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SOLUTIONS
Abstract: Solutions are a type of mixture that has evenly distributed properties, and for a solution to take
place, solubility of solutes matters. The nature and polarity of the solute and solvent, and the temperature
of the environment affects the solubility of solutes. The rate of formation is the speed of the reactants to
form products, and it is affected by particle sizes, temperature, agitation, and more. Solutions don’t have a
fixed ratio of solutes and solvents; therefore, the concentrations of solutions vary from one another.
Concentrations can be expressed quantitatively through mass percentage, molarity, and molality, among
others.

Keywords: mass percentage, molality, molarity, polarity, rate of formation, solubility

Introduction which will result in an increase in solubility (Tran & Liu,

Mixtures are subdivided into two: the homogenous
and heterogenous mixtures. Homogenous mixtures are
substances that have even distribution of particles, and these
are also called solutions. A solution can exist in any phase,
and it consists of a solute, or the dissolved substance, and
the solvent, or the dissolving substance. In terms of
solutions with components that have the same phase, the
substances that have lower concentration are the solutes,
while the substance with higher concentration is the solvent
(Helmenstine, 2019). The solubility of a substance is its
maximum concentration that can be dissolved in a saturated
solution. A saturated solution has a concentration of solute
that is beyond what its solvent can dissolve, adding more
solutes to a saturated solution will only cause precipitates
(Apodaca, 2017).
Solubility is greatly affected by intermolecular
forces. Strong solute-solvent interactions result to greater
solubility while weak solute-solvent interactions result to
less solubility (Apodaca, 2017; Tran & Liu, 2019). There
are factors that affect solubility: temperature, pressure,
polarity (Apodaca, 2017), and molecular size (Educating
Online, 2019). Generally, in increasing temperatures, solid’s
solubility also increases. This is due to increase in the
kinetic energy of the solvent that results to an increase in
their encounters with the solute, and cause formation of
solute-solvent interactions (Apodaca, 2017). However, this
is not always the case for solids. There are cases when
solids become less soluble as temperature increases. When
an exothermic reaction happens, increase in temperature
causes decrease in solubility. Evolved heat produced by an
exothermic reaction is equivalent to adding a product aside
from the products formed, this shifts the system to the
reactant side to gain equilibrium, resulting in decreased
solubility. In gases, as temperature increases, solubility
decreases, because as kinetic energy increases, gas particles
dissolved in a liquid will more likely escape as gas and
existing gas particles will less likely dissolve. Aside from
that, dissolving gases is usually exothermic (Tran & Liu,
2019).
Pressure’s effects are only significant in the
solubility of gases in liquids. When the partial pressure of a
gas increases, the concentration of the gas will also increase,
2019). Generally, solubility follows the “like dissolves like”
rule; that is, polar solvents will dissolve polar solutes and
nonpolar solvents will dissolve nonpolar solutes (Apodaca,
2017). Lastly, when the pressure, temperature, and polarity
are the same, the ones with smaller particles are usually
more soluble than larger particles (Educating Online, 2019).
According to AUS-e-TUTE (2018), the rate of
formation of solutions is the speed of the reactants to
convert into products. Concentration, temperature, particle
size, catalysts, agitation, and light intensity affects the rate
of a reaction. By increasing the concentrations of reactants,
the number of reactants increases, which increases the
number of collisions, that results to increasing reaction
rates. When the temperature on a reaction increases, the
kinetic energy of the particles increases, the number of
collisions increases, and the reaction rate increases. Smaller
particle sizes increase the chances of collisions that
increases the reaction rate. Addition of catalysts lowers the
minimum amount of energy needed to form products, thus
resulting to higher reaction rate. More agitation increases
the number of collisions, resulting to higher rate of
reactions. Lastly, for some reactions, the intensity of light
increases the rate of reaction.
As explained by Zapanta (n.d.), the concentration of
solutions is expressed qualitatively or quantitatively. To
express the concentration qualitatively, the terms diluted
and concentrated are used. Diluted is the term used when
there is a less concentration of solute in a solution, while
concentrated is the term used when there is a high
concentration of solute in a solution (Key & Ball, 2014).
Quantitatively, expressions like percent by weight, percent
by volume, mole fraction, molarity, molality, and normality
are used to explain concentrations.
Materials and Methods
1. Samples and Reagents
NaCl, glycerine, diluted lead acetate, diluted
NH4OH, diluted HCl, CuSO4, benzoic acid, and diethyl
ether were reagents used for this experiment. Aside from
that, red litmus paper was also used to test the effect of
temperature in the solubility of NH4OH.

