CHAPTER 1: Communication Processes, Principles, and Ethics

What is Communication?

• It is derived from the Latin words con (with), munus (a business), communis
(common), communico (to confer or relate with one another.)
• The process of accomplishing a goal, “with a business to confer or relate with one
another.
• Communication is the essence of management.
• The term communication is used to signify the process of transferring ideas or receiving
it by any means such as word of mouth, telephone, telegram, letter, message, etc. Thus,
communication stands for sharing of information, imparting, or conveying ideas and
knowledge.

ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATION

1. Communication is integrated in all parts of our lives.

Our lives consist of four domains:
1.1 Academics - Communication skills are tied to academic success.
- Students who are good at writing and speaking perform better not only in the English
classroom but also in the content areas and all other areas of learning.
- Students who can effectively communicate in English have more confidence in their
communication tasks.
1.2. Professional
- Desired communication skills vary from one career to another. However, English courses
provide important skills essential for functioning in entry-level jobs.
- Despite the well-documented need for communication skills in the professional world, many
students still resist taking communication courses.
In such a competitive job market, being able to demonstrate that you have received
communication instruction and training can give you the edge needed to stand out from other
applicants or employees.
1.3. Personal
- Having a vocabulary to name the communication phenomena in our lives increases our ability
to alter consciously our communication. This is activated to achieve our goals, avoid
miscommunication, and analyse and learn from our inevitable mistakes.
- Communication is crucial for a person’s success. The skill to talk with fluency and write with
efficiency may lead to a person’s fortune.
1.4. Civic – Communication focuses on a person’s civic engagement.
- Civic engagement refers to working to make a difference in our communities by improving the
quality of life of community members, raising awareness about social, cultural, or political
issues.
- The civic part of our lives is developed through engagement with the decision making that
goes on in our society at the small-group, local, state, regional, national, or international level.

2. Communication meets needs. Communication helps us achieve certain physical and

instrumental needs.
a. Physical needs – keep our bodies and minds functioning, affecting the well-being.
b. Instrumental needs – include needs that help us get things done in our day-to-day lives
and achieve short- and long-term goals.
c. Relational needs – include needs that help us maintain social bonds and interpersonal
relationships by giving us a tool through which to develop, maintain, and end
relationships.
d. Identity needs – include our need to present ourselves to others and be thought of in
particular and desired ways.

3. Communication is guided by culture and context

O’Neil (2006) defines culture is a full range of learned human behavioural patterns which
includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs, capabilities, and habits acquired by man
as a member of the society.
- Context is the circumstances that form the setting for an event, statement, or idea, and
in terms of which it can be fully understood (Oxford Dictionary, 2018)
4. Communication is learned.
- Humans are born with the capacity to learn a language and the ability to communicate.
Communication is learned rather than innate.
5. Communication has ethical implications.
- Communication ethics deals with the process of negotiating and reflecting on our actions
and communication regarding what we believe to be right and wrong.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
Verbal Communication – a form of transmitting messages using word symbols representing
ideas and objects.
Oral Communication – face-to-face interaction, speaking to someone on the phone,
participating in meetings, giving lectures or discussions.
Written Communication – uses symbols that are hand- written or printed with an electronic
device.
 Factors that affect verbal communication:
• Tone of voice
• Use of descriptive words
• Emphasis on certain phrases
• Volume of voice

Non-Verbal Communication – communication without the use of words

Non-Verbal Cues – may both be intentional and unintentional and is categorized in two (2)
categories:
• Non-verbal cues produced by the body
• Non-verbal messages produced by the broad setting such as time, space, and silence.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
1. Sender – a person, group, or organization who initiates the communication.
2. Message – an element transmitted in communication consists of the idea, opinion,
information, feeling, or attitude of the sender.
3. Channel – a pathway or medium through which the message travels to reach its
destination. It may be oral, written, visual/electronic.
4. Receiver – a person who receives, analyses, understands, and interprets the
message.
5. Feedback – the receiver’s response that provides information to the sender.
6. Adjustment – done if the message is distorted or is not clearly understood by the
receiver.
7. Noise – a form of distortion, barrier, or obstacle that occurs in any of the phases of
oral communication process.

PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION
1. The speaker develops an idea to be sent.
2. The speaker encodes the idea or converts it to words or actions.
3. The speaker transmits or sends out the idea using a specific medium or channel.
4. The receiver gets the message and decodes or interprets it.
5. The receiver provides or sends feedback.
6. The feedback may be positive (accepted) and the negative is provided with an adjustment.

PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
These principles will help you to make your communication more informative and will aid you to
gain positive effects:

1. Clarity – the information or message should be coded or worded clearly.

2. Attention – the receiver’s attention should be drawn to the message to make the
communication effective.
3. Feedback – there should be feedback information from the receiver to know whether s/he
understood the message in the same sense in which the sender has meant it.
4. Informality – Informal communication may prove effective in situations when formal
communication may not achieve its desired results.
5. Consistency – consistency avoids conflict in an organization; inconsistency leads to
confusion.
6. Timeliness – communication should be done in real time so that it helps, and it is relevant in
implementing plans; delayed communication may not serve any purpose.
7. Adequacy – information should be complete; is essential to take proper decisions and make
action plans; inadequate information may delay action and create confusion.
CHAPTER 2: Communication and Globalization
Globalization
- It is a term used to describe how trade and technology have made the world into a more
connected and interdependent place.
- Globalization is linked to the growth of social interconnectedness across existing
geographical and political boundaries.
- This convergence of cultural and economic systems promoted increased interaction,
interdependence, and integration among nations.
Globalization is associated with deterritorialization.
Deterritorialization not only means the travel and transformation of culture but also means
ever broadening horizon of mundane experience to transform other cultures or even produce
new cultures by hybridity.

THE IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION

Understanding the impact of globalization on each of these factors can help students to select
their most useful communication skills development programs.

1. Virtual Interactions - Modern entrepreneurs need to understand the strengths and

limitations of different communications media, and how to use each medium to maximum
effect.
2. Cultural Awareness in Speech - Even when two people are speaking the same
language, cultural differences can affect vocabulary, colloquial expressions, voice tone, and
taboo topics.
3. Cultural Awareness in Body Language - Students should understand acceptable
speaking distances, conflict styles, eye contact, and posture in different cultures, accepting
that the physical expressions of their own culture are not universally accepted.
4. Time Differences – The advent of global collaboration introduces another new dynamic
to communication skills— the need to communicate and share information with people
across several time zones.

THE ROLE OF MEDIA IN GLOBALIZATION

Communication Media - plays a significant role in constructing and representing the
phenomenon of globalization and subsequently changing educational and learning processes.
ROLES OF MEDIA:
1. It enables communication to take place in real time over great distances.
2. It advances the 21st century into what we speak as the globalization of communication.
3. The emergence of electronic media and the digital media has brought about a radical change
on how we see education.

LANGUAGE AND GLOBALIZATION

Communication Competence - It is the knowledge of effective and appropriate communication
patterns and the ability to use and adapt knowledge in various contexts.

• It is an innate individual trait that is not related to personal intellect or education, thus, is
an internal ability that is enhanced and luminated through the promotion of empathy in
the process of socialization.

COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

1. Grammatical Competence – the domain of grammatical and lexical capacity.

2. Sociolinguistic Competence – an understanding of the social context in which

communication takes place, including role relationships, the shared information of the
participants, and the communicative purpose of their interaction.

3. Discourse Competence – the ability to interpret individual message elements in terms

of their interconnectedness and of how meaning is represented in relationship to the
entire discourse.

4. Strategic Competence – the coping strategies that communicators employ to initiate,

terminate, maintain, repair and redirect communication.

FOUR DIMENSIONS OF COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE

1. Global Mindset – It is a fixed mental attitude that leads people to see things and events from
a specific lens through perception and reasoning.

2. Unfolding the Self – the ability to look for shared communication symbols and project the
self into another person’s mind by thinking the same thoughts, feelings, and emotions as the
person.

3. Mapping the Culture – ability to contrast cultural differences that may motivate us to prefer
alternative styles of cultural expressions so that we can better function with the demands of
global environment and cope with the changing environment rapidly.

