SLOW SAND FILTER

 Screening and sedimentation remove a large percentage of the suspended solids and organic matter present in raw
supplies.
 the resultant water will not be free of impurities, and may contain some very fine suspended particles (discrete, or
flocculated when coagulation is used) and bacteria present in it.
 To remove or to reduce the remaining impurities still further, and to produce potable and palatable water, the water is
filtered through the beds of fine granular material, such as sands, etc. The process of passing the water through the
beds of such granular materials (called filters) is known as filtration. Filtration may help in removing colour, odour,
turbidity, and some pathogenic bacteria from the water.
 Two types of filters are commonly used for treating municipal water supplies. They are;
1. Slow sand gravity filters
2. Rapid sand gravity filters
 A third type of a rapid sand filter works under pressure and is known as a pressure filter.
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 slow sand filters yield a very slow rate of filtration (about 30
th of that given by rapid gravity filters) and require
large areas, and are costly.
 Theory of Filtration =
1. Mechanical straining =
 The suspended particles present in water, and which are of bigger size than the size of the voids in the sand
layers of the filter, cannot pass through these voids and get arrested in them.
 The resultant water will be free from them. Most of the particles are removed in the upper sand layers.
 The arrested particles including the coagulated flocs forms a mat on the top of the bed, which further helps in
straining out the impurities.
2. Flocculation and sedimentation =
 the filters are able to remove even particles of size smaller than the size of the voids present in the filter. the
void spaces act like tiny coagulation-sedimentation tanks. The colloidal matter arrested in these voids is a
gelatinous mass and, therefore, attract other finer particles. These finer particles thus settle down in the voids
and get removed.
3. Biological metabolism =
 Certain micro-organisms and bacteria are generally present in the voids of the filters.
 They may either reside initially as coatings over sand grains, or they may be caught during the initial process
of filtration. these organisms require organic impurities (such as algae, plankton, etc.) as their food for their
survival.
 These organisms, therefore, utilise such organic impurities and convert them into harmless compounds by the
process of biological metabolism.
 The harmless compounds so formed, generally form a layer on the top, which is called schmutzdecke or dirty
skin. This layer further helps in absorbing and straining out the impurities.
4. Electrolytic changes =
 The purifying action of filter can also be explained by the theory of ionisation.
 According to this theory, a filter helps in purifying the water by changing the chemical characteristics of
water. This may be explained by the fact that the sand grains of the filter media and the impurities in water,
carry electrical charges of opposite nature. When these oppositely charged particles and the impurities come
in contact with each other, they neutralise each other, thereby changing the character of the water and making
it purer. After a certain interval, the electrical charges of sand grains get exhausted and have to be restored by
cleaning the filter.
Filter Materials =
1. Sand =
 The filter sand should generally be obtained from rocks like quartzite, and should contain the following
properties: It should be free from dirt and other impurities , It should be uniform in nature and size , It should be
hard and resistant , It should be such as not to loose more than 5% of its weight after being placed in
hydrochloric acid for 24 hours.
 The size of the sand (effective size) D 10 may be defined as the size of the sieve in mm through which 10 % of the
sample of sand (by mass) will pass. The selection of the correct effective size is very important, because too
 smaller size will lead to very frequent clogging of filters, and will give very low filtration rates. Similarly, too
large size will permit the suspended particles and bacteria to pass through it, without being removed.
 The value of D10 for sand to be used in slow sand filters varies from 0.2 to 0.4 mm, while for rapid gravity filters,
this value varies from 0.35 to 0.55 mm.
 The uniformity in size or degree of variations in sizes of particles is measured and expressed by the term called
uniformity coefficient. The uniformity coefficient CU may be defined as the ratio of the sieve size in mm through
which 60 per cent of the sample of sand will pass, to the effective size of the sand. The value of CU for sand to be
used in slow sand filters varies from 1.8 to 2.5 while for rapid gravity filters, this value varies from 1.3 to 1.7.
2. Gravel
 The gravel which may be used below the sand should be hard, durable, free from impurities, properly rounded, and
should have a density of about 1600 kg/m³. Gravel of different sizes are usually placed in 3-4 layers, each of 15-20
cm Depth, with the coarsest size (20 to 60 mm) placed in the bottom-most layer, and the finest size (3 to 6 mm) in the
top most layer.
Types of filters =
1. On the basis of rate of their filtration =
a. Slow sand filters
b. Rapid sand filters
1. Rapid gravity filters
2. Pressure filters
2. On the basis of consideration of gravity and pressure
a. Gravity filters
1. Slow sand filters
2. Rapid sand filters
b. Pressure filters
Construction of slow sand filters =

