Elec 2

Republic of the Philippines
POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

OFFICE OF THE VICE PRESIDENT FOR BRANCHES AND CAMPUSES
MARAGONDON BRANCH
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
FOR
ECEN – E2
ECE ELECTIVE 2 / ADVANCED POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS
Compiled by: Checked by:
Engr. Raymond A. Paiton Assoc. Prof. Ayreenlee E. Resus

Faculty Chairman
Instructional Materials
Date: _________________ Date: ___________________
Approved by:
Engr. Rosalia P. Pinlac Dr. Agnes Y. Gonzaga

Head, Academic Programs Director
Date: _________________ Date: __________________

INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the Polytechnic University of the Philippines. This module will help you become an
effective learner and successfully meet the requirements of the course. You will discover that you
can learn in a very challenging way at your own pace.
THE POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
VISION
PUP: The National Polytechnic University
MISSION
Ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education and promoting lifelong learning opportunities
through a re-engineered polytechnic university by committing to:
 provide democratized access to educational opportunities for the holistic development of

individuals with global perspective
 offer industry-oriented curricula that produce highly-skilled professionals with managerial
and technical capabilities and a strong sense of public service for nation building
 embed a culture of research and innovation
 continuously develop faculty and employees with the highest level of professionalism
 engage public and private institutions and other stakeholders for the attainment of social
development goal
 establish a strong presence and impact in the international academic community
PHILOSOPHY
As a state university, the Polytechnic University of the Philippines believes that:
 Education is an instrument for the development of the citizenry and for the enhancement
of nation building; and
 That meaningful growth and transmission of the country are best achieved in an
atmosphere of brotherhood, peace, freedom, justice and nationalist-oriented education
imbued with the spirit of humanist internationalism.
TEN PILLARS
Pillar 1: Dynamic, Transformational, and Responsible Leadership

Pillar 2: Responsive and Innovative Curricula and Instruction
Pillar 3: Enabling and Productive Learning Environment
Pillar 4: Holistic Student Development and Engagement
Pillar 5: Empowered Faculty Members and Employees
Pillar 6: Vigorous Research Production and Utilization
Pillar 7: Global Academic Standards and Excellence
Pillar 8: Synergistic, Productive, Strategic Networks and Partnerships
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SUBJECT: ECEN – E2 – ECE ELECTIVE 2 / ADVANCED POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS
PREPARED BY: RAYMOND A. PAITON, ECE, ECT
Pillar 9: Active and Sustained Stakeholders’ Engagement
Pillar 10: Sustainable Social Development Programs and Projects
SHARED VALUES AND PRINCIPLES
 Integrity and Accountability

 Nationalism
 Spirituality
 Passion for Learning and Innovation
 Inclusivity
 Respect for Human Rights and The Environment
 Excellence
 Democracy
POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

MARAGONDON BRANCH
GOALS
 Quality and excellent graduates

 Empowered faculty members
 Relevant curricula
 Efficient administration
 Development – oriented researches
 State-of-the-art physical facilities and laboratories
 Profitable income – generating programs
 Innovative instruction
 ICT – driven library
 Strong local and international linkage
PROGRAM OBJECTIVES
The College of Engineering aims to:

1. Strengthen the Engineering program consistent with global trends;
2. Develop faculty as competent mentors and quality researchers, through advanced study
and other facets of continuing professional education;
3. Develop critical thinking and communication skills of students, giving emphasis to research
and extension services;
4. Equip graduates with appropriate knowledge and technical skills, imbued with desirable work
attitude and moral values through enhanced teaching/learning process by using multi-media
facilities on top of traditional methods;
5. Create a conducive teaching and learning atmosphere with emphasis to faculty and
students’ growth and academic freedom;
6. Establish network with educational institution industry, GO’s and NGO’s, local and
international which could serve as:
ii
a. funding sources and/or partners of researches;
b. sources of new techniques;
c. centers for faculty and student exchange program and On the Job Training; and
d. grantees of scholarship/additional facilities
7. Continuously conduct action researches on the needs of laboratory and other facilities that
could be locally produce or innovated using local materials and adapted technology.
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ECEN – E2 ECE ELECTIVE 2 / ADVANCED POWER SUPPLY
SYSTEMS
COURSE DESCRIPTION
COURSE TITLE: ECE Elective 2 / Advanced Power Supply Systems

COURSE CODE: ECEN – E2
COURSE CREDIT: 3 units lec/ 1 unit lab (3 hrs. lec/ 3 hrs. lab)
PRE-REQUISITE: ECEN 30094 and ECEN 30124
This course introduces power electronics scope and applications. The semiconductor devices for
power electronics applications are presented. Ideal switch model is used in the study of converter
topologies. Fast recovery diodes are discussed for switch mode dc-dc converters and dc-to-ac
inverters; Developments on resonant-mode converter topologies for zero-loss switching; switch
mode and uninterruptible power supplies.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
After completing this course, you must be able to:

1. Discuss applications of power electronics
2. Identify different types of electronic power supply
3. Analyze various power supply designs
4. Evaluate power supply performance
5. Evaluate energy efficiency of power supplies
6. Design switch mode and UPS
COURSE REQUIREMENTS
The course requirements are as follows:

1. Students are encouraged to attend the class sessions (online students) and complete all
the requirements (online and offline students).
2. The course is expected to have a minimum of four (4) quizzes and two (2) major
examination (Midterm and Final Examination).
3. Other requirements such as written outputs, exercises, assignments and the likes will be
given throughout the sessions. These shall be submitted on the due dates set by the
teacher.
GRADING SYSTEM
The grading system will determine if the student passed or failed the course. There will be two
grading periods: Midterm and Final Period. Each period has components of: 70% Class Standing
+ 30% Major Examination. Final Grade will be the average of the two periodical grades.
Midterm Grading Final Grading
Class Standing 70% Class Standing 70%
 Quizzes  Quizzes
 Activities  Activities
Midterm Examination 30% Final Examination 30%
100% 100%
FINAL GRADE = Midterm Grade + Final Grade
2
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RUBRICS
Exemplary Satisfactory Developing Beginning Non-compliance

Criteria
1.00 - 1.25 1.50 – 1.75 2.00 - 2.50 2.75 - 3.50 4.00 - 5.00
The submitted The submitted The submitted The submitted No submitted
Assignment/ output manifests output manifests output partially output does not output
Activity qualities which go the required manifests the manifest any of
beyond the qualities required qualities. the requirements
requirements Certain aspects or certain aspects
are incomplete. are incorrect
COURSE GUIDE
Week Topic Learning Outcomes Methodology Resources Assessment
1 Orientation of Discussion of the Orientation and PUP Student None
University’s vision, mission, vision, goals Discussion. Handbook
mission, goals and and objectives of the Course Syllabus
objectives. University; course
overview and
Course Overview requirements.
Classroom policies
2-3 Lesson 1 - Explain power Lecture -PowerPoint / Activities,
- Semiconductor semiconductor switches Interactive Multimedia Quiz,
switches - Differentiate types of Discussion/Lab presentation laboratory
power semiconductor oratory - Instructional report
switches Experiment materials
4 Lesson 2 - Define power supply Discussion/ -PowerPoint / Activities,
- Passive - Differentiate passive Lecture/ Multimedia Quiz,
components for components for Laboratory presentation laboratory
electronic power electronic power supply Experiment - Instructional report
supply materials
5 Lesson 3 - Define rectifiers Discussion/ -PowerPoint / Activities,
- Rectifiers - Differentiate types of Lecture/ Multimedia Quiz,
rectifiers Laboratory presentation laboratory
- Instructional report
Experiment
materials
6-7 Lesson 4 - Define phase Discussion/ -PowerPoint / Activities,
- Phase controlled controlled rectifiers Lecture/ Multimedia Quiz,
rectifiers and - Explain types of Laboratory presentation laboratory
converters phase controlled - Instructional report
Experiment
rectifier materials
- Define power
converters
- Differentiate types of
power converters
8 Lesson 5 - Explain switch mode Discussion/ -PowerPoint / Activities,
- Switch – Mode power supply Lecture/ Multimedia Quiz,
Power Supply - Differentiate types of Laboratory presentation laboratory
SMPS - Instructional report
Experiment
materials
9 MIDTERM EXAMINATION
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Lesson 6 - Explain Inverters Discussion -PowerPoint / Activities,
10-11 - Inverters - Explain how inverter /lecture/ Multimedia Quiz,
works Laboratory presentation laboratory
- Differentiate types of Experiment - Instructional report
Inverters materials
- Give the application of
inverters
12-13 Lesson 7 - Explain resonant Discussion -PowerPoint / Activities,
- Resonant converters /lecture/ Multimedia Quiz,
Converters - Differentiate basic Laboratory presentation laboratory
types of resonant Experiment - Instructional report
converters materials
Lesson 8 - Explain concept of Discussion -PowerPoint / Activities,

14-15 - Power power conditioners /lecture/ Multimedia Quiz,
Conditioners and - Give types of power Laboratory presentation laboratory
UPS conditioners Experiment - Instructional report
- Explain concept of materials
UPS
16-17 Lesson 9 - Design 5V DC power Discussion -PowerPoint / Activities,
- Power supply supply /lecture/ Multimedia Quiz,
design and -Explain the application Laboratory presentation laboratory
application of power supply in DC Experiment - Instructional report
motors materials
18 FINAL EXAMINATION
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic Page
Introduction i
Orientation iv
Lesson 1 Semiconductor Switches 1
Lesson 2 Passive components for electronic power supply 18
Lesson 3 Rectifiers 49
Lesson 4 Phase controlled rectifiers and converters 58
Lesson 5 Switch-Mode Power Supply 65
Lesson 6 Inverters 73
Lesson 7 Resonant Converters 85
Lesson 8 Power Conditioners and UPS 92
Lesson 9 Power supply design and application 102
References
vii
LESSON 1 SEMICONDUCTOR SWITCHES
Overview
In this lesson, you will study about basic and types of power semiconductor switches. Power
semiconductor switches are the work-horses of power electronics (PE).
Module Objectives:
After successful completion of this module, you should be able to:

1. Define semiconductor switches
2. Explain good power switch
3. Differentiate types of power semiconductor switches
Course Materials:
Power semiconductor switches are the work-horses of power electronics (PE). There are several
power semiconductors devices currently involved in several industrial applications. PE switches
works in two states only: Fully on (conducting), and Fully off (blocking). Switches are very
important and crucial components in power electronic systems.
● What is a good power switch?

» No power loss when ON
» No power loss when OFF
» No power loss during turning ON or OFF
» Little power required to turn it ON or OFF
» Bi- directional
» Adequate voltage and current ratings
» Low Turn-on and Turn-off times
● Basic ratings:
» carrying current, blocking voltage.
» Speed. Any real device requires a definite time to switch.
» Second-order ratings: di/dt, dv/dt, momentary capabilities.
» Power loss
» Thermal ratings –from power switching devices to heat sink
» Control ratings: how to operate the switch
TYPES OF POWER SEMICONDUCTOR SWITCHES
The main types of power semiconductor switches in common use are:
1. Power Diodes
2. Thyristor devices
a. Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)
b. Static induction thyristor (SITH)
c. Triac (Triode ac switch)
1
d. Gate turn-off thyristor (GTO)
e. Mos- controlled thyristor (MCT)
f. integrated gated-commutated thyristor (IGCTs)
3. Power transistors
a. Bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
b. Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET)
c. Insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
d. Static induction transistor (SIT)
Power Diodes:
These are two terminal switches, as shown in Fig. 2.1 -a, formed of a pn junction. It is not
controllable and its operating states are determined by the circuit operating point. When diode is
forward biased, it conducts current, i.e a forward positive voltage Vo will turn it on. When it
reversed biased (a reverse negative current from Cathode to Anode) will turn it off. With forward
biasing a small forward voltage (VF ) will appear across it (0.2-0.3V). Practically, the diode
characteristic consists of two regions, as shown in Fig. 2.1 -b; a forward bias region (ON state)
where both 𝑣𝐷 and 𝑖𝐷 are positive and the current in this region increases exponentially with the
increase in the voltage, and a reversed bias region (OFF state) where both 𝑣𝐷 and 𝑖𝐷 , are negative
and very small leakage current (μA to mA) flows through the diode until the applied reverse
voltage reaches the diode’s breakdown voltage limit VBR. Ideally, the diode is represented by a
short circuit when forward biased and as an open circuit when reversed biased with the ideal
characteristic shown in Fig. 2.1-c.
Types of Power Diodes:

1. Line frequency (general purpose):
● on state voltage very low (below 1 V)
● large reverse recovery time trr (about 25μs) .
● very high current (up to 6 kA) and voltage (8 kV) ratings
● used in line-frequency (50/60Hz) applications such as rectifiers.
● Slow recovery (Fig.2.2)
2
2. Fast recovery:
● very low trr (<1 μs).
● power levels at several hundred volts and several hundred amps.
● normally used in high frequency circuits.
3. Schottky :
● very low forward voltage drop (typical 0.3V )
● limited blocking voltage (50-100V) .
● used in low voltage, high current application such as switched mode power supplies.
Thyristors (Silicon Controlled Rectifiers “SCRs”)

The thyristor, it is also called silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), is a four-layer, three terminal
switching semiconductor device, with each layer consisting of an alternately N or P-type material,
for example N-P-N-P. The main terminals, labeled anode and cathode, are across the full four
layers, and the control terminal, called the gate, is attached to one of the middle layers as shown
in Fig.2.3.
3
SCRs are mainly used where high currents and voltages are involved, and are often used to
control alternating currents, where the change of sign of the current causes the device to
automatically switch off. Like a diode, an SCR conducts only in one direction. The SCR symbol
and its ideal characteristic are shown in Fig,2.4
Modern SCRs can switch large amounts of power (up to megawatts). In the realm of very high
power applications, they are still the primary choice.
SCR is a controllable switch that usually required to be latched to conduct. This latching
(triggering) process is carried out by injecting current to the gate terminal (ig), Fig.2.5, at the
required latching instant provided that the device is forward biased (vAK is positive). Practically,
the thyristor characteristic has three main regions as shown in Fig. 2.6;

● the Conduction Region where the thyristor is operating in its ON state,
● the Forward Blocking Region where the thyristor is forward biased but not yet triggered or the
voltage didn’t reach the forward breakover voltage, and
● the Reverse Region that consists of the reverse blocking region and the reverse avalanche
region similar to the diode characteristic.
4
Thyristors can only be turned on with three conditions:
1. The device must be forward biased, i.e., the anode should be more positive than the cathode.
2. A positive gate current (𝐼𝑔 ) should be applied at the gate.
3. the current through the thyristor should be more than the latching current.
Once conducting, the anode current is LATCHED (continuously flowing).
Important points for the SCR characteristic:

o Latching Current: This is the minimum current required to turn on the SCR device and convert
it from the Forward Blocking State to the ON State.
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o Holding Current: This is the minimum forward current flowing through the thyristor in the
absence of the gate triggering pulse.
o Forward Breakover Voltage: This is the forward voltage required to be applied across the
thyristor to turn it ON without the gate signal application.
o Max Reverse Voltage: This is the maximum reverse voltage to be applied across the thyristor
before the reverse avalanche occurs.
Ideally, SCRs are represented by a short circuit when operating within the conduction region and
as an open circuit when operating within the blocking region. The ideal characteristic is shown in
Fig. 2-b. It is also worth mentioning that once the SCR is triggered and turned ON the gate signal
can be removed without turning it OFF. SCRs are turned OFF when reversing the terminal voltage
and current.
Turning on/off mechanism

● Thyristor (SCR) Conduction
●In reverse -biased mode, the SCR behaves like a diode. It conducts a small leakage current
which is almost dependent of the voltage, but increases with temperature. When the peak reverse
voltage is exceeded, avalanche breakdown occurs, and the large current will flow.
●In the forward biased mode, with no gate current present (i.e. in the untriggered state, the
device exhibits a leakage current. If the forward breakover voltage (Vbo) is exceeded, the SCR
“self-triggers” into the conducting state and the voltage collapses to the normal forward volt-
drop, typically 1.5-3V. The presence of any gate current 𝑖𝑔 will reduce the forward breakover
voltage and will trigger the thyristor at any required instant (α), see Fig.2.7.
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●Thyristor turn off
The process of turning OFF SCR is defined as "Commutation". Thyristor cannot be turned off by
applying negative gate current. It can only be turned off if the current I through it goes negative
(reverse). In all commutation techniques, a reverse voltage is applied across the thyristor during
the turn OFF process.
There are two methods by which a thyristor can be turned OFF.
i. Natural Commutation
ii. Forced Commutation
Natural Commutation
In AC circuit, the current always passes through zero for every half cycle. As the current passes
through natural zero, a reverse voltage will simultaneously appear across the device. This will
turn OFF the device immediately. This happens when negative portion of the of sine-wave occurs.
This process is called as "natural commutation" since no external circuit is required for this
purpose.
Forced Commutation
Another method of turning off is known as "forced commutation". The anode current is “diverted”
to another circuitry. To turn OFF a thyristor, the forward anode current should be brought to zero
for sufficient time to allow the removal of charged carriers. In case of DC circuits the forward
current should be forced to zero by means of some external circuits.
Forced commutation circuit

