Principle of Chemistry Laboratory (CHEM 1102 LAB)

Department of Chemistry
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NOMENCLATURE, FORMULA WRITING, AND

MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
Abstract: Matter is so diverse that each chemical can no longer be named with common names. Due to
this reason, IUPAC established rules on chemical nomenclature to have a guide for each molecule present
in the world. Through the rules of nomenclature, there is no need to memorize each chemical name
anymore. Writing chemical formulas is also studied. One can now know the chemical formula of
compounds by knowing the valence electrons of the elements or ions involved. Cross over method is an
easy way to manipulate the charges of each component by switching the charges of the elements or
polyatomic ions involved. The molecular geometry of a compound is explained by the Lewis structure and
VSEPR theory where the valence electrons of the components of a molecule bond together through a
central atom, but they repel each other to become stable, thus making a structure explained in molecular
geometry. Linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, trigonal bipyramidal, and octahedral are some of the
structures that molecules can possess.

Keywords: covalent bond, ionic bond, Lewis structure, molecular geometry, nomenclature, oxyanions,
valence shell, VSEPR theory
Introduction
There is an abundant variety of elements and
chemicals not only on Earth but on the entire universe. In
the old times, there was no rules for naming compounds.
According to Eugenio (2019), “common names” were used
to name compounds, like Epsom salts, a compound of
magnesium and sulfate known for a number of health
benefits (Elliott, 2018); milk of magnesia, now known as
magnesium hydroxide used as a laxative and antacid
(Multum, 2018); and many others. As more chemicals were
discovered, it became clearer that naming these great
number of chemicals and compounds is a challenge.
Therefore, IUPAC, or the International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry, the world authority on chemical
nomenclature and terminology, on standardized methods for
measurement, on atomic weights, and many other critically-
evaluated data (IUPAC, 2019), has set rules for properly
naming compounds, which is called nomenclature.
Compounds are combinations of elements, and these
elements combine with either one of the two basic types of
bonding: ionic or covalent. Ionic bonding, or electrovalent colors, the Lewis structure model for different molecules
bonding, is a type of linkage formed through electrostatic
attraction between oppositely charged ions, wherein the
valence electrons of an atom are permanently transferred to unbonded electron pairs (Helmenstine, 2019b).
another atom (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica,
2014). On the other hand, covalent bonding, or molecular
bonding, is a linkage between two atoms or ions where the
electron pairs are shared between them (Helmenstine,
2019a).
Understanding the rules in naming elements and
inorganic compounds, and creating molecular models to
understand their bonding, are the goals of this study.
Materials and Methods
1. Materials
Modeling clays and a pack of toothpicks were used
in making molecular models to understand the bonding of
compounds, and a camera was used for documentation. No
materials were provided by the laboratory and no reagents
were used for the completion of this study.
2. Studying Chemical Nomenclature
A report sheet was provided where elements and
compounds in their chemical formulas were translated into
their chemical names. Chemical formulas are combinations
of atomic symbols and their ratios in a chemical compound
(Garcia, n.d.).
3. Studying Formula Writing
A report sheet was also given where, in reverse to the
former study, elements and compounds where translated
from their chemical names to their chemical formulas.
4. Studying Molecular Models
With the use of toothpicks and clays of different
were created. The Lewis structure, or electron dot structures,
depicts the bond between atoms of a compound as well as
5. Waste Management
No toxic waste was accumulated in this activity.
Materials that were used in this activity should and would
be reused by the students.
Results and Discussion
1. Studying chemical nomenclature
Table 1.1. Chemical formulas of different elements and
compounds and their corresponding chemical names.
Principles of Chemistry Laboratory (CHEM 1102 LAB)
Department of Chemistry
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Chemical formula/symbol Chemical name 2. Studying Formula Writing