1. Enclosure tank =
 an open water-tight rectangular tank
 made of masonry or concrete
 bed slope - 1 in 100 towards the central drain.
 The depth of the tank - vary from 2.5 to 3.5 m.
 The plan area of the tank may vary from 100 to 2000 sq. m or more, depending upon the quantity of water to be
treated.
2. Filter media =
 consists of sand layers about 90 to 110 cm in depth, and placed over a gravel support.
 The effective size (D10) of the sand varies from 0.2 to 0.4 mm
 the uniformity coefficient (Cu) from 1.8 to 2.5 or 3.0.
 The top 15 cm layer of this sand is generally kept of finer variety than that of the rest, which is generally kept
uniform in grain size. if different gradations of sand are used then the coarsest layer should be placed near the
bottom, and the finest towards the top. Finer the sand used, the purer will be the obtained water, as more
impurities and bacteria will be removed.
3. Base material =
 The base material is gravel, and it supports the sand.
 It consists of 30 to 75 cm thick gravels of different sizes, placed in layers.
 Generally, three to four layers each of 15-20 cm depth are used.
 The coarsest gravel is used in the bottom most layer, and the finest gravel is used in the topmost layer.
 The size of gravel in the bottom-most layer is generally kept 40 to 65 mm; in the intermediate layers as varying
between 20 to 40 mm and 6 to 20 mm (when two intermediate layers are used); and in the top-most layer as 3 to
6 mm.
4. Under-drainage system =
 consists of a central drain and lateral drains.
 Laterals - open jointed pipe drains or some other kind of porous drains placed 3 to 5 m apart on the bottom floor
and sloping towards a main covered central drain.
 The laterals collect the filtered water and discharge it into the main drain, which leads the water to the filtered
water well. Sometimes, instead of placing it (central drain) in the centre, the main drain is placed along one side
of the tank, and the laterals slope towards it.

5. Inlet and Outlet arrangements =

 An inlet chamber, is constructed for admitting the effluent from the plain sedimentation tank without disturbing
the sand layers of the filter and to distribute it uniformly over the filter bed.
 the outlet chamber (filtered water well) in order to collect the filtered water coming out from the main under-
drain. In order to maintain a constant discharge through the filter, an adjustable telescopic tube is generally used.
 Inlets and outlets are generally governed by automatic valves.
6. Other appurtenances =
 vertical air pipe passing through the layers of sand may be provided, and may help in proper functioning of the
filtering layers. Similarly, arrangements are made in order to control the depth of water above the sand layer (1 to 1.5
m). This depth is not allowed to undergo large variations. In addition, a meter to measure the flow, and a gauge to
measure the loss of head are usually installed. The loss of head caused by the resistance offered by the sand grains to
the flow of water through it, is usually called filter head or filtering head. It is the difference of water levels between
the filter tank and the filtered water well. For a freshly cleaned filter unit, the resistance offered is less, and, therefor e,
the filter head is usually small, say 10 to 15 cm, but goes on increasing as the filter layers get clogged, and telescopic
tube is adjusted by manual labour, so as to maintain a uniform discharge. But when this loss of head becomes high
(0.7 to 1.2 m or so) the filter unit must be put out of service and be cleaned.
Important point in operation and cleaning of slow sand filters =