Fig.2.8 shows one typical thyristor commutation circuit. Thyristor 𝑇𝑚 is the main Thyristor through
which the flow of power is controlled .Capacitor C and the four Thyristors ( 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 , 𝑇3 , 𝑇4 ) is the
commutation circuit . The function of the commutation circuit is to switch off the main thyristor at
the end of each ON period. During ON period of the thyristor, the two auxiliary thyristors 𝑇2 and
𝑇4 are triggered so that the capacitor C is charged such as plate a is positive. To switch OFF, 𝑇𝑚
thyristors (𝑇1 , 𝑇3 ) are triggered ON. This results in applying reverse polarity voltage across𝑇𝑚 and
hence it will be switched OFF. Also the capacitor polarity will be reversed; i.e. plate b will now be
positive.
Thyristor 𝑇𝑚 is switched ON for the next ON period, and now to switch OFF 𝑇𝑚 , Thyristors (𝑇2 , 𝑇4
) are switched ON , and so the cycle is repeated .
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Types of Thyristors
1. Phase controlled
● rectifying line frequency voltage and current for ac and dc motor drives.
● large voltage (up to 7 kV) and current (up to 5 kA) type1 capability.
● low on-state voltage drops (1.5 to 3V).
2. Inverter grade
● used in inverter and chopper
● Quite fast. Can be turned-on using “force commutation” method.
3. Light activated
● Similar to phase controlled, but triggered by pulse of light .
● Normally very high power ratings.
SCR ratings for voltage and current approach those of diodes. Devices for high-voltage dc
(HVDC) conversion have been built with simultaneous 12 kV and 6 kA type 2 ratings. Figure 2.9
below shows types of thyristors in practice.
8
The Triac
The triac is a two thyristors connected back – to – back, used for high or medium power control
for both a.c and d.c applications, as shown in Fig.2.10. Either of the electrodes MT1 and MT2 can
act as anode and either is cathode. The device can be triggered by either positive or negative
voltage on the gate with respect to MT1.This device is effectively two thyristors (SCR s) back- to-
back in construction with an external n-region which is the gate.
The four possible mode of operation of triac are

(a) MT2 +, G + (both relative to MT1) Gate current flows into gate terminal.
(b) MT2+, G – Gate current opposite to (a).
(c) MT2- , G + Gate current as (a)
(d) MT2- , G – Gate current as (b)
Gate Turn Off Thyristors (GTO Thyristors)

GTO behaves like normal thyristor, but can be turned off using gate signal. However turning off
is difficult. Need very large reverse gate current (normally 1/5 of anode current).GTO symbol and
characteristics are shown in Fig.2.11.
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●Ratings: Voltage: 𝑉𝑎𝑘 < 6kV, Current: 𝐼𝑎 < 2 kA -
● Frequency < 5 kHz.
● Gate drive design is very difficult. Need very large reverse gate current to turn off.
● GTO normally requires snubbers. High power snubbers are expensive.
● In very high power region (> 6kV, > 2kA), development in gate-controlled thyristor (GCT) may
effectively end the future of GTO.
Power Transistors
Can be turned “ON”and “OFF” by relatively very small control signals.
Operated in SATURATION and CUT OFF modes only. No “linear region” operation is allowed
due to excessive power loss.
Traditional devices:
Bipolar junction transistors (BJT)
Metal oxide silicon field effect transistor (MOSFET)
Insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBT)
Emerging (new) devices:

Gate controlled thyristors (IGCT)
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1 - Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

● Ratings: Voltage: 𝑉𝐶𝐸 < 1600 V, Current 𝐼𝐶 < 1000 A.
● Switching frequency up to 5 kHz
● Low on-state voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐸 : 2-3V, hence low on – state loss.
● Low current gain (β) Need high base current to obtain reasonable 𝐼𝐶 .
● Expensive and complex base drive circuit.
● Not popular in new products.
BJT Power Transistor Characteristics

-To turn on/off the device, a base drive circuit is connected to the base and emitter terminal.
-To turn on, current is injected into the base terminal. When turned on, conventional current
passes from collector to emitter.
-To turn-off, the base current is removed.
-The current gain of a BJT ends to be low when operated in the saturated ON condition. β< 10
is common. It deteriorates as voltage ratings increases.
-It is normal to use Darlington connection for higher current gain.
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2 – Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors “MOSFETs”
These are three terminal switches as shown in Fig. 2.13.
Fig.2.13 MOSFET: symbol (n-channel)
This is considered the fastest power switching device (200 kHz) for rating voltages < 500V,
current 𝐼𝐷𝑆 < 300A ,or at 100 kHz , < 1500 V , 300 A .
MOSFET characteristics
● Turning on and off is very simple. Only need to provide 𝑉𝐺𝑆 = +15V to turn on and 0V to turn
off. Gate drive circuit is simple.
● Basically low voltage device. High voltage device are available up to 600V but with limited
current. Can be paralleled quite easily for higher current capability.
● Dominant in high frequency application (>100 kHz). Biggest application is in switched-mode
power supplies.
● On state loss relatively high. 𝑉𝐷𝑆 > 3 V.
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Practically, MOSFET’s characteristic consists of three regions, as shown in Fig.2.13 :
- Cut OFF region (OFF state) when 𝑉𝐺𝑆 < 𝑉𝑇𝐻
- Linear region when 𝑉𝐷𝑆 < 𝑉𝐺𝑆 - 𝑉𝑇𝐻
- Saturation region when 𝑉𝐷𝑆 > 𝑉𝐺𝑆 - 𝑉𝑇𝐻
Ideally, MOSFETs are represented by a short circuit when operating within the ON State and as
an open circuit when operating within the OFF State.
Fig.2.13 MOSFET Characteristic
3 – Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor “IGBT”

This is also a three terminal switch as shown in Fig. 2.14. Its operation modes and characteristics
are almost similar to those for MOSFETs, shown in Fig. 2.13, except for the operating ranges.
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IGBT has a combination of BJT and MOSFET characteristics. Compromises include:
● Gate behavior similar to MOSFET - easy to turn on and off.
● Low losses like BJT due to low on-state Collector-Emitter voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = (2-3V).
● Ratings: Voltage: 𝑉𝐶𝐸 < 6000V, Current 2500A currently available.
● Good switching capability (up to 100 kHz) for newer devices.
● Typical application, IGBT is used at 20-50 kHz.
● For very high power devices and applications, frequency is limited to several kHz -
● Very popular in new products; practically replacing BJT in most new applications
● Snubberless” operation is possible. Most new IGBTs do not require snubber.
Other switching devices:

There are several other power switching devices available such as: Diac, Static Induction
Transistors (SITs), Static Induction Thyristors (SITHs), and MOS-Controlled Thyristors (MCT).
MCTs (MOS Controlled Thyristor)

An effort to combine the advantages of bipolar junction and field-effect structures has resulted in
hybrid devices:
> The IGBT is an improvement over a BJT.
> The MCT is an improvement over a thyristor.
MCT characteristics
● MCT can be switched on or off by negative or positive gate voltage, respectively.
● It has fast TURN-ON and then OFF times, with high-speed switching capability.
● Low conduction losses, low switching losses, and high current density.
● The gating requirements of an MCT are easier than those of the GTO since it needs smaller
gate turn-off current due to its high gate input impedance.
● Compared with the power MOSFET, it has higher current density and lower forward drop . It
has great potential in high-power, high-voltage applications. A peak power of 1 MW can be
switched off in 2 ns by a single MCT.
Therefore, the MCT overcomes several of the limitations of the existing power devices and
promises to be a better switch for the future. The MCT symbol and equivalent circuit are shown
in Fig.2.15. The MCT characteristics are shown in Fig.2.16.
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New Emerging Devices:
The Power Silicon Carbide Semiconductors

Silicon Carbide (SiC) semiconductors are a new option for power electronic designers looking to
improve system efficiency, its features are:
Extremely low Switching losses
• Zero reverse recovery charge - improves system efficiency
High Power Density

• Smaller footprint device reduces system size
and weight
High thermal conductivity

• 2.5 x more thermally conductive than silicon
Reduced Sink requirements

• results in lower cost and smaller size
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High temperature operation
• increased power density and improved reliability.
Figure 2.17 shows a summary of power semiconductor device capabilities by the year 2016.
Activities:
Multiple Choice: Choose the best answer.

1. Most new IGBTs do not require snubber.
A. True
B. False
2. Which of the following is not characteristic of MOSFET?

A. Need 0 V to turn on C. On state loss relatively high
B. basically low voltage device D. characteristic consists of three regions
3. Which of the following is not the terminal of MOSFET?

A. Base C. drain
B. gate D. source
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4. Which of the following is not characteristic of BJT power transistor?
A. to turn –on, the base current is removed
B. to turn on/off the device, a base drive circuit is connected to the base and emitter terminal.
C. the current gain of a BJT ends to be low when operated in the saturated ON condition.
D. It is normal to use Darlington connection for higher current gain.
5. Which of the following is not terminal of bipolar junction transistor?

A. drain C. emitter
B. base D. collector
6. IGBT stands for

A. insulated gate binary transistor C. incoming gate bipolar transistor
B. insulated gate bipolar transistor D. insulated gate bipolar transformer
7. Which of the following is not terminal of gate turn off thyristor?

A. gate C. anode
B. base D. cathode
8. Type of thyristor used in inverter and chopper.

A. phase controlled C. light activated
B. inverter grade D. none of the above
9. Thyristor cannot be turned off by applying _______current.

A. positive gate C. positive base
B. negative gate D. negative base
10. The thyristor can only be turned on if

A. The device must be reverse biased, i.e., the anode should be more positive than the cathode.
B. The device must be forward biased, i.e., the anode should be more positive than the cathode.
C. A positive gate current (𝐼𝑔 ) should be applied at the base.
D. the current through the thyristor should be less than the latching current.
References:
●http://ethw.org/Category:Power_electronics?gclid=CjwKCAjwzaSLBhBJEiwAJSRokvA_sgPlys
qSAd0-bRkfi2VfU-901cf3-r4_iXnAQK54wH3hOgsp_BoCuE0QAvD_BwE
●https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_semiconductor_device
●http://www.egr.unlv.edu/~eebag/EE-442-642-Power%20switching%20devices%20fall14.pdf
●https://www.philadelphia.edu.jo/academics/mlazim/uploads/PE%20Lecture%20No.02.pdf
●https://www.homemade-circuits.com/bidirectional-switch/
17
LESSON 2 PASSIVE COMPONENTS FOR ELECTRONIC POWER
SUPPLY
Overview
In this lesson, you will study about the types and concepts of different passive components for
electronic power supply. A power supply is an electronic circuit designed to provide various ac
and dc voltages for equipment operation.
Module Objectives:

1. Define power supply
2. Enumerate the different kinds of passive components for electronic power supply.
Course Materials:
A power supply is an electronic circuit designed to provide various ac and dc voltages for
equipment operation.
Passive components for electronic power supply
1. RESISTORS
Resistors are components intended to insert a known amount of resistance into an electrical
circuit. As we saw in the last section, they are available in a range of different values and
tolerances. It will also be evident to anyone who has looked at an electronic circuit that they are
also available in a range of sizes. The sizes relate to the amount of power that the resistor can
dissipate. An electric current passing through a resistor will always cause a certain amount of
energy to be dissipated as heat. The amount of energy dissipated can be calculated by the simple
formula: P= VI watts where P represents power.
Let us consider the case of a 5 ohm resistor connected across a 12 volt battery. This is illustrated
in FIG. 1. We can use Ohm's Law to calculate the amount of current flowing through the resistor.
This is given as: I= '!': R
It is clear that the voltage, when measured across the resistor, must be equal to the battery
voltage, provided we neglect any resistance in the wires. We can now use the formula to calculate
the amount of power that the resistor is dissipating as heat:
P= VI
P=12x2.4
P = 28.8 watts
28.8 watts is a respectable amount of heat-the above calculation might be made for a car's rear-
window heating element. It is quite obvious that a tiny component such as a resistor one might
find in an electronic circuit could not possibly dissipate this much heat without damaging itself. In
fact, a resistor designed to dissipate around 30 watts would be quite large--perhaps 5 em long. It
18
would also be made in such a way that the body of the resistor could become quite hot. In practice,
the designers of most electronic circuits try to avoid such large heat outputs which can cause
problems in cooling the equipment.
Resistors used in electronic circuits are designed with power dissipations of 0.25, 0.5 or 1 watt.
Larger sizes are available, but are less commonly used.
FIG. 1 power: a simple circuit like this will dissipate heat.
The same formula as the one above is used to calculate the power dissipation of series and
parallel combinations. FIG. 2 shows such circuits. FIG. 2a illustrates two resistors connected in
series. It is quite clear that the same current flows through both resistors. However, when
measured across each resistor, the voltage will be different. The total potential difference is given
as 5 volts. We can find the voltage across each individual resistor by using Ohm's Law. We know
that the total resistance of the circuit is 3.2 k ohm and can use Ohm's Law to calculate that the
current flowing through the circuit is about 1.562 mA. Using the form of Ohm's Law V = IR, we
can calculate the voltage drop across each resistor. For the first resistor: And for the other resistor:
V= 1000 x 1.562mV V= 1.562 V = 2200 X 1.562 V=3.44 Now that we know the voltage dropped
across each resistor we can calculate the amount of power that each resistor is dissipating. For
the 1 k-Ohm resistor this is: p = 1.562 X 1.562 P=2.43mW. And for the 2.2 k-Ohm resistor the
power dissipated is given as: P= 1.562 X 3.44 P= 5.37mW. Look carefully at the units used in
these calculations! The amounts of power dissipated are very small, typical, in fact, of the sort of
thing we will become used to in electronic circuits. The smallest commonly available size of
resistor (0.125 watts) is substantially larger than is necessary to dissipate this amount of power.
FIG. 2 resistors in series and in parallel.
19
Exactly the same kind of calculation is used to work out the power dissipations in resistors in
parallel. In this case-illustrated in FIG. 2b the voltage across both resistors is the same (5 V), but
the current is different. We can use Ohm's law to ascertain the current flowing through each
resistor, and arrive at 5mA and 2.27mA for the 1 k-Ohm and 2.2k-Ohm resistors respectively. We
can now use our power calculation to determine that the 1 k-Ohm resistor is dissipating 5 x 5 =
25 mW. The 2.2 k-Ohm resistor is dissipating 2.27 x 5 = 7.35 mW. If you are in any doubt about
this calculation, work ft out on a piece of paper. Another, equally valid way of working out power
dissipations in series or parallel combinations of two resistors is to calculate the total dissipation
of the pair (very simply done) and then use a ratio calculation to determine how much power is
dissipated by which resistor. Note that in series combinations it is always the resistor with the
higher value that dissipates the most power. In parallel combinations, it is the resistor with the
lower resistance that dissipates more power.
Before leaving resistors, we should look at the physical structure of the three main types of
resistor. These are all electrically comparable-there is only one kind of resistance-but they are
mechanically different, being suitable for slightly different applications.
FIG. 3 a solid carbon resistor (this component might be anything from a few millimeters to a few
tens of millimeters long).
Types of Resistor
The most usual type of resistor is the solid carbon resistor (see FIG. 3). Its structure is very simple,
consisting of a small cylinder of carbon which is mixed with a non-conductor. A connecting wire
is fixed into each end, and the resistor is given a coat of paint to protect it from moisture which
might alter the resistance.
Resistors are always marked with a color code to indicate the value.
The color code consists of three or four colored bands painted round the resistor body. This
system is used because it makes the resistor's value visible from any direction-a printed label
could be hard to read with the component in place on a crowded board. Also, a painted or printed
value could easily get rubbed off, whereas painted-bands are relatively permanent.
The first three bands of the color code represent the value of the resistor in ohms. Bands 1 and 2
are the two digits of the value, and band 3 represents the number of zeros following the first two
digits. FIG. 4 gives the resistor color code; the standard is international. The fourth band is used
to indicate the tolerance of the resistor's stated value.
20
FIG. 4 the international standard resistor color code
Where values of resistance less than two digits are required, the two bands are followed by a gold
band. Thus 4.7 ohm would be represented as yellow, purple, gold, plus a tolerance band.
The next kind of resistor is the metal oxide or metal glaze resistor. This looks rather like the carbon
resistor from the outside, but the internal structure is-different. FIG. Sa shows a cross-section.
Metal oxide resistors can be made to closer tolerances than carbon resistors, and change their
resistance less with changes in temperature. For this reason, they are sometimes called high-
stability resistors. The resistance of a metal oxide resistor changes by approximately 250 parts
per million per °C. This compares with about 1200 parts per million per °C for carbon resistors.
21
FIG. 5 (a) a metal oxide resistor; (b) for high power applications, a wire-wound resistor is used.
Both carbon and metal oxide resistors are made in a range of stock sizes, from about 0.125 W
dissipation to about 3 W. Sometimes it is necessary to have resistors that can cope with higher
powers; for this, wire wound resistors are used. The wire-wound resistor is shown in FIG. 5b.
It is easy to make wire-wound resistors in low resistance values, down to fractions of an ohm.
High resistance values use wire of low conductivity, requiring many turns of fine gauge wire as
well. The maximum practical value for a wire-wound resistor is a few tens of kilohms, at least for
components that are a reasonable size. Power ratings range from 1-50W in the stock sizes; there
is no limit to the size in practice, and larger special purpose wire-wound resistors are common.
It is possible to make precision wire-wound resistors in which the resistance is specified to a very
close tolerance, within± 0.1 percent. Such resistors are expensive and would be used only in
measuring equipment.
Variable resistors
For applications such as volume controls and other 'user controls' in electronic equipment, it is
often necessary to have a resistor that can be altered in resistance by means of a control knob.
Such resistors are called variable resistors, or potentiometers. They consist of a resistive track,
22
made with a connection at either end. A movable brush, generally made of a non-corroding metal,
can be moved along the track; an electrical connection to the brush allows a variable resistance
to be obtained between either end of the track and the brush.
Three forms of variable resistor are shown in FIG. 6b. Note that the shaft (or slot) that moves the
brush is generally connected to the brush; it is important to know this for safety reasons.
Variable resistors are available in various shapes and sizes, with power dissipations from around
0.25 W upwards. Tracks are either carbon, conductive ceramic ('cermet') or wire-wound.
Resistance ranges are available between fractions of an ohm and a few megohms.
The track can be made in such a way that the resistance increases smoothly along the track-the
usual, linear, type of potentiometer. For some audio uses (such as volume controls) logarithmic
potentiometers are made in which the resistance increases according to a logarithmic law rather
than a linear law. For most purposes you need only remember that the way logarithmic
potentiometers control volume approximates the way the human ear responds to sounds of
different loudness. If you use a linear potentiometer for a volume control, the effect of the control
seems to be 'all at one end' of the scale.
23
FIG. 6 (a) principle of the potentiometer or variable resistor; (b) three different types of
potentiometer
2. CAPACITORS
Next to resistors, the most commonly encountered component is the capacitor. A capacitor is a
component that can store electric charge. In essence, it consists of two flat parallel plates, very
close to each other, but separated by an insulator (see FIG. 7). When the capacitor is connected
to a voltage supply, a current will flow through the circuit (see FIG. 8). Electrons are stored in one
of the plates of the capacitor; in the other there is a shortage of electrons. In this state the capacitor
is said to be charged, and if it is disconnected from the supply, the imbalance in potential between
the two plates will remain.
24
FIG. 7 schematic view of a capacitor
FIG. 8 a capacitor connected to a power supply; current will flow until the capacitor is charged.
If the charged capacitor is connected in a circuit, it will, for a short time, act as a voltage source,
just like a battery. This can be demonstrated quite nicely with nothing more than a large capacitor,
a 9 V battery such as PP9, and a capacitor rated at 10 V, 1000 uF (see below regarding units of
capacitance). Note that the capacitor will be an electrolytic type (again, see below) and must be
connected to the battery with its + terminal towards the positive ( +) terminal of the battery. The
demonstration is shown in FIG. 9.
Try the experiment again, this time allowing two minutes between charging the capacitor and
discharging it into the bulb. Try waiting progressively longer, and you will see that the charge
gradually leaks away on its own. This is due to the imperfection of the insulator separating the
plates, allowing a tiny leakage current to flow.
25
FIG. 9 a simple experiment for demonstrating the way in which capacitors can store power; a
large capacitor is first charged up from a 9 volt supply, and then discharged into a small/amp
26
FIG. 10 a graph showing a capacitor charging and discharging
A graph of the current flowing through a charging and then discharging capacitor is compared
with the voltage measured across it in FIG. 10.
The unit of capacitance is the farad, named after Faraday. One farad is a very large unit of
capacitance, in the context of electronic circuits, and the smaller derived units of capacitance are
used. The largest practical unit is the microfarad, symbol uF. Although values of capacitance in
the range of thousands of microfarad are sometimes used, the milli-farad is never encountered-a
capacitor would be marked 10 000 uF, for example, not 10 mF. If you do see a capacitor marked
'mF', it is almost certainly meant to be uF, with that manufacturer (Far Eastern?) using a non-
standard abbreviation. In addition to the uF, the nF and the pF are commonly used units.
FIG. 11 a typical capacitor, used in electronics work-the 'metallized film' type.
There are many different types of capacitors, according to the use to which the component is to
be put, and also to the operating conditions.
27
The capacitance of the component is determined by three factors: the area of the plates, the
separation of the plates, and the insulating material that separates them, known as the dielectric.
For the same dielectric material, the closer and larger the plates, the greater the capacitance.
Another factor determines the thickness of the dielectric, and that is the maximum voltage to which
it is going to be subjected. If the dielectric is very thin, it will break down with a relatively low
voltage applied to the plates of the capacitor. Once the dielectric has been damaged, the capacitor
is useless.
High voltage capacitors need thicker dielectrics, to withstand the higher voltage. To produce the
same capacitance, the plates have to be larger in area-so the component is bigger.
The simplest type of capacitor uses a roll of very thin aluminum foil, interleaved with a very thin
plastic dielectric such as mylar. A physically smaller capacitor can be made by actually plating
the aluminum on to one side of the mylar (see FIG. 11). For higher voltages, polyester, poly
styrene or polycarbonate plastic material is used as the dielectric.
Ceramic capacitors are used where small values of capacitance and large values of leakage
current are acceptable-the ceramic capacitor is inexpensive. A thin ceramic dielectric is metallized
on each side, and coated with a thick protective layer, usually applied by dipping the component.
Both plastic film and ceramic capacitors are available in the range 10pF-1 uF, though plastic film
types may be obtained in larger values.
Where really high values of capacitance are needed, electrolytic capacitors are used. Electrolytic
capacitors give very large values of capacitance in a small component, at the expense of a wide
tolerance in the marked value (-25 to +50 percent) and the necessity for connecting the capacitor
so that one terminal is always positive.
The most commonly used type of electrolytic capacitor is the aluminum electrolytic capacitor. The
construction is given in FIG. 12. After manufacture, the capacitor is connected to a controlled
current source which electrochemically deposits a layer of aluminum oxide on the surface of the
'positive' plate. The aluminum oxide makes an excellent dielectric, with very good dielectric
strength (resistance to voltage applied across the plates). Since the layer is chemically deposited
it is very thin.
The electrolytic capacitor must not be subjected to voltages applied in the wrong direction, or the
aluminum oxide layer will be moved off the positive plate, and back into the electrolyte again.
28
FIG. 12 construction of an aluminum electrolytic capacitor
Variable Capacitors
Capacitors are made that can be varied in value. Either air or thin mica sheets are used as the
dielectric, so the capacitance of variable capacitors is usually low. Rotary or compression types
are made. In the former, the capacitance is altered by changing the amount of overlap of the two
sets of plates; see FIG. 13a. In compression trimmers, the spacing between plates is altered, as
in FIG. 13b.
Variable capacitors can be obtained with maximum values from 2 pF to 500 pF.
29
FIG. 13 (a) a variable capacitor of the 'air space' type (this component would be used for tuning
a radio receiver, for example) ; (b) a 'compression trimmer', a form of variable capacitor used to
preset circuit values (adjustment is by means of a screw)
3. INDUCTORS
The third major passive component is the inductor. This is a coil of insulated wire that may, or
may not, be wound over a ferrous metal former.
When a coil is connected in a circuit, as in FIG. 14, the flow of current through the coil causes an
electromagnetic field to be created around the coil. Building the field absorbs energy, and the
electromagnetism produces its own current in the coil, opposing the direction of the applied
current.
30
The effect is that, when current is first applied to the inductor, it seems to have a high resistance,
reducing the current flow through it. Once the electromagnetic field is established, the resistance
drops. A graph of the current flowing through an inductor, and the voltage measured across it, is
given in FIG. 15.
Compare this graph with the one in FIG. 10, and you will see that the inductor is the 'opposite' of
a capacitor! Once the current flowing through the inductor is constant, the only opposition to
current flow comes from the resistance of the coil wire-usually small compared with the apparent
resistance (called inductive reactance) when the current is building up.
The opposing force that prevents current flowing right away is induced current, trying to flow the
opposite way. We can make great use of this phenomenon in constructing a transformer.
The unit of inductance is the henry, symbol H. In electronics, mH and u1H are commonly found,
but the henry, like the farad, is rather a large unit.
FIG. 14 an inductor connected in a simple circuit; the current rises to a fixed level, determined by
the resistance of the inductor's windings.
Inductors are available as a range of components, in small inductance values from a few uH to a
few mH. However, there are so many variable factors that a 'stock range' of all required types
would be too large for a supplier to produce. Where inductors are needed (and they are relatively
rare in modern circuits) they may well be specified in terms of wire thickness, number of turns,
core type, etc.
31
4. TRANSFORMERS
Transformers make use of mutual inductance, in which a current flowing in a coil produces an
electromagnetic field, which in turn induces a current to flow in a second coil wound over the first
one.
The construction of a transformer is shown in FIG. 16. The iron laminated core is used to
concentrate the electromagnetism and thus improve the efficiency. It is important that the iron
laminations are insulated from each other; if they are not, the core itself will behave as if it were
a one-turn coil, and a current will be induced in it. The current would be very large, and cause the
transformer to overheat.
The ratio of the input voltage to the primary winding to the output voltage from the secondary
winding depends on the turns ratio of the coils, and is approximately equal to that ratio. Thus a
transformer with 2000 turns on the primary and 1000 turns on the secondary will have an output
voltage that is half the input voltage.
Since currents are induced only by changing magnetic fields, the trans former will operate only if
the input voltage is constantly changing. The transformer could be used with alternating current
(such as the mains supply), and one of the main uses for a transformer in electronics is to reduce
the voltage of the a.c. mains to a lower level, suitable for electronic circuits. This is illustrated in
FIG. 17.
FIG. 15 graphs showing voltage and current in the circuit of FIG. 14.
32
FIG. 16 a typical small transformer, showing the iron laminations.
FIG. 17 circuit symbol for a transformer with a laminated core.
Transformers are rated according to the turns ratio, the power handling capability (in watts), and
the type of application. Power transformers, intended for power supplies, usually have mains
voltage primaries, and a high standard of insulation between the primary and secondary coils, for
safety.
The secondary winding may have a range of connections, or taps, so the transformer can be used
in different applications. It is important to realize that the transformer simply transforms voltages;
there is no net power gain, always a small loss. If a transformer has a 200 V primary and a 1000
V secondary, the voltage will be increased by a factor of five times, but it will require more than
five times the current in the primary than will be available from the secondary. You can trade
current for voltage and vice versa, but the power will always be slightly less at the output, due to
various losses in the transformer (dissipated, as usual, in the form of heat). Any component having
33
a coil carrying current will have an inductive characteristic, though it may be swamped by other
factors (resistance or capacitance). This may sometimes be important. For example, a relay is an
electromagnetic switch, the coil being used to operate a mechanical switch. However, the coil has
inductance. A relay operating from a 6 V supply can, when suddenly disconnected, produce an
output pulse of 100 V or more as the current flowing through it drops very rapidly to zero. This
voltage may be high enough to harm semiconductor components, and precautions should be
taken to ensure that this 'spike' of high voltage is made harmless.
5. DIODE
A diode is basically the electrical equivalent of a one-way valve. It normally allows electric current
to flow through it in one direction only.
The symbol for the diode is given in Figure 1.
FIG. 1 circuit symbol for a diode
The arrowhead in the diagram shows the permitted direction of conventional current flow
(remember, electron current goes the other way). Diodes can be made to handle currents varying
from microamps to hundreds of amps-a selection of types is shown in Figure 2.
FIG. 2 a selection of diodes of various power ratings, from 1 A to 20 A
34
FIG. 3 a circuit to reverse-bias a diode; note the meter is connected with its '+' to the battery '-',
which results in a negative reading
FIG. 4 a circuit to forward-bias a diode: the forward current is limited by the lamp
FIG. 5 energy levels for two separate pieces of semiconductor
A 'perfect' diode would probably have infinite resistance in one direction, the 'reverse' direction,
and zero resistance in the forward direction. A real diode exhibits rather different characteristics,
the most notable of which is a forward voltage drop, which is constant regardless (almost) of the
current being passed by the diode. Compare Figures 3 and 4. In Figure 3 the diode is reverse-
biased and does not conduct. The lamp remains out and the meter shows the whole battery
voltage appearing across the diode. In Figure 4 the diode is forward-biased, the lamp lights, and
the meter shows 0.7 V across the diode. By using bulbs of different wattages to pass different
currents through the circuit we can show that the 0.7 V is constant. The diode used in this
35
demonstration is a silicon diode. If we were to replace it with one using a germanium
semiconductor, the forward voltage drop would be constant at 0.3 V. What causes the voltage
drop? To find out we must look at the way the diode functions at an atomic level, and go back to
the energy-level diagrams.
Figure 5 shows an energy-level diagram for a piece of p -type silicon and a piece of n -type silicon;
the two materials are not in contact.
FIG. 6 energy levels for two pieces of semiconductor, one p-type and one n-type, in contact with
each other
Now we place the two pieces of silicon in intimate contact (fuse them together for best results)
and the energy -level diagram looks like Figure 6.
A few moments thought will show what has happened. The p-type material has extra holes and
then-type material has extra electrons. When the two types of semiconductor are put in contact
the 'extra' electrons in the n-type material flow across the junction to fill up the holes in the p-type
material. The electrons drift from then-type to the p-type through the conduction band, and then
fall down into the valence band of the p-type material to annihilate one hole for each electron. The
holes also move, drifting from the p -type to then -type semiconductor in the valence band.
Eventually an equilibrium is reached-but then-type material has lost electrons to the p-type, and
lost energy in the process. The p -type, on the other hand, has gained energy and the result is
the state of affairs represented by Figure 6. The 'hill' in the diagram represents an area in the
junction between the two semiconductor materials about 0.5 um wide, called the depletion region,
or sometimes the transition region. In this region there are no holes or free electrons. The 'height'
of the hill, i.e. the difference in energy levels, can be measured in volts: for silicon it is 0.7 V, and
for germanium it is 0.3 V. The junction between the p-type and n-type semiconductor is, in fact,
the active part of the pn diode. A typical low-power pn junction diode might be constructed as
shown in Figure 7.
Regard the diode as a block of p -type semiconductor in contact with a block of n- type
semiconductor.
36
FIG. 7 construction of a low-power diode (the circuit symbol underneath indicates the direction of
current flow)
1. REVERSE-BIASING THE pn DIODE
Assume the diode is connected as in Figure 3, so that it is reversed-biased (non-conducting). The

energy-level diagram for this state is shown in Figure 8.
FIG. 8 energy levels in the reverse-biased diode
The energy of the p-type material is increased by the negative battery potential, while that of then-
type is decreased. Look at the thickness of the conduction and valence bands and at their relative
positions in the two different materials, on either side of the depletion region. No parts of the
conduction bands or the valence bands have the same energy levels.
Electrons cannot move from the p-type to then-type material through the conduction band
because even the least energetic electrons have too much energy. Similarly, holes in the valence
band of the n -type material all have too little energy to drift into the valence band of the p-type.
The energy levels of the bands on either side of the depletion region are too different to allow
either electrons or holes to move from one type of material to the other.
It follows that if electrons and holes are unable to cross the depletion region, there can be no
current flow, for electric current is a movement of electrons (or holes) along a conductor.
2. FORWARD-BIASING THE pn DIODE
Let us reverse the situation, and connect the diode as in Figure 4, i.e. to forward-bias it. The
energy-level diagram for this state is given in Figure 9. This time, the battery potential decreases
the energy of the p-type semiconductor, and increases the energy of then-type. When the
potential applied is equal to or more than 0.7 V (assuming we are using a silicon diode and not a
germanium one) the two types of material are at the same energy level, and the conduction and
valence bands coincide. Both electrons and holes can move freely between the two types of
semiconductor, and electric current can flow through the diode.
37
FIG. 9 energy levels in the forward-biased diode
The reason for the 0.7 V forward voltage drop of the silicon diode should now be clear. A potential
of 0.7 V must be applied to the pn junction to equalize the energy levels, and this is effectively
subtracted from the potential available to push electric current through the diode.
3. POWER DISSIPATION IN THE DIODE
It is the forward voltage drop that sets an upper limit on the amount of current we can get through
a diode. The lamp in Figure 4 might use, for example, 1 A, and the battery might be 12 V. In such
a case a current of about 1A flows in the circuit-but some of the power is 'wasted' in the diode as
a result of the forward voltage drop, and is dissipated from the junction as heat. The amount of
power that the diode dissipates can be calculated very simply using the formula:
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑟 𝐼
where P is the power (in watts), I is the current flowing (in amps), and 𝑉𝑟 is the forward voltage
drop of the diode in question. With 1 A flowing, the diode will dissipate 0.7 x 1 watts, or 0.7 W.
When a diode is used in a circuit its power rating must exceed the expected dissipation, preferably
by a comfortable margin.
In practice, the formula is complicated by the fact that the diode gets hot. The intrinsic conductivity
of semiconductors increases with temperature (the bands get thicker) and this has the effect of
lowering the forward voltage drop as the temperature rises. For both silicon and germanium the
forward voltage drop decreases at the rate of about 2.5 mV/℃ temperature rise.
Since the junction temperature of a silicon diode may exceed l00°C with the diode operating near
its maximum current, temperature effects can become quite significant. The 'normal' forward
voltage drop of0.7V is reduced to 0.45 V for a 100°C temperature rise. For most purposes this
effect can be discounted, but in circuits where the voltage drop across the diode is important, we
have to bear it in mind, it is not, incidentally, possible to reduce the forward voltage drop to zero-
at very high temperatures, the junction melts. Silicon is much more tolerant of temperature than
germanium. For this reason, and also because the reverse leakage current is much lower (see
below), silicon diodes are the norm and germanium diodes are relatively rare-they are used only
in applications where a low forward voltage drop is essential.
4. REVERSE LEAKAGE CURRENT
Diodes are 'imperfect' in another way. When connected in a circuit that reverse-biases it (Figure
3 again) a diode allows a very small current to flow. This current is called the reverse leakage
current and is partly due to thermally generated electron-hole pairs and partly to leakage across
the surface of the diode. The reverse leakage current is very small for silicon diodes, in the region
of 2 to 20 nA. For almost all purposes this minute current can be ignored. The reverse leakage
current for germanium diodes is much higher, typically 2 to 20 uA, and this may be important in
some circuits.
The reverse leakage current is also temperature-dependent and for both silicon and germanium
it roughly doubles for each 10°C rise in temperature.
38
FIG. 10 conduction characteristics of a silicon pn junction diode
5. REVERSE BREAKDOWN
As the voltage applied to a diode to reverse-bias it is increased, there comes a point at which
reverse breakdown occurs. In normal pn diodes, this breakdown is catastrophic and destroys the
diode. Depending on the construction of the diode, the point at which reverse breakdown occurs
can be anywhere from fifty to a few hundred volts. Manufacturers always specify the safe reverse-
bias voltage, which is normally referred to as peak inverse voltage. Thus a 50 p.i. V diode can be
reverse-biased at 50v without danger of breakdown taking place.
We are now in a position to draw a graph of a typical diode's conduction characteristics at room
temperature (see Figure 10). Note that the four scales of the graph are different, to show different
aspects of the characteristics. On the right, the voltage across the diode is shown for different
values of current through the diode. The graph continues straight up until the current reaches a
value that causes overheating (P = Vrl) and melts the pn junction. On the left, the reverse leakage
current is shown for increasing voltage; it remains steady at a few nanoamps until reverse break
down occurs (at a substantially higher voltage than the 50 p.i. V manufacturer's maximum for this
device) and the current increases to a value limited by factors other than the characteristics of the
pn junction, which at this point will have just ceased to exist.
6. ZENER DIODE
There is one particular type of diode that makes use of a form of reverse breakdown to provide a
constant 'reference' voltage. The circuit of Figure 11 shows the symbol for a Zener diode and also
a suitable circuit to demonstrate its properties.
39
FIG. 11 a Zener diode in a typical circuit
In this circuit the diode is reverse-biased (Zener diodes are always used this way) and the meter
shows a drop of 2.8 V across it. The voltage drop across a reverse-biased Zener diode will be
substantially constant for all values of current up to the diode's limit, and for all values of voltage
higher than the Zener voltage. A resistor is necessary to limit the current through the circuit; in
this case the current is calculated by Ohm's Law:
12 - 2· 8 = 19.6 mA 470
If we were to double the battery voltage to 24 V, the current through the circuit would increase to
24 - 2.8 = 45mA 470
but the voltage across the Zener diode would remain at 2.8 V. The Zener diode is therefore a
valuable device for voltage regulation, giving a fixed reference voltage over a range of input
voltages.
Zener diodes are named after C. M. Zener, who in 1934 described the breakdown mechanism
involved. In fact, Zener's description applies only to diodes with a Zener voltage of less than about
3 V. Above this, a mechanism called avalanche breakdown begins to take over. However, both
types are generally lumped together under the heading 'Zener diodes', and are available in a
range of voltages from 2 to 70, and with power ratings from 500 mW to 5 W. The power dissipation
of the Zener diode is calculated by means of the usual formula
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑧 𝐼 where 𝑉𝑧 is the Zener voltage.
By way of example, the Zener diode in
Figure 11 is dissipating 2.8 x 19.6 = 54.9mW
The conduction characteristics of a Zener diode can be drawn in a diagram similar to Figure 10.
Look at Figure 10 again- the only difference in the Zener diode's characteristic is in the reverse
breakdown (lower left quadrant), which will occur at the Zener voltage. The important factor not
shown in the diagram of characteristics-is that the Zener diode is undamaged by reverse
breakdown provided that the current through the diode, and thus its heat dissipation, is limited to
a safe value.
40
7. VARICAP DIODE
When a diode is reverse-biased, the junction behaves like a capacitor. The p-type and n -type
regions form the plates of the capacitor, and the depletion region acts as a dielectric. You will
remember that the capacitance of a capacitor depends on the thickness of the dielectric, and it is
this fact that makes the pn diode useful as a variable capacitor. If the voltage used to reverse-
bias the diode is increased, the difference in the energy-levels of the p and n regions is made
greater. As this happens, more of the junction thickness is depleted of charge carriers, increasing
the width of the depletion regions. Effectively, the capacitor's dielectric has become thicker,
reducing the capacitance.
8. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE
The light-emitting diode (LED) is an extremely useful device, and replaces miniature incandescent
lamps in a whole range of applications. Almost everybody is familiar with the LED display, used
commonly for digital alarm clocks. LED displays are usually ruby red, but green and yellow is also
available (although more expensive and therefore less common)
6. SWITCH
Selecting a Switch
Features to consider when selecting a switch:

●Type of contacts such as DPDT.
●Ratings for voltage and current.
●Method of operation toggle, slide etc.
The following terms are used to identify different types of standard switches:
SPST = Single Pole, Single Throw

SPDT = Single Pole, Double Throw
DPST = Double Pole, Single Throw
DPDT = Double Pole, Double Throw
Switch Contacts
Several terms are used to describe switch contacts:
Pole - number of switch contact sets.
Throw - number of conducting positions (only used for single and double)
Way - number of conducting positions.
Momentary - switch returns to its normal position when released.
Open - off position, contacts not conducting.
Closed - on position, contacts conducting, there may be several on positions.
A simple on – off switch
A simple on-off switch has one set of contacts, single pole, and one switching position which
conducts, single throw. This is type of switch is called SPST (single pole, single throw) and its
41
action is described as ON-OFF. The switch mechanism has two positions: closed = on and open
= off, but it is called 'single throw' because only one position conducts.
A simple push switch
A simple push-switch, such as one for a doorbell, has one set of contacts and the on position is
only momentary, as soon as you release the switch it goes back to off. This action is called push-
to-make (push to close contacts). The momentary action is shown by using brackets like
this: (ON)-OFF.
Switch Contact Ratings
Switch contacts are rated with a maximum voltage and current, and there may be different ratings
for AC and DC. The AC values are higher because the current falls to zero many times each
second and an arc is less likely to form across the switch contacts.
For low voltage electronics projects the voltage rating will not matter, but you may need to check
the current rating. The maximum current is less for inductive loads (coils and motors) because
they cause more sparking at the contacts when switched off.
Standard Switches
1. On – Off, SPST
SPST = Single Pole, Single Throw
A simple on-off switch.

This type can be used to switch the power supply to a circuit. The photograph shows a SPST
toggle switch
When used with mains electricity this type of switch must be in the live wire, but it is better to
use a DPST switch to isolate both live and neutral.
2. (On) – Off, Push – to – make, SPST Momentary
42
A push-to-make switch returns to its normally open = off position when you release the button,
this is shown by the brackets around (ON). This is the standard doorbell switch.
3. On – (Off), Push – to - break, SPST Momentary
A push-to-break switch returns to its normally closed = on position when you release the button,
this is shown by the brackets around (OFF).
4. On – On, SPDT
SPDT = Single Pole, Double Throw
This switch can be on in both positions, switching on a separate device in each case. It is also
called a changeover switch.
For example, a SPDT switch can be used to switch on a red lamp in one position and a green
lamp in the other position.
A SPDT toggle switch may be used as a simple on-off switch by connecting to COM and one of
the A or B terminals shown in the diagram. A and B are interchangeable so switches are usually
not labelled.
SPDT is a popular type of switch and suppliers are likely to have a good variety of styles, for
example:
1. SPDT toggle switch
2. SPDT slide switch
3. SPDT rocker switch
43
5. Dual On – Off, DPST
DPST = Double Pole, Single Throw
A pair of on-off switches which operate together (shown by the dotted line in the circuit symbol).
A DPST switch is often used for mains electricity because it switches both the live and neutral
connections. Example above is a DPST rocker switch.
7. FUSE
A fuse is an electrical safety device that protects an electric circuit from excessive electric
current. Fuses are destroyed during overload conditions. When reasonable to do so (and
economically sensible), circuit breakers are used instead because they are not destroyed during
overload conditions. It's cheaper to install fuses than circuit breakers, but since fuses need to be
replaced and circuit breakers don't, fuses have a higher operational cost.
How fuses work

Fuses are designed to allow current through the circuit, but in the event that the current exceeds
some maximum value it will burn out the wire, so that there is no longer a circuit. The current that
will cause a fuse to blow is called the current rating. Fuses also have a voltage rating; this is the
maximum voltage difference that the fuse can block. Once a circuit is open (broken), an applied
voltage exists at the ends of the fuse, and if this voltage exceeds the voltage rating of the fuse,
the air in the fuse may ionize and start conducting again, therefore leaving the circuit without a
safety system.
Types of fuses
1. Cartridge - Contains a thin conductor designed to melt at a low temperature. Once the current
reaches a level that can generate enough heat to match or surpass the designed
melting point, the connection will break.
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2. Blade - Contains two electrical connectors that plug into a circuit and a wire inside that will melt
at a certain current.
3. Plug - Screwed directly into a standard fuse socket.
4. Adapter - Referred to as a rejection base (also called type-S), it requires an adapter to fit into
a standard fuse socket. Once it is installed it cannot be removed. Fuses with different
current ratings will have different threads; therefore, they cannot be replaced with a fuse
of a different current rating.
45
8. PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD ( PCB )
Before leaving passive components, mention must be made of that most ubiquitous of passive
components, the printed circuit board. It used to be necessary to build a chassis for every piece
of electronic circuitry, with insulating strips carrying rows of tags for component connections. The
printed circuit board (PCB), however, has made possible small, lightweight circuits, easy to
construct and repair.
The PCB consists of a strong plastic laminate or fiberglass laminate board, with a thin sheet of
copper bonded to one (or sometimes both) side(s). The sheet is drilled with holes that enable the
circuit components to be pushed into place with their connecting leads through the holes.
The underneath (copper) side of the PCB is made in a pattern which corresponds to the required
wiring pattern. The components are soldered in place, and the PCB provides both support for the
parts and the necessary electrical interconnections.
In production, the PCB is produced using automatic processes. The required pattern is produced
as a photographic negative, and this is printed on to the PCB, which has been coated on the
copper side with a photo graphic emulsion. The PCB is then developed like a photograph, leaving
emulsion only on the parts that were exposed to light.
Next, the PCB goes into a bath of a powerful chemical that will dissolve copper-ferric chloride is
often used. The ferric chloride etches away all the copper, except where it is protected by the
emulsion. The emulsion is cleaned off, leaving the copper pattern. Holes are drilled or punched
as required, and the board is ready for assembly (although the copper is often coated with a thin
layer of solder by a process known as roller tinning to improve ease of soldering.
Anyone can make PCBs. For single PCBs, the circuit is simply drawn on to the copper with an
etch-resistant ink (special pens are available) or with rub-on transfers. The rest of the process is
the same as that used commercially.
Be careful with the strong ferric chloride solution--it is corrosive, poisonous, and will gallop through
most metals. Use rubber gloves, plastic dishes, plastic tongs, and don't work on a stainless steel
drainer!
46
Activities:

1. Which of the component is used to store electric charge in the circuit.
A. resistor C. transformer
B. capacitor D. inductor
2. What is the unit of capacitance?

A. henry C. ohms
B. farad D. voltage
3. _________ are used where small values of capacitance and large values of leakage current
are acceptable.
A. electrolytic capacitor C. variable capacitor
B. ceramic capacitor D. none of the above
4. What is the unit of inductance?

A. farad C. ohms
B. henry D. voltage
5. __________ make use of mutual inductance, in which a current flowing in a coil produces an
electromagnetic field, which in turn induces a current to flow in a second coil wound over the first
one.
A. rectifier C. switch
B. transformer D. fuse
6. It normally allows electric current to flow through it in one direction only.

A. diode C. fuse
B. resistor D. capacitor
7. What are the two terminal of diode?

A. anode, cathode C. positive, negative
B. gate, base D. emitter, collector
8. What do you called a diode that makes use of a form of reverse breakdown to provide a
constant reference voltage?
A. zener diode C. light emitting diode
B. pn diode D. varicap diode
9. What do you called a diode that when reversed biased, the junction behaves like a capacitor?
A. varicap diode C. light emitting diode
B. pn diode D. zener diode
10. Commonly used switch in power supply

A. Dual On – Off, DPST C. SPDT slide switch
B. SPDT toggle switch D. SPDT rocker switch
47
References:
●https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-86040-1_3
●https://www.industrial-electronics.com/mstrng_elec_2nd_3.html
●https://www.ultralibrarian.com/2020/12/15/passive-electronic-components-and-their-purpose-
in-a-circuit-ulc
●https://turbofuture.com/industrial/Basic-Elements-of-a-Power-Supply
●https://maker.pro/custom/tutorial/intro-to-electronic-components-active-vs-passive-components
●https://www.actpower.com/educational/what-is-a-power-supply-and-how-does-it-work/
●https://electricalacademia.com/electronics/power-supply-definition-functions-components/
●https://sciencing.com/function-voltage-regulator-5380230.html
●https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Fuse
●https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/pcb-basics/all
●https://electronicsclub.info/switches.htm
48
LESSON 3 RECTIFIERS
Overview
In this lesson, you will study about concepts and types of rectifiers. The process of changing an
alternating current to a pulsating direct current is called rectification.
Module Objectives:

1. Enumerate different kinds of rectifiers
2. Explain the operations of different kinds of rectifiers.
Course Materials:
After a voltage has gone through a power supply’s transformer, the next step is rectification.
The process of changing an alternating current to a pulsating direct current is called

rectification.
When changing an ac signal to dc, there are two types of rectification: half-wave rectification and
full-wave rectification.
With the half-wave rectifier, only half of the input signal passes on through the rectifier. With the
full-wave rectifier, the entire input wave is passed through.
Half-Wave Rectification
In Figure 5, the output of a transformer is connected to a diode and a load resistor that are in
series. The input voltage to the transformer appears as a sine wave.
The polarity of the wave reverses at the frequency of the applied voltage. The output voltage of
the transformer secondary also appears as a sine wave. The magnitude of the wave depends on
the turns ratio of the transformer. The output is 180 degrees out of phase with the primary.
The top of the transformer (point A) is joined to the diode anode. Note that the B side of the
transformer is connected to ground.
During the first half cycle, point A is positive. The diode conducts, producing a voltage drop
across resistor R equal to IR. During the second half cycle, point A is negative. The diode anode
is also negative. No conduction takes place, and no IR drop appears across R.
49
An oscilloscope connected across R produces the waveform shown to the right in Figure 6. The
output of this circuit consists of pulses of current flowing in only one direction and is at the same
frequency as the input voltage. The output is a pulsating direct current.
Only one half of the ac input wave is used to produce the output voltage. This type of rectifier is
called a half-wave rectifier.
Look at the polarity of the output voltage in Figure 5. One end of the resistor R is connected to
ground. The current flows from the ground to the cathode. This connection makes the end of R
connected to the cathode positive as shown in Figure 5.
A negative rectifier can be made by reversing the diode in the circuit, Figure 7. The diode
conducts when the cathode becomes negative causing the anode to become positive.
The current through R would be from the anode to ground making the anode end of R negative
and the ground end of R more positive.
50
Voltages taken from across R, the output, would be negative with respect to ground. This circuit
is called an inverted diode. It is used when a negative supply voltage is required.
It is possible to have a power supply that provides half-wave rectification without the use of a
transformer. This circuit is not isolated. There is no step up or step down of current voltages.
This circuit is a simpler, less costly design, and since there is no transformer, it can be used in
smaller spaces, Figure 8.
51
Full – Wave Rectification
The pulsating direct voltage output of a half-wave rectifier can be filtered to a pure dc voltage.
However, the half-wave rectifier uses only one half of the input ac wave.
A better filtering action can be obtained by using two diodes. With this setup, both half cycles of
the input wave can be used.
Both half cycles at the output have the same polarity in this full-wave rectifier. Figure 9 follows
the first half cycle. Figure 10 follows the second half cycle.
52
To produce this full-wave rectification, a center tap is made on the secondary winding. This tap is
attached to the ground.
In Figure 9, point A is positive and diode anode D1 is positive. Electron flow is shown by the
arrows. During the second half of the input cycle, point B is positive, diode anode D2 is positive,
and current flows as shown in Figure 10.
No matter which diode is conducting, the current through load resistor R is always in the same
direction. Both positive and negative half cycles of the input voltage cause the current through R
in the same direction.
The output voltage of this full-wave rectifier is taken from across R. It consists of direct current
pulses at twice the frequency of input voltage, Figure 11. To produce this full-wave rectification
in this circuit, the secondary voltage was cut in half by the center tap.
The diodes, D1 and D2, used in Figures 9 and 10, are packaged both individually and in
pairs. Figure 12 shows a two rectifier package. The center lead is used as the connection for the
cathodes. The cathodes are wired together.
53
Bridge Rectifiers
It is not always necessary to use a center-tapped transformer for full-wave rectification. Full
secondary voltage can be rectified by using four diodes in a circuit called a bridge rectifier,
Figure 13 and 14. Two circuits are shown so that the current can be observed in each half cycle.
54
In Figure 13, point A of the transformer secondary is positive. Current flows in the direction of the
arrows. When point B is positive, current flows as in Figure 14.
Again, notice that the current through R is always in one direction. Both halves of the input voltage
are rectified and the full voltage of the transformer is used.
Bridge rectifiers can be used in circuits without transformers. Without transformers, the voltage
or current will not be stepped up or down. There will be no isolation. These circuits are also
called line-operated bridge circuits, Figure 15.
Caution
Connecting an oscilloscope directly to a line-operated bridge rectifier will result in a dead ground
when the oscilloscope ground is connected to the line voltage bridge. An isolation transformer
with a 1 to 1 ratio must be used to prevent the ground lead on the scope from being connected to
the hot conductor.
The output of either the half-wave or full-wave rectifier is a pulsating voltage. Before it can be
applied to other circuits, the pulsations must be reduced. A steadier dc is needed. It can be
obtained using a filter network.
In Figure 16, the line, Eavg, shows the average voltage of the pulsating dc wave. It is equal to
0.637 × peak voltage. The shaded portion of the wave above the average line is equal in area to
the shaded portion below the line.
Movement above and below the average voltage is called the ac ripple. It is this ripple that
requires filtering.
The percentage of ripple as compared to the output voltage must be kept to a small value. The
ripple percentage can be found using the formula:
55
Activities:

1. The process of changing an alternating current to a pulsating direct current is called _______.
A. latching C. rectification
B. snubber D. amplification
2. Only half of the input signal passes on through the rectifier.

A. positive wave rectifier C. half wave rectifier
B. negative wave rectifier D. full wave rectifier
3. The entire input wave is passed through the rectifier.

