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NegOr Q4 GenBio2 SLKWeek1 v2
NegOr Q4 GenBio2 SLKWeek1 v2
NegOr_Q4_GenBio2_SLKWeek1_v2
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NegOr_Q4_GenBio2_SLKWeek1_v2
FOREWORD
This self-learning kit will serve as a guide for the learners. It will
aid them as they learn new ideas and enrich existing knowledge.
In order to study General Biology, one requires a sense of
discipline.
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OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, learners shall be able to:
K: identify the similarities and differences of plant and animal
reproduction, developemnt, and nutrition;
S: create a Venn Diagram showing the similarities and differences in
plant and animal reproduction, development, and nutrition; and
A: reflect the understanding of the similarities and differences of
plant and animal reproduction, developement, and nutrition.
LEARNING COMPETENCY
Compare and contrast the following processes in plants and animals: reproduction,
development, nutrition, gas exchange, transport/circulation, regulation of body
fluids, chemical and nervous control, immune systems, and sensory and motor
mechanisms. (STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)
I. WHAT HAPPENED
PRE-ACTIVITIES/PRE-TEST
IDENTIFICATION: Complete the statements below by supplying the correct word(s) from
the word pool. Write your answers in your notebook.
A. PLANT
maturation Genetic; nitrogen Scion; stock;
identical cambium
scutellum Propagules Hypocotyl; Stamen
radicle
Straightening; new nutrient Pollination
phytochrome combinations
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this is attached to the _______________, which may be little more than a root. It is
important that the two have their ________________ layers in contact with each other.
5. In the grass seed, the cotyledon is a food-absorbing structure known as a __________.
6. The portion of the seedling below the cotyledons is known as ___________________.
One of the structures included in it is the future root, or _____________________________.
7. The root hairs form in the zone of ________________ of the growing root tip.
8. When the “hook” of a dicot seedling is exposed to light during germination, it reacts
by ________; the receptor substance that initiates this reaction is a pigment known as
_________.
9. _________ is an important nutrient macronutrient because it is part of nucleic acids
and proteins needed by plants.
10. ______ refers to any substance required for the growth and maintenance of an
organism.
B. ANIMAL
Fragmentation Hermaphroditic Sterile
Gamete; zygote Sexual and asexual Develops into a new
generations individual
Essential amino acids Morphogenesis; cellular Calorie
differentiation
Gastrulation Cleavage Inner cell mass; embryo
1. The type of reproduction in which an animal divides into several pieces and then
each piece develops into an entire new animal is called ________________________.
2. In metagenesis there is an alternation of ___________________________________.
3. Parthenogenesis is a type of reproduction in which an unfertilized egg ___________.
4. An individual that can produce both eggs and sperm is described as _____________.
5. Movement of cells to form a tube such as the neural tube is an example of __________;
specialization of cells to form neurons or some other cell types is called _______ _______.
6. The rapid series of mitoses that converts the zygote to a morula is referred to as _____.
7. The cluster of cells that projects into the cavity of the blastocyst is the _________
______________ ______________; it gives rise to the ____________________.
8. The process by which the blastula becomes a three-layered embryo is called ____.
9. _________ is a unit of energy that indicates the amount of energy contained in food.
10. __________________________ are needed for the synthesis of proteins and enzymes.
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which the haploid (n) and diploid (2n) generations take turns producing each other.
The sporophyte (diploid plant) produces haploid spores by meiosis, which then divide
by mitosis and giving rise to the gametophytes (the small male and female haploid
plants that produce gametes: sperm and eggs). Fertilization results in diploid zygotes,
which divide by mitosis and form new sporophytes.
FLOWER STRUCTURE
https://www.sciencevision.in/pollination/
A. Complete - is a plant biology term that is used to describe a flower that is built with
four parts which include the sepals, petals, pistils and stamens.
B. Incomplete - If any of the sepals, petals, pistils and stamens, which are integral in
forming a flower, is missing, a flower is called an incomplete flower.
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Types of flowers based on the presence of the reproductive whorls
A. Perfect/Bisexual – is one in which both male and female reproductive structures are
present. Both androecium (whorl of stamens) and gynoecium (whorl of carpels or pistil)
are located on the same flower.