4. Aligning the Interaction – requires individuals to foster the ability of cultural prowess by
which they can function effectively and appropriately without violating their counterpart’s norms
and rules to reach a global civic society.
CHAPTER 3: Local and Global Communication in a Multicultural Setting
Communication is guided by culture and context. It is predicted by the type of culture
dictated by its context.

Culture – is manifested in our actions and affects how we tell the world who we are and
what we believe in. It is the basis for how we behave in a certain communication
context.
Context – brings a better understanding about culture in general and our own culture. It
refers to anything that refers to the stimuli, environment, or ambience surrounding an
event (Edward T. Hall)
Local Communication – is highly grounded on the cultural context. This context of
communication reflects the culture of people who are creating their self-identity and
community.
Global Communication – has turned to be a modifying factor of local communication.
It attempts to bring changes that affect communication conventions.
Intercultural Communication – a discipline that focuses on how culture affects
communication. It is the ability to understand and value cultural differences.
Language – is a component that is linked to intercultural understanding. Enhancing oral
and written communication in intercultural environments is a way to achieving
intercultural.
competence.

GRICE’S PRINCIPLE OF COOPERATIVE CONVERSATION

1. Maxim of Relation – (Relevant) every interlocutor should be relevant in a
conversation, requiring them to respond based on cultural and contextual requirements.
2. Maxim of Quantity – (Informative) every interlocutor should observe a “fair-share-
talk of time.”
3. Maxim of Quality – (Truthful) the truth value of a message should be held primary in
a conversation. The accuracy of the message should always be upheld. It should not go
beyond what is true nor deduced in its essence.
4. Maxim of Manner – (Clear) the manner of saying a word is more regarded than its
content.
MODES OF COMMUNICATION
Words and gestures are used in a region or country to give meaning to certain ideas.
Words are primary in communication, but gestures would even make a meaningful
communication. Below are the modes of communication in an intercultural
communication.
• Language – words, greetings and expressions that are based on culture and context
• Body Language – is a form of non-verbal communication in which movements of the
body communicate messages, either in place of, or in conjunction with speech.

THE ABC’S OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

• Communication is complex because of the cultural and contextual factors embedded
in it.
• It is also challenging due to the many ways in which communication can vary between
cultures as well as individuals plus the requirements needed by an individual to satisfy
the conversational conventions
• Although effective communication is hard to achieve because of these considerations,
good communication is attainable.
• Lewis (2008) provided the following ABC’s of intercultural communication.

Acknowledge – Differences in communication style should be acknowledged. Every

person in a group has a particular communication style which gives her/his own identity
in communicating. Anticipating awareness on differences will increase awareness of
uniqueness.
Bi-Level – Communication does not only uphold speaking and listening but also
requires a holistic process that includes verbal and non-verbal channels. Non-verbal
communication is critical in the communication process due to its cultural nuances. It
may vary from one culture to another.
Clarify – If you are doubtful of your understanding about what is being communicated,
ask for clarification. Devote a little extra time to verify understanding so that you can
save time and avoid frustration.

CULTURAL COMMUNICATION BARRIERS

Sometimes, the goal of communication is not achieved due to communication barriers
brought by culture.
Barriers – give difficulty in understanding people, whose language is different, and
evidently challenge people who are trying to work harmoniously with others of a
different background.
Language Barrier – It is evidently the primary barrier of communication in second and
foreign language contexts. Because of its complexity, communication between people
speaking different languages is difficult.
Hostile Stereotypes – Stereotypes are generalizations or assumptions people make
about the characteristics of members of a group, based on an image about what people
in that group are like.
Behavior Differences – Difference of behavior between different cultures can cause
misunderstandings. Every culture has its norm about what is regarded as appropriate
behavior.
Emotional Display – Different cultures have varying regard on emotional display. What
is considered appropriate display of emotion in one culture may not be appropriate in
another culture.