A. positive wave rectifier C. full wave rectifier
B. negative wave rectifier D. half wave rectifier
4. Is a laboratory instrument commonly used to display and analyze the waveform of electronic
signal.
A. clamp meter C. oscilloscope
B. multi meter D. spectrum analyzer
5. The figure below is the output of _________.
A. positive wave rectifier C. half wave rectifier

B. negative wave rectifier D. full wave rectifier
56
6. The figure below is the output of _________.
A. negative wave rectifier C. full wave rectifier

B. positive wave rectifier D. half wave rectifier
7. How many diodes a bridge type rectifier has?

A. 2 diodes C. 4 diodes
B. 1 diode D. 3 diodes
8. Movement above and below the average voltage is called ________.

A. filter network C. ac ripple
B. rectifier network D. pulsating voltage
9. What is needed to make the output of either the half wave or full wave rectifier a steady dc?
A. ac ripple C. filter network
B. power supply D. pulsating voltage
10. It is equal to 0.637 × peak voltage.

A. percentage ripple C. 𝐸𝑎𝑣𝑔
B. ripple rate D. 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠
References:
57
LESSON 4 PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS AND
CONVERTERS
Overview
In this lesson, you will study about concepts, types and application of phase controlled rectifier.
The concepts, types and circuits of converters. The term PCR or Phase controlled rectifier is a
one type of rectifier circuit in which the diodes are switched by Thyristors or SCRs (Silicon
Controlled Rectifiers). A converter is an electrical circuit which accepts a DC input and generates
a DC output of a different voltage, usually achieved by high frequency switching action employing
inductive and capacitive filter elements.
Module Objectives:

1. Define Phase controlled rectifier
2. Differentiate the types of phase controlled rectifier
3. Give the applications of Phase controlled rectifier
4. Explain the concepts behind converter
5. Draw different circuits of converter
Course Materials:
Unlike diode rectifiers, PCRs or phase controlled rectifiers has an advantage of regulating the
output voltage. The diode rectifiers are termed as uncontrolled rectifiers. When these diodes are
switched with Thyristors, then it becomes phase control rectifier. The o/p voltage can be regulated
by changing the firing angle of the Thyristors. The main application of these rectifiers is involved
in speed control of DC motor.
What is a Phased Controlled Rectifier?

The term PCR or Phase controlled rectifier is a one type of rectifier circuit in which the diodes are
switched by Thyristors or SCRs (Silicon Controlled Rectifiers). Whereas the diodes offer no
control over the o/p voltage, the Thyristors can be used to differ the output voltage by adjusting
the firing angle or delay. A phase control Thyristor is activated by applying a short pulse to its gate
terminal and it is deactivated due to line communication or natural. In case of heavy inductive
load, it is deactivated by firing another Thyristor of the rectifier during the negative half cycle of i/p
voltage.
Types of Phase Controlled Rectifier

The phase controlled rectifier is classified into two types based on the type of i/p power supply.
And each kind includes a semi, full and dual converter.
58
Single – Phase Controlled Rectifier
This type of rectifier which works from single phase AC i/p power supply.
Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers are classified into different types:
Half wave Controlled Rectifier: This type of rectifier uses a single Thyristor device to provide
o/p control only in one half cycle of input AC supply, and it offers low DC output.
Full wave Controlled Rectifier: This type of rectifier provides higher DC output
●Full wave controlled rectifier with a center tapped transformer requires two Thyristors.
●Full wave bridge controlled rectifiers do not need a center tapped transformer
Three – phase Controlled Rectifier

This type of rectifier which works from three phase AC i/p power supply.
 A semi converter is a one quadrant converter that has one polarity of o/p voltage and current.
 A full converter is a two quadrants converter that has polarity of o/p voltage can be either +ve
or –ve but, the current can have only one polarity that is either +ve or -ve.
 Dual converter works in four quadrants – both o/p voltage and o/p current can have both the
polarities.
Operation of Phase Controlled Rectifier

The basic working principle of a PCR circuit is explained using a single phase half wave PCR
circuit with a RL load resistive shown in the following circuit.
A single phase half wave Thyristor converter circuit is used to convert AC to DC power conversion.
The i/p AC supply is attained from a transformer to offer the required AC supply voltage to the
Thyristor converter based on the o/p DC voltage required. In the above circuit, the primary and
secondary AC supply voltages are denoted with VP and VS.
59
During the +ve half cycle of i/p supply when the upper end of the transformer secondary winding
is at a + ve potential with respect to the lower end, the Thyristor is in a forward biased state.
The thyristor is activated at a delay angle of ωt =α, by applying an appropriate gate trigger pulse
to the gate terminal of thyristor. When the thyristor is activated at a delay angle of ωt =α, the
thyristor behaviors and assuming a perfect thyristor. The thyristor acts as a closed switch and the
i/p supply voltage acts across the load when it conducts from ωt =α to π radians. For a purely
resistive load, the load current io that flows when the thyristor T1 is on, is given by the expression.
Applications of Phase Controlled Rectifier

Phase controlled rectifier applications include paper mills, textile mills using DC motor drives and
DC motor control in steel mills.
● AC fed traction system using a DC traction motor.
● electro-metallurgical and Electrochemical processes.
● Reactor controls.
● Magnet power supplies.
● Portable hand instrument drives.
● Flexible speed industrial drives.
● Battery charges.
● High voltage DC transmission.
● UPS (Uninterruptible power supply systems).
Some years back AC to DC power alteration was attained using mercury arc rectifiers, motor
generator sets, and Thyrator tubes. The modern AC to DC power converters are intended to
high current, high power Thyrator s. Presently, most of the AC to DC power converters are
thyristorised. The Thyrator devices are phase controlled to get a variable DC o/p voltage across
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the output load terminals. The phase controlled Thyrator converter uses AC line commutation for
turning off the Thyristors that have been switched ON.
These are less expensive and also very simple and widely used in industrial applications for
industrial DC drives. These converters are categorized as two quadrant converters if the o/p
voltage can be made either + ve or -ve for a given polarity of o/p load current. There are also
single quadrant AC-DC converters where the o/p voltage is only +ve and cannot be made –ve for
a given polarity of o/p current. Of course, single quadrant converters can also be designed to
deliver only -ve DC o/p voltage. The operation of two quadrant converter can be attained by using
fully controlled bridge converter circuit and for a single quadrant process we use a half controlled
bridge converter.
CONVERTER
What is a Power Converter?

A converter is an electrical circuit which accepts a DC input and generates a DC output of a
different voltage, usually achieved by high frequency switching action employing inductive and
capacitive filter elements.
A power converter is an electrical circuit that changes the electric energy from one form into the
desired form optimized for the specific load. A converter may do one or more functions and give
an output that differs from the input. It is used to increase or decrease the magnitude of the input
voltage, invert polarity, or produce several output voltages of either the same polarity with the
input, different polarity, or mixed polarities such as in the computer power supply unit.
The DC to DC converters are used in a wide range of applications including computer power
supplies, board level power conversion and regulation, dc motor control circuits and much more.
The converter acts as the link or the transforming stage between the power source and the power
supply output. There are several kings of converters based on the source input voltage and the
output voltage and these falls into four categories namely the AC to DC converter known as the
rectifier, the AC to AC cycloconverter or frequency changer, the DC to DC voltage or current
converter, and the DC to AC inverter.
61
The converter uses non linear components such as the semiconductor switches, and linear
reactive components such as the inductors, transformers and capacitors for intermediate energy
storage as well as current and voltage filtering. The size, weight and cost of the converter are
largely determined by these components.
There three basic converter circuits that are widely used in DC to DC converters are the buck,
boost, and the buck and boost. These configurations are the most used topologies due to their
simplicity and use of fewer components. Each has its advantages and drawbacks which
determines the suitability for any specific application.
62
Figure 2 Non-isolated converter circuit arrangements
The buck converter is a step-down, the boost a step-up while the buck-boost is both step-up and
step-down. All these are non-isolated and use the inductor as the energy transfer element and
are mostly used in board level power conversion and regulation.
The isolated dc to dc converters use a transformer to provide the isolation, multiple outputs, a
different voltage level, or polarity depending on the turns ratios and directions of the windings.
They are based on the non-isolated topologies but with the inclusion of a transformer. The
commonly used types are, the full bridge, the half bridge, forward and the push pull converters,
which are the isolated versions of the buck; and the flyback which is the isolated version of the
buck-boost converter.
Figure 3 Full Bridge isolated buck converter
To improve performance, high frequencies and fast switching power semiconductor devices are
used. The high frequencies increase the efficiency while reducing the physical sizes of the
supplies since they allow the use of smaller components. The frequencies are usually above the
audible range and in the range of between 20 KHz and 200 KHz. A feedback and duty cycle
control circuit is usually used to adjust the turn-on and turn-off conditions to maintain a constant
voltage at the output regardless of the load current or variations in the supply voltage.
Activities:

1._________ are termed as uncontrolled rectifiers.
A. diode rectifiers C. thyristor
B. diodes D. phase controlled rectifiers
2. Type of rectifier in which the diodes are switched by thyristors.

A. diode rectifiers C. thyristor
B. phase controlled rectifiers D. diodes
3. SCR stands for _______.

A. semi controlled rectifiers C. silicon controlled rectifier
B. silicon converter rectifiers D. silicon controlled rectification
63
4. This type of rectifier which works from single phase AC i/p power supply.
A. Half wave controlled rectifier C. silicon controlled rectifier
B. full wave controlled rectifier D. single phase rectifier
5. This type of rectifier uses a single Thyristor device to provide o/p control only in one half cycle
of input AC supply, and it offers low DC output.
A. Half wave controlled rectifier C. silicon controlled rectifier
B. full wave controlled rectifier D. single phase rectifier
6. This type of rectifier provides higher DC output.

A. full wave controlled rectifier C. silicon controlled rectifier
B. single phase rectifier D. half wave controlled rectifier
7. Type of full wave controlled rectifier that requires two thyristor.

A. Full wave controlled rectifier with a center tapped transformer
B. Full wave bridge controlled rectifier
C. Full wave Thyristor
D. None of the above
8. A __________ is an electrical circuit which accepts a DC input and generates a DC output of

a different voltage, usually achieved by high frequency switching action employing inductive and
capacitive filter elements.
A. Inverter C. Rectifier
B. Converter D. Transformer
9. AC to AC cycloconverter is also known as ________.

A. rectifier C. current converter
B. frequency changer D. None of the above
10. Non linear component used in converter.

A. inductors C. transformer
B. semiconductor switches D. capacitors
References:
●https://www.elprocus.com/phase-control-rectifier-working-applications/
●https://www.sunpower-uk.com/glossary/what-is-a-power-converter/
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LESSON 5 SWITCH – MODE POWER SUPPLY
Overview
In this lesson, you will study about characteristics and types of switch mode power supply.
A switch mode power supply (SMPS) is a type of power supply that uses semiconductor switching
techniques, rather than standard linear methods to provide the required output voltage. The basic
switching converter consists of a power switching stage and a control circuit.
Module Objectives:

1. Enumerate different types of Switch Mode Power Supply
2. Draw and explain the circuits diagram of different types of SMPS
Course Materials:
Switch Mode Power Supplies, or SMPS, are becoming common place and have replaced in
most cases the traditional linear AC-to-DC power supplies as a way to cut power consumption,
reduce heat dissipation, as well as size and weight.
Switch-mode power supplies can now be found in most PC’s, power amplifiers, TV’s, dc motor
drives, etc., and just about anything that requires a highly efficient supply as switch-mode power
supplies are increasingly becoming a much more mature technology.
By definition, a switch mode power supply (SMPS) is a type of power supply that uses
semiconductor switching techniques, rather than standard linear methods to provide the required
output voltage. The basic switching converter consists of a power switching stage and a control
circuit.
The power switching stage performs the power conversion from the circuits input voltage, VIN to
its output voltage, VOUT which includes output filtering.
The major advantage of the switch mode power supply is its higher efficiency, compared to
standard linear regulators, and this is achieved by internally switching a transistor (or power
MOSFET) between its “ON” state (saturated) and its “OFF” state (cut-off), both of which produces
lower power dissipation.
This means that when the switching transistor is fully “ON” and conducting current, the voltage
drop across it is at its minimal value, and when the transistor is fully “OFF” there is no current flow
through it. So the transistor is acting like an ideal ON/OFF switch.
Unlike linear regulators which only offer step-down voltage regulation, a switch mode power
supply can provide step-down, step-up and negation of the input voltage using one or more of the
three basic switch mode circuit topologies: Buck, Boost and Buck-Boost. These names refer to
how the transistor switch, inductor, and smoothing capacitor are connected together within the
basic SMPS circuit.
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Buck Switch Mode Power Supply
The Buck switching regulator is a type of switch mode power supply circuit that is designed to
efficiently reduce DC voltage from a higher voltage to a lower one, that is it subtracts or “Bucks”
the supply voltage, thereby reducing the voltage available at the output terminals without changing
the polarity. In other words, the buck switching regulator is a step-down regulator circuit, so for
example a buck converter can convert say, +12 volts to +5 volts.
The buck switching regulator is a DC-to-DC converter and one of the simplest and most popular
type of switching regulator. When used within a switch mode power supply configuration, the buck
switching regulator uses a series transistor or power MOSFET (ideally an insulated gate bipolar
transistor, or IGBT) as its main switching device as shown below.
The Buck Switching Regulator
We can see that the basic circuit configuration for a buck converter is a series transistor
switch, TR1 with an associated drive circuit that keeps the output voltage as close to the desired
level as possible, a diode, D1, an inductor, L1 and a smoothing capacitor, C1. The buck converter
has two operating modes, depending on if the switching transistor TR1 is turned “ON” or “OFF”.
When the transistor is biased “ON” (switch closed), diode D1 becomes reverse biased and the
input voltage, VIN causes a current to flow through the inductor to the connected load at the output,
charging up the capacitor, C1.
As a changing current flows through the inductor coil, it produces a back-emf which opposes the
flow of current, according to Faraday’s law, until it reaches a steady state creating a magnetic
field around the inductor, L1. This situation continues indefinitely as long as TR1 is closed.
When transistor TR1 is turned “OFF” (switch open) by the controlling circuitry, the input voltage is
instantly disconnected from the emitter circuit causing the magnetic field around the inductor to
collapse inducing a reverse voltage across the inductor.
This reverse voltage causes the diode to become forward biased, so the stored energy in the
inductors magnetic field forces current to continue to flow through the load in the same direction,
and return back through diode.
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Then the inductor, L1 returns its stored energy back to the load acting like a source and supplying
current until all the inductor’s energy is returned to the circuit or until the transistor switch closes
again, whichever comes first. At the same time the capacitor also discharges supplying current to
the load. The combination of the inductor and capacitor forms an LC filter smoothing out any ripple
created by the switching action of the transistor.
Therefore, when the transistor solid state switch is closed, current is supplied from the supply,
and when the transistor switch is open, current is supplied by the inductor. Note that the current
flowing through the inductor is always in the same direction, either directly from the supply or via
the diode but obviously at different times within the switching cycle.
As the transistor switch is being continuously closed and opened, the average output voltage
value will therefore be related to the duty cycle, D which is defined as the conduction time of the
transistor switch during one full switching cycle.
If VIN is the supply voltage, and the “ON” and “OFF” times for the transistor switch are defined
as: tON and tOFF, then the output voltage VOUT is given as:
Buck Converter Duty Cycle
The buck converters duty cycle can also be defined as:
So the larger the duty cycle, the higher the average DC output voltage from the switch mode
power supply. From this we can also see that the output voltage will always be lower than the
input voltage since the duty cycle, D can never reach one (unity) resulting in a step-down voltage
regulator.
Voltage regulation is obtained by varying the duty cycle and with high switching speeds, up to
200kHz, smaller components can be used thereby greatly reducing a switch mode power supply’s
size and weight.
Another advantage of the buck converter is that the inductor-capacitor (LC) arrangement provides
very good filtering of the inductor current. Ideally the buck converter should be operated in a
continuous switching mode so that the inductor current never falls to zero. With ideal components,
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that is zero voltage drop and switching losses in the “ON” state, the ideal buck converter could
have efficiencies as high as 100%.
As well as the step-down buck switching regulator for the basic design of a switch mode power
supply, there is another operation of the fundamental switching regulator that acts as a step-up
voltage regulator called the Boost Converter.
Boost Switch Mode Power Supply

The Boost switching regulator is another type of switch mode power supply circuit. It has the
same types of components as the previous buck converter, but this time in different positions.
The boost converter is designed to increase a DC voltage from a lower voltage to a higher one,
that is it adds too or “Boosts” the supply voltage, thereby increasing the available voltage at the
output terminals without changing the polarity. In other words, the boost switching regulator is a
step-up regulator circuit, so for example a boost converter can convert say, +5 volts to +12 volts.
We saw previously that the buck switching regulator uses a series switching transistor within its
basic design. The difference with the design of the boost switching regulator is that it uses a
parallel connected switching transistor to control the output voltage from the switch mode power
supply.
As the transistor switch is effectively connected in parallel with the output, electrical energy only
passes through the inductor to the load when the transistor is biased “OFF” (switch open) as
shown.
The Boost Switching Regulator
In the Boost Converter circuit, when the transistor switch is fully-on, electrical energy from the
supply, VIN passes through the inductor and transistor switch and back to the supply. As a result,
none of it passes to the output as the saturated transistor switch effectively creates a short-circuit
to the output.
This increases the current flowing through the inductor as it has a shorter inner path to travel back
to the supply. Meanwhile, diode D1 becomes reverse biased as its anode is connected to ground
via the transistor switch with the voltage level on the output remaining fairly constant as the
capacitor starts to discharge through the load.
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When the transistor is switched fully-off, the input supply is now connected to the output via the
series connected inductor and diode. As the inductor field decreases the induced energy stored
in the inductor is pushed to the output by VIN, through the now forward biased diode.
The result of all this is that the induced voltage across the inductor L1 reverses and adds to the
voltage of the input supply increasing the total output voltage as it now becomes, VIN + VL.
Current from the smoothing capacitor, C1 which was used to supply the load when the transistor
switch was closed, is now returned to the capacitor by the input supply via the diode. Then the
current supplied to the capacitor is the diode current, which will always be “ON” or “OFF” as the
diode is continually switched between its forward and reverse status by the switching action of
transistor. Then the smoothing capacitor must be sufficiently large enough to produce a smooth
steady output.
As the induced voltage across the inductor L1 is negative, it adds to the source voltage, VIN forcing
the inductor current into the load. The boost converters steady state output voltage is given by:
As with the previous buck converter, the output voltage from the boost converter depends upon
the input voltage and duty cycle. Therefore, by controlling the duty cycle, output regulation is
achieved. Not also that this equation is independent of the value of the inductor, the load current,
and the output capacitor.
We have seen above that the basic operation of a non-isolated switch mode power supply circuit
can use either a buck converter or boost converter configuration depending upon whether we
require a step-down (buck) or step-up (boost) output voltage. While buck converters may be the
more common SMPS switching configuration, boost converters are commonly used in capacitive
circuit applications such as battery chargers, photo-flashes, strobe flashes, etc, because the
capacitor supplies all of the load current while the switch is closed.
But we can also combine these two basic switching topologies into a single non-isolating switching
regulator circuit called unsurprisingly, a Buck-Boost Converter.
Buck – Boost Switching Regulator

