Construction of Linings, Finishes and Stairs

Linings - Floor, walls and ceiling
Fibre cement
Fibre cement is used for floor and wall linings. Fibre cement wall lining installation is similar to
plasterboard.
Compressed fibre cement sheeting gives a firm and water resistant base to waterproofing and
mortar bedding for floor tiles. It is the most common floor sheeting for wet areas over a timber
framed floor.
Plaster and plasterboard

A plasterer prepares, applies and finishes off plaster trowelled on in the plastic state and allowed to
set hard on the wall. Plasterboard is a rigid board material fixed to the walls or ceiling.
Plaster
Gypsum plaster is the kind generally used today; lime plaster is used only occasionally. It does not
shrink on drying and therefore is not subject to cracking. It is suitable only for dry interior situations
and therefore should not be used in bathrooms, laundries or kitchens.
Render, used for both dry and damp conditions, is bound together with portland cement,
sometimes containing lime. It does shrink on drying.
Stucco is the name for external render, traditionally applied to timber lathing in older buildings and
generally mixed with lime. Today it is more usual to use cement rendering applied to a timber
frame over wire mesh.
The materials concerned are cement, lime, gypsum and modified gypsum with sand.
Backing
A plasterer will use either solid or lath backing.
Solid backing can include any of the following:
• Brick, terracotta block, concrete block, light concrete block which all provide an adequate
key because of their rough surface and raked joints.
• Poured concrete varies in keying capacity. It may require picking or hacking or a bonding
agent.
• No fines concrete has a good keying capacity.
Lath backing can include any of the following;
• plasterboard lath: a proprietary perforated plasterboard used for internal applications.
Construction: Linings, finishes and stairs CPPBND5001A 1

© New South Wales Technical and Further Education Commission 2015
• expanded metal: this has sufficient body to need no backing. It is often used to reinforce
plaster on solid walls across changes in material.
• wire mesh with buttons.
Surface preparation
Smooth solid surfaces require preparation by hacking, raking of joints or the application of a rich
spatterdash. Wetting is usually required to reduce suction but should not be overdone.
Bonding agents
Polyvinyl acetate (PVA) bonding agents are used for:
• strengthening the bond with smooth surfaces
• eliminating suction on porous surfaces
• increasing the tensile strength of cement render
• permitting very thin coats of render down to a feather edge.
Number of coats
Solid surfaces require two coats, a base screed or scratch coat, plus a setting or finishing coat.
In the case of concrete block only one coat, the finishing coat may be needed.
Metal lath normally requires three coats, the first coat being the pricking coat, the second coat
being the scratch coat and the third coat providing the finish.
Base coats are normally applied working from the bottom up, finishing coats from the top down.
Corner reinforcement
Metal reinforcing angles in GSI are often used for strengthening re-entrant angles (Expamet
Building Products and similar products).
Finishes
The following three types of finish are used by plasterers:
• Gypsum plaster - smooth trowelled finish and sand finish are common and allow various
decorative textured finishes however these can be difficult to patch.
• Cement render - smooth trowelled finish which although it tends to craze can be used as
rough cast with a final coat including pebbles. It incorporates a waterproofing agent in the
external coat and various combed, brushed and flattened splatter textures are available.
• Gunned or pneumatically placed concrete and plaster is a comparatively recent

development in application to small-scale construction. The dry material is discharged at
high velocity through a specially designed nozzle where it is mixed with water from a
smaller adjacent nozzle. Lightweight fire-retarding plasters such as pyrox, vermiculite and
perlite are gunned in this way. They are usually applied to expanded metal in internal
positions.
Plaster battens for ceiling fixing
2 Construction: Linings, finishes and stairs CPPBND5001A

The underside of the ceiling joists may be regular and level if softwood joists have been carefully
selected and properly secured to a hanging beam. In this case the plaster is fixed directly to the
joists. Where hardwood joists are used, however, it may be necessary to use softwood battens to
provide a level surface. In this case it should be obvious that it is essential to gauge the battens
accurately or the irregularity is simply transmitted to the lining.
Plasterboard
Plasterboard is a machine-made material consisting of an inner core of plaster with outer faces of
kraft paper forming a continuous envelope for the core. The edges of the boards may be either
square or tapered. Special countersunk-headed nails are used for fixing edges as shown in Figure
2. They should not be overdriven as the kraft paper may be ruptured.
Plasterboards with tapered edges.
Adhesive fixing as well as screw or nail fixing is used according to manufacturer’s instructions.
Taping and flush-jointing is used to finish the surface.
Finishing materials
The main types of finishing materials used in domestic buildings are hardboards, softboards,
particleboards, plywoods and plastic laminates.
Hardboards
Hardboards are used as a finishing material. Standard boards, tempered boards, (oil treated and
waterproof), patterned, coloured, textured and perforated sheets are all manufactured in 3, 5, 6
and 8 mm thicknesses 1.2 m and 1.3 m wide, up to 3.6 m lengths.
Standard boards should be well wetted before fixing in accordance with the manufacturer’s
directions, otherwise the sheets will absorb atmospheric dampness and buckle after fixing. Sheets
are fixed, either by nailing or gluing, to studs, noggings or battens.
Softboards
Softboards include straw boards of various thicknesses which are not subjected to the pressure
used in the manufacture of hardboards. Comparatively soft and easily damaged, softboards
require careful fixing.