2. Determination of the Factors That Affect Solubility
NaCl, benzoic acid, glycerine, diethyl ether, diluted
lead acetate, diluted HCl, and diluted NH4OH were used for
this part of the experiment. The nature of solute, the nature
of solvent, and the effects of temperature were studied.
2.1. Observation on the Nature of Solute
In two separate test tubes, 0.5 g of NaCl and benzoic
acid were placed, then 5 mL of distilled water were added to
each test tube and stirred. After one minute, the solubility of
each substance in water were observed. On another two
separate test tubes, 3 mL of glycerine and 3 mL distilled
water were placed in the first while 3 mL of diethyl ether
and 3 mL of distilled water were placed in the second. After
shaking and allowing to stand for one minute, the mixture
was observed.
2.2. Observation on the Nature of Solvent
On two test tubes, 3 mL of distilled water and e mL
of diethyl ether was placed. An approximately 0.5 g of
benzoic acid was placed on each test tube and stirred. The
mixtures formed were observed.
2.3. Observation on the Effect of Temperature on Solubility
In a test tube, 1 mL of diluted lead acetate and 1 mL
of diluted HCl were placed. After observing, the mixture
was heated. In another test tube, 3 mL of diluted NH 4OH
was placed and heated. A moistened red litmus paper was
exposed on the vapor of the solution. The change in color on
the litmus paper and the odor of the vapor was recorded.
3. Determination of the Factors that Affect the Rate of
Formation of a Solution
The sole reagent used for this part of the experiment
was CuSO4. The effect of the size of the particles,
temperature, and agitation were recorded.
3.1. Examination on the Size of Particles and Its Effect on
the Rate of Reaction
In two test tubes, CuSO4 crystals with approximately
equal sizes were placed, one was pulverized and the other
was not. After that, 5 mL of distilled water were added to
each test tube and stirred. The difference in the rate of
formation of the two mixtures was observed.
3.2. Observation on the Effect of Temperature on the Rate
of Formation
A mixture of 5 mL water and 0.5 g CuSO 4 was
placed on two test tubes. One test tube was heated to boiling
while the other one was left unheated. The difference in
their rate of reaction was recorded.
3.3. Determination on the Effect of Agitation on the Rate of
Formation of Solutions
A mixture of 10 mL of water and 0.5 g of CuSO4 was
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placed on two test tubes. One test tube was shaken while the
other one was left on the test tube rack, untouched. The
difference in their rate of formation was observed.
4. Study on the Concentration of Solutions Based on
Percentage by Mass, Molarity and Molality, and Dilution
The sole reagent that was used for this part of the
experiment was NaCl. Percentage by mass, molarity,
molality, and dilution were studied.
4.1. Study on the Concentration of Solutions Based on
Percentage by Mass
On a top loading balance, 5.01 g of NaCl in a beaker
was weighed. Distilled water was added until the solution
weighed 100 g. The percentage by mass of the solute was
computed.
4.2. Study on the Concentration of Solutions Based on
Molarity and Molality
For this experiment, 14.61 g of NaCl in a beaker was
weighed. The NaCl was then dissolved in 100 mL water.
The molarity and molality of the solution was then
computed.
4.3. Study on the Concentration of Solutions Based on
Dilution
From the solution prepared in Procedure 4.2., 50 mL
was taken and transferred to a volumetric flask (100mL
capacity). The solution was diluted unto the mark on the
flask. The new concentration in molarity and molality was
computed.
5. Waste Management
Wastes generated from procedure A to F (except
wastes with diethyl ether) was disposed to the inorganic
waste container. Wastes with diethyl ether was placed in the
organic waste container. Lastly, wastes generated from
procedures G to I was safely disposed to the drain.
Results and Discussions
1. Determination of the Factors That Affect Solubility.
Table 1.1. Observation on the Nature of Solute.
Mixture Observation
NaCl + H2O NaCl dissolved completely in water
Benzoic acid + H2O Benzoic acid dissolved for some time
but formed a precipitate after one
minute
Glycerine +H2O Glycerine dissolved in water
Ether + H2O Ether settled at the bottom
NaCl, benzoic acid, glycerine, and diethyl ether were
used as solutes on water. After observing for one minute, it
is shown that NaCl dissolved completely in water, benzoic
acid dissolved after shaking but then formed a precipitate,
glycerine dissolved completely in water, and diethyl ether
settled on top of the water.
Molecules have intermolecular forces acting on them
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to keep them intact. Khan Academy (2019) explained solvent-solvent interactions.