The Buck-Boost switching regulator is a combination of the buck converter and the boost
converter that produces an inverted (negative) output voltage which can be greater or less than
the input voltage based on the duty cycle. The buck-boost converter is a variation of the boost
converter circuit in which the inverting converter only delivers the energy stored by the
inductor, L1, into the load. The basic buck-boost switch mode power supply circuit is given below.
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The Buck – Boost Switching Regulator
When the transistor switch, TR1, is switched fully-on (closed), the voltage across the inductor is
equal to the supply voltage so the inductor stores energy from the input supply. No current is
delivered to the connected load at the output because diode, D1, is reverse biased. When the
transistor switch is fully-off (open), the diode becomes forward biased and the energy previously
stored in the inductor is transferred to the load.
In other words, when the switch is “ON”, energy is delivered into the inductor by the DC supply
(via the switch), and none to the output, and when the switch is “OFF”, the voltage across the
inductor reverses as the inductor now becomes a source of energy so the energy stored
previously in the inductor is switched to the output (through the diode), and none comes directly
from the input DC source. So the voltage dropped across the load when the switching transistor
is “OFF” is equal to the inductor voltage.
The result is that the magnitude of the inverted output voltage can be greater or smaller (or equal
to) the magnitude of the input voltage based on the duty cycle. For example, a positive-to-negative
buck-boost converter can convert 5 volts to 12 volts (step-up) or 12 volts to 5 volts (step-down).
The buck-boost switching regulators steady state output voltage, VOUT is given as:
Then the buck-boost regulator gets its name from producing an output voltage that can be higher
(like a boost power stage) or lower (like a buck power stage) in magnitude than the input voltage.
However, the output voltage is opposite in polarity from the input voltage.
Activities:

1. A type of power supply that uses semiconductor switching techniques, rather than standard
linear methods to provide the required output voltage.
A. SMPS C. UPS
B. SCR D. PCR
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2. A type of switch mode power supply circuit that is designed to efficiently reduce DC voltage
from a higher voltage to a lower one, that is it subtracts or “Bucks” the supply voltage, thereby
reducing the voltage available at the output terminals without changing the polarity.
A. Buck SMPS C. Buck – Boost SMPS
B. Boost SMPS D. None of the above
3. Designed to increase a DC voltage from a lower voltage to a higher one, that is it adds to the
supply voltage, thereby increasing the available voltage at the output terminals without changing
the polarity.
A. Boost SMPS C. Buck SMPS
B. Buck - Boost SMPS D. None of the above
4. Produces an inverted (negative) output voltage which can be greater or less than the input
voltage based on the duty cycle.
A. Buck - Boost SMPS C. Boost SMPS
B. Buck SMPS D. None of the above
5. Buck switch mode power supply is a ______ circuit.

A. step down regulator C. current regulator
B. voltage regulator D. step up regulator
6. Boost switch mode power supply is a ______ circuit.

A. step down regulator C. step up regulator
B. voltage regulator D. current regulator
7. Unlike linear regulators which only offer step-down voltage regulation, a switch mode power
supply can provide step-down, step-up and negation of the input voltage
A. True
B. False
8. The formula given below is for _______.
A. Boost switching regulator C. Buck – Boost switching regulator

B. Buck switching regulator D. None of the above

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References:
●https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/power/switch-mode-power-supply.html
●https://www.sunpower-uk.com/glossary/what-is-switch-mode-power-supply/
●https://www.avnet.com/wps/portal/abacus/solutions/technologies/power/the-design-engineers-
guide/switched-mode-power-supplies/
●https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/analogue_circuits/power-supply-electronics/switch-
mode-smps-basics-primer.php
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LESSON 6 INVERTERS
Overview
In this lesson, you will study about the concepts, operations, types and applications of inverter.
An inverter (or power inverter) is a power electronics device which used to convert DC voltage
into AC voltage.
Module Objectives:

1. Define inverter
2. Explain how inverter works
3. Differentiate types of inverters
4. Enumerate the applications of inverters
Course Materials:
An inverter (or power inverter) is a power electronics device which used to convert DC voltage
into AC voltage. Although DC power is used in small electrical gadgets, most household
equipment runs on AC power. Hence we need an efficient way to convert DC power into AC
power.
The inverter is a static device. It can convert one form of electrical power into other forms of
electrical power. But it cannot generate electrical power. Hence the inverter is a converter, not a
generator.
It can be used as a standalone device such as solar power or back power for home appliances.
The inverter takes DC power from the batteries and converts into AC power at the time of the
power failure.
A power inverter used in the power system network to convert bulk DC power to AC power. i.e. It
used at the receiving end of HVDC transmission lines. This inverter is known as a grid-tie
inverter.
How does an Inverter Work?

Let’s understand the working of an inverter by an example. One bulb connected with a battery. It
makes a close path. Hence the current will flow through the bulb.
The bulb has two terminals that are ‘A’ and ‘B’. The positive and negative terminal of the battery
is connected with ‘A’ and ‘B’ terminal respectively and the bulb will glow.
Now, change the terminals of the battery. The bulb will glow in this condition also. So, what is the
difference in both cases?
Here, one thing is different and that is the direction of the AC current.
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Now imagine that you can rotate the battery at 50 or 60 rpm. What will happen? The direction will
change 50 or 60 times. This is similar to AC power. And the frequency is 50 or 60 Hz.
This is just to understand the working principle of an inverter. Practically, inverter never works like
this and it doesn’t have rotating parts.
The inverter uses the power electronics switches like IGBT, MOSFET. The number of switches
depends on the type of inverter.
Let’s take a circuit diagram of a single-phase full-bridge inverter to understand the working.
There are four switches. A DC source connected with the switches and load.
When switch S1 and S2 are ON, S3 and S4 OFF, the direction of current through the load are
positive in this condition. It gives a positive half cycle of the AC output.
Now, switch S3 and S4 is ON, S1 and S2 OFF. The current flowing in the opposite direction. It
gives a negative half cycle of the AC output.
The ON and OFF time of switches decides the output frequency. The output of the inverter is a
square wave. The filters used to generate a sine wave.
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Types of Inverter
According to the Output Waveform

There are three types of inverters.
1. Square wave inverter
2. Modified sine wave inverter
3. Sine wave inverter
Square Wave Inverter

This is the least used but simplest type of inverter. The output waveform of this inverter is a square
wave. The home appliances and most of all equipment that works on AC, designed for the sine
wave.
It converts the straight DC signal to a phase-shifting AC signal. But the output is not a pure AC
signal. This is the cheapest type of inverter.
If you connect the equipment with a square wave inverter, it makes more losses. The equipment
may get damaged in the worst case.
These types of inverters use to generate sine wave inverters by using filters (e.g. active low pass
filters).
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Modified Sine Wave Inverter
This inverter is also known as quasi wave inverter. This inverter generates the signal near to the
sine wave. But it cannot generate the smooth sine wave.
A modified sine wave inverter creates some pauses before phase shifting. It doesn’t shift phase
directly from positive to negative like a square wave.
The construction of this inverter is more complex than the square wave inverter but simpler than
the sine wave inverter.
Sine Wave Inverter
This is the most efficient and complex type of inverter. It generates the pure sine wave which is a
similar waveform of the grid power. All AC equipment designed to work on the sine wave signal.
A sine wave can be generated from the square wave inverter by modifying the output waveform.
This inverter made the least losses. But the cost of this inverter is very high. This type of inverters
is widely used in residential and commercial applications.
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According to the Type of Load
There are two types of AC power; single-phase and three-phase. Therefore, there are two types
of load. And according to that, there are two types of inverters:
●Single-phase inverter
●Three-phase inverter
Single – phase Inverter

If the load is a single-phase, the inverter used to run the load that is the single-phase inverter.
There are two types;
●Half-bridge inverter
●Full-bridge inverter
Single – phase Half- Bridge Inverter
Two thyristors (S1 and S2) connected with two feedback diodes (D1 and D2) as shown in the
below circuit diagram.
The supply voltage divides into two equal parts. The resistive load used to understand the working
principle.
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Mode - 1
Thyristor S1 is ON and S2 is OFF during this mode. The current flowing path is V/2-S1-B-RL-A-
V/2.
The current flowing through the load is B to A direction. And the voltage across the load is positive
V/2. In this mode, the positive cycle of the output generates.
Mode – 2
Thyristor S2 is ON and S1 is OFF during this mode. The current flowing path is V/2-A-RL-B-S2-
V/2.
The current flowing through the load A to B direction. The voltage across the load is negative V/2.
In this mode, the negative cycle of output generates.
Single – phase Full – bridge Inverter

In a full-bridge inverter, four thyristors and four feedback diodes used. One DC source applied to
the circuit.
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In a half-bridge inverter, one switch is in conduction at a time. And in a full-bridge inverter, two
switches are in conduction at a time.
Mode - 1
Thyristor S1 and S2 are ON and thyristors S3 and S4 are OFF during this mode. The current
flowing path is V-S1-A-RL-B-S2-V.
The current flowing through the load is from A to B and make a positive half cycle.
Mode - 2
Thyristor S3 and S4 are ON and thyristor S1 and S2 are OFF. The current flowing path is V-S3-
B-RL-A-S4-V.
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The current flowing through the load is from B to A and make a negative half cycle of output.
Three – phase Inverter

Generally, three-phase AC supply used in industries and the load is three-phase. In this case, a
three-phase inverter used to run this load.
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In a three-phase inverter, six diodes and six thyristors used. According to the conduction time of
thyristor, this inverter divides into two types;
● 120-degree mode of operation
● 180-degree mode of operation
120 – Degree Mode of Operation

At a time, two thyristors are in conduction. The conduction time for all thyristors is 120-degree. It
means, a switch remains ON for 120-degree and OFF for the next 240-degree.
The shape of phase voltage is a quasi-square wave and the shape of the line voltage is three-
stepped waveform.
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180 – Degree Mode of Operation
Three thyristors are in conduction at a time. The conduction time for all thyristors is 180-degree.
The shape of the line voltage and phase voltage is opposite to the 120-degree mode of operation.
Here, for phase voltage, a waveform is a three-stepped wave and for line voltage, a waveform is
a quasi-square wave.
In a 180-degree mode of operation, two thyristors of the common bridge are ON and OFF
simultaneously. For example, in half cycle (180-degree) S1 is ON and the next half-cycle S4 is
ON. So, at the same time, S1 is switching OFF and S4 is switching ON. Because of this
simultaneous conduction, it is possible that the source may sort circuited.
This problem will not happen in a 120-degree mode of operation.
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Applications of Inverter
Some of the applications of an inverter include:
1. When the main power is not available, an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) uses battery
and inverter.
2. The power inverter used in the HVDC transmission line. It also used to connect two
asynchronous AC systems.
3. The output of the solar panel is DC power. The solar inverter used to convert DC power into
AC power.
4. The inverter produces variable output voltage by using a control unit (close-loop inverter).
The speed of inverter controlled by supplying variable voltage. For example, it used in the
refrigerator compressor motor, rail transport, induction motor speed control, electric vehicle.
5. It can convert the low-frequency AC power to a higher frequency which used in induction
heating.
Activities:

1. What do you called to a power electronics device which used to convert DC voltage into AC
voltage?
A. converter C. decoder
B. inverter D. encoder
2. The inverter is a static device.

A. True
B. False
3. Used in the power system network to convert bulk DC power to AC power and used at the
receiving end of HVDC transmission lines.
A. dual inverter C. square wave inverter
B. grid tie inverter D. single phase inverter
4. Which of the following power electronics switches is used in inverter?

A. thyristor C. resistor
B. MOSFET D. fuse
5. Type of inverter that shift phase directly from positive to negative.

A. modified sine wave inverter C. sine wave inverter
B. square wave inverter D. None of the above
6. Type of inverter that does not shift phase directly from positive to negative.
7. This inverter is also known as quasi wave inverter.

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8. It generates the pure sine wave which is a similar waveform of the grid power and can be
generated from the square wave inverter by modifying the output waveform.
9. According to the type of load inverter that uses two thyristors connected with two feedback
diodes.
A. single inverter C. single phase half bridge inverter
B. double inverter D. single phase full bridge inverter
10. According to the type of load inverter that uses four thyristors connected with four feedback
diodes.
A. single inverter C. single phase half bridge inverter
B. double inverter D. single phase full bridge inverter
References:
●https://www.electrical4u.com/power-inverter/
●https://www.tutorialspoint.com/power_electronics/power_electronics_types_of_inverters.htm
●https://www.elprocus.com/what-is-an-inverter-types-circuit-diagram-applications/
●https://www.electroniclinic.com/inverters-and-how-do-they-work-inverter-in-power-electronics/
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LESSON 7 RESONANT CONVERTERS
Overview
In this lesson, you will study about the characteristics and types of resonant converters. Resonant
power converters are switched RLC circuits where the switching action creates oscillatory current
and voltage waveforms at the resonant frequency of the circuit. There are two basic types of
resonant converters: the series type and the parallel type.
Module Objectives:

1. Define resonant converters
2. Differentiate types of resonant converters
Course Materials:
Resonant power converters are switched RLC circuits where the switching action creates
oscillatory current and voltage waveforms at the resonant frequency of the circuit. There are two
basic types of resonant converters: the series type and the parallel type.
As a PWM switch mode converter, resonant converters have the advantages of high power
efficiency and natural commutation of their switches. Resonant converters have been used in
industry and aerospace applications in recent years owing to their distinct advantages over
conventional linear regulators and switch mode converters. They have some unique abilities that
their switch mode counterparts do not, including:
1. High frequency operation is possible thus reducing the size of magnetic components.
2. Zero-current-switching configuration results in much less stress on the switching elements.
3. Because of the sinusoidal waveshapes of the resonant current (or capacitor voltage), the
resonant converters also offer lower electromagnetic interference (EMI) and lower capacitive
coupling between the input and output.
4. Due to the lack of dv/dt suppression of sinusoidal waveforms in the resonant circuit , the
efficiency could be increased.
Series Resonant Converter

The half bridge series resonant converter is shown in Fig.2.1(a). Assume that the components
are ideal and the time constant of the output is much greater than the period of the oscillation of
the resonant circuit. The parallel combination of the switching devices and diodes forms
bidirectional switches S1 and S2 as shown in the equivalent ideal circuit in Fig.2.1(b), which
operate at fifty percent duty ratio for a duration 𝑇𝑠 , where 𝑇𝑠 is defined as half the switching period.
The switching frequency is given by 𝑓𝑠 = 1/2𝑇𝑠 .
In Fig.2.1(a), while Ql i s turned on and Q2 off, diode D2 is reverse biased. The DC source together
with inductor and capacitor induces a resonant current 𝑖𝑅 (t) in the direction according to Fig.2.1(b).
Capacitor C charges to a peak value, 𝑖𝑅 (t) goes to zero and reverses through D1. If Q2 i s turned
on before this reversed current is terminated, continuous conduction mode operation (CCM)
occurs. The inductor current and capacitor voltage waveforms for CCM are shown i n Fig.2.2. The
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current 𝑖𝑅 (t) goes to zero and then swings to the positive direction through D2. The pattern
repeats.
Fig.2.1(a) A half bridge series resonant converter.
Fig.2.1(b) The ideal equivalent circuit.
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It is important to note that two types of discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) may occur. When
the switching frequency operating in the range 0.5 < 𝑓𝑠 /𝑓𝑜 < 1, The converter may enter DCM
depending on the value of the load R . The waveform of resonant current in this case is shown in
Fig.2.3, where it can be seen that only Q1 or Q2 conducts for each of the half period. The
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discontinuous currents occur because the output bridge becomes reverse biased immediately
after Q1 conducts. This type of DCM should be avoided by proper selection of the load 𝑅𝐿 .
The other type of DCM may occur in the range 𝑓𝑠 /𝑓𝑜 < 0.5. As can be seen from the inductor
waveform in Fig.2.4, there is an interval for the discontinuous conduction of the switches (𝑡2 −
𝑡2 ). The inductor current waveforms at different switching frequency under this type of DCM are
similar in shape and differ only in duration when all devices are off. This duration is reduced to
𝑓
zero at the boundary between DCM and CCM operation where 𝑠 = 0.5.
𝑓0
It is also possible to operate the converter above resonance, 𝑓𝑠 /𝑓0 > 1. Natural turn-off of the
switching devices under this condition does not happen. The DCM operation cannot occur either.
The inductor current 𝑖𝑅 (𝑡) operating in the range , 𝑓𝑠 /𝑓0 > 1 is shown in Fig.2.5, where it can be
seen that the device sequence of conduction in the whole switching period i s D1-Q1-D2-Q2-D1.
The diodes are self-commutated and the switching devices are force commutated.
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In the CCM operation, the current 𝑖𝑅 (𝑡) never ceases to flow. There are two different types of
CCM operation depending on whether D1 (D2) or Q1 (Q2) conducts first for each half cycle.
Fig.2.2 shows Q1 conducting first, followed by D1, while D1 is conducting Q2 is switched on which
is the starting of the other half period. This type of CCM is called “+ type” CCM. The positive sign
refers to the fact that 𝑖𝑅 (𝑡) and (vc (t) + vo ) have the same sign when Q1 or Q2 i s turned on. In
this case, a simple inequality 0.5 < 𝑓𝑠 /𝑓0 < 1 must be satisfied, which show the frequency interval
where + type CCM can occur. Fig.2.5 shows D1 conducting first, followed by Q1, this type of CCM
is called “- type” CCM where the negative sign refer to the fact that 𝑖𝑅 (𝑡) and (𝑣𝑐 (𝑡) + 𝑣0 ) have
f
opposite signs when Q1 or Q2 is turned on. The following inequality must be satisfied: s > 1.0.
f0
There is a more general case which D1 (D2) and Q1 (Q2) conducting alternately for n full half
cycles.
Parallel Resonant Converters