 Noted that the water entering the slow sand filter should not be treated by coagulants. This is due to the fact that the
dirty skin formed by the floc and carried to the filter considerably affects the economical working of the filter.
 The depth of water on the filter should also be decided carefully and should not be allowed to undergo large
variations. This depth should neither be tool large nor it should be too small. It is generally kept equal to the depth of
the filter sand.
 The loss of head called filter head or filtering head or filtration head (defined earlier) is generally limited to a
maximum value of about 0.7 to 1.2 m. When this limiting value, which is roughly kept as 0.7 to 0.8 times the depth of
the filter sand, is reached, the filter unit must be put out of service and the filter be cleaned.
 The cleaning of slow sand filters is done by scrapping and removing the 1.5 to 3 cm of top sand layer. The top surface
is finally raked, roughened, cleaned and washed with good water. The amount of wash water required is generally
small, say of the order of 0.2 to 0.6 per cent of the total water filtered. Cleaning is repeated as often as necessary until
the sand depth is reduced to about 40 cm or so. A lot of manual labour is required in. cleaning such filters, although
very small quantities of wash waters a needed.
 After each cleaning, the filter is again used and raw water is admitted into it. But the effluents that will be obtained in
the beginning will not be pure and are not used for about 24 to 36 hours until formation of a film of arrested
impurities around the sand grains (i.e. the formation of schmutzdecke) has taken place. Since the filtering action of
slow sand filters depends largely upon the formation of this film, the effluents obtained in the beginning, when such a
film is absent, shall not be pure.
 The interval between the two successive cleanings depends mainly on the nature of the impurities present in water
and also on the size of the filtering sand used in the filter. This cleaning interval however, normally ranges between
one to three months.
Rate of Filtration or Rate of Loading for Slow Sand Filters
 between 100 to 200 litres per hour per m² of filter area.

Efficiency and Performance of Slow Sand Filters

 Slow Sand filters are highly efficient in removing bacteria and other suspended solids from raw waters.
 The extent of bacteria removal is up to 98 to 99 per cent or more.
 These filters will also remove the odours and tastes, particularly those caused by the presence of organic impurities,
such as algae and plankton. However, these filters are less efficient in removing colours of raw waters. Moreover,
they can remove turbidity only up to about 50 mg/l or so.
 not suitable for sedimented waters having turbidities greater than 50 to 60 mg/l or so.

Uses of Slow Sand Filters

 Slow sand filters are best suited for smaller plants and for purifying waters with low colours, low turbidities and low
bacterial contents.
 Require huge surface areas and large volumes of filtering materials and costly and uneconomical, especially for
treating large scale supplies.
 preferred for smaller plants for village supplies or for individual industrial supplies, especially in hotter and under-
developed countries like India.
 RAPID SAND FILTERS OR MECHANICAL SAND FILTERS
 The slow sand filters can filter water at a very slow rate, and thus require huge areas for their installation. In addition
to requiring huge quantities of filtering materials, such filters will, therefore, require huge space which may prove to
be very costly, particularly in congested cities and industrial towns, In order to reduce the requirement of pace and to
increase the rate of filtration, a lot of research was conducted, which finally led to be development of rapid sand
filters, or sometimes called mechanical sand filters.
 The rapid sand filters are of two types;
1. rapid gravity filters - utilise comparatively larger sized sand particles, which allow greater rate of filtration as
compared to that of slow sand filters.
2. pressure filters - utilise the development of pressure over the filtering water and increasing the rate of filtration.
 Rapid gravity filters - for large municipal supplies.
 Pressure filters - for industrial plants and swimming pools.
Rapid Gravity Filters =

 These filters employ coarser sand, with effective size as 0.5 mm or so.
 these filters may yield as high as 30 times the yield given by the slow sand filters.
 Waters from the coagulation-sedimentation tanks are used in these filters and filtered water is treated with
disinfectants, so as to obtain potable supplies.