intermolecular forces as attractions or repulsions that exist
between molecules. These attractions are categorized as
London-dispersion forces, dipole-dipole interactions,
hydrogen bonding, and ion-dipole interactions. London-
dispersion forces are the weakest and exist in all types of
molecules, whether the molecule is ionic, covalent, polar, or
nonpolar. Dipole-dipole interactions are stronger than
London forces for they exist between polar molecules.
Hydrogen bonding is a special kind of dipole-dipole
interactions for it exist only in the presence of hydrogen
attached to oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine. Ion-dipole Figure 1.2. Glycerine solution (left) and diethyl ether on
interactions are present when an ionic compound reacts with water (right) in two test tubes.
polar molecules (Belford, 2019).
Table salt (NaCl) is an ionic compound, having Table 1.2. Observation on the Nature of Solvent.
sodium as its cation and chlorine as its anion. When NaCl Mixture Observation
reacted with water, the H2O molecules surrounded the ions Benzoic acid + water Benzoic acid dissolved but formed a
of NaCl and broke the bond between sodium and chloride, precipitate after some seconds
which resulted to NaCl dissolving. Benzoic acid has a Benzoic acid + ether Benzoic acid completely dissolved in
molecular formula of C6H5COOH. Polar molecules dissolve diethyl ether
polar molecules and nonpolar molecules dissolve nonpolar Water and ether were used as solvents for benzoic
molecules: “like dissolves like”. Water is a polar compound, acid. Results showed that benzoic acid didn’t dissolved in
and benzoic acid is generally nonpolar. Despite having a water but completely dissolved in ether. Benzoic acid is
polar carboxylic group, benzene itself does not dissolve in therefore more soluble in ether than in water.
water, which is why benzoic acid formed a precipitate when Benzoic acids (C6H5COOH) has a nonpolar benzene
combined with water (Summers, 2018). ring and a polar carboxylic group. Diethyl ethers ((C2H5)2O)
has two ethyl groups which are nonpolar, and an oxygen,
with two lone pairs, that is polar. Both benzoic acid and
ether has a nonpolar part, which readily dissolved one
another through London-dispersion forces, and a polar part,
which dissolved one another through hydrogen bonding.
This resulted to benzoic acid being readily soluble in diethyl
ether.
However, water is a completely polar molecule. Even
though it can do hydrogen bonding with benzoic acid’s
carboxylic group, it cannot dissolve the benzene ring, which
Figure 1.1. NaCl solution (left) and benzoic acid solution is nonpolar. Due to this, water cannot dissolve benzoic acid
(right) on two test tubes. and their mixture resulted to the formation of a benzoic acid
precipitate.
Glycerine is an organic compound with a molecular
formula C3H8O3. Due to the presence of three hydroxyl
groups, which are polar, glycerine is soluble in water, which
is also polar. Hydroxyl groups (OH-) are polar and can form
hydrogen bonding with water, this is the reason why
glycerine dissolved in water. On the other hand, diethyl
ether is just slightly soluble in water and just floats on top of
it. Diethyl ether has a molecular formula (C2H5)2O, with the
oxygen being the central atom. It is slightly soluble to water
because of the presence of two lone pairs in the central atom
that can form hydrogen bonds with water. However, a large
part of diethyl ether molecules is formed by Van Der Waals
forces. Water molecules have hydrogen bonding, and ethers
have Van Der Waals forces acting upon them, and since Figure 1.3. Benzoic acid and water (left) and benzoic acid
they have two different attraction forces, the solute-solvent and ether (right).
interaction is weak compared to the solute-solute and