SO2 Sulfur dioxide Table 2.1. Chemical names of different elements and
P2O5 Diphosphorus pentoxide compounds and their corresponding chemical formulas.
HgCl2 Mercury(II) chloride Chemical name Chemical formula/symbol
Na2CrO4 Sodium chromate Magnesium Mg
FeCl3 Iron(III) chloride Hydrogen H2
Fe(OH)2 Iron(II) hydroxide Oxygen O2
SrNO3 Strontium nitrate Lead sulfide PbS
CaCO3 Calcium carbonate Ferrous chloride FeCl2
I2 Iodine Aluminum sulfide Al2Cl3
K2SO4 Potassium sulfate Strontium nitrate Sr(NO3)2
Na2CO3 Sodium carbonate Silver chloride AgCl
AuCl3 Gold(III) chloride Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
MnO2 Manganese(IV) oxide Stannic bromide SnBr4
CuO Copper(II) oxide Barium sulfate Ba(SO4)2
CoBr2 Cobalt(II) bromide Carbon dioxide CO2
Examples of chemical formulas were stated in the Carbon monoxide CO
table above. In a PowerPoint presentation by Eugenio Gold fluoride AuF3
(2019), he discussed the common rules for naming Phosphorus trichloride PCl3
compounds: Table 2.1. shows examples of chemical names of
1. For cations with only one type of charge, their names will compounds and their corresponding chemical formulas.
be the same as noted in the periodic table. This is the case Chemical formulas can readily be derived from their
for Na2CO4 (Sodium chromate), Sr(NO3)2 (Strontium chemical names. Batema (2018) explained the way for
nitrate), CaCO3 (Calcium carbonate), K2SO4 (Potassium writing chemical formulas. First, identify the elements used
sulfate), and Na2CO3 (Sodium carbonate). in the compound, which can be found in the periodic table.
2. For cations with different charges, their names will also Also bear in mind the subscripts after each element
be the same as written in the periodic table, while their representing how many atoms of that element are present in
charge is written using Roman numerals after their name. the compound. After that, determine the number of valence
HgCl2 [Mercury(II) chloride], FeCl3 [Iron(III) chloride], electrons as well as the charge present in each atom, which
Fe(OH)2 [Iron(II) hydroxide], AuCl3 [Gold(III) chloride], can be determined by the group number where the atom
MnO2 [Manganese(IV) oxide], CuO [Copper(II) oxide)], belongs. Valence electrons are the electrons that are in the
and CoBr2 [Cobalt(II) bromide] share this concept. outermost shell of a nucleus (Peshin, 2017). Group 1 has a
3. For anions, their names are changed by replacing the +1 charge and has 1 valence electron, group 2 has +2 charge
ending of their names with “ide”. Examples here are and has 2 valence electrons, group 3-12 can have varying
dioxide, pentoxide, chloride, oxide, and bromide. Some number of valence electrons, as well as 13 and 14, while
polyatomic anions also have names ending in “ide”, as in group 15, 16, and 17 have -3, -2, and -1 charges with 5, 6,
the case of hydroxide. and 7 valence electrons, respectively. After knowing the
4. Oxyanions, or polyatomic anions that contain oxygen, charges, it is a goal to balance the formula for it to have no
have names ending in -ate or -ite, -ate for the ion having a charge. By writing the charges as a superscript of the
higher number of oxygen atoms and -ite for the ion with elements, one can determine how to balance the charges.
lower number of oxygen atoms. CrO4 (chromate), NO3 Take aluminum sulfide as an example:
(nitrate), CO3 (carbonate), and SO4 (sulfate) from the table
are examples of these anions.
5. For binary molecular compounds, the element that is Al+3 S-2
farther to the left of the periodic table is usually written first, Figure 2.1. Aluminum and sulfide with their charges, +3
although there is an exception when the compound contains and -2, respectively.
oxygen and a halogen (except fluorine); the oxygen is
written last. Greek prefixes are also used to indicate the Take the LCM of 3 and 2, which is 6, then add
number of atoms of every element, indicated by the subscripts to meet the LCM. For aluminum, 3 when
subscript. SO2 (Sulfur dioxide) and P2O5 (diphosphorus multiplied by 2 will produce a product of 6, and for sulfur, 2
pentoxide) are aligned with this rule. multiplied by 3 will also produce a product of 6, therefore,
I2 (Iodine) is a diatomic molecule, so even though aluminum has a subscript of 2 and sulfur has a subscript of
it has a subscript of 2, it is still called iodine, which is its 3. Combining the two leads to Al 2S3. Strontium nitrate,
name in the periodic table. silver chloride, calcium hydroxide, barium sulfate, and
phosphorus trichloride are also derived to their chemical
 Principle of Chemistry Laboratory (CHEM 1102 LAB)
Department of Chemistry
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formulas using the same concept. STRUCTURES AND IUPAC NAMES

For compounds with their cations having varying
Molecular
charges, the Roman numeral after the cation shows its Drawing Model
Formula
charge. The old system of writing these compounds can also
be used wherein the suffix -ic and -ous replace the end of
the cation, -ic suffix for the higher charge and -ous for the
lower charge. Ferrous chloride has the cation iron, and a H2O2 Bent
suffix -ous, therefore it has the lower charge of iron.
Looking at the periodic table, it is known that iron has a
charge of +2 and +3. The suffix indicates that the iron in the
compound contains the lower charge, therefore, iron has a
charge of +2. CH4 Tetrahedral