Construction of Rapid Gravity Filters

1.Enclosure tank =
 an open water-tight rectangular tank, made of masonry or concrete.
 Depth of the tank varies from 2.5 to 3.5 m.
 To achieve uniform distribution of water, the area of the filter units should not be kept larger, and is generally limited
to about 10 to 80 m² for each unit.
 The number of units at a filter plant - estimated by the equation - developed by Morrell and Wallace;
N = 1.22 √𝑄 ; here N = no. of filter units and Q = plant capacity in million litre per day.
 There should be at least two filter units in any plant. And for a plant of more than 9 million litres per day capacity, no
1
single unit should have a capacity greater than 𝑡ℎ of the capacity of that plant.
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2. Filter media
 The filtering media consists of sand layers, about 60 to 90 cm in depth, and placed over a gravel support.
 The effective size (D10) of the sand varies from 0.35 to 0.55 mm.
 the uniformity coefficient generally ranges between 1.3 to 1.7.
 The finer variety should be used towards the top and coarser variety towards the bottom.
3. Base material =
 The base material is gravel and it supports the sand and distributes the wash water.
 It consists of 60 to 90 cm thick gravels of different sizes, placed in layers. Generally, five to six layers, each of 10 to
15 cm in depth are used.
 The coarsest gravel (about 40 mm in size) is used in the bottom-most layer, and the finest gravel (about 3 mm in size)
is used in the top-most layer. The size of the gravel in the bottom-most layer is thus generally kept between 20 to 40
mm; in the intermediate layers, between 12 to 20 mm, and 6 to 12 mm (when two intermediate layers are used); and
in the top most layer, between 3 to 6 mm.
 the distribution of the wash water is the critical function of the gravel layer and hence careful grading and equally
careful placing of the materials is important.
4. Under-drainage system
 In rapid gravity filters, the under-drainage system serves two purposes; viz. (i) to receive and collect the filtered
water, and (ii) to allow the back washing for cleaning of filter.
 Collecting the filtered water during its downward flow.
 Capable of passing the wash water upward at sufficiently high velocity.
 Back washing in fact consists of passing filtered water upward through the bed at such a velocity that it causes the
sand bed to expand until its thickness is 25 to 40% greater than during filtering, depending upon the media.
 A bed is usually washed when head loss through the filter reaches 2 to 3 m.
 The back wash water should usually move up at a high rate of about 300-900 litres/minute/m2 (The rate of application
of wash water should not exceed the settling velocity of the smallest particle to be retained in the filter, which usually
ranges between 0.3 to 0.9 minute; thereby giving a back wash rate of about 300 to 900 litres/minute/m 2 of filter area)
of filter area, or more, depending on the design.
 Since the rate of application of wash water is so much higher than the rate of filtration (i.e., about 6 to 18 times the
rate of filtration which is of the order of 50 to 100 litres/minute/sq. m), the design of the under- drainage system is
primarily governed by the considerations of even and uniform distribution of wash water.
 Various forms of under-drainage systems;
1. A manifold and lateral system type of installation consists of about 40 cm diameter manifold pipe running
lengthwise along the centre of the filter bottom. Taking off from the Manifold in both directions at right angles to
it would be 10 cm dia. laterals. The laterals are placed at about 15 to 30 cm apart.
2. In perforated pipe type of this system
 the lateral drains are provided with holes at the bottom side.
 These holes are 6 to 13 mm in diameter and make an angle of 30° with the vertical.
 The holes are spaced at about 7.5 to 20 cm centre to centre for 6 to 13 mm diameter pipes, respectively.
 They may be either staggered or continuous.
 These perforations (holes) are sometimes lined with brass bushings to prevent corrosion or rusting of the
surfaces of the holes.
 Placing the openings on the underside of the laterals requires supporting the laterals on concrete blocks 40-50
mm above the filler bottom The advantage is that the jet action of wash water is discouraged.

3. In pipe and strainer type of this system

 the laterals are attached to the Manifold pipe.