Example: Roses
B. Imperfect/Unisexual - flower that does not have both male and female structures.
b.1. staminate flower (male)
b.2. carpellate/pistillate flower (female)
Examples: squashes, cucumbers, corn and grasses
Anthers and ovules bear sporangia, structures where spores are produced by
meiosis and gametophytes develop. Pollen grains, each consisting of a mature male
gametophyte surrounded by a spore wall, are formed within pollen sacs
(microsporangia) of anthers. An egg-producing female gametophyte, or embryo sac,
forms within each ovule.
In angiosperms, pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma. If
pollination is successful, a pollen grain produces a structure called a pollen tube, which
grows and digests its way down into the ovary via the style and discharges sperm in the
vicinity of the embryo sac, resulting in fertilization of the egg. The zygote gives rise to an
embryo, and as the embryo grows, the ovule that contains it develops into a seed. The
entire ovary, meanwhile, develops into a fruit containing one or more seeds,
depending on the species. Fruits, which disperse by dropping to the ground or being
carried by wind or animals, help spread seeds some distance from their source plants.
When light, soil, and temperature conditions are suitable, seeds germinate and the
embryo carried in the seed grows and develops into a seedling (Campbell & Reece,
2005).
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Source: http://cikgurozaini.blogspot.com/2010/07/development-of-
angiosperm-gametophytes.html
DOUBLE FERTILIZATION
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Source: http://cikgurozaini.blogspot.com/2013/08/double-fertilisation-in-
angiosperm.html
After double fertilization, each ovule develops into a seed, and the ovary
develops into a fruit enclosing the seed(s). As the embryo develops from the zygote,
the seed stockpiles proteins, oils, and starch to varying extents, depending on the
species. This is why seeds are such major sugar sinks. Initially, these nutrients are stored
in the endosperm, but later in seed development in many species, the storage function
of the endosperm is more or less taken over by the swelling cotyledons of the embryo
(Campbell & Reece).
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Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/7711878/
While the seeds are developing from ovules, the ovary of the flower is developing
into a fruit, which protects the enclosed seeds and, when mature, aids in their dispersal
by wind or animals. Fertilization triggers hormonal changes that cause the ovary to
begin its transformation into a fruit. If the flower has not been pollinated, fruit usually
does not develop, and the entire flower withers and falls away.
During fruit development, the ovary wall becomes the pericarp, the thickened
wall of the fruit. As the ovary grows, the other parts of the flower wither and are shed
(Campbell & Reece).
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Developmental Origin of Fruits
Source: https://biology-forums.com/index.php?action=gallery;sa=view;id=32660
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
Just like the plants, animals reproduce with two principal modes: asexual
(without sex) and sexual (fusion of gametes) reproduction.
Asexual reproduction is the creation of new individuals whose genes all come
from one parent without the fusion of egg and sperm.
Sexual reproduction is the creation of offspring by the fusion of haploid
gametes to form a zygote (fertilized egg), which is diploid.
The female gamete, the unfertilized egg (also called an ovum), is a relatively
large cell and not motile.
The male gamete, the sperm, is generally a much smaller, motile cell.
Sexual reproduction increases genetic variability (one of its advantages over
asexual reproduction) among offspring by generating unique combinations of genes
inherited from two parents. Thus, by producing offspring having a variety of
phenotypes, sexual reproduction may enhance the reproductive success of parents
when environmntal factors (including pathogens) change relatively rapidly.
Asexual reproduction has several potential advantages. For instance, it enables
animals living in isolation to produce offspring without locating mates. It can also
create numerous offspring in a short amount of time, which is ideal for colonizing a
habitat rapidly. Theoretically, asexua reproduction is most advantageous in stable,
favorable environments because it perpetuates successful genotypes precisely.
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Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction
TYPES OF FERTILIZATION
Internal Fertilization External Fertilization
The male generally delivers sperm Mating patners usually release eggs and
cells directly into the body of the sperms into the water simultaneously.
female. Her moist tissues provide the
watery medium required for
movement of sperm.
Examples: Many fish, amphibians, and
Examples: Most terrestrial animals, other sexual aquatic animals use
few fish and some other aquatic external fertilization (the exceptions are
animals aquatic mammals, sharks, and some
other special types of fish)
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
The details of the reproductive process vary tremendously from one organism to
another, and so some generalizations were made about animal reproductive systems
in order to understand its variations.
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REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
MALE FEMALE
1. Male gonad (testis) 1. Female gonad (ovary)
- in which sperm are produced - in which eggs are produced
2. Sperm duct 2. Oviduct
- used for the transport of sperm - a tube for the transport of egg
to the exterior of the body 3. Vagina
3. Penis - the terminal portion of the oviduct
- the terminal part of the sperm responsible for the receiving of male
duct which opens onto or into a copulatory organ
copulatory organ
Source: https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/animals/obelia-structure-diagram-
life-cycle/
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social order; in others, it appears to be an adaptation for survival in times of stressor
when there is a serious decrease in population.