AMBIGUOUS EXPRESSIONS
Idioms and figurative clichés – This form of language uses words and expressions
with a meaning that is different from the literal interpretation.
Slang – It is a shortcut or highly colloquial word that suggests excessive informality and
lack of appreciation in the workplace setting.
Acronym – It is formed from the initial letters of other words and pronounced as a word.
Abbreviation – It is a short form of a lengthy expression.
Jargon – It is a type of language that is used in an occupation. Often, words are
meaningless outside a certain context.
CHAPTER 4: Varieties and Registers of Spoken and Written Language

VARIETIES OF ENGLISH
Varieties of English refer to the different kinds of English used around the world based
on geographical locations. There are over a hundred varieties of the English language,
but two of the most prevalent varieties of the English language are British and American
English.
American English (AmE)
- It is a variant of the English language which is spoken mainly in the United
States. About two-thirds of the world's native speakers of English live in America
and speak this variant.
British English (BrE)
- It is a variant of the English language which is spoken in the United Kingdom.
- Along with American English, British English is one of the main variants taught in
English as a second language or English as foreign language programs.
Australian English (AuE)
- It is another variant of the English language which is spoken in Australia.
- Australian English began to diverge from the British English shortly after Australia
was settled in the late 18th century. This variety is similar to New Zealand
English and bears resemblance to dialects of Southeast England. Its spelling
corresponds to British English spelling.
New Zealand English (NZE)
- It is the variant of the English language spoken as the first language by my most
people in New Zealand.
- New Zealand English is most like Australian English in pronunciation, with some
differences.
Black English (African American Vernacular English)
- It is a broad term used to refer to American English and British English as spoken
by the black communities in the United States and the United Kingdom.
- It is also used to refer to black communities in Caribbean and Africa. There are
different varieties of this variant, but its two major sub-varieties are African
American Vernacular and British Black English.
Singapore English (SingEng or Singlish)
- Singapore English is a language variant which is considered the most popular
medium of communication in the academe. There are two main forms of this
variant: Singapore English and Singapore Colloquial English.
Philippine English
- It is another variety of the English language related to American English in terms
of spelling and grammar. Besides the Filipino language, the English language is
native to the Philippines and is considered an official language.
- Non-native pronunciations abound in the spoken language, and grammatical
flaws are oftentimes inevitable. Hence, code-switching is prevalent in formal and
more likely in informal situations.

Register – is described as a variety according to use in the sense that each speaker
has a range of varieties and chooses between them at different times. Register refers to
the level of formality of the speech.

FORMS OF LANGUAGE REGISTER

1. Formal Register – is appropriate in professional and business writing.
2. Informal Register – is the way we talk to our friends and family.
3. Neutral Register – not specifically formal or informal, positive, or negative. It is used
with non-emotional topics and information.

Bias-Free Language
- Sometimes the language we use reflects our stereotypes. While in speech our
facial expressions or even gestures may convince our listeners that we are not
being offensive, in writing it is a lot harder to do.
- To avoid confusion and needless anger on the part of the reader, use language
that is clear, objective, and stereotype-free. Avoid generalizing when talking
about gender, ethnicity, race, sexual orientation, or people with disabilities.
Avoid Gender Bias
- Avoid using masculine pronouns when the gender of the person is not known.
When a word has the suffix -man or -woman, check to see if it reflects the gender
of the person described. Use more neutral alternatives when gender is not
important to the idea you are getting across.
For example, use chairperson or chair instead of chairman, fire fighter instead of
fireman, or salesperson instead of salesman.
Avoid Racial and Ethnic Bias
Racial or ethnic information should only be indicated if the context demands it. Take
note of the following:
- Both black and African American are generally acceptable (although some
members of this community prefer one or the other). The phrase people of color
are sometimes used to include other racial groups, particularly for political
purposes. The labels Negro and colored are generally not acceptable.
- Depending to some extent on regional preference, people with roots in Latin
America refer to themselves as Hispanic, Latino/Latina, or Chicano/Chicana, or
by place of origin (Cuban American, Puerto Rican). Except for specific audiences
or individuals, Latino is generally acceptable.
- The preference is for Asian or Asian American rather than Oriental. Again,
specific groups may prefer labels based on country of origin (Japanese
American, Korean).
- Native American has gained favor over Indian. Depending on context, you might
more accurately refer to a specific tribe or tribes.
Avoid Age Bias
- Age should only be specified if it is relevant. Avoid expressions that are
demeaning or subjective.
Avoid Disability Bias
- Do not refer to an individual’s disability unless relevant. When necessary, use
terms that do not offend disabled individuals.
- Avoid phrases like "confined to a wheelchair" and "victim" (of a disease), so as
not to focus on differences and disability. Instead, write or say, "someone who
uses a wheelchair" and "a person with (a disease)."
CHAPTER 5: Evaluating Messages and Images of Different Types of Text