In parallel resonant converter, the output voltage is obtained from the rectified and filtered
resonant capacitor voltage whereas in SRC, it is obtained from the inductor current. Therefore,
the output filter of the PRC consist s of L, C and the load R.
Fig.3.1 shows the half bridge parallel resonant converter. PRCs possess all the advantages of
the SRCs. However, since the SRCs link appears to the load as a high frequency current source,
they are suitable for loads with small and slow impedance variations. In applications where the
load impedance varies widely and/or quickly, it is more suitable to use PRCs for this type of load
configurations. A high frequency parallel resonant inverter can produce sinusoidal output with
good regulation. The output voltage can be varied and regulated by controlling the switching
frequency.
PRCs can operate under both CCM and DCM. Two different types of CCM depending on their
frequency ratio 𝑓𝑠 /𝑓0 are defined. In the + type of CCM operation with 0.5 < 𝑓𝑠 /𝑓0 < 1.0, the
conducting sequence for the devices is: Q1-D1-Q2-D2-Q1. In the – type of CCM, the frequency
f
ratio s > 1.0, and the conduction sequence is D1-Q1-D2-Q2-D1. In the + type of CCM, the
f0
freewheeling diodes are force commutated and switching devices are self-commutated. In the -
type of CCM operation, the diodes are naturally-commutated and the switching devices are force
commutated. In the DCM operation, the ratio 𝑓𝑠 /𝑓0 is less than 0.5. Fig.3.2 shows the waveforms
of the resonant current and capacitor voltage for PRCs under differen t types of operations.
Activities:
True or False:
Instruction: Write true if the statement is correct and write false if the statement is incorrect.
1. Resonant power converters are switched RLC circuits where the switching action creates
oscillatory current and voltage waveforms at the resonant frequency of the circuit.
2. There are two basic types of resonant converters: the series type and the parallel type.
3. As a PWM switch mode converter, resonant converters have the advantages of high power
efficiency and natural commutation of their switches.
4. In resonant power converters, high frequency operation is possible thus reducing the size of
magnetic components.
5.In resonant power converters, due to the lack of dv/dt suppression of sinusoidal waveforms in
the resonant circuit, the efficiency could be increased.
6. Resonant converter offer lower capacitive coupling between the input and output
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7. Resonant converter also offer lower electromagnetic interference
8. Resonant converters are variants of basic circuits which reduce switching losses by taking
advantage of resonance effects.
9. Resonant converters achieve the very highest efficiencies and often work with very high
switching frequencies.
10. A switching regulator conditions the input voltage for the resonant converter.
References:
●https://www.pantechsolutions.net/blog/introduction-to-resonant-converter/
●https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/64086
●https://www.slideshare.net/pilurout/hgu
●https://www.pulspower.com/chf/assistance/service/glossaire/index/read/resonance-converter/
●https://www.ieee.li/pdf/introduction_to_power_electronics/chapter_19.pdf
●Erickson, Robert W.(Author). Fundamentals of Power Electronics. Second Edition.
Secaucus, NJ, USA: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000. p xv.
●https://www.slideserve.com/kuame-barnett/resonant-converters-introduction-1
●https://scholarworks.rit.edu/theses/6515/
●https://scholarworks.rit.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7520&context=theses
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LESSON 8 POWER CONDITIONERS AND UPS
Overview
In this lesson, you will study about operations, advantages and uses of power conditioners. You
will also study about characteristics, types, advantages and disadvantages of uninterruptible
power supply. Power conditioners are devices intended to increase the quality of power which is
delivered to electrical load equipment. An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is a device that
allows a computer to keep running for at least a short time when the primary power source is lost.
UPS devices also provide protection from power surges.
Module Objectives:

1. Explain how power conditioner works
2. Know the advantages and uses of power conditioners
3. Give some kinds of power conditioner to safeguard your equipment
4. Define uninterruptible power supply
5. Discuss the types of UPSs and their core features
6. Enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of UPS
Course Materials:
POWER CONDITIONERS
Power conditioners are devices intended to increase the quality of power which is delivered to
electrical load equipment. The term “power conditioner” refers to one or more ways to deliver
voltage to the proper level enabling load equipment to function adequately. The term “power” is
used to explain the electricity instead of actual power output.
The power conditioner will also have a "joule" rating. A joule is a measurement of energy or heat
required to sustain one watt for one second, known as a watt second.
What does a power conditioner do that a surge protector can’t?

Surge protectors are a great defense against damaging voltage spikes. However more than
surges and spikes can effect certain sensitive electronic devices. Radio frequency interference
(RFI), electro-magnetic interference (EMI) and voltage fluctuations can also effect sound,
entertainment, and office devices, causing a reduction in sound and picture quality.
How does it work?

Power conditioners act as a buffer between the outlet and your system, smoothing out voltage
fluctuations as well as radio and electromagnetic interference that can effect system performance.
Initially used in industrial, research and laboratory applications, not long after the introduction of
home computer systems, the usefulness of surge protection, uninterruptible power supplies, and
(later) power conditioners were brought to light, as were the advantages of their use with other
home electronics, such as entertainment and sound equipment.
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Power conditioning advantages include:
* Equipment protection
Protection against voltages surges through electrical lines, phone lines, coax TV inputs and LAN
connections that can result in the degradation of system performance or system failure.
* Noise removal
Removal of noise in electrical lines resulting from radio and TV stations, mobile devices, motors
– even high-current appliances (vacuums, refrigerators) can generate noise.
* Fluctuation correction
Of voltage and waveform distortions.
Power conditioner types and limitations:

* Passive-type filters
The least expensive type of power conditioner, these shunt high frequency noise components
away - through a capacitor to ground. These offer very basic noise-reduction capabilities.
* Balanced transformer
Offering noise reduction superior to passive inductor-capacitor models (above), this style of
power conditioner features an isolation balanced transformer which balances AC power feed
and produces noise reduction far better suited for audio and video components. Much pricier
than passive-type filters, they are also larger, heavier, and noisier, and offer limited power
delivery due to the damping effect of the balancing transformer.
* AC regenerative types
Even larger and pricier, AC regenerative type conditioners throw off a lot of heat in operation,
but better address the problems associated with noise in the audio and video spectrum, working
similarly to a power generator to regulate AC voltage, correct waveform symmetry (distortion),
and reduce or eliminate lower order harmonic noise (noise generated from the surrounding
neighborhood to within your home resulting from uneven or clipped loads in the AC line) known
to be at the center of these issues. These high-end conditioners use automatic voltage
stabilization circuitry with a microprocessor controlled variable transformer, delivering full,
completely new AC voltage to your entertainment system regardless of fluctuations or surges
that is nearly noise-free.
Uses Medical refrigerators

• Home and
• work offices
• Air Conditioners
• Power tools
Best power conditioner to safeguard your equipment

1. Furman PST – 8D SMP EVS LiFT
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The as Furman PST-8D SMP EVS LiFT 15-Amp Aluminum Chassis 8-Outlet Isolated Outlet
Banks Advanced Level Power Conditioning is one of the very best power conditioners around. It
has the ability to safeguard your electrical equipment and extract the best possible performance
out of your instruments by providing them with constant, stable AC power. It is also equipped with
new and improved technology that makes it a stand-out performer when compared with similar
products on the market.
Pros:
+ Improved audio and video clarity thanks to the advanced linear filtering.
+ Equipped with automatic extreme-voltage shutdown to keep your equipment safe from faulty
wires.
+ No ground contamination because of its specially designed circuit.
Why We Liked It - The Furman PST-8D SMP EVS LiFT has absolutely no flaws, making it a great
addition to your setup.
2. Panamax MR4300
Panamax has been in business for over thirty years and has been a pioneer in manufacturing
some of the very best power conditioners of all time. When it comes to AV equipment protection,
this company has no equal. The Panamax MR4300 which is also known as Panamax MR4300 9-
Outlet Home Theater Power Management with Surge Protection and Power Conditioning is
another great product by Panamax to safeguard your valuable electronic equipment. The
technology used in this power conditioner is more than advanced enough to give you all the
protection you need.
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Pros:
+ No fluctuating voltage regardless if you're under or over-voltage due to the Automated Voltage
Monitoring (AVM).
+ Comes equipped with liner level three noise filtration to enhance AV clarity.
+ Equipped with protect or disconnect technology which disconnects the power in cases of
catastrophic events.
Why We Liked It - If you're looking for AV protection for your home theater equipment, the
Panamax MR4300 is the product to go for.
3. Furman SS6B 6 Plug Surge Protector
Furman makes some of the very best power conditioners that you'll ever find on the market. It has
a complete range of power conditioners to satisfy the varying needs of different consumers.
The Furman SS6B 6 Plug Surge Protector is a pretty trusted product in the music industry of AV
protection. It's affordable and good for use whether you're a professional musician or just a home
user looking to protect your electrical equipment.
Pros:
+ Has a 15-foot power cord to connect equipment at a distance.
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+ Has a circuit breaker.
+ Comes with an EMI/RFI noise Attenuation for max clarity.
Why We Liked It - All in all, you get a complete package in the Furman SS6B 6 Plug Surge
Protector. Even if you are a pro playing at the highest level, this product will serve you well and
it's available at a nominal price.
UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY (UPS)

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is a device that allows a computer to keep running for at
least a short time when the primary power source is lost. UPS devices also provide protection
from power surges.
A UPS contains a battery that "kicks in" when the device senses a loss of power from the primary
source. If an end user is working on the computer when the UPS notifies of the power loss, they
have time to save any data they are working on and exit before the secondary power source (the
battery) runs out. When all power runs out, any data in your computer's random access memory
(RAM) is erased. When power surges occur, a UPS intercepts the surge so that it does not
damage the computer.
UPS in the data center

Every UPS converts incoming AC to DC through a rectifier and converts it back with an inverter.
Batteries or flywheels store energy to use in a utility failure. A bypass circuit routes power around
the rectifier and inverter, running the IT load on incoming utility or generator power.
While UPS systems are commonly called double-conversion, line-interactive and standby
designs, these terms have been used inconsistently and manufacturers implement them
differently: At least one system allows any of the three modes.
Types of UPSs and their core features
Voltage and frequency independent (VFI): Voltage and frequency independent (VFI) UPS
systems are called dual or double conversion because incoming AC is rectified to DC to keep
batteries charged and drive the inverter. The inverter re-creates steady AC power to run the IT
equipment.
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When power fails, the batteries drive the inverter, which continues to run the IT load. When power
is restored, either from the utility or a generator, the rectifier delivers direct current (DC) to the
inverter and simultaneously recharges the batteries. The inverter runs full time. Utility input is
completely isolated from the output, and bypass is only used for maintenance safety or if there is
an internal electronics failure. Since there is no break in the power delivered to the IT equipment,
vacuum fault interrupter (VFI) is generally considered the most robust form of UPS. Most systems
synchronize the output frequency with the input, but that's not necessary, so it still qualifies as
frequency independent.
Every power conversion incurs a loss, so the wasted energy has historically been considered the
price of ultimate reliability.
Voltage independent (VI): Voltage independent (VI), or true line interactive UPSs have a
controlled output voltage, but the same output frequency as the input. Frequency independence
is rarely a concern with power in developed countries. Utility power feeds directly to the output
and IT equipment, and the rectifier keeps the batteries charged. The inverter is paralleled with the
output, compensating for voltage dips and acting as an active filter for voltage spikes and
harmonics. Rectifier and inverter losses only occur when incoming power fluctuates. Flywheels
and motor/generator sets also qualify as VI.
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When incoming power fails, or the voltage goes out of range, the bypass quickly disconnects from
the input and the battery drives the inverter. When input power is restored, the bypass re-engages
the input, re-charges the batteries and keeps output voltage constant. UPS vendors who use
paralleled power sources claim no loss of reliability. The result is around 98% energy efficiency.
Voltage and frequency dependent (VFD): Voltage and frequency dependent (VFD), or standby
UPS, is operationally similar to VI and is sometimes mistakenly called line interactive. In
conventional VFD systems, the inverter is turned off, so it can take as long as 10 to 12
milliseconds (ms) to start creating power. That break can crash servers, making legacy VFD UPSs
a bad fit for data centers.
New VFD concepts have the inverter producing power within 2 ms after being activated. The
bypass is normally engaged, just as with VI, so equipment operates directly from the utility or
generator. Since the inverter isn't working until power fails, there is no voltage control or power
consumed, enabling efficiencies as high as 99%. Power failure or voltage outside of range opens
the bypass switch, disengaging input from the output; the inverter starts operating from the
batteries. The rectifier is only large enough to keep the batteries charged.
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Advantages and disadvantages of UPS
Advantages to using uninterruptable power supplies include:
● No delay between switching from the primary power source to the UPS.
● Can better support critical instruments compare to generators.
● Consumers can choose the type and size of UPS, depending on the amount of power they
need to supply to a device.
● UPSs are silent.
● Maintenance of UPS systems is cheaper compared to generators.
Disadvantages to using uninterruptable power supplies include:

● The inability to run heavy appliances- because UPSs are run off of batteries.
● If substandard batteries are used, users may end up replacing the batteries often.
● UPSs may need professional installations.
UPS vs generators, surge protectors, inverters and AVRs

Unlike UPSs, generators do not seamlessly keep devices running once the primary device is lost.
However, generators do provide power for a longer period of time compared to UPSs. UPS
systems don’t provide power as long because batteries power them.
Surge protectors (suppressors) help prevent surges and high voltage spikes. However, surge
protectors do not operate during power outages, or instances were the main power supply is cut
from use.
Power inverters are devices that convert DC to AC. Power inverters are typically connected to an
exterior DC source and continuously convert the current to AC. Power inverters commonly use
one or more batteries to store power. Using power inverters, there is a delay in the transfer of
power from a primary power source to a secondary power source when the main power is cut.
Automatic voltage regulators (AVRs) will control input voltages to minimize voltage fluctuations.
AVRs are commonly used in both power converters and inverters.
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Activities:

1. A joule is a measurement of energy or heat required to sustain one watt for one second,
known as a _______.
A. watt second C. Newton
B. kilowatt hour D. Amperes
2. Devices intended to increase the quality of power which is delivered to electrical load
equipment.
A. power conditioner C. transformer
B. rectifier D. switches
3. RFI stands for __________.

A. radio frequency interference C. radio frequency inverter
B. rated frequency interference D. random frequency interference
4. Power conditioners act as a _______ between the outlet and your system, smoothing out
voltage fluctuations.
A. buffer C. insulator
B. capacitor D. conductor
5. Power conditioning advantages include: equipment protection, noise removal and fluctuation
correction.
A. true
B. false
6. Refers to one or more ways to deliver voltage to the proper level enabling load equipment to
function adequately.
A. power conditioner C. transformer
B. rectifier D. switches
7. The power conditioner will also have a ________ rating.

A. joule C. capacitance
B. inductance D. lumen
8. A device that allows a computer to keep running for at least a short time when the primary
power source is lost.
A. UPS C. transformer
B. Rectifier D. Voltage regulator
9. UPS devices also provide protection from _______ surges.