Particleboards or chipboards
Particleboards or chipboards are available in various thicknesses from 12 mm boards up to the
thicker 38 mm planks used for semi-structural applications. Some of the thinner particleboards are
surfaced with a thin polyester veneer and are extensively used for cupboards and shelving. Many
proprietary fixings have been produced to be used with particleboards.
Plywoods
Plywoods consist of three, five, seven or more thicknesses of veneer glued together so that the
grain is at right angles in successive layers. The end grain on one layer restrains the movement of
the grain of the next so that the plywood is stable in two directions and can be safely used for large
panels. Cheaper types of plywood are made with hoop pine and similar veneers glued with animal
glues. Better plies are surfaced with selected timber veneers with decorative grains.
Plastic laminates
Plastic laminates are manufactured from plastic material with a printed surface covered with a
hard, transparent, durable plastic facing. Some are surfaced with 0.4 mm plywood veneer. Very
hardwearing and resistant to water and heat. These are best fixed to a solid backing such as
corestock, five ply or chipboards. They are extensively used for bench tops, dado boards, walls
and doors where a good quality finish is desired. They are available in many colours, plain and
decorative, with printed designs resembling wood grains. Matt finish plastic laminate is extensively
used for cupboard doors. In this case it is either glued and pressed on to a backing in the factory or
contact glued on the job.
Occasionally metal panelling, stone veneer and other materials are used for special purposes in
domestic work.
Insulation
Sarking
Sarking materials are waterproof membranes that stop water from entering buildings. These act as
giant flashings to drain away any water that has penetrated the wall or roof cladding.
Insulation
The purpose of insulation can be twofold in a dwelling, it can be used as sound proofing or as
thermal insulation for the comfort of the occupants of a building.
There are three common ways that the insulation can be used: loose form, mostly for roof areas,
where the insulation is pumped into the ceiling; as bats of fibreglass, wool or other types available
on the market and foamed materials like polyurethane which is injected into the cavities.
Vapour barriers
Vapour barriers, or moisture barriers, help to separate spaces from hot to cold, which can lead to
condensation. Where there isn’t a vapour barrier in ceiling spaces, the warm air hits the cold
underside of the metal roof and the water in it condenses.

Finishes and coatings
Paint
While one purpose of painting and decoration is to give an agreeable appearance to a building, the
other, at least equally important, purpose is to protect and preserve the fabric of the building.
In general terms paints are made to suit the needs of the three main fields of demand. These are
industrial, industrial maintenance and domestic.
Paints for the first two groups are made to be used by specialist tradesmen trained in their use.
Paints for domestic use are packaged with full directions. In addition the manufacturers of good
quality paints offer printed technical information and also comprehensive advisory services to help
consumers get the best use from the products and to deal with problems that arise. You are
advised to take advantage of these services. There has been a great deal of technical progress in
the past decade or so and research is continually developing new products to suit changing needs.
Broadly speaking a paint may be defined as a suspension of finely dispersed solids in a fluid
medium which, when applied to a surface, will ‘dry’ or set to an opaque film by oxidisation,
polymerisation or evaporation or a combination of these processes. The solids are generally known
as pigments and the fluid vehicle as the medium. The various types are usually classified by the
nature of the medium used. The lines of demarcation are not always clear, but we should look at
some general definitions.
Ready-mixed paints
Ready-mixed paints are composed essentially of a vehicle, a volatile solvent plus driers, and
pigments. Usually the vehicle consists of a drying oil. When the paint is applied to a surface the
solvents evaporate and the drying oil oxidises forming an elastic film. The driers, which are metallic
compounds of naphthenates, linolates etc, catalyse the oxidisation of the oil. If varnish or synthetic
resin is added to the vehicle, the paint is known as enamel. Undercoats, primers and sealers are
usually similar in composition to the surface coat for which they are designed.
Varnishes
Varnishes are non-pigmented liquids which may be broadly divided into three types.
• Oil varnishes consist of resins combined with drying oils and driers and thinned with volatile
solvent. These dry both by evaporation of the solvent and by oxidisation of the drying oil.
• Spirit varnishes are solutions of resins in volatile solvents. These dry entirely by
evaporation of the solvent.
• Two-pack varnishes set by polymerisation of synthetic resins.
Because of the resins varnishes usually dry to a high gloss. The hardness depends on the type
and quantity of resins used.
Nitrocellulose lacquers
Nitrocellulose is used as the basis for fast-drying lacquers which are prepared in clear and
pigmented forms. As nitrocellulose by itself is too brittle, a plasticiser is added. Resins are also
added to increase hardness and gloss.
Water-dispersed paints