Fe+2 Cl -1
Figure 2.2. Iron with +2 charge and chlorine with -1 charge.
Trigonal
PCl3
By doing the same concept of LCM, their LCM is 2, pyramidal
and both need to add subscripts to meet it. Iron will have a
subscript of 1, and chlorine will have a subscript of 2,
leaning to a chemical formula of FeCl 2. This is the same for
Trigonal
lead sulfide, stannic bromide, and gold fluoride. Carbon NH3
pyramidal
monoxide and carbon dioxide also conform with this.
An easier way to know the subscripts of individual
components in a compound is by crossing over the charges
of the elements or polyatomic ions involved. In cross over
O3 Bent
method, the charges of the elements are switched from one
another and is then considered as a subscript or number of
atoms of the element they were switched to (McBride, Bent (on O as
2017). central atom)
HOCN
Linear (on C as
central atom)
Al+3 S-2
Figure 2.3. Crossing over of the individual elements’
BeCl2 Linear
charges of aluminum sulfide.

Through cross over method, the +3 charge of

aluminum was placed on sulfur and the -2 charge of sulfur
was placed on aluminum, leading to a product of Al 2S3. This BF3 Trigonal planar
method can be applied for all the compounds given.
Magnesium is an element, therefore its symbol is
found in the periodic table, while hydrogen and oxygen are
diatomic atoms, thus having a subscript of 2. NaCl

NO2- Bent

VSEPR theory, or Valence Shell Electron Pair

Repulsion theory, is a model used for predicting the
geometry of molecules by minimizing the electrostatic
repulsion of molecules’ valence electrons around a central
atom (Helmenstine, 2018b). VSEPR theory states that
3. Studying Molecular Models
electron pairs in a valence shell around the central atom
Table 3.1.
Principles of Chemistry Laboratory (CHEM 1102 LAB)
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repel on another to maximize the distance between them Figure 3.3. Molecular trigonal planar geometry model made
(Vutturi, n.d.). These electron pairs can either be bonded of clay and stick.
pairs or lone pairs. Powell (2019) defined molecular Trigonal planar geometry is a shape formed by three
geometry as a representation of molecules in a three- bonds and no lone pairs in the central atom, with 120°
dimensional geometric model which helps in showing how between the bonds.
the number of atoms and electrons are arranged, as well as
in predicting the shape of molecules. There are different
structures molecules can adopt: linear, trigonal planar, bent,
tetrahedral, trigonal pyramidal, trigonal bipyramidal,
seesaw, T-shape, octahedral, square pyramidal, and square
planar (Powell, 2019).

Figure 3.4. Molecular tetrahedral geometry model.

Tetrahedral is a shape that results from four bonds
and no lone pairs around the central atom. The atoms
bonded lie at the corners of a tetrahedron, with 109.5°
between them.

Figure 3.1. A chart showing the molecular geometry of

different number of electron pairs. Adapted from
“Nomenclature, Formula Writing and Molecular
Geometry”, a PowerPoint presentation by Eugenio (2019).

Figure 3.5. A geometry model of trigonal pyramidal using

clay and stick.
Trigonal pyramidal is a molecular shape formed
when there are three bond pairs and one lone pair around the
central atom. The atoms have a 109.5° angle between them.

Figure 3.2. Molecular linear geometry model made of clay

and stick.
Generalic (2018) explains the different molecular
geometries molecules can possess. Linear geometry has
atoms deployed in a straight line and has an angle of 180°.

Figure 3.6. A geometry model for trigonal bipyramidal

using clay and stick.
Trigonal bipyramidal is a molecular geometry
formed when five bonding pairs and no lone pairs are
 Principle of Chemistry Laboratory (CHEM 1102 LAB)
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attached to the central atom, with three of the bonds having