A. power C. current
B. voltage D. resistance
10. RAM stands for __________

A. random access memory C. random amperes memory
B. rated access memory D. read access memory
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References:
●https://ph.rs-online.com/web/c/power-supplies-transformers/power-conditioners/power-
conditioners/
●https://mrelectric.com/blog/what-is-a-power-conditioner
●https://musiccritic.com/equipment/studio/power-conditioner/
●https://searchdatacenter.techtarget.com/definition/uninterruptible-power-supply
●https://www.cyberpowersystems.com/blog/how-does-a-ups-work/
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LESSON 9 POWER SUPPLY DESIGN AND APPLICATIONS
Overview
In this lesson, you will study about designing 5V DC power supply and application of power supply
in DC motors. Power supply is composed of four main sub-blocks namely transformer, rectifier
circuit, filter and regulator.
Module Objectives:

1. Build 5V DC power supply
2. Apply power supply in DC motors
Course Materials:
Design 5V DC Power Supply (Easy Step by Step Guide)
A power supply circuit is a very basic circuit in learning electronics. Almost everyone in electronics
tries to make it. And I can not tell you how much fun it is when you finish your first power supply
design, test it, and it works fine.
The power supply which we will design here is very basic. It is a linear technology-based design,
will go through you each design step, try to present everything in simple language, will carry out
some design mathematics i.e. if a capacitor is being used in the schematic, you should know why
it is there, and how its value is calculated.
The design of 5V DC power supply

The design of any circuit begins with a well-made general block diagram. It helps us to design the
sections of the circuit individually and then at the end put them together to have a complete circuit,
ready for use.
The general block diagram for this project is given below. It is very simple. It has the following
four main sub-blocks.
● The Transformer
● The Rectifier Circuit
● The Filter
● The Regulator
First, I will explain each block in general and then we will go for designing. I think you need to
understand which block is doing what first.
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So, let’s try to understand each section one by one.
The input transformer

A transformer is a device that can step up or step down voltage levels, following the law of
conversation of energy.
The question is, why we need it in our supply design?
Well, depending on your country, AC coming to your home has a voltage level of 220/120 V. We
need the input transformer to step down the incoming AC to our required lower-level i.e. close to
5V (AC). This lower level is further used by other blocks to get the required 5V DC.
A transformer is a device that is used to step up or step down the AC voltages level,
keeping the input and out power the same.
Be careful when playing with this device.
As you are using the main supply voltage which can be too dangerous. Never touch any of the
terminals with bare hands or with bad instruments. Have a good and decent non-contact voltage
tester, and use it to always be sure of which line is the live wire coming to the transformer.
The rectifier circuit

If you are thinking the transformer just stepped down the voltage to 5V DC. I am sorry, you are
wrong like once I was. The stepped-down voltage is still AC. To convert it into DC, you need a
good rectifier circuit.
A rectifier circuit is the combination of diodes arranged in such a manner that converts AC
into DC voltage.
Without the rectifier circuit, it is not possible to have the required output 5V DC voltage. This circuit
comes in nice integrated packages or you can make it using four diodes as well. You will see how
we design it in later sections.
Basically, there are two types of rectifier circuits; half-wave and full-wave. However, the one which
we are interested in is a full rectifier, as it is more power-efficient than the first one.
The filter
Nothing is ideal in practical electronics. The rectifier circuit converts the incoming AC to DC but
unluckily it does not make it a pure DC. The output of the rectifier is pulsating and is called
pulsating DC. This pulsating DC is not considered good to power up sensitive devices.
So, the rectified DC is not very clean and has ripples. It is the job of the filter to filter out these
ripples and to make the voltage compatible for regulation.
A capacitor filter is used when we need to convert a pulsating DC into pure or to remove
distortion from signal
A rule of thumb is DC voltage must have less than 10 percent ripples to be regulated perfectly.
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The best filter in our case is the capacitor. You may have heard, a capacitor is a charge storing
device. But actually, it can be best used as a filter. It is the most inexpensive filter for our basic
5V power supply design.
The regulator
A regulator is the linear integrated circuit use to provide a regulated constant output voltage.
Voltage regulation is very important because we do not need a change in output voltage when
the load changes.
An output voltage independent of the load is always required. The Regulator IC not just makes
the output voltage independent of varying loads, but also from line voltage changes.
A regulator is the integrated circuit used to give a constant output voltage regardless of
input voltage changes.
I hope you have developed some basic concepts of power supply design. let’s go further with the
actual circuit diagram for our specific 5V DC power supply design.
Circuit diagram of 5V DC power supply

Below is the circuit diagram for the said project. You get the main supply; voltage and frequency
can depend on your country, fuse; to protect the circuit, transformer, rectifier, capacitor filter, an
LED indicator, and the regulator IC.
The block diagram is implemented in NI Multisim software, good simulation software for students
and electronics beginners. I encourage spent some time playing with it.
Now, let get into the actual design.
Step by step method to design 5V DC power supply

Here is the deal, we will design each section first, and then put together each of them to have our
DC power supply ready to power up our projects.
So let’s get started step by step.
You are thinking, I would start the design explanation from the transformer but it is not the case.
A transformer is not selected at the very first.
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Step 1: The selection of regulator IC
The selection of a regulator IC depends on your output voltage. In our case, we are designing for
the 5V output voltage, we will select the LM7805 linear regulator IC.
In the design process, the next thing is, we need to know the voltage, current, and power ratings
of the selected regulator IC. This is done by using the datasheet of the regulator IC.
The following are the datasheet provided ratings and pin diagram for LM7805.
The datasheet of 7805 also prescribes to use of a 0.1μF capacitor at the output side to avoid
transient changes in the voltages due to changes in load. And a 0.1μF at the input side of the
regulator to avoid ripples if the filtering is far away from the regulator.
Just for extra knowledge, for positive voltage output, we use LM78XX. XX indicates the value of
output voltage and 78 indicates positive output. For negative voltage output use LM79XX, 79
indicates negative voltage and XX indicates the value of output.
Step 2: The selection of transformer

The right transformer selection means saving a lot of money. We got to know, the minimum input
to our selected regulator IC is 7V (See above datasheet values). So, we need a transformer to
step down the main AC to at least this value.
But, between the regulator and secondary side of the transformer, there is a diode bridge rectifier
too. The rectifier has its own voltage drop across it i.e. 1.4V. We need to compensate for this
value as well.
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So mathematically:
This means we should select the transformer with a secondary voltage value equal to 9V or at
least 10% more than 9V.
From these points, for the 5V DC power supply design, we can select a transformer of current
rating 1A and a secondary voltage of 9V. Why 1A current? Because the regulator IC has a current
rating of 1A, meaning we cannot pass more current than this value. Selecting a transformer with
a current rating more than this will cost extra money. And we don’t need it.
Step 3: The selection of diodes for the bridge

You see in the circuit diagram, the rectifier circuit is made by arranging diodes in some patterns.
To make a rectifier we need to select proper diodes for it. When selecting a diode for the bridge
circuit. Keep in mind the output load current, and maximum peak secondary voltage of the
transformer i-e 9V in our case.
Instead of individual diodes, you can also use one individual bridge that comes in an IC package.
But I don’t want you to use it here, just for the purpose of learning and playing with individual
diodes.
The selected diode must have the current rating more than the load current (i.e. in this
case is 500mA). And peak reverse voltage (PIV) more than peak secondary transformer
voltage
We select the IN4001 diode because it has a current rating of 1A more than our desire rating, and
a peak reverse voltage of 50V. Peak reverse voltage is the voltage a diode can sustain when it is
reverse biased.
Step 4: The Selection of smoothing capacitor and calculations

Things we need to keep in mind while selecting a proper capacitor filter are, its voltage, power
rating, and capacitance value. The voltage rating is calculated from the secondary voltage of a
transformer.
The rule of thumb is; the capacitor voltage rating must be at least 20% more than the secondary
voltage. So, if the secondary voltage is 13 V (Peak value for 9V), then your capacitor voltage
rating must be at least 50V.
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Second, we need to calculate the proper capacitance value. It depends upon the output voltage
and the output current. To find the proper value of capacitance, use the formula below:
Where,
Io = Load current i.e. 500mA in our design, Vo = Output voltage i.e. in our case 5V, f = Frequency
i.e. 50Hz
In our case:
The frequency is 50Hz because in our country mains AC is 220 @ 50Hz. You might have 120V
@ 60Hz mains AC. If so then put the values accordingly.
By using capacitor formula, the practical standard value close to this value i-e 3.1847E-4
is 470uF.
Another important formula is listed below. This can also be used to calculate the capacitor value.
In this case, R is the
load resistance. Rf is the ripple factor, which should be less than 10% for a good design. And with
this, we almost finished with a 5V power supply design.
Step 5: Making the power supply safe

Every design must have a safety feature to protect it from burning. Similarly, our simple supply
must have one i.e. the input fuse. The input fuse will protect our supply in case of overloading.
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For example, our desire load can handle 500mA. If in case our load starts to miss behave, there
is a chance of burring of components. The fuse will protect our supply.
A rule of thumb for selecting the fuse rating is, it must be at least 20% more than the load
current.
The simple power supply we designed has the capability to deliver 1A current, which in some
cases you can use it for. If you decide to use it for such cases, then don’t forget to attach a heat
sink to the regulator IC.
Application of power supply in DC motors

Often, there is confusion regarding the use of external diodes when power supplies are used to
power dc motors. Most people know that a diode has to be used, but are unsure where to place
them or what their purpose is.
From a power supply concern, diodes may be used to prevent reverse motor current and blocking
spikes that interfere with the power supply source. To illustrate, here are examples for brushed
dc motor and a brushless dc motor.
Brushed dc motors
With this type of motor, permanent magnets are stationary (stator) and the armature is comprised
of coils that rotate. Electricity is connected to the spinning coils by the use of “brushes” that
alternately reverse each coil’s polarity, causing the armature to rotate. The advantages of this
type of motor are low initial cost and easy speed control.
When the power is interrupted, the armature coils will act as inductors and will try to continue to
produce current, effectively becoming an inverted voltage source. This will apply a reverse polarity
to the power supply and can cause damage (back EMF, electro-magnetic flux).
By using a diode, as shown below, the diode provides a current path for the reverse motor current
and will clamp the reverse voltage to a level no greater than the forward voltage drop of the diode.
This protects the power supply’s output capacitors and other components from being stressed by
the reverse voltage.
Brushless dc motors
Brushless dc motors, often referred to as BLDC motors, have permanent magnets on the rotor
and the stator coils are fixed. Although more expensive because it requires an integral controller
108
to sequentially activate the stator coils that causes the rotor to move, it is more reliable in the long
term as there are no brush or commutator wear, position control is more accurate and it is more
efficient.
When the motor is turned off or reversed, it will act as a generator and produce a positive high
voltage spike. This spike can cause the power supply’s overvoltage protection to trip, shutting
down the unit.
By using a diode in series with the power supply’s output, as shown below, the spike will be
blocked from interfering with the power supply.
With either brushed or brushless dc motors, a general-purpose diode can be used to protect the
power supply providing it is sized to handle the maximum voltage and current for the application.
Activities:

1. Which of the following is not part of a basic power supply?
A. Amplifier C. voltage regulator
B. transformer D. rectifier
2. Type of transformer used in power supply.

A. step up transformer C. single phase transformer
B. step down transformer D. three phase transformer
3. A device that is used to step up or step down the AC voltages level, keeping the input and out
power the same.
A. Amplifier C. transformer
B. voltage regulator D. rectifier
4. Is the combination of diodes arranged in such a manner that converts AC into DC voltage.
B. voltage regulator D. rectifier circuit
5. Full wave rectifier is more power efficient than half wave rectifier.
A. True
B. False
6. The output of the rectifier is ________.

A. pulsating DC C. pure AC
B. pulsating AC D. pure DC
7. Used when we need to convert a pulsating DC into pure or to remove distortion from signal.
A. Capacitor filter C. multimeter
B. inductor filter D. clamp meter
109
8. Is the integrated circuit used to give a constant output voltage regardless of input voltage
changes.
B. voltage regulator D. rectifier circuit
9. PIV stands for __________.

A. Power Inverse Voltage C. Pure Inverse Voltage
B. Peak Inverse Voltage D. Pulsating Inverse Voltage
10. For selecting the fuse rating in building 5V DC power supply, it must be at least ______more
than the load current.
A. 10 % C. 100 %
B. 20 % D. 90 %
References:
●https://www.powerelectronicsnews.com/power-supply-design-tutorial/
●https://www.electronicdesign.com/power-management/whitepaper/21172208/analog-devices-
how-to-easily-design-power-supplies-part-1
●https://www.yamanelectronics.com/design-5v-500ma-dc-power-supply/
●https://www.etechnog.com/2019/11/power-supply-types-application-use.html
●https://www.power-supplies-australia.com.au/blog/power-supplies-use-dc-motors
●https://www.designworldonline.com/using-power-supplies-with-dc-motors/
REFERENCES
●http://ethw.org/Category:Power_electronics?gclid=CjwKCAjwzaSLBhBJEiwAJSRokvA_sgPlys
qSAd0-bRkfi2VfU-901cf3-r4_iXnAQK54wH3hOgsp_BoCuE0QAvD_BwE
●https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_semiconductor_device
●http://www.egr.unlv.edu/~eebag/EE-442-642-Power%20switching%20devices%20fall14.pdf
●https://www.philadelphia.edu.jo/academics/mlazim/uploads/PE%20Lecture%20No.02.pdf
●https://www.homemade-circuits.com/bidirectional-switch/
●https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-86040-1_3
●https://www.ultralibrarian.com/2020/12/15/passive-electronic-components-and-their-purpose-
in-a-circuit-ulc
●https://turbofuture.com/industrial/Basic-Elements-of-a-Power-Supply
●https://maker.pro/custom/tutorial/intro-to-electronic-components-active-vs-passive-components
●https://www.actpower.com/educational/what-is-a-power-supply-and-how-does-it-work/
●https://sciencing.com/function-voltage-regulator-5380230.html
●https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Fuse
●https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/pcb-basics/all
●https://electronicsclub.info/switches.htm
●https://www.elprocus.com/phase-control-rectifier-working-applications/
●https://www.sunpower-uk.com/glossary/what-is-a-power-converter/
●https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/power/switch-mode-power-supply.html
●https://www.sunpower-uk.com/glossary/what-is-switch-mode-power-supply/
110
●https://www.avnet.com/wps/portal/abacus/solutions/technologies/power/the-design-engineers-
guide/switched-mode-power-supplies/
●https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/analogue_circuits/power-supply-electronics/switch-
mode-smps-basics-primer.php
●https://www.electrical4u.com/power-inverter/
●https://www.tutorialspoint.com/power_electronics/power_electronics_types_of_inverters.htm
●https://www.elprocus.com/what-is-an-inverter-types-circuit-diagram-applications/
●https://www.electroniclinic.com/inverters-and-how-do-they-work-inverter-in-power-electronics/
●https://www.pantechsolutions.net/blog/introduction-to-resonant-converter/
●https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/64086
●https://www.slideshare.net/pilurout/hgu
●https://www.pulspower.com/chf/assistance/service/glossaire/index/read/resonance-converter/
●https://www.ieee.li/pdf/introduction_to_power_electronics/chapter_19.pdf
●Erickson, Robert W.(Author). Fundamentals of Power Electronics. Second Edition.
Secaucus, NJ, USA: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000. p xv.
●https://www.slideserve.com/kuame-barnett/resonant-converters-introduction-1
●https://scholarworks.rit.edu/theses/6515/
●https://scholarworks.rit.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7520&context=theses
●https://ph.rs-online.com/web/c/power-supplies-transformers/power-conditioners/power-
conditioners/
●https://mrelectric.com/blog/what-is-a-power-conditioner
●https://musiccritic.com/equipment/studio/power-conditioner/
●https://searchdatacenter.techtarget.com/definition/uninterruptible-power-supply
●https://www.cyberpowersystems.com/blog/how-does-a-ups-work/
●https://www.powerelectronicsnews.com/power-supply-design-tutorial/
●https://www.electronicdesign.com/power-management/whitepaper/21172208/analog-devices-
how-to-easily-design-power-supplies-part-1
●https://www.yamanelectronics.com/design-5v-500ma-dc-power-supply/
●https://www.etechnog.com/2019/11/power-supply-types-application-use.html
●https://www.power-supplies-australia.com.au/blog/power-supplies-use-dc-motors
●https://www.designworldonline.com/using-power-supplies-with-dc-motors/
111

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Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

Compiled by: Checked by:

Engr. Raymond A. Paiton Assoc. Prof. Ayreenlee E. Resus

Date: _________________ Date: ___________________

Engr. Rosalia P. Pinlac Dr. Agnes Y. Gonzaga

Date: _________________ Date: __________________

THE POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

PUP: The National Polytechnic University

 provide democratized access to educational opportunities for the holistic development of

As a state university, the Polytechnic University of the Philippines believes that:

Pillar 1: Dynamic, Transformational, and Responsible Leadership

SHARED VALUES AND PRINCIPLES

 Integrity and Accountability

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

 Quality and excellent graduates

The College of Engineering aims to:

COURSE TITLE: ECE Elective 2 / Advanced Power Supply Systems

After completing this course, you must be able to:

The course requirements are as follows:

Exemplary Satisfactory Developing Beginning Non-compliance

Lesson 8 - Explain concept of Discussion -PowerPoint / Activities,

Lesson 1 Semiconductor Switches 1

Lesson 2 Passive components for electronic power supply 18

Lesson 4 Phase controlled rectifiers and converters 58

Lesson 5 Switch-Mode Power Supply 65

Lesson 7 Resonant Converters 85

Lesson 8 Power Conditioners and UPS 92

Lesson 9 Power supply design and application 102

After successful completion of this module, you should be able to:

● What is a good power switch?

TYPES OF POWER SEMICONDUCTOR SWITCHES

The main types of power semiconductor switches in common use are:

Types of Power Diodes:

Thyristors (Silicon Controlled Rectifiers “SCRs”)

Important points for the SCR characteristic:

Turning on/off mechanism

Forced commutation circuit

The four possible mode of operation of triac are

Gate Turn Off Thyristors (GTO Thyristors)

Emerging (new) devices:

BJT Power Transistor Characteristics

Fig.2.13 MOSFET: symbol (n-channel)

Fig.2.13 MOSFET Characteristic

3 – Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor “IGBT”

Other switching devices:

MCTs (MOS Controlled Thyristor)

The Power Silicon Carbide Semiconductors

High Power Density

High thermal conductivity

Reduced Sink requirements

Multiple Choice: Choose the best answer.

2. Which of the following is not characteristic of MOSFET?

3. Which of the following is not the terminal of MOSFET?

5. Which of the following is not terminal of bipolar junction transistor?

6. IGBT stands for

7. Which of the following is not terminal of gate turn off thyristor?

8. Type of thyristor used in inverter and chopper.

9. Thyristor cannot be turned off by applying _______current.

10. The thyristor can only be turned on if

After successful completion of this module, you should be able to:

Passive components for electronic power supply

Date: _ Date: ___

Date: _ Date: __