Texts – are tools for us to understand how communication is being given and is
significant in studying. It affects how comprehension works for each individual.
Pardo explains that different types of texts explain and shows the intent and how words
or texts were constructed. It gives readers information and enhance their learning.
Multimodal Texts – are combination of two or more semiotic systems.

Forms of multimodal texts:

1. Paper. This form is print based, such as, books, comics, posters, magazines.
2. Digital. It is computer-based like slide presentations, emails, ebooks, blogs,
eposters, web pages, social media, animations, films, movies, video games.
3. Live. It is a form of actual performance or an event.

Two or more of the following semiotic systems are included in a multimodal text.
1. Linguistic system – It refers to the linguistic components like vocabulary,
structure, and grammar of a text.
2. Visual system – It pertains to the color, vectors and viewpoint in still and moving
images.
3. Audio system – This mode refers to the volume, pitch, and rhythm of music and
sound effects of a presentation.
4. Gestural system – It denotes the movement, facial expression, and body
language of the characters.
5. Spatial system – It indicates proximity, direction, position of layout, and
organization of objects in space.

Semiotic – is the study of the process of making signs. They are the building toold for
symbols, which altogether, is an important factor of communication.
Linguistic System – refers to the vocabulary, grammar, and structure of text.
Visual System – pertains to moving images like animations.
Audio System – refers to the music and sound of a presentation.
Gestural System – refers to the movement and facial expressions of an individual.
Spatial System – gives the physical arrangement of a text. Like how brochures are
made from being folded and how it is organized.
CRITICAL READING AND LISTENING
As readers and listeners, it is important to have a deep comprehension on the different
types of texts since it is the central goal of both reading and listening.
Critical Reading – is the process of reading that goes beyond comprehension of a text.
It is the ability of a person to read a text and being able to read between the lines.
It involves the following:
1. Carefully reading a text
2. Identifying the strengths and connection of a text
3. Identifying the weaknesses; and
4. Deciding if the image or text fits for an academic context.

Being a critical reader as well poses questions to be asked about texts:

Source
1. Who created the message? Is the source reliable? Was it by a news organization,
a public citizen, an editorial team of a scientific journal, or an advertiser?

Message
2. What does the message say (subject, main point, support)?
3. Is the information fair and logical?
4. What points of view are shared in the message? Which ones are left out?
5. What images or sounds catch your attention?

Medium
6. What type of text is used to deliver the message?
7. What are the advantages and limitations of the text format?

Audience
8. Who is the target audience of the message?
9. How might other people interpret the message of the text?

Context
10. What is the purpose of the message?
LISTENING AS A CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITY
Listening is a voluntary active process, it is psychological. According to Lynch (2013),
adults listen 50 percent or less, while teenagers listen 25 percent or less. Studies show
that those who practice listening skills get better grades, higher pay and achieve their
goals more often than those who do not. For you to be able to access the message of
an argument, you must be a critical listener.
Critical listening requires active thinking because it goes far beyond just hearing a
speaker’s message. It involves analyzing the information of a speech and making
important decisions about truth, authenticity, and relevance. Kadjan-Baumeyer (2018)
claims that listening is a critical thinking activity; hence, Lynch qualifies that critical
thinking:

According to Lynch, what follows are what qualifies for critical thinking:
1. Involves being able to access the strengths and weaknesses of an argument;
2. Involves being able to distinguish between the fact, theory and opinions of an
argument;
3. Allows for thinking outside of the box;
4. Allows for compromise and growth;
5. Involves being able to judge the credibility of sources;
6. Requires accessing the quality of evidence;
7. Involves discerning relationships between ideas;
8. Involves priorities on what to remember and in what context;
9. Allows for fewer mistakes and reduces trial and error in everyday life;
10. Does not mean negative thinking;
11. Is a normal process that requires practice and reinforcement;
12. Requires an open mind and the ability to consider and understand all sides of an
issue, and;
13. Means replacing name calling and images with reason compromise and the ability
to persuade instead of attack

