the length and breadth were four times twice the height respectively.
Such bricks were used at all Harappan sites.

Q.6 Briefly describe the drainage system of the Harappan cities.

Ans: One of the most distinctive features of Harappan cities was the carefully planned Drainage system.

1. Roads and streets were laid out along an approximate “grid” pattern, intersecting at right
angles.
2. It seems that the streets with drains were laid out first and then houses built along them.
3. If domestic waste water had to flow to the street drains, every house needed to have at least
one wall along a street.
 4. The sewage lines ran through the middle streets and were adequately covered with stones. This
brick lined drainage system was distinctive and could carry rain water from the streets.
5. The main channels were made of bricks and were covered with loose bricks that could be
removed for cleaning. In some instances, limestone was used for covers. House drains were
emptied into a cesspit and then flowed into street drains.

Q.7 Provide a brief layout of the houses in Mohenjodaro.

Ans: The Lower Town at Mohenjodaro provides examples of residential buildings.

1. Many were centered on a courtyard, with rooms on all sides. The courtyard was probably the
center of activities such as cooking and weaving, particularly during hot and dry weather.
2. There was an apparent concern for privacy: there are no windows in the walls along the ground
level. Besides, the main entrance does not give a direct view of the interior or the courtyard.
3. Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with drains connected through the wall to
the street drains.
4. Some houses have remains of staircases to reach a second storey or the roof.
5. Many houses had wells, often in a room that could be reached from the outside and perhaps
used by passers-by. Scholars have estimated that the total number of wells in Mohenjodaro was
about 700.

Q.8 What was the Great Bath? Why was it unique?

Ans: It is on the Citadel that we find evidence of structures that were probably used for special public
purposes. These include the Warehouse- a massive structure of which the lower brick portions remain,
while the upper portions, probably of wood, decayed long ago – and the Great Bath.

1. The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four
sides.
2. There were two flights of steps on the north and south leading into the tank, which was made
watertight by setting bricks on edge and using a mortar of gypsum.
3. There were rooms on three sides, in one of which was a large well. Water from the tank flowed
into a huge drain.
4. Across a lane to the north lay a smaller building with eight bathrooms, four on each side of the
corridor, with drains from each bathroom connecting to a drain that ran along the corridor.
5. The uniqueness of the structure, as well as the context in which it was found (the Citadel) has
led scholars to suggest that it was meant for some kind of a special ritual bath.

Q.9 How do archaeologists trace socio-economic differences in Harappan society? What are the
differences that they notice?

Ans: Archaeologists generally use certain strategies to find out whether there were social or economic
differences amongst people loving within a particular culture.

BURIALS

1. At burials in Harappan sites the dead were generally laid in pits. Sometimes there were
differences in the way the burial pit was made – in some instances, the hollowed out spaces
were lined with bricks which could be an indivation of social differences.
 2. Some graves contain pottery and ornaments, perhaps indicating a belief that these could be
used in the afterlife. Jewelry has been found in burials of both men and women. In fact, in the
excavations in the cemetery in Harappa in the mid-1980s, an ornament consisting of three shell
rings, a jasper bead and hundreds of micro beads was found near the skull of a male. In some
instances the dead were buried with copper mirrors.

ARTEFACTS

Another strategy to identify social differences is to study artefacts, which archaeologists broadly classify
as utilitarian and luxuries.

1. The first category includes objects of daily use made fairly easily out of ordinary materials such
as stone or clay. These include querns, pottery, needles, fresh rubbers (body scrubbers) etc., and
are usually found distributed throughout settlements. Archaeologists assume objects were
luxuries if they are rare or made from faience (a material made from ground sand or silica mixed
with color and a gum and then fired) were probably considered precious because they were
difficult to make.
2. The situation becomes more complicated when we find what seems to be articles of daily use,
such as spindle whorls made of rare material such as faience.
3. If we study the distribution of such artefacts, we find that rare objects made of valuable
materials are generally concentrated in large settlements. For example, miniature pots of
faience, perhaps used as perfume bottles are found mostly in Mohenjodaro and Harappa, and
there are none from small settlements like Kalibangan. Gold too was rare, and as at present,
probably precious – all the gold jewelry found at Harappan sites was recovered from hoards.

Q.10 List the materials used to make beads in the Harappan civilization. Describe the process by which
any one kind of bead was made.

1. (a) The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: stones like carnelian, jasper, crystal,
quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.
Some beads were made of two or more stones, cemented together, some of stone with gold caps.

(b) The shapes were numerous – disc shaped, cylindrical, and spherical, barrel shaped, segmented.

(c) Some were decorated by incising or painting, and some had designs etched onto them.