 Here, holes are not drilled into the laterals.
 Instead of drilling holes, strainers are placed on the lateral drains.
 A strainer, in its simple form, is a small brass pipe closed at its top by a perforated cap.
 Such strainers are placed at about 15 cm apart on lateral drains instead of drilling holes into them.
 When pipe and strainer system is provided, compressed air is used while back washing the filter. This results
in the saving of the wash water.
 When no strainers are used (i.e., in the perforated pipe system), the agitation of sand particles is done by
water-jet, and the back wash is, therefore, required at a high velocity.
 The rate of water application being of the order of 600 to 800 litre/minute/sq. m of filter area; but when
strainers are used (i.e. in pipe and strainer system) wash water is required at low rate of about 250 to 300
litres/minute/ sq. m of filter area, because compressed air assists in agitating the sand particles. The former is
known as high velocity wash, and the latter is known as slow velocity wash.
 Designing the sizes of the pipes to be used in the above system:
(a) The total cross-sectional area of perforations = about 0.2 % of the total filter area.
(b) The cross-sectional area of each lateral = about 2-4 times the total cross-sectional area of perforations in
it, for diameter of perforations 10 mm and 5 mm, respectively.
(c) The cross-sectional area of the manifold = about twice the cross - sectional areas of the lateral drains.
Length of each lateral
(d)  60.
Diameter of the lateral
(e) Maximum permissible velocity in the manifold pipe to provide the required amount of wash water, is
about 1.8 to 2.4 m/sec.
5. Wash Water Troughs =
 The rising dirty wash water which comes out of the filter after cleaning it, is collected in wash water troughs or
gutters, and carried to the main gutter.
 These gutters may be square, V-shaped, or semi- circular in section.
 They may be constructed of concrete, steel, or fibre glass.
 Concrete troughs have vertical sides and V-shapes bottom. The lips of the troughs are horizontal and are all placed at
the same height.
 They should be set at such a height (of about 0.4-0.6 m) that the overflow lip will be at, or somewhere above the top
of the sand rise, otherwise, sand may be washed out of the filter
 Their tops are, therefore generally kept atleast above the sand - bed by a distance of about half the depth of sand (sand
expand by 50% during back washing), and their bottoms kept atleast 5 cm above the top of the sand surface.
 Flat bottom troughs, particularly with clearance above the sand less than half of the depth of sand, cause sand boiling
during washing, and are, therefore, avoided.
 Since the wash water should not travel more than 1 m laterally in order to minimize pressure difference in the filler,
these troughs are generally spaced at about 1.5 to 2.0 m (x) apart, which spacing, limits the horizontal distance
travelled by the wash water before entering the trough to 0.75 to 1.0 m.
 The water surface during washing is hence maintained, as nearly as possible, at a uniform level.
 For efficient working, these troughs should be large enough and should be laid at suitable slopes. They must be made
of such capacity that their sides will act as free-falling weirs for the wash water.
6. Air Compressor =
 During back washing the filter, the sand grains are agitated either by water jet, or by compressed air, or by
mechanical rakes. When compressed air is used, air compressor unit having the required capacity, must be installed.
 Generally, the compressor should be able to supply compressed air for about 4 minutes or so, at a rate of about 600 to
800 litres/minute/sq m of filter area.
 The pressure of the compressed air should be sufficient to overcome the frictional resistances offered by the air pipes
and the column of water lying above the air distribution system.
 The compressed air is supplied either through the laterals or through separate pipe system.
7. Rate Controller =
 a uniform rate of filtration irrespective of the head loss through the filter, rate controllers are required to be fitted at
the outlet end of each filter unit. The most commonly used type of a controller is a venturi-rate controller, which
works on the principle of a venturimeter.
8. A head loss indicator
 a differential type of a mercury gauge, one end of which is connected to the water resting on the sand bed and the
other to the effluents coming from the filter.
9. Meters =
 for measuring discharges at entry and outlet, and also at backwash.
Working and Cleaning of Rapid Gravity Filters
1. working