Multimodal texts demand one to possess critical thinking because listening and reading
are two language skills that require this active mental processing. To analyze
multimodal texts, Kadjan-Baumeyer suggests to readers and listeners to perform the
following:

1. Identify support for the claims.

This means performing research to determine the process the speaker used to actually
gather facts and information. Look for things like dates and sources.
 2. Evaluate the argument of the speaker or the text.
Try to figure out whether the speaker is using emotional appeals, a logical argument or
actual evidence to state the case. Sometimes, a speaker uses overstatements to stress
a point and to make it more appealing. It is perfectly legal, but it can be misleading. This
is especially true if you have not done your homework. When it comes to evaluating an
argument, there are a few things you can do to get the most information.

EVALUATING MULTIMODAL TEXTS

Putting communication at the front of your mind and becoming more aware of how you
communicate in a given situation can be informative and have many positive effects.
Whenever you evaluate multimodal texts, you are able to apply what you have learned
about critical reading and listening to improve your performance and overall experience.
You also consider the key elements of communication in order to evaluate messages
within various relationships. Whenever you evaluate multimodal texts, communication
allows you to see more of what is going on around you, which allows you to participate
actively and competently in various communication in a multicultural setting.
Multimodal texts are constructed means such that they can also be deconstructed or
separated into its various parts—source, message, medium, audience, and context.
Using the evaluation checklist provided by Thoughtful Learning (2014) in evaluating
messages, we will create a sample evaluation of texts in this section.

1. SOURCE

Readers or listeners of a text should ask first about its authorship. There is a need to
identify if the source is an individual or a team although the number of writers does not
warrant credibility of the text. Examine if the source is reliable. You always have the
hunch in determining if the source is reliable or not. This can be determined through the
background information about the source. Evaluate the choices about content did the
source make.
a) Who created the message?
b) Is the source reliable?
c) What choices did the source make?

2. MESSAGE

After evaluating the source, the content of the text should be examined in order to get
its message. There are various questions that one may ask in getting the message of
the text (Thoughtful Learning, 2014).
 a) What does the message say?
You may ask questions such as:
• What is the subject?
• What is the main point?
• How is the main point supported?

b) Is the information fair and logical?

c) What points of view are shared in the message? Which ones are left out?
d) What images or sounds catch your attention?

IDENTIFYING THE SUBJECT, MAIN POINT, AND SUPPORT

The subject may be a person, product, service, etc. It is mostly what is being focused
or talked about.
The main point is the main idea or the claim of the source. It can be explicit or implicit.
An explicit main point is well expressed in the text. It can have features like
sentences, phrases, clauses, which proves an immediate extract of the main point. In
short, it gives the main idea quickly.
An implicit main point is covertly expressed in the text. It is mostly expressed as
graphics, images, or sounds.
How a message supports the main point depends on the format and purpose of a
message. An example would be an research article, it may use citations and sources as
a form of credible source.
Looking at the differences, here are a few information that can help readers and
listeners that can help them what is being said:
Facts – are statements about the real world that can be checked through evidences
accurately.
Opinions – are self-supported statements that revolves around feelings or personal
judgment.
Claims – are debatable statements that can be supported with evidence and reason.

EVALUATING LOGIC AND BALANCE

When evaluating a message, it is important to examine the chain of reasoning used by
the source, as any gaps or problems can undermine the validity of the conclusion. You
may ask: Is the information fair and logical? Check out if key terms were defined, if the
logic flow, and if there are flaws in the reasoning. Likewise, examine if the information is
fair. You have to consider whether the argument is appropriately balanced, looking at
the issue or problem from relevant perspectives. Evaluate if there are questions that are
not answered in the text, if the text is biased, if there are other perspectives on the
issue, and if the text presents a counter argument.
Every point of the message should follow on from the last point. If there is a gap
between two ideas, this undermines the overall conclusion. Likewise, some readings
are more biased than others. A biased statement is characterized by prejudice,
partiality, or preference for or against a person, an object, or an idea. Biased information
has the following indicators:
a. The language is offensive; expressions might be biased in terms of gender, race,
ethnicity, age, and disability.
b. The message appeals more to the emotion rather than to reason or logic.
c. Ideas are worded with the intent to oversimplify or overgeneralize.
d. The message is one-sided, or it only presents a limited viewpoint.