Table 1.3. Observation on the Effect of Temperature on
Solubility.
Mixture Observation
Before heating After heating
Lead acetate + HCl A white The precipitate
precipitate dissolved
formed
NH4OH solution Colorless, Turned red litmus
pungent paper to blue, it
has a burnt smell
Lead acetate (Pb(C2H3O2)2), combined with
hydrochloric acid (HCl) results to the formation of a
precipitate. When the temperature was increased, the
precipitate dissolved in the solution. When ammonium
hydroxide (NH4OH), a colorless and pungent solution, was
heated, its vapor turned the red litmus paper into blue and
gave off a burnt and more pungent smell.
Lead acetate combines with HCl to form lead
chloride and acetic acid. Lead chloride is solid; therefore, it
became the precipitate of the solution. Lead chloride does
not dissolve because its lattice energy is significantly
stronger than the dissolving forces of the liquid (Carr,
2018). However, when heat was applied, energy was added
to overcome the lead chloride’s lattice energy, which
resulted to it becoming soluble in the liquid, losing its solid
properties. Lead chloride is soluble in 93 parts cold water
but is soluble in 30 parts boiling water (National Center for
Biotechnology Information, n.d.), thus, when temperature
increased, lead chloride’s solubility also increased. The
relationship of temperature and solid’s solubility is,
generally, directly proportional; that is, in increasing
temperatures, solubility of solids also increases.
Figure 1.4. Through the addition of heat, solid lead chloride
dissolved into the solution.
Ammonium hydroxide is a colorless aqueous
solution and has a pungent smell. When it was heated, it
decomposed into ammonia and water. The addition of heat
increased the kinetic energy of the molecules and broke the
intermolecular forces holding water and ammonia together,
thereby allowing ammonia to escape as gas (Larsen, 2019;
Tran & Liu, 2019). Ammonia has a strong, pungent odor
that is extremely irritating, especially to the eyes (National
Center for Biotechnology Information, n.d.). Generally,
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ammonia has a pH level about 11 (Brown, 2018). This is
within the range of alkaline solutions. Due to its alkalinity,
its vapor caused the red litmus paper to turn blue. Unlike in
solids, the relationship of temperature and solubility of
gases is inversely proportional; that is, when temperature
increases, the solubility of gases decreases.
Figure 1.5. The ammonia vapor produced by heating
ammonium hydroxide changed the color of red litmus paper
to blue.
2. Determination of the Factors that Affect the Rate of
Formation of a Solution.
Table 2.1. Examination on the Size of Particles and Its
Effect on the Rate of Reaction.
Mixture Observation
Whole crystal + water Clear, blue solution; dissolved
slower
Powdered crystal + water Cloudy, blue solution; dissolved
faster
When mixed in water, with the same set of time, the
experiment showed that the whole CuSO4 crystal produced a
clear, blue solution, while the powdered CuSO4 crystal
produced a cloudy, blue solution. However, the powdered
crystal mixed with water more quickly than the whole
crystal.
The rate of reaction is greatly affected by the size of
the reactant. With the same mass of particles, the ones with
smaller particles has more surface area, so the chance of
collisions with solvent molecules are larger compared to
bigger solute particles (AUS-e-TUTE, 2018). Because
powdered crystals have more surface area compared to the
whole crystals, it dissolved faster in water than the latter.
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Figure 2.1. Powdered CuSO4 crystal in a solution (left) and surrounded the copper sulfate molecules; however, the
whole CuSO4 crystal in a solution (right). solute-solvent interactions were not enough to break the
solute-solute interactions of CuSO4 quickly, so the rate of
Table 2.2. Observation on the Effect of Temperature on the formation was relatively slow. However, being shaken,
Rate of Formation. there had been an increase in the collisions of water
Mixture Observation molecules and CuSO4 molecules. When the interactions
Before heating CuSO4 crystals settled at the were increased, the chance and rate of solutes being broken
bottom. down by the solvent also increased. Summing up, the rate of
After heating CuSO4 crystals dissolved in reaction increased when shaking was done to the mixture.
water.
When CuSO4 was just added to the water, it only
settled at the bottom and the rate of reaction was slow;
however, upon the application of heat, the crystals dissolved
in water quickly.
Temperature has a significant effect on the rate of
formations of solutions. When heat was applied on the
solution, the rate of formation became faster. On the
molecular level, the application of heat increased the kinetic
energy of the molecules that were in the mixture, thereby
increasing the collisions of solvents and solutes with one Figure 2.3. Unshaken CuSO4 in water (left) and shaken
another. The increase in collisions increased the particles’ CuSO4 solution (left).
interactions, which in turn increased the solubility of the
solute in the solvent. Moreover, the addition of heat 3. Study on the Concentration of Solutions Based on
increased the energy needed to break apart the solute-solute Percentage by Mass, Molarity and Molality, and Dilution.
and solvent-solvent interactions (Clark, The Effect of Table 3.1. Study on the Concentration of Solutions Based
Temperature on Reaction Rates, 2018). The addition of heat on Percentage by Mass.
on the CuSO4 mixed with water aided in the rate of Variables Obtained values
formation of CuSO4 solution. Solute 5.01 g NaCl
Solvent 94.99 g H2O
Solution 100.00 g
After the experiment, it is recorded that the NaCl
solute weighed 5.01 g, and the solvent weighed 94.99 g, for
a total of a 100.00 g solution. The percentage of the solute
in mass was computed.
mass of solute
Percent by mass= × 100 %
mass of solution
5.01 g
% mass= ×100 %
Figure 2.2. Unheated CuSO4 in water (left) and heated 100.00 g
CuSO4 solution (right). = 5.01% NaCl