2. Techniques for making beads differed according to the material. Steatite, a very soft stone, was easily
worked. Some beads were molded out of a paste made with steatite powder. This permitted making a
variety of shapes unlike the geometrical forms made out of harder stones.

3. Archaeologist’s experiments have revealed that red color of carnelian was obtained by firing the
yellowish raw material and beads at various stages of production. Nodules were chipped into rough
shapes and then finally flaked into the final form. Grinding, polishing and drilling completed the process.
Specialized drills have been found at Chanhudaro, Lothal and more recently at Dholavira.

4. Nageshwar and Balakot were specialized centers for making shell objects – including bangles, ladles
and inlay – which were taken to other settlements. Similarly, it is likely that finished products (such as
beads) from Chanhudaro and Lothal were taken to large urban centers such as Mohenjodaro and
Harappa.
Q.11 How do archaeologists identify centers of production?

Ans: In order to identify centers of production, archaeologists usually look for the following:

(a)Raw material such as stone nodules, whole shells, copper ore

(b)Tools
(c)Unfinished objects
(d)Rejects and waste material.
1. Waste is one of the best indicators of craft work. For instance if shell or stone is cut to make
objects, then pieces of these materials will be discarded as waste at the place of production.
2. Sometimes larger waste pieces were used up to make smaller objects but miniscule bits were
usually left in the work area. These traces suggest that apart from the small, specialized centers,
craft production was also undertaken in large cities such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa.

Q.12 How did the Harappans procure raw material for craft production?

OR

List the raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan civilization and discuss how these
might have been obtained?

Ans: The Harappans procured materials for producton in various ways.

1. (a) The established settlements such as Nageshwar and Balakot in areas where shell was
available.
(b) Other such sites were Shortughai, in Afghanistan, near the best source of Lapis Lazuli, a blue
stone that was apparently very highly valued, and Lothal which was near sources of carnelian(
from Bharuch in Gujarat), steatite( from south Rajasthan and north Gujarat) and metal (from
Rajasthan).

2. (a) Another strategy for procuring raw materials may have been to send expeditions to areas such as
Khetri region of Rajasthan (for copper) and south India (for gold). These expeditions established
communication with local communities. Occasional beads in these areas are indication of such contact.

(b) There is evidence in the Khetri area for what archaeologists call the Ganeshwar – Jodhpura culture,
with its distinctive non Harappan pottery and an unusual wealth of copper objects. It is possible that the
inhabitants of this region supplied copper to the Harappans.

Q.13 Explain the trade relations of Harappa with Western Asia, particularly Oman.

Ans: 1. Recent archeological finds suggest that copper was also probably brought from Oman, on the
south eastern tip of the Arabian peninsula. Chemical analysis have shown that both the Omani copper
and Harappan artefacts have traces of nickel, suggesting a common origin. A distinctive type of vessel, a
large Harappan jar coated with a thick layer of black clay has been found at omani sites. Such thick
coating prevents the percolation of liquids. We do not know what was carried in these vessels for Omani
copper.

2. Mesopotamian texts datable to the third millennium BCE refer to copper coming from a region
called Magan, perhaps a name for Oman, and interestingly enough copper found at
Mesopotamian sites also contains traces of nickel.
 3. Other archaeological finds suggestive of long distance contacts include Harappan seals, weights,
dice and beads. In this context it is worth noting that Mesopotamian texts mention contact with
regions named Dilmun (probably the island of Bahrain), Magan and Meluhha, possibly the
Harappan region. The mention of products from Meluhha: carnelian, copper, lapis lazuli, gold
and varieties of wood.
4. It is likely that communication with Oman, Bahrain or Mesopotamia was by sea. Mesoptamian
texts refer to Meluhha as a land of sea farers. Besides we find depictions of ships and boats on
seals.

Q.14 How were the Harappan seals used to facilitate long distance communication? What did the
sealings convey?

Ans: Seals and sealings were used to facilitate long distance communication. Bags of goods were sent
from one place to another. Its mouth was tied with rope and on the knot was affixed some wet clay on
which one or more seals were pressed, leaving an impression. If the bag reached with its sealing intact,
it meant that it had not been tampered with. The sealing also conveyed the identity of the sender.

Q.15 In your opinion, why is the script of Harappan culture considered mysterious or enigmatic?

Ans: 1. It was evidently not alphabetical (where each sign stands for a vowel or a consonant) as it has
just too many signs – somewhere between 375 and 400.

3. It is apparent that the script was written from right to left as some seals show a wider spacing
on the right and cramping on the left as if the engraver began working from the right and then
ran out of space.
4. It has been found on a variety of objects such as seals, copper tools, and rims of jars, copper and
terracotta tablets, jewelry, bone rods and even an ancient signboard.

Q.16 Write a short note on weights and measures used by the Harappans.