Source: https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/515591857323446143/
C. Hermaphroditism – means that a single organism produces both eggs and sperm.
Although this form of reproduction is still classified as sexual, (since both eggs and
sperms are involved), it is an exception to the important generalization that sexual
reproduction involves two different individuals.
Source: http://www.soilanimals.com/look/soil-food-
web?tmpl=%2Fsystem%2Fapp%2Ftemplates%2Fprint%2F&showPrintDialog=1
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Human Reproduction
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY
Source:https://www.webmd.com/sex-relationships/guide/your-guide-female-
reproductive-system
https://microbenotes.com/female-reproductive-system/
Ovaries - Produce both the egg cell and the sex hormones. Enclosed in a tough
protective capsule and contains many follicles. Egg cell is expelled from the follicle in
the process of ovulation.
Oviducts and Uterus – Egg cell is released into the abdominal activity near the opening
of the oviduct, or fallopian tube. The uterus is a thick, muscular organ that can expand
during pregnancy to aaccommodate a 4-kg fetus. The inner lining of the uterus, the
endometrium, is richly supplied with blood vessels. The neck of the uterus is the cervix,
which opens into the vagina.
Vagina and Vulva – a thin-walled chamber that is the repository for sperm during
copulation and that serves as the birth canal through which a baby is born. Vulva is a
collective term for the external female genitalia. Vestibule, labia minora, labia majora,
clitoris, and Bartholin’s glands are all located in this area having their special functions.
Mammary glands – present in both sexes but normally function only in women. They are
not part of the reproductive system but are important to mammalian reproduction.
Within the glands, small sacs of epithelial tissue secrete milk which drains into a series of
ducts opening at the nipple.
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MALE REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY
Source: https://www.earthslab.com/physiology/male-reproductive-system-locations-
functions-male-reproductive-organs/
https://www.pixtastock.com/illustration/45939563
Testes (singular, testis) – consist of many highly coiled tubes (seminiferous tubules –
where sperm form) surrounded by several layers of connective tissue. The Leydig cells
that are scattered between the seminiferous tubules produce testosterone and other
androgens. The production of normal `sperm cannot occur at the normal body
temperatures of most mammals, and the testes of humans and many other mammals
are held outside the abdominal cavity in the scrotum.
Ducts – from seminiferous tubules, the sperm pass into the epididymis. During
ejaculation, the sperm are propelled from the epididymis through the muscular vas
deferens. These two ducts (one from each epididymis) run from the scrotum around
and behind the urinary bladder, where each joins a duct from the seminal vesicl,
forming a short ejaculatory duct. The ejaculatory ducts open into the urethra, the tube
that drains both the excretory system and reproductive system of male. The urethra
runs through the penis and opens to the outside at the tip of the penis.
Glands – three sets of accessory glands – the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and
bulbourethral glands – add secretions to the semen, the fluid that is ejaculated.
Semen in the Female Reproductive Tract – males usually ejaculates 2-5 ml of semen,
and each milliliter may contain 50-130 million of sperm. Prostaglandins in the semen
cause thinning of the mucus at the opening of the uterus and stimulate contractions of
the uterine muscles, which help semen move up to the uterus.
Penis – is composed of three cylinders of spongy erectile tissue derived from modified
veins and capillaries. During sexual arousal, the erectile tissue fills with blood from the
arteries. As this tissue fills, the increasing pressure seals off the veins that drain the penis,
causing it to engorge with blood. The resulting erection is essential to insertion of the
penis into the vagina.
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HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE
1. VASOCONGESTION – the filling of a tissue with blood caused by increased blood flow
through the arteries of that tissue.
1. EXCITEMENT PHASE – preparation of penis and vagina for coitus (sexual intercourse).
During this phase, vasocongestion is particularly evident in erection of the penis and
clitoris; enlargement of the testes, labia, and breasts; and vaginal lubrication.
Myotonia may occur, resulting in nipple erection or tension of the arms and legs.
4. RESOLUTION PHASE – completes the cycle and reverses the respponses of the earlier
stages.