Table 2.3. Determination on the Effect of Agitation on the Through the results of the computation, it is therefore
Rate of Formation of Solutions. concluded that 5.01% of the solution is made up of NaCl.
Mixture Observation
Without shaking CuSO4 didn’t dissolved in water. Table 3.2. Study on the Concentration of Solutions Based
With shaking CuSO4 dissolved completely in on Molarity and Molality.
water. Variables Obtained values
After conducting the procedures, it is found out that Solute 14.62 g NaCl
CuSO4, when not shaken, didn’t dissolved in water. Solvent 100.0 mL H2O or 100.00 g H2O
However, when shaken, CuSO4 dissolved completely in Solution 100.0 mL or 114.62 g
water. The weight of the NaCl solute was 14.62 g, the
Agitation works in solutions through the same solvent was 100.00 g H2O, and the solution weighed 114.62
process that temperature does. By shaking, the amount of g. The concentrations of the solution through molarity and
collisions among particles are increased, and through the molality was then computed.
collisions, their interactions were also increased. When
CuSO4 was added to the water, the water molecules Computation for molarity:
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mole of solute The final molar concentration of the solution was

Molarity= 1.251 mol/L, and its final molal concentration was 1.251
volume of solution
mol/kg. Compared to the molar and molal concentration
1mol NaCl
Mole of solute=14.62 g NaCl× =0.2502computed
mol NaClfrom the previous procedure, the molar and molal
58.443 g NaCl concentration has now decreased. By diluting, through
1L adding water to the solution, the concentration of the solute
Volume of solution=100.0 mL × =0.1000 L was decreased, resulting to a lower concentration of the
1000mL
solution.
0.2502mol
Molarity= =2.502 mol/ L
0.1000 L
Conclusions
Computation for molality: Solutions are a type of mixture that has its
mole of solute components scattered and distributed evenly. For a solution
Molality= to exist, its solutes should dissolve completely in its solvent.
mass of solvent
Mole of solute = 0.2502 mol NaCl There are many factors contributing to the solubility of a
Mass of solvent = 114.62 g−14.62 g=100.00 g solvent: intermolecular forces of attractions, polarity of the
solute and solvent, and temperature are some. When the
1 kg
100.00 g × =0.10000 kg H 2 O solute-solvent interactions are stronger than solute-solute
1000 g and solvent-solvent interactions, dissolving of solute will
0.2502 mol happen. If both solute and solvent are polar in nature, or if
Molality= =2.502 mol /kg they are both nonpolar in nature, solubility of solute has also
0.10000 kg
a great chance of happening. In increasing temperatures,
As shown in the results, the solution contained 2.502 solids increase in solubility while gases decrease.
moles of NaCl per one liter of the salt solution, or 2.502 The rate of formation is also affected by different
moles of NaCl per one kilogram of water. factors, such as particle size, temperature, and agitation.
Smaller particle sizes have faster rate of dissolving, and
Table 3.3. Study on the Concentration of Solutions Based increase in temperature and performance of agitation also
on Dilution. fastens the dissolving process.
Variables Obtained values Solutions doesn’t have a fixed ratio of solutes and
Initial concentration 2.502 mol/L and 2.502 mol/kg solvents; those components vary from solution to solution.
Initial volume 50.00 mL The concentration of the solution can be measured through
Final volume 100.0 mL percentage by mass, molarity, and molality, among others.