120° between them, and the other two are at 90° at the H2O2
atom’s axis. H=1x2=2
T-shaped molecular geometry results when there are O = 6 x 2 = 12
three bonds and two lone pairs around the central atom, Total = 2 + 12 = 14 valence electrons
where the bonded pairs lie at the ends of a T with 90° angles Figure 3.8. Computation for the valence electrons of
between them. Octahedral molecular geometry has six hydrogen peroxide.
atoms around the central atom. Four of the bonded pairs are
positioned 90° away from each other, while the other two Based on the computation, 14 valence electrons are
are positioned perpendicular (90°) to the plane at the present in the molecule of hydrogen peroxide. Through this
opposite ends of the central atom. Square pyramidal results valence electrons, one can now work with the structure of
when there are five bonds and one lone pair on the central the molecule. Conforming with the octet rule, it is important
atom arranged 90° apart from each other. Lastly, square for elements to reach eight valence electrons to become
planar results when there are fours bonded pairs and two stable, but there are exceptions in this concept. Hydrogen,
lone pairs on the central atom with 90° angles apart from for example, only requires two valence electrons to be
one another. stable, while beryllium only requires four, and boron only
Although Generalic (2018) defined the geometries requires six (Helmenstine, 2019a).
thoroughly, he didn’t explain bent and seesaw molecular
geometries. In “Geometry of Molecules” (2019), it is shown Table 3.2. Computation for the valence electrons of
that bent structures have two bonded pairs and either one or compounds found in Table 3.1.
two lone pairs, having 120° and 109.5° from one another, Molecular
Computation of valence electrons
respectively. formula
H2O2
H=1x2=2
H2O2
O = 6 x 2 = 12
Total = 2 + 12 = 14 valence electrons
C=4x1=4
CH4 H=1x4=4
Figure 3.7. A molecular model of bent made with the use of Total = 8 valence electrons
clay and stick. P=5x1=5
PCl3 Cl = 7 x 3 = 21
Seesaw or sawhorse, on the other hand, has fours Total = 26 valence electrons
bonded pairs and one lone pair attached to the central atom,
where the axial and equatorial bonds have 90° between N=5x1=5
them, and the two equatorial bonds have 120° between them NH3 H=1x3=3
(“Geometry of Molecules”, 2019). Total = 5 + 3 = 8 valence electrons
The Lewis structure, also known as electron dot
structure, shows the bond between atoms of a molecules, as O3 O = 6 x 3 = 18 valence electrons
well as any unbonded electron pairs (Helmenstine, 2019b), H=1x1=1
but it does not show the shape of the molecule. This O=6x1=6
structure introduces the octet rule, which states that atoms C=4x1=4
with eight valence electrons are the stable ones HOCN
N=5x1=5
(Helmenstine, 2019b). Therefore, the goal of the pairing and Total = 1 + 6 + 4 + 5 = 16 valence
bonding is to achieve the octet rule and become stable. To electrons
know the Lewis structure of a molecule, write the valence Be = 2 x 1 = 2
electrons of each element in the molecule, multiplying it BeCl2 Cl = 7 x 2 = 14
with the subscript, if there is any. Add the products to get Total = 2 + 14 = 16 valence electrons
the total number of valence electrons present in the
molecule. B=3x1=3
BF3 F = 7 x 3 = 21
Total = 3 + 21 = 24 valence electrons
Principles of Chemistry Laboratory (CHEM 1102 LAB)
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Na = 1 x 1 = 1
NaCl Cl = 7 x 1 = 7
Total = 1 + 7 = 8 valence electrons
N=5x1=5
O = 6 x 2 = 12
NO2-
- 1 charge = 1
Total = 5 + 12 + 1 = 18 valence electrons
The table above shows the number of valence
electrons present in the given compounds. With the guide of
these numbers, one will know the total of electrons, both
bonded and lone pairs, that should be seen in the molecule’s
Lewis structure model. After getting the outline of the
molecule, the VSEPR theory is then applied. Based on the
VSEPR chart, one will understand that H2O2 is a
combination of two bent geometries, where the two atoms
of oxygen serve as the central atom.
For the case of NaCl, there is no molecular geometry
because it is an electrovalent bond. The bond between them
is due to the transfer of electron from sodium to chlorine,
therefore, there is no bond pairing that happened.
Conclusions
After all the studies, it is concluded that through the
rules given by IUPAC in chemical nomenclature, it became
easier to name compounds compared to the common names
used in the old times. Ionic compounds doesn't change the
name of the cation, varying charges uses Roman numerals
to indicate their charge in a compound, anions change their
names by replacing the end with -ide, oxyanions have
names ending in either -ate or -ite, and binary compounds
uses Greek prefixes to indicate the number of atoms in a
molecule. Translating chemical names into their chemical
formulas also became easier. Using cross over method, one
can easily know the chemical formula of a compound based
on their charges. IUPAC also gave names for different
molecular geometries of molecules guided by Lewis
structure and VSEPR theory. Lewis structure shows the
valence electrons of the components of a molecule bond
together through a central atom, and through VSEPR theory
it is shown that they repel each other to become stable, thus
making a structure explained in molecular geometry Linear,
bent, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, trigonal pyramidal,
trigonal bipyramidal, sawhorse, T-shaped, octahedral,
square pyramidal, and square planar are the structures that a
molecule can possess, based on its valence electrons.
References
Batema, C. (2018, March 9). Easy Way to Learn Chemistry
Formulas. Retrieved from
https://sciencing.com/easy-way-learn-chemistry-
formulas-23081.html
Elliott, B. (2018, December 13). Epsom Salt: Benefits,
Uses, and Side Effects. Retrieved from
https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/epsom-salt-
benefits-uses
Eugenio, P. (2019, August 22). Nomenclature, Formula
Writing and Molecular Geometry [PowerPoint
presentation]. Nueva Ecija, Philippines.
Garcia, N. (n.d.) What is a Chemical Formula. Retrieved
from https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-a-
chemical-formula-definition-types-
examples.html#transcriptHeader
Generalic, E. (2019, August 26). Linear Molecular Shape.
Retrieved from
http://glossary.periodni.com/glossary.php?
page=1&en=linear+molecular+shape
Geometry of Molecules. (2019, June 6). Retrieved from
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_a
nd_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/
Supplemental_Modules_
%28Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry%29/
Chemical_Bonding/Lewis_Theory_of_Bonding/
Geometry_of_Molecules
Helmenstine, A. (2019a, July 3). What is a Covalent Bond
in Chemistry? Retrieved from
https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-covalent-
bond-604414
Helmenstine, A. (2019b, May 8). Lewis Structures or
Electron Dot Structures. Retrieved from
https://www.thoughtco.com/lewstructures-or-
electron-dot-structures-607566
Helmenstine, T. (2019a, August 4). Exceptions to the Octet
Rule. Retrieved from
https://www.thoughtco.com/exceptions-to-the-
octet-rule-603993
Helmenstine, T. (2018b, November 1). VSEPR Definition.
Retrieved from
https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-vsepr-
605940
IUPAC. (2019). Who We Are. Retrieved from
https://iupac.org /who-we-are/
McBride, C. (2017, April 24). How to Do the Cross Over
Method for Compounds. Retrieved from
https://sciencing.com/do-cross-over-method-
compounds-7176620.html
Multum, C. (2018, December 10). Milk of Magnesia.
Retrieved from https://www.drugs.com/mtm/milk-
of-magnesia.html
Peshin, A. (2017). How to Find the Number of Valence
Electrons? Retrieved from
https://www.scienceabc.com/pure-sciences/how-to-
find-the-number-of-valence-electrons-in-an-
element.html
Powell, K. (2019, April 18). Molecular Geometry Chart:
Definition, Examples, and Guides. Retrieved from
https://www.biologyjunction.com/molecular-
geometry-chart/
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2014, November
 Principle of Chemistry Laboratory (CHEM 1102 LAB)
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13). Ionic Bond. Retrieved from