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Plant Development
Plants are the antennae by which the energy of sunlight is captured in the
ecosphere and then stored in food for later slow, catabolic release in the living cells of
both plants and animals. To many of us, plants are little more than a green mass in the
background of life. Yet more than 99% of our planet’s living matter is composed of
plants; this includes a tremendous variety of algae, vines, shrubs, trees, grasses, and
herbs. Almost all of these diverse plant shapes are variations on a common theme, and
almost all tracheophytes (vascular plants) are composed of just three main parts:
leaves, stems, and roots.
Although a plant begins life as a seed, the seed has a history of development all
its own. The fundamental body plan of a plant is laid down even before a seed leaves
the parent plant (Villee, Solomon & Davis).
Seeds
The seed plants are classified into two major groups, the gymnosperms (are both
male and female; that is, each reproductive organ is either male or female. They are a
group of seed-producing plants that includes conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and
gnetophytes. Gymnosperm means “naked seeds” that is based on the unenclosed
condition of their seeds) and the angiosperms (a plant that has flowers and produces
seeds enclosed within a carpel. The angiosperms are a large group and include
herbaceous plants, shrubs, grasses, and most trees). The angiosperms are then divided
into the monocots and the dicots, mostly on the basis of their seed structure.
SEED STRUCTURE
Source: https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/61924563611781680/
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The Monocot Seed
In a typical monocot such as a grass, the seed is surrounded with a protective
seed coat. The aleurone layer, which lies under the seed coat, functions as a kind of
digestive organ in seed germination. Most of the seeds consist of starchy endosperm,
a food storage tissue that forms separately from the embryo while the seed is still
attached to the parent plant. In some monocots the embryo proper is demarked from
the endosperm by a tough scutellum, and often by another layer known as the
coleorhiza, which protects the future root, or radicle, as it grows out of the seed into
the surrounding soil. All of these structures will be discarded once they have served their
function, leaving only the radicle, the mesocotyl (future stem), and the shoot apex,
which by then will have developed into the mature versions of these structures.
Monocot means “single leaf,” which refers to its only seed structure that appears
to be homologous with a leaf – the single cotyledon. The monocot cotyledon absorbs
digested food from the endosperm. In grass embryos, a very large cotyledon develops,
which is known as the scutellum (Villee, Solomon & Davis).
SEED GERMINATION
Breaking Dormancy
As a first step in breaking dormancy, the embryo emits a hormone called
gibberellin, which diffuses through the seed. In monocots, the hormone then triggers
the production of digestive enzymes by the aleurone; in dicots, the digestive enzymes
are produced by the cotyledons. These enzymes then proceed to break down the
stored food in the endosperm or cotyledons. For example, amylase breaks down starch
to form maltose, which is then cleaved by maltase to yield glucose; and other enzymes
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attack stored proteins, fats, and oils, mobilizing them for the seedling’s use.
The Early Root and Emergence
Microscopic examination of the root tip will disclose a cap consisting partly of
dead or moribund cells at its apex, whose function is largely to protect the tender tissues
from abrasion by soil particles, and in addition to serve as a source of growth hormones.
The actual living tissue, however, is undergoing vigorous mitosis. For that reason, this
part of the root tip is known as the zone of division. It is an apical meristem, a growing
tip of embryonic, differentiating tissue. By the time they have begun to enlarge, they
are left behind in a zone of elongation, which is responsible for most of the lengthwise
growth of the root tip. Since new cells are constantly added to this zone by mitosis,
however, growth continues indefinitely. At the same time, the older portions of the zone
of elongation cease to grow and become incorporated into the zone of maturation,
where tissue differentiation now begins.
PRIMARY MERISTEMS
For the most part, the primary meristems give rise to differentiated tissues such as
phloem and xylem. However, some tissues derived from the primary meristem remain
undifferentiated and form the cambium layers of the stem and the similar pericycle
layer of the root. These eventually form differentiated tissues themselves, but in such a
way as to produce lateral growth and increase in girth.
Leaf Growth
Each leaf originates on the side of the meristem, growing upward as it enlarges
and begins to differentiate. Once its growth is well under way, another group of cells
next to it and somewhat above it begins to grow outward and upward.
Leaf Fall
Leaves age and die in all plants, and in some cases the plant senesces as a
whole. As xylem ages, for example, it becomes clogged with resins and turns to
heartwood. As cells produced by the cork cambium age, they die and become
converted to cork.
The part of a perennial plant that ages most obviously – and sometimes
spectacularly – is the leaf. In deciduous trees, however, all leaves age and die at about
the same time in what happens to be basically a water conservation measure.