This type of paint is composed of pigments in water containing dissolved or emulsified bonding
material. The bonding material consists of emulsifiers, preservatives and driers added to
ingredients such as casein, drying oil, synthetic resin or other film-forming material.
The vehicle used in emulsion paints is often a casein-stabilised dispersion of synthetic latex in
water. When the paint is applied the water evaporates leaving a film of pigment held to the surface
by the adhesion of the latex.
Gelled or thixotropic paints

The vehicle of these paints contains a gelling agent which tends to hold it rather like a weak net.
This agent is strong enough to resist flow, so the paint will not drip, but breaks down under
stronger forces such as brushing.
Cement paints
These contain white Portland cement and inert pigments not affected by alkalis. They are used for
concrete and masonry surfaces.
Metallic paints
Various proprietary products are manufactured, including zinc epoxy, aluminium and decorative
bronze paints.
Natural grain timber finishes

Natural grain timber finishes include the following:
• creosote stains for exterior use only
• spirit stains which are a dye or pigment in a volatile solvent, adding colour but not finish
• bleaches
• oil, spirit or two-pack varnishes which include stain although separate stain is preferable
and satin finish looks more natural than gloss
• wax polish - beeswax, paraffin wax or carnauba wax with thinners, rubbed into the surface
• French polish - a spirit varnish composed of shellac and methylated spirit and applied
repeatedly to give a very fine finish
• clear lacquer which is applied by spraying and is suitable for mass production.
The painting process

Painting really consists of a number of steps which should be taken in the right sequence. In some
cases one or more of them may be omitted. The steps are:
• surface preparation including sanding, cleaning and burning off
• pre-treatment including sealing, knotting and etching
• priming
• stopping and sanding

• undercoating
• applying the finishing coat.
Surface preparation
Before painting buildings or materials it is usually necessary to remove previous finishes or dirt and
grease. Here are some common residues and the appropriate cleaning agent.
• Smoke stains, grease, hand marks are usually removed with proprietary detergents or dirt
removers.
• Kalsomine must be completely removed or it will badly damage the painted surface. The
glue base is softened with water and then scrubbed off.
• Varnish is treated with a solvent paint remover.
• Wax polish must be carefully removed with a rag and turpentine.
• Bituminous materials are washed off with turpentine. They cannot be removed from porous
surfaces. The surface should be properly sealed before painting.
New timber
In the past timber was generally painted with oil paint but acrylic emulsion paints are often used
now.
Specific preparations are required for timber. These are:
• The timber must be dry and the surface sanded smooth.
• Shellac is used for knotting to seal end grain and to prevent the wood resins from bleeding
into the paint.
• Priming provides a base for further coats. Good practice is to prime all surfaces of joinery
before exposure and installation on the job.
• Cracks and holes must be stopped with stopping putty. The surface must then be sanded
smooth. As the grain may have been raised by the primer the whole surface must be
sanded, not just the stopped areas.
• The undercoat and finishing coat are then applied with light sanding between coats. The
undercoat is the body coat; the finishing coat gives the surface required, gloss, satin or
matt.
Previously painted timber