https://www.britannica.com/science/ionic-bond
Tuckerman, M. (2011, November 5). Molecular Geometry
and the VSEPR Theory. Vutturi, A. (n.d.). Valence
Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (Vsepr) Theory.
Retrieved from
https://www.adichemistry.com/general/chemicalbo
nd/vsepr/vsepr-theory.html

Questions
1. What are some advantages of having a rule in naming
compounds rather than just giving distinct names?

One major advantage of having rules in naming

compounds is that there is no longer the need to memorize
every compound there is. By knowing the elements or ions
involved, one can readily know what its name or chemical
formula is. Also, because of the diversity of compounds, it
will take a long time to name them just as it will take a long
time to memorize them. Another advantage is that we can
now distinguish between compounds and know which
contains a specific element, because distinct names make
them what the name implies, distinct, so distinct from each
other that it will be hard to know which contains the same
elements. For example, Epsom salt is a product of
magnesium and sulfate, but only saying “Epsom salt”
doesn’t say that it has magnesium and sulfate. But when one
says, “magnesium sulfate”, I will know right away that this
compound contains magnesium, sulfur, and oxygen.

2. Give at least 3 substances that are used at home. What

are their chemical names and molecular formula?

Ammonia is a common cleaning agent at home. Its

chemical name is ammonia itself and has a molecular
formula of NH3. Another is baking soda, used for cleaning
and baking, has the chemical name sodium bicarbonate
(NaHCO3). Battery acid can also be found in our home. It is
used for batteries of cars and other equipment generated by
batteries. It has a chemical name of sulfuric acid and a
chemical formula of H2SO4.