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SECONDARY GROWTH
In Dicots
If root and shoot (stem) meristems give rise to all plant tissues, a process of
differentiation must occur behind the growing tips of the stem and the root. In stems,
the earliest trace of differentiation occurs just behind the apical zone of active mitosis.
In the center of the apical bud is a cylinder that develops into the vascular tissues as it
matures. It is appropriately known as the provascular cylinder. On the exterior, potential
epidermis called the protoderm develops. Between the two lies a layer called ground
meristem or ground tissue, which becomes the cortex and the pith.
In Monocots
Secondary growth usually does not occur in monocots. The trunk of a treelike
monocot such as bamboo or a palm tree remains roughly the same diameter from
base to crown.; in fact, the diameter of a palm trunk can be somewhat smaller at the
base than midway between it and the crown. Yet the trunk of a palm seedling is
obviously not nearly as great as is that of the mature tree. What happens is a bit
different than what occurs in dicots. Immediately behind the apical meristem is a
primary thickening meristem that is as great in diameter as the trunk. It is derived from
the apical meristem, which continuously enlarges to produce it. The primary thickening
meristem then lays down vascular and other differentiated tissues to form the stem of
the palm tree.
ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT
Early Development
The Zygote
The zygote is a fertilized egg that has the potential to give rise to all the diverse
cell types of the complete individual.
In most vertebrate zygotes, the cytoplasm contains yolk, which serves as food for
the developing embryo. The amount and distribution of yolk vary among different
animal groups. Yolk is absent from the human zygote.
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Source: https://www.toppr.com/ask/question/a-morula-can-be-differentiated-form-
blastula-in/
The Blastocyst
During this period, its cells arrange themselves into the form of hollow ball called
blastocyst (blastula), eventually forms and nutritive membranes (the chorion and
placenta) that surround the embryo. A little cluster of cells, the inner cell mass,
projects into the cavity of the blastocyst. These cells give rise to the embryo itself.
Source: https://epomedicine.com/medical-students/embryology-week-1-cleavage-
implantation/
Implantation
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Formation of Germ Layers
The cells of the inner cell mass of the blastocyst arrange themselves to form a
two-layered disk. The cells of the lower level then merge to line an inner cavity, the
primitive gut, or archenteron, which will eventually develop into the digestive tract and
certain other structures.
These cells make up the endoderm, while the cells that remain to cover the
embryo and become its outermost layer form the ectoderm. A third layer of cells, the
mesoderm, proliferates between the ectoderm and endoderm.
Ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm are known as the three germ layers, or
embryonic tissue layers. Each gives rise to specific structures in all vertebrate embryos
(Villee, Solomon & Davis).
Source: Villee, C.A., Solomon, E. P., & Davis, P. W. (1985). Biology. USA: CBS College Publishing
Source: Villee, C.A., Solomon, E. P., & Davis, P. W. (1985). Biology. USA: CBS College
Publishing
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Plant Nutrition
The basic photosynthetic reaction combines carbon dioxide with water in two
stages to yield glucose and oxygen. Glucose contains the elements carbon, oxygen,
and hydrogen – the only elements occurring in complex sugars and in most fats. Thus,
the carbohydrates and fats occurring in plants can be made from water and carbon
dioxide alone. However, plants do also require various other inorganic nutrients.
Biosynthesis of compounds such as amino acids, phospholipids, nucleic acids, and ATP
requires the elements phosphorus, nitrogen, and sulfur.
Often the very nutrients a plant requires in modest amounts can poison it when
present in excess. Overuse of fertilizer, for instance, can make the soil hypertonic to the
plant, resulting in osmotic stress that injures or kills the plant. Plants like animals, have
optimum ranges in which nutrients are present in concentrations that best promote
their health and growth.
The uptake of nutrients by a plant: a review. From CO2, O2, H20, and minerals, the plant
produces all of its own organic materials.
Source: https://www.simply.science/index.php/biology/plant-form-and-
function/nutrition-in-plants/nutrition-plant-growth
Nutrient – refers to any substance required for the growth and maintenance of an
organism. The two types of organisms based on the mode of nutrition are:
A. autotrophs – organisms that obtain energy from sunlight and chemicals to produce
their own food.
Example: plants
B. heterotrophs – organisms that cannot make their own food and obtain their energy
from other organism.
Example: fungi
THE MACRONUTRIENTS
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Macronutrients are those nutrients needed by all plants in relatively large
amounts. The following list of required nutrients should be considered as of more than
passing interest, for our lives depend upon them.