 Valve 1, is, first of all, opened, which leads the effluents of the coagulation sedimentation basin, to enter the inlet
chamber of the filter. This water gets filtered through the filter beds, and the filtered water can be taken out from the
main drain by opening valve 4. This filtered water can be taken to the disinfection unit. Thus, when filter is in
working condition, only these two valves (t.e. valve 1 and 4) shall be kept open, and all other valves kept closed.
2. Back washing =
 When sand becomes dirty, as it is indicated by the excessive loss of head, the filter must be cleaned and washed.
 For cleaning, the raw supplies as well as the filtered supplies have to be cut off, bed drained down, and wash water
sent back upward through the filter beds.
 This forced upward movement of wash water and compressed air (if used) will agitate the sand particles, and thus
removing the suspended impurities from it.
 Valves 1 and 4 are closed, and valves 5 and 6 are opened. The wash water and compressed air are thus forced upward
from the under-drainage through the gravel and sand beds. Valve 5 is closed after supplying the required amount of
air. The dirty water resulting from washings, overflows into the wash water troughs, and is removed by opening valve
2, through the inlet chamber into the wash water gutter. The process of washing the filters and removing the dirty
water is generally continued for a period of 3 to 5 minutes.
 After the washing of the filter has been completed, valves 2 and 6 will be closed, and valves 1 and 3 are opened. This
restores the inlet supplies through valve 1, but the filtered water, in the beginning, is not collected, and washed for a
few minutes through valve 3 to the gutter. This is necessary because the remains of the wash water must be removed
from the voids of the filter and a surface mat must be allowed to be formed on sand. Ultimately, valve 3 is closed and
valve 4 is opened to get the filtered supplies again.
 The entire process of back washing the filters and re-maintaining filtered supplies, takes about 15 minutes; and the
filter unit remains out of operation for this much of time.
 The amount of water required for washing a rapid gravity filter may vary from 2 to 5 per cent of the total amount of
water filtered.
 The rapid gravity filters get clogged very frequently and have to be washed every 24 to 48 hours.
 The rate of washing may vary between 15-90 cm rise per minute. A figure of 45 cm/minute is quite acceptable. This
rate can be provided by a flow of 500 l/m² of bed area/minute. Normally 10 to 15 minutes are required in washing,
but in recommissioning, a total of about 30 minutes may be consumed. The pressure, at which wash water is supplied,
is about 40 kN/m².
 Large volumes of wash water containing low concentration of solids (100- 1000 mg/L), will, thus, be evolved from
the water treatment plants, using filters. The filter-back wash, may contain large fraction of organic solids, much
larger than that contained in the sludges of the sedimentation flocculation tanks, because filters do support biological
growth. The filter sludge will have to be suitably disposed of after thickening, to ensure its safe disposal.
 surface wash (new technique of washing) = In this process, clean filtered water is applied to the sand bed from above,
by means of nozzles of special design. The rate of application of wash water may range from 200 to 600
litres/minute/sq m, and it may be applied under a pressure of 10 to 20 m head of water (i.e. 100-200 kN/m²). The
nozzles may either be of the fixed or of swivelling type. The water, letting out of the nozzles, breaks up the filter
surface, and scours the sand particles, thereby cleaning the top layers easily. Since the top layers normally contain the
major trapped impurities, which cannot be easily cleaned by back washing without causing troubles such as formation
of mud balls*, etc., surface wash may be used to supplement the back wash. This will increase the efficiency and
quality of cleaning operations.
Loss of head and necessity of cleaning =
 The water percolating through the filter moves downward under the force of gravity.
 This motion is opposed by the resistance offered by the sand grains and the impurities arrested in them.
 The percolating water, therefore, loses some of its head. The loss of head can be easily computed by knowing the
water level in the filter and the pressure of water in the outlet pipe. The difference between the two heads will give
the loss of head, called filter head or filtration head.
 When the filter is newly commissioned, the loss of head, usually called initial head loss, is generally very small, and
is of the order of 15 to 30 cm. However, the loss of head goes on increasing as the time passes, and as more and more
impurities get trapped into it. A stage is finally reached when the frictional resistance offered by the filter media
exceeds the static head of water above the sand bed. Most of this resistance is caused by the top 10 to 15 cm sand
layer. The bottom sand then acts like more or less a vacuum, and water is sucked through the filter media rather than
getting filtered through it. The fall of mercury level in the piezometer inserted in the outlet pipe below the centre line
of the pipe, indicates the presence and extent of negative pressure. The negative pressure so developed, tends to
release the air dissolved in water. It causes the formation of bubbles, which stick to the sand grains, and thereby
seriously affecting the working of the filter. The phenomenon is known as air binding, as the air binds the filter and
stops its functioning, thereby reducing the rate of filtration considerably.
 The escape of air into the filter media to form bubbles, leading to air binding, may in fact, result from: (i) negative
head; (ii) from increase of water temperature as it passes through the bed; (iii) and occasionally from oxygen released
by algae. Trouble is especially likely to occur if the water is saturated or super-saturated with air in solution. Serious
interference with filtration may result and when the filter bed is washed, the rising air-bubbles may cause uneven
washing and a loss of media sand.
 The remedial measures to avoid air binding are:
1. by avoiding development of excessive negative head, by frequently cleaning the filter, particularly as soon as the
loss of head exceeds the optimum allowable values. On an average, the loss of head is generally limited to 2.5 m
to 3.5 m, and the negative head is about 1.2 m. The depth of water during filter operation may also be increased
by 15-20 cm as compared to the normal depth to increase static head (to compensate the lost head) and, thereby
reducing the negative head.
2. by controlling the growth of algae.
3. by remedying conditions that super-saturate the water with air.
4. by taking precautions if possible against the water getting warmed, as it passes through the plant.