In the case of previously painted timber that is sound but chalking, it must be cleaned down and
then repainted with one or two coats. Badly weathered or cracked paint should be burned, power-
sanded or chemically removed before proceeding as for new work.
Fibre boards
Unless they have been factory-primed fibre boards should be sealed against suction. Emulsion
paints will do this satisfactorily if the first coat is diluted. Joints cannot be satisfactorily stopped but
nails can be. As emulsion paint rusts steel, nails should first be spot primed with a metal primer.
Plaster, cement sheets, masonry, concrete
Plaster, cement sheets, masonry, concrete are absorbent and require sealing.
If oil paint is to be used on fresh cement products or newly-laid brickwork a special sealer is
needed or the paint will be saponified (made soapy) by released alkalis.
Concrete and new plaster on solid walls need a long drying time if non-porous paint is to be used.
A proprietary product such as Spackle is usually used for stopping.
Steel
If there is rust on steel it must be removed by wire brushing and a rust-inhibiting primer applied.
Zinc epoxy protective paints are available and give protection equivalent to galvanising if factory-
applied. Factory priming is most desirable as it can be done before rust develops.
A wide range of metal filling putties is marketed.
Non-corroding metals
Some non-corroding metals are best left to weather; others, such as galvanised steel and
aluminium, can be chemically etched to provide a key for paint. The etching solution is washed off
and an undercoat and final coat applied. Some special metal paints do not need undercoating. Two
coats of these paints are preceded by a wash of mineral turps.
Application methods
There are five main methods used to apply paint. Dipping which is a factory process. Spraying is
limited to on-the-job application. Over-spraying and wind are a problem. Parts not to be painted
must be masked. Roller coating - lambswool or foam rollers used with either an internal reservoir
or dipped into a paint tray. This method is suitable for large areas. It uses more paint than
brushing. A brush must be used for ‘cutting in’ at the edges. Brushing is the most common method.
It tends to force paint into the surface, which is important with sealer, primer and undercoat.
Wallpaper
A clean, smooth wall surface is essential. Oil-painted surfaces must be sanded down and other
surfaces treated to give a good bond. All old wallpaper must be removed. The walls must be dry as
wallpaper will not adhere to damp surfaces.
When a heavy wallpaper is to be applied or if a lot of making-good has been done to the wall lining
paper is sometimes used. This makes the surface smoother and makes porosity more even. Lining
paper may be fixed either vertically or horizontally. The wallpaper itself is then fixed vertically. The
paper is pasted and then applied to the surface with a lay brush or smoothing roller. The joints are
either butted or overlapped, and narrow seam rollers are used. If the paper is patterned care must
be taken to match the pattern. Blisters must be carefully smoothed out. Special knives are used for
trimming the paper.
Either flour-and-water paste or a proprietary product may be used. Many wallpapers today are sold
already pasted and need only to be briefly soaked before hanging. When hanging vinyl fabrics the
adhesive recommended by the manufacturer for the particular application should be used.

Waterproofing
Wet area floor detailing is an important area for you in your knowledge of construction. Its
relationship to other parts of construction means that a thorough understanding of the
requirements as laid out in the BCA is essential.
Read the BCA Part 3.8.1 Wet Areas.
By far the most common construction fault in residential building is inadequate waterproofing of wet
areas. Throughout the 1980s many new products appeared on the market, but many have not
stood the test of time. They’ve failed, causing damage, upsetting householders and requiring
expensive rectification. Prevention is always better than cure.
Waterproofing wet areas

As you’ll soon discover, there’s a wide range of wet area products available:
• plastic liners
• rubberised membranes
• liquid membranes
• metal trays.
Performance is highly dependent on the quality of installation (strictly to manufacturer’s

specification) but also the adequacy of the substrate. Consequently, manufacturers of fibre-cement
and wet-area plasterboard sheeting are involved in detailing approved products to provide a
waterproof system.
The BCA (Part 3.8.1 Wet Areas) sets out acceptable construction methods.
Organisations like the CSIRO are involved in the appraisal of building products and systems,
accrediting approved systems including for wet areas and for general waterproofing. You should
check them out.
Main Waterproofing Materials

Waterproofing systems can be classified into 3 different types. These are:
1. Rigid System
These include fibreglass (resin based), metal based systems and water based epoxies.
2. Flexible system
These consist mostly of acrylic membranes and bitumen based emulsion or mastic.
3. Elastrometric system
These consist of water-based and solvent-based polyurethane, flexible sheet PVC and sheet
rubber membranes.
Waterproofing system components