From the previous procedure, the initial molar and
molal concentration of the solution is 2.502 mol/L and 2.502 References
mol/kg, respectively. The initial volume in this procedure is
50.00 mL, then it was diluted until it reached 100.0 mL.
Computation for the final concentration was conducted.

Dilution factor:
C1 V 1 C 2 V 2
=
V2 V2

Computation for molarity:

C =
( 2.502
L )
mol
(50.00 mL)
=1.251 mol/ L
2
(100.0 mL)

Computation for molality:

C =
( 2.502
kg )
mol
(50.00 mL)
=1.251 mol/kg
2
(100.0 mL)
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Apodaca, D. d. (2017). General Chemistry 2. Makati, Philippines: DIWA Learning Systems Inc.
AUS-e-TUTE. (2018, April 8). Reaction Rates (Chemical Kinetics) and Collision Theory Tutorial. Retrieved from AUS-e-
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Text/11._Intermolecular_Forces_and_Liquids/11.2%3A_Ion-Dipole_Forces
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5505219.html
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lead-chloride-insoluble-in-water
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https://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/equilibria/lechatelier.html
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https://www.solubilityofthings.com/basics/factors_affecting_solubility.php
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intermolecular-forces
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Supplemental_Modules_%28Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry%29/Equilibria/Solubilty/
Temperature_Effects_on_the_Solubility_of_Gases
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https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Ammonia
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https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Lead-chloride
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Solubility_and_Factors_Affecting_Solubility
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2. Why is glycerine soluble in water but not in diethyl
Questions ether?
1. Will an increase in temperature always increase the
solubility of the solute in the solvent? Why or why not? Glycerine has a molecular formula of C3H8O3; it
has three OH- groups that can hydrogen bond with water;
No. Generally, solids’ solubility increases as therefore, making it soluble in water. However, diethyl ether
temperature increases. However, those solutions are is nonpolar. Even though it has an oxygen that can hydrogen
endothermic. This means that heat is included as a reactant; bond with glycerine, its two ethyl groups, which are large,
therefore, to reach equilibrium, its system somehow pushes are nonpolar. Nonpolar ether cannot dissolve polar
the heat to the products, which increases solubility. glycerine.
However, there are cases where the reaction is exothermic.
In exothermic reactions, the heat is included as a product; 3. How will you construct a procedure in preparation of 3
therefore, its system somehow pushes the heat to the M NaCl (100mL solution)?
reactants, reversing the solvation process. Therefore, in
exothermic reactions, solubility decreases as temperature
increases (Clark, 2013).
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Qualitatively, a beaker, a spatula, a stirring rod, a

weighing device, and a graduated cylinder are needed to
prepare an NaCl solution. Quantitatively, 3 M NaCl solution
(100 mL solution) can be computed through means and
extremes.

3 mol
1L
??
0.1 L
3 ×0.1 ÷ 1=0.3 mol
58.443 g
0.3 mol × =17.533 g NaCl
1 mol
Therefore, 17.533 g of NaCl is needed for the
production of 3 M NaCl solution (100 mL).