Ans: Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of weights, usually made of a stone claaed chert and
generally cubical with no markings. The lower denominations of weights were binary while the higher
denominations followed the decimal system. The smaller weights were probably used for weighing
jewellery and beads. Metal scale pans have also been found.

Q.17 “The archaeological records provide no immediate answer to Harappa’s central authority.”
Analyze the different views given on the same.

OR

Discuss your ideas about the political and ruling system assumed by different people of Harappan
cultures.

Ans: There are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented in Harappn society. We
can take the evidence of the extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts as evident in pottery, seals,
weights and bricks. Notably, bricks, though obviously not produced in any single center, were of uniform
ratio throughout the region, from Jammu to Gujarat. We have also seen that settlements were
strategically set up in specific locations for various reasons. Besides, labor was mobilized for making
bricks and for the construction of massive walls and platforms. That is why we can say that there might
have been an authority regulating these activities.
1. If we look for a center of power or for depictions of people in power, archaeological records
provide no immediate answers.
a) A large building found at Mohenjodaro was labelled as a palace by archaeologists but no
spectacular finds were associated with it.
b) A stone statue was labeled and continues to be known as the “priest king”. This is because
archaeologists were familiar with Mesopotamian history and its “ priest kings” and have
found parallels in the Indus region. But the ritual practices of the Harappans are not well
understood yet nor are there any means of knowing whether those who performed also
held political power.
2. Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers, and that everybody
enjoyed equal status.
3. Others feel there was o single ruler but several, that Mohenjodaro had a separate ruler,
Harappa another and so on and so forth.
4. Others argue that there was a single state, given the similarity in artefacts, the evidence for
planning settlements, the standardized ratio of brick size, and the establishment of settlements
near sources of raw material.

As of now, the last theory seems the most plausible, as it is unlikely that entire communities could
have collectively made and implemented such complex decisions.

Q.18 Give reasons for the decline of the Harappan civilization.

Ans: 1 There is evidence that by c. 1800 BCE most of the Mature Harappan sites in regions such as
Cholistan had been abandoned. Simultaneously there was an expansion of population into new
settlements in Gujarat, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh.

2.In the few Harappan sites that continued to be occupied after 1900 BCE there appears to have
been a transformation of material culture, marked by the disappearance of the distinctive
artefacts of the civilization – weights, seals, special beads. Writing, long distance trade, and craft
specialization also disappeared. In general, far fewer materials were used to make far fewer
things.
3. House construction techniques deteriorated and large public structures were no longer
produced. Overall, artefacts and settlements indicate a rural way of life in what are called “Late
Harappan” or “successor cultures”.
4. Several explanations have been put forward to explain the decline of the civilization.
a) Some scholars believe that many towns were destroyed because of floods in the Indus. With
the passage of time, they were buried beneath the sands of time.
b) Earthquakes might have jolted various cities.
c) Sites may have been hit by droughts and epidemics which may have resulted in the
destruction of towns.
d) People were defeated in a series of wars/aggressions by the Aryans which led to the decline.
e) Other explanations range from climatic change, deforestation, excessive flooding, the shifting
and/or drying up of rivers, to overuse of the landscape.
5. Some of these causes may hold for certain settlements, but they do not explain the collapse
of the entire civilization. It appears that a strong unifying element, perhaps the Harappan state,
came to an end. This is evidenced by the disappearance of seals, the script, distinctive beads and
 pottery, the shift from a standardized weight system to the use of local weights; and the decline
and abandonment of cities.

Q.19 Why did Cunningham miss the significance of Harappa?

Ans: 1. When Cunningham, the first Director-General of the ASI, began archaeological excavations in the
mid-nineteenth century, archaeologists preferred to use the written words (texts and inscriptions) as a
guide to investigations. In fact, Cunningham’s main interest was in the archaeology of the Early Historic
(c. sixth century BCE-fourth century CE) and later periods.

2.He used the accounts left by Chinese Buddhists pilgrims who had visited the subcontinent between
the fourth and seventh centuries CE to locate early settlements.

3. Cunningham also collected, documented and translated inscriptions found during his surveys. When
he excavated sites he tended to recover artefacts that he thought had cultural value.

4. A site like Harappa, which was not part of the itinerary of the Chinese pilgrims and was not known as
an Early Historic city, did not fit very neatly within his framework of investigation. So, although
Harappan artefacts were found fairly often during the nineteenth century and some of these reached
Cunningham, he did not realize how old these were.

5. A Harappan seal was given to Cunningham by an Englishman. He noted the object, but unsuccessfully
tried to place it within the time-frame with which he was familiar. This was because he, like many
others, thought that Indian History began with the first cities in the Ganga Valley. Given his specific
focus, it is not surprising that he missed the significance of Harappa.