ANALYSING POINTS OF VIEW

All multimodal text messages reflect the culture of their creators—their values, lifestyles,
points of view, preferences, among other things. A rigorous analysis can tell you about
the source’s values and perspectives as well as those that are missing in the text. The
question on points of view should be given importance: What points of view are shared
in the message? Which ones are left out?

CREATING MEANING THROUGH IMAGES AND SOUNDS

Multimodal texts like presentations, advertisements, newscasts, videos, broadcasts,
animation, infographics are created beyond words. Visual elements and sound
techniques can affect your interpretation of a message. You may ask: What images or
sounds catch my attention?
Visual elements include lighting, camera angle, composition, and body language.

Visual Elements:

1. Lighting. Low lighting suggests sadness or fear, while bright lighting conveys
happiness or joy. Soft lighting expresses beauty and romance. Use color and tone
to reflect the mood you are trying to create in your image.
2. Camera Angle. This visual element is used to position the viewers so that they
can understand the relationship between the characters. It is very important in
shaping meaning in film as well as in other visual texts. A low-angle view makes
people or things appear larger than they actually are, often indicating importance.
 Conversely, a high angle view makes people or things appear smaller and less
significant.
3. Composition. Visual elements should be arranged in a manner that they do not
affect the viewer’s perception. Arrangements such as, close ups of a face convey
tension or intimacy, wider views showing people or things and their surroundings
usually express significance of the setting.
4. Body Language. Non-linguistic elements like the body language are more
revealing than words. They seem to be more catchy than the words provided in
the text.

Sound Techniques:

1. Sound Effects. This sound technique that is added after the filming enhances a
scene making it realistic although the effects themselves are often artificially
produced.
2. Music. This is another sound technique that affects the mood and intensity of a
scene. Fast-paced music use rhythm and volume to heighten drama and often
accompany car chases, fight scenes, and other action-packed scenes. Slower,
softer, intentionally expressive compositions can create tension and foreboding,
as in gothic films.

3. Voice-over or Narration. Some videos or films and television shows use a

narrator other than the characters in the story to speak to the audience. For
example, a narrator may be assigned to describe the series of events portrayed in
a video clip that has no subtitle and dialogue between and among characters.

MEDIUM
The medium in transmitting the message may be conventional or digital although they
are often mixed up in a communication situation. Sometimes, print-based
communication needs to be backed up by a digital form in order to achieve a better and
faster communication.

Conventional media are no less than the broadcast and print-based communication,
while digital media include hypertext formats. According to Kitson (2011), hypertext
refers to the structuring of information in blocks of text which are connected by
electronic links. It is structured in a hierarchical manner where the content is organized
from more general concepts to more specific concepts. The reader is allowed to access
additional information to content on the current screen since it has its selection, use,
and placement to hypertext, hyperlinks, frames, windows, and images which may affect
readers’ or listeners’ evaluation of the message. Below are the types of media:
Each form of media has its inherent strengths and limitations. Smart phones, for
instance, are faster forms than print-based texts but messages are very informal and
cannot be kept as an accessible public document. Social media messages are speedy
and timesaving but prone to imprecisions. Generally, technical books are accurate and
informative, but they lack visual appeal, interactive component, and rapid and up-to-
date delivery of message. Some types of media seem to be boring (e.g., letters, books,
reports), but are most appropriate for a particular situation. Conversely, blogs,
televisions, radios, music, text messaging, social networks, among other appealing
communication media seem to be inviting and interesting, but sometimes lack
appropriateness for a particular context. Hence, conventional, and digital media
compensate in terms of use and are undoubtedly context dependent.

AUDIENCE

The audience in the communication situation refers to the receiver of the message. It
may be a person or a group for whom a message is created. Some texts like a personal
email, an invitation to deliver a talk, or a thank-you note target just one person, but other
texts are meant for larger audiences like research reports, advertisements, signages,
books, brochures, among other communication forms. Two important questions guide
audience adaptation in multimodal communication: (1) Who is the target audience of the
text? and (2) How might other people interpret its message?