A. Nitrogen. Nitrogen was one of the first nutrients to be discovered. Although it
can be provided in the form of nitrate or ammonia, it is usually absorbed in the form of
nitrate. Nitrogen is needed for proper leaf growth and development. A deficiency may
produce yellowing of older leaves or a general lightening of all the green parts of the
plant, combined with a stunting of growth. An excess produces hypertrophy of foliage
and suppresses fruit production. Nitrogen is mainly important as a component of
proteins and nucleic acids.
B. Potassium. Potassium, another early known plant nutrient, is traditionally added
to the soil in the form of wood ash. The main intracellular cation, potassium, is probably
most important for maintaining the membrane potential of pant cells, and perhaps
their turgidity as well (especially in the guard cells of the stomata). Deficiency produces
general symptoms of poor health, which can include localized chlorosis (low
chlorophyll content), or mottling of leaves with small spots of dead tissue at the tips and
between the veins of lower leaves.
C. Phosphorus. Deficient in a great many soils, phosphorus is essential for the
production of such vital compounds as the nucleic acids and ATP. It is needed for
flowering, fruiting, and root development. Deficiency results in small dark green leaves
over the entire plant and the abnormal presence of red and purple colors in the leaves
and stalks.
D. Sulfur. Sulfur is an essential component of protein because of its occurrence in
the amino acids cysteine and methionine. Deficiency produces chlorosis in new leaves
and buds, usually without spotting, and poor root development. Sulfur cannot be
absorbed in elemental form but must be present as sulfate.
E. Calcium. Calcium deficiency results in abnormal growth and cell division, since
calcium is an important component of the middle lamella of cell walls (along with
pectin). Typically, the terminal bud dies, following a period of in which small leaves with
dried-up tips are produced. Calcium has a multitude of cellular functions in the plant
body.
F. Magnesium. Magnesium is required for the action of many enzymes and is
needed also in the synthesis of chlorophyll, which contains it. Deficiency, therefore,
produces mottled chlorosis.
THE MICRONUTRIENTS
Micronutrients are as vital as macronutrients but are required only in extremely
small amounts. The following elements in trace amounts are now known to have a
significant role in maintaining plant health.
A. Iron. Iron is needed in several of the electron transport substances of the cell
(ferredoxin, cytochromes), and in some other materials (e.g., phytochrome). It is also
required for chlorophyll synthesis. Deficiency in iron absorption can occur in soils with
high or low pH. If there is a deficiency, it results to interveinal chlorosis characterized by
yellowing of the leaf along the veins, that is confined to the youngest leaves.
B. Boron. The function of Boron is unknown. Deficiency results in abnormally dark
foliage, growth abnormalities, and malformations. Root tip elongation also shows.
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C. Zinc. Zinc is required for the production of amino acid tryptophan. Since auxins
are derived from tryptophan, zinc is indirectly required for the production of auxins as
well; it is also required as a cofactor for some of the DNA polymerase enzymes.
Deficiency produces small leaves and stunted stems owing to short internodes. In
excess, zinc is poisonous to plants.
D. Manganese. Manganese is required as a cofactor for enzymes in oxidative
metabolism and in photosynthetic oxygen production. Its deficiency produces a
mottled, characteristic form of chlorotic leaf yellowing.
E. Chlorine. Probably required for ionic balance and maintenance of cellular
membrane potentials, chlorine (in the form of chloride) is apparently also needed for
oxygen production in photosynthesis. Its deficiency results in very small leaves and slow
growth. Leaves become wilted, chlorotic, or even necrotic and may eventually
become bronze-colored.
F. Molybdenum. Molybdenum is needed as part of the denitrifying and nitrogen-
fixing enzymes of microorganisms. Molybdenum is also needed by the nitrate reductase
enzyme present in most plant roots. Plants must utilize this enzyme if they are to employ
nitrate as a nitrogen source. However, plants that absorb ammonia as a nitrogen
source do not need molybdenum.
Low productivity was related to molybdenum deficiency.
G. Copper. Copper is a component of some enzymes and cytochromes. Its
deficiency results in a lowered rate of protein synthesis and sometimes in chlorosis.
Young leaves may be dark green and twisted, with dead spots.
Source: http://www.sliderbase.com/spitem-1620-4.html
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Specialized Absorptive Structures
A. root hairs – slender extensions of specialized epidermal cells that greatly increase the
surface area available for absorption.