Q.20 What was the contribution of John Marshall to Indian archaeology?

Ans: 1. John Marshall’s stint as the Director General of the ASI marked a major change in Indian
archeology. He was the first professional archaeologist to work in India, and brought his experience of
working in Greece and Crete to the field. More importantly, though like Cunningham he too was
interested in spectacular finds, he was equally keen to look for patterns of everyday life.

2.Marshall tended to excavate along regular horizontal units, measured uniformly throughout the
mound, ignoring the stratigraphy of the site. This meant that all the artefacts recovered from the same
unit were grouped together, even if they were found at different stratigraphic layers. As a result
valuable information about the context of these finds was irretrievably lost.

Q.21 How did R.E.M Wheeler rectify Marshall’s mistake?

Ans: It was Wheeler, after he took over as Director General of the ASI in 1944, who rectified this
problem. He recognized that it was necessary to follow the stratigraphy of the mound rather than dig
mechanically along uniform horizontal lines. Moreover, as an ex-army brigadier, he brought with him a
military precision to the practice of archaeology.

Q.22 Discuss how archaeologists reconstruct the past.

Ans: It is not the Harappan script that helps in understanding the ancient civilization. Rather, it is
material evidence that archaeologists to better reconstruct Harappan life. This material could be
pottery, tools, ornaments, household objects etc. Organic materials such as cloth, leather, wood and
reeds generally decompose especially in tropical regions. What survive are stone, terracotta, metal etc.
1. It is important to remember that only broken or useless objects would have been thrown away.
Other things would probably have been recycled. Consequently valuable artefacts that are
found intact were either lost in the past or hoarded and never retrieved. In other words, such
finds are accidental rather than typical.
2. Archeologists classify their finds. One simple principle of classification is in terms of material,
such as stone, clay, metal, bone, ivory etc. The second and most complicated, is in terms of
function: archaeologists have to decide whether, for instance, an artefact is a tool or an
ornament, or both, or something meant for ritual use.
3. An understanding of the function of an artefact is often shaped by its resemblance with present
day things – beads, querns, stone blades and pots and obvious examples. Archaeologists also try
to identify the function of an artefact by investigating the context in which it was found.
4. Sometimes archaeologists have to take recourse to indirect evidence. For instance, though there
are traces of cotton at some Harappan sites, to find out about clothing we have to depend on
indirect evidence including depictions in sculpture.
5. Archeologists have to develop frames of reference. We have seen that the first Harappan seal
that was found could not be understood till archaeologists had a context in which to place it –
both in terms of the cultural sequence in which it was found, and in terms of a comparison with
finds in Mesopotamia.

Q.23 What are the problems of archaeological interpretation in the reconstruction of the past?

OR

What do you know about the religious practices of the Harappans?

Ans: 1. The problems of archaeological interpretation are perhaps most evident in attempts to
reconstruct religious practices. Early archaeologists thought that certain objects which seemed
unusual or unfamiliar may have had a religious significance. These included terracotta figurines of
women, heavily jeweled, some with elaborate head-dresses. These were regarded as mother
goddesses. Rare stone statuary of men in an almost standardized posture, seated with one hand on
the knee – such as the “priest-king” – was also similarly classified. In other instances, structures have
been assigned ritual significance. These include the Great Bath and fire altars found at Kalibangan
and Lothal.

2. Attempts have also been made to reconstruct religious beliefs and practices by examining seals,
some of which seem to depict ritual scenes. Others, with plant motifs, are thought to indicate
nature worship. Some animals – such as the one-horned animal, often called the “unicorn” –
depicted on seals seem to be mythical, composite creatures. In some seals, a figure shown seated
cross-legged in a “yogic” posture, sometimes surrounded by animals, has been regarded as a
depiction of “proto-Shiva”, that is, an early form of one of the major deities of Hinduism. Besides,
conical stone objects have been classified as lingas.

3. Many reconstructions of Harappan religion are made on the assumption that later traditions
provide parallels with earlier ones. This is because archaeologists often move from the known to the
unknown, that is, from the present to the past. While this is plausible in the case of stone querns
and pots, it becomes more speculative when we extend it to “religious” symbols.
4. For instance, at the “proto- Shiva” seals. The earliest religious text, the Rigveda (compiled c. 1500-
1000 BCE) mentions a god named Rudra, which is a name used for Shiva in later Puranic traditions
(in the first millennium CE). However, unlike Shiva, Rudra in the Rigveda is neither depicted as
Pashupati (Lord of humans in general and cattle in particular), nor as a Yogi. In other words, this
depiction does not match the description of Rudra in the Rigveda.

Please go through all the Passages and Map work from the textbook.