Understanding the message of a multimodal text activates personal factors about the
audience such as, culture, values, and life experiences. These factors all play a role in
perceiving the transmitted message. Your evaluation of a message is a reflection of
your upbringing, education, economic status, interest, aspirations, beliefs, and culture.

In determining the target audience of a multimodal text, you may examine its content.
For instance, if it is an advertisement, advertisers most often craft messages based on
the audience’s characteristics, such as, age, gender, education, occupation, economic
status, habits and interest, region, and culture. That is why, advertisements in
televisions have their particular time slots in order to suit said advertisement to
audiences at a particular time. You would notice that you can see different
advertisements aired during a boxing rematch, a beauty pageant, and a noontime show
like “Eat Bulaga.” This selectiveness in airing or posting advertisements is intended to
filter selective messages to highly targeted audiences

CONTEXT

Context in this section includes the purposes and authorship of the text. A text serves at
least one of three purposes: to inform, to entertain, or to persuade. Often, a text fulfills
all three purposes at once. Magazines, for example, may entertain its readers, but it
may also inform and persuade them. Consider and analyze the purpose before sending
any messages. The following are questions that may be used in evaluating context:

What is the purpose of the message?

1. To inform. The message provides the audience with a clear understanding of the
concept presented by the source. Most of these multimodal texts like books,
ebooks, letters, blogposts, emails, magazines, newspapers, video tutorials,
television newscasts, documentaries, presentations are created for information
dissemination. These multimodal texts were built on society’s interest in learning
and keeping us abreast of what is happening in the world. Messages that are
meant to inform or educate are typically free from biased messages. Those
messages that aim to entertain or persuade readers are more prone to biased
language. Therefore, the audience should be sensitive to any organizational bias
that might accompany the message.
2. To entertain. The message or the text amuses the audience. Some of these
multimodal texts that aim to entertain are television sitcoms or primetime shows,
movies, music, sports and travel broadcasts, social networks, magazines, and
comics. Popular entertainment media are appealing and inviting to advertisers
because they are read and viewed by large audiences who can also be their
potential subscribers or customers.
3. To persuade. The audience is provided with well-argued ideas that can influence
their own beliefs and decisions. Persuasive devices are easy to recognize in
advertisements and commercials, but they are subtle in other media forms. For
instance, a product endorsement may influence you to think one way because the
endorser only talks about the benefits of the product. Media-literate individuals are
able to weigh the pros and cons, the advantages and disadvantages, or the
benefits and harmful effects of a certain product; hence, they make up their minds
on an issue before subscribing or trying it.

Who controls the transmission of the message?

One critical question in evaluating messages is on authorship. The creator of the
message was already identified in the earlier section of this topic, but the question on
ownership is another layer of analysis. The message is created by an author who
controls the distribution or dissemination of the message. The three main categories of
ownership are identified as:

1. Government. Multimodal texts that were created by government offices are state-
owned and must be carefully evaluated for propaganda—publicity, advertising,
marketing, and information dissemination. Most of the texts are available for
references and have their predetermined retention periods. There are countries
that do not allow freedom of the press and have even censored the Internet.
However, other nations restrict independent voices and use the state-owned
media as their mouthpiece.
2. Corporations. Most of the media messages are controlled by private companies.
Different forms of multimodal texts like videos, newspapers, magazines, movies,
web sites are controlled by giant corporations. These media forms are business
motivated by commercial interests, which are gained through advertising.
Audiences, readers and viewers alike should evaluate the message if it serves
their best interests or the corporation’s interest.
3. Individuals. Personal creations are independent media forms. Texts and other
media forms that are free of government and corporate influences are controlled
by individuals. Digital-based technologies have greatly helped and promoted
independent media voices. Citizen journalism is a practice that has gained
momentum and is now easy for the journalist to report meaningful news to a large
audience due to digital media. Likewise, a widespread of audience has already
advancing and enjoying spreading information through social media. All of these
means of technology have brought an individual source to be capable producer
and creator of meaningful, timely, and interesting messages.