B. root nodules – localized swellings in roots of certain plants where bacterial cells exist
symbiotically with the plant. The bacteria help the plant fix nitrogen and in turn, the
bacteria are able to utilize some organic compounds provided by the plant.
Routes for the Absorption of Water and Minerals Across Plant Roots:
Source: https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-apoplast-and-vs-
symplast/
Note that the water and minerals from the soil need to reach the conducting tissues of
plants, specifically the xylem.
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Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF), the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into
ammonia (NH3), is exclusively carried out by prokaryotes, such as soil bacteria or
cyanobacteria. Biological processes contribute 65 percent of the nitrogen used in
agriculture.
The most important source of BNF is the symbiotic interaction between soil
bacteria and legume plants, including many crops important to humans. The NH 3
resulting from fixation can be transported into plant tissue and incorporated into
amino acids, which are then made into plant proteins. Some legume seeds, such as
soybeans and peanuts, contain high levels of protein and are among the most
important agricultural sources of protein in the world.
Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/nutritional-
adaptations-of-plants/
A nutrient depletion zone can develop when there is rapid soil solution uptake,
low nutrient concentration, low diffusion rate, or low soil moisture. These conditions are
very common; therefore, most plants rely on fungi to facilitate the uptake of minerals
from the soil. Mycorrhizae, known as root fungi, form symbiotic associations with plant
roots. In these associations, the fungi are actually integrated into the physical
structure of the root. The fungi colonize the living root tissue during active plant
growth.
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Through mycorrhization, the plant obtains phosphate and other minerals, such
as zinc and copper, from the soil. The fungus obtains nutrients, such as sugars, from
the plant root. Mycorrhizae help increase the surface area of the plant root system
because hyphae, which are narrow, can spread beyond the nutrient depletion zone.
Hyphae are long extensions of the fungus, which can grow into small soil pores that
allow access to phosphorus otherwise unavailable to the plant. The beneficial effect
on the plant is best observed in poor soils. The benefit to fungi is that they can obtain
up to 20 percent of the total carbon accessed by plants. Mycorrhizae function as a
physical barrier to pathogens. They also provides an induction of generalized host
defense mechanisms, which sometimes involves the production of antibiotic
compounds by the fungi. Fungi have also been found to have a protective role for
plants rooted in soils with high metal concentrations, such as acidic and
contaminated soils.
Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/nutritional-
adaptations-of-plants/
Plant Parasites
A parasitic plant depends on its host for survival. Some parasitic plants have no
leaves. An example of this is the dodder, which has a weak, cylindrical stem that coils
around the host and forms suckers. From these suckers, cells invade the host stem and
grow to connect with the vascular bundles of the host. The parasitic plant obtains
water and nutrients through these connections. The plant is a total parasite (a
holoparasite) because it is completely dependent on its host. Other parasitic plants,
called hemiparasites, are fully photosynthetic and only use the host for water and
minerals. There are about 4,100 species of parasitic plants.
Animal Nutrition
According to Johnson and Raven, Calorie is a unit of energy that indicates the
amount of energy contained in food. It specifically refers to the amount of heat
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energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg (2.2 lb.) of water by 1oC (1.8oF). And
so, the greater the number of Calories in a quantity of food, the greater energy it
contains.
1. Carbohydrates – serve as a major energy source for the cells in the body. These are
usually obtained from grains, cereals, breads, fruits and vegetables. On average,
carbohydrates contain 4 Calories per gram.
2. Proteins – can also be used as an energy source but the body mainly uses these as
building materials for cell structures and as enzymes, hormones, parts of muscles, and
bones. Proteins come from dairy products, poultry, fish, meat, and grains. Like
carbohydrates, proteins also contain 4 Calories per gram.
3. Fats – are used to build cell membranes, steroid hormones, and other cellular
structures; also used to insulate nervous tissue., and also serve as an energy source.
Fats also contain certain fat-soluble vitamins that are important for good health. Fats
are obtained from oils, margarine, butter, fried foods, meat, and processed snack
foods. They contain a higher amount of energy per gram than carbohydrates and
proteins, about 9 Calories per gram.
Essential Nutrients
These include substances that animals can only get from the foods they eat
because they could not be synthesized inside the body. These include:
1. Essential amino acids – needed for synthesis of proteins and enzymes; among the
20 amino acids, eight could not be synthesized by humans: lysine, tryptophan,
threonine, methionine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine and valine.
2. Essential fatty acids – used for making special membrane lipids; an example is
linoleic acid in humans.
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Food Uptake in Cells via the Three Types of Endocytosis
2. Pinocytosis – uptake of extracellular fluid by a cell using small vesicles derived from
the plasma membrane
2. filter-feeders – include many aquatic animals which draw in water and strain small
organisms and food particles present in the medium.
Examples: whales and coelenterates
4. bulk-feeders – eat relatively large chunks of food and have adaptations like jaws,
teeth, tentacles, claws, pincers, etc. that help in securing the food and tearing it to
pieces.
1. Food vacuoles in unicellular organisms – these fuse with lysosomes that contain
hydrolytic enzymes.
Example: food vacuole in a protozoa like Paramecium
3. Complete digestive system – essentially like a tube with an opening at one end for
taking in food (mouth) and an opening at the outer end where unabsorbed waste
materials are eliminated (anus). In between the mouth and anus, are specialized
organs that carry out transport, processing, and absorption of digested nutrients.
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Source:https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/digestive-system-
how-it-works
3. pancreas – secretes enzymes that break down all major food molecules; secretes
buffers against HCl from the stomach; secretes the hormone insulin for control of
glucose metabolism.
PERFORMANCE/WRITTEN TASK:
Activity 1:
Create three Venn Diagrams. For the first diagram, identify two or three similarities and
differences between plant and animal reproduction; for the second, two or three
similarities and differences between plant and animal development; and for the third,
two or three similarities and differences between plant and animal nutrition.
You will be graded for each diagram according to the following criteria:
Content------------------------10 points
Clarity---------------------------10 points
______________________________________
Total 20 points
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Activity 2:
Essay:
Direction: Write a short essay in your answer sheet or notebook.
Reflect on why there are similarities and differences of plant and animal reproduction,
developemnt, and nutrition.
EVALUATION/POST-TEST
I. Matching type. Select the most appropriate answer from column B for each
description in column A. Write the letter of the correct answer only in your activity
notebook/sheet.
Column A Column B
II. Multiple choice. Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write the letter of the
correct answer only in your activity notebook/sheet.
2. It is a food storage tissue that forms separately from the embryo while the seed is still
attached to the parent plant.
A. Endoderm B. Aleurone layer C. Ectoderm D. Mesoderm
5. Inner cell mass produces three germ layers known as the following, except for one:
A. Endoderm B. Endosperm C. Mesoderm D. Ectoderm
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III. Fill in the blanks with the correct word/words to complete the sentence. Write your
answer in your activity notebook/sheet.
REFERENCES
• Campbell, N.A. & Reece, J. B. (2005). Biology: 7th edition. USA: Pearson
Benjamin Cummings
• Villee, C.A., Solomon, E. P., & Davis, P. W. (1985). Biology. USA: CBS College
Publishing
• Lumen Learning. (nd). Nutritional adaption of plants. Retrieved January 30, 2021
from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-biology/chapter/nutritional-
adaptations-of-plants/
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DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF NEGROS ORIENTAL
ROSELA R. ABIERA
Education Program Supervisor – (LRMS)
ARNOLD R. JUNGCO
PSDS- Division Science Coordinator
MARICEL S. RASID
Librarian II (LRMDS)
ELMAR L. CABRERA
PDO II (LRMDS)
FRUSSELL V. ELTANAL
Writer
BETA QA TEAM
LIEZEL A. BESAS
JOAN B. VALENCIA
LIELIN A. DE LA ZERNA
PETER PAUL A. PATRON
THOMAS JOGIE U. TOLEDO
DISCLAIMER
The information, activities and assessments used in this material are designed to provide accessible
learning modality to the teachers and learners of the Division of Negros Oriental. The contents of this module
are carefully researched, chosen, and evaluated to comply with the set learning competencies. The writers
and evaluator were clearly instructed to give credits to information and illustrations used to substantiate this
material. All content is subject to copyright and may not be reproduced in any form without expressed written
consent from the division.
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SYNOPSIS
This self-learning kit discusses
the importance of plants
and animals’ organ systems
and their specific functions
such as reproduction,
development, and nutrition.
Since organisms, both plants
and animals are not Identification
immortal, the process of re- 1.B 2.A 3.C 4.D 5.B
environment.
8. straightening; phytochrome
5. scutellum 6. hypocotyl; radicle 7. maturation
3. propagules 4. scion; stock; cambium
1. genetic; identical 2. new combinations
Plant:
I. Pre-test
Answer key:
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