Wall and floor linings

Walls and floors in wet areas may be required to be water resistant or waterproof. A water
resistant material will restrict water movement and will not degrade when subjected to moisture for
prolonged periods. A waterproof material will not allow any penetration of moisture. Where
components are required to be waterproof, a waterproof membrane or sheet, or a metal lining is
required that will be integrated into the waterproofing system.
The walls in shower recesses and above wet area fixtures will generally be required to be water
resistant as a minimum requirement. Materials commonly used for this purpose in conjunction with
a water resistant surface material include:
• concrete and masonry, treated to resist moisture if for walls,
• fibre cement sheeting (CFC) for walls and floors,
• water-resistant plasterboard or particleboard sheeting, and
• structural plywood for floors.
Water resistant surface materials (finishes) include:
• pre-decorated fibre cement sheeting,
• water-resistant flexible sheet material with sealed joints, and
• grouted tiles.
Waterproof materials are dealt with later under membranes and preformed shower trays and
bases.
Flashing angles
The perimeter of wet area rooms at the wall/floor junction should be sealed with flashing angles to
prevent moisture penetration to adjoining surfaces or building elements. In conjunction with the
waterproof or water resistant flooring material to which the base of the angle is sealed, this angle
forms a fully contained vessel that can hold and drain water to a floor waste.
The image above shows the perimeter flashing angle at the door to the wet area. The angle is
continuous with a water stop that finishes level with the top surface of the tile floor finish. The
angle is continuous around the rest of the room.

Flashing is also required at internal and external corners of wall to wall junctions to prevent
moisture penetrating joints.
The type of flashing angle required and the method of installation will vary depending upon the
type of adjoining material and the chosen wet area design.
Flashing angles can be either preformed or formed in-situ. Preformed products are generally
plastic; in-situ products include fibreglass reinforced plastic, epoxy resins and acrylics.
This image shows the installation of an acrylic waterproofing material to an internal corner joint.
Membranes
Membranes are used in wet areas to form an impervious barrier to moisture; in other words, to
form a waterproof layer.
There are a vast number of membrane products available for use in residential wet area
construction. Recent research conducted by the CSIRO has established a classification system for
membranes based on the extent to which they will stretch before breaking. This flexibility is
important for avoiding breakage of the membrane if the substance to which it is attached moves.
The classifications are as follows:
Class 1 – this class of membrane breaks before it reaches an extension of 65% (that is, it stretches
to a length 65% more than its original length). These membranes are relatively rigid and break or
tear quite easily once stretched. Examples of this type of membrane include:
• fibreglass

• metal, such as a shower tray
• water based epoxies
Class 2 – this membrane type breaks at an elongation of between 65% and 200%. These
membranes are relatively flexible and can withstand a greater degree of elongation before
breaking or tearing. Examples of this type of membrane include:
• acrylic membranes (a water based system that is applied in coats)
• bitumen based membranes. These products are more suitable to external usage such as
balconies because the bitumen can leach into adjoining materials and cause staining.
Class 3 – have a membrane elongation at break of greater than 200%. These are highly flexible
membranes. Examples include:
• water based polyurethane
• solvent based polyurethane
• sheet rubber
• PVC sheet membrane
Bond breakers
A continuous membrane that is applied to the wall and floor of a wet area is bridging a gap that is
susceptible to movement. Movement may cause the membrane to stretch and possibly to fail. The
ability of a membrane to withstand movement and subsequent damage will depend upon the
flexibility, as mentioned above, and also on the amount of unbonded membrane that is available to
stretch or move with the joint separation.
A bond breaker is used to isolate sufficient length of the membrane to allow for reasonable
movement in the joint. Three different techniques are commonly used depending on the flexibility
of the membrane that is used and the degree of movement expected.
Three types of bond breakers
The three types of bond breaker are illustrated above: - backing rod with masking tape to hold in
place, masking tape alone, and silicone or polyurethane fillet. The type that is most suitable
depends on the type of membrane that is used, and the length of un-bonded membrane required.

How a bond breaker works
Preformed shower trays and bases

Preformed shower trays are usually made of copper or stainless steel and are installed with the
wall lining extending into the tray. If there is a hob, it is constructed inside the shower tray, and the
floor and wall linings are installed over the metal of (or inside) the tray.
A problem that can occur with shower trays is that water can be drawn up behind the wall lining by
capillary action and therefore seep outside of the tray and onto adjacent structural members or into
adjacent living areas. This is because the sides of the tray are not high enough or the overlap of
the wall lining is not low enough to prevent water moving upward by capillary action over the edge
of the tray.
Shower bases are usually acrylic or metal prefabricated bases that are installed as the shower
floor. They must be fixed securely to the floor and the floor under them should be waterproofed.
The wall lining is installed to lap over the top edge of the base, so that water drains directly into the
waste. However, capillary action can also be a problem with prefabricated bases, so careful
sealing at the base of the wall lining is required.

This image above shows an acrylic shower base in a partly completed shower recess. Note that
the wall lining finishes over the lip of the base, so that water that penetrates the wall finish will drain
directly into the base and into the floor waste.
Careful attention must be paid to the compatibility of materials in contact with each other at the
floor waste.
Water stops
A water stop is an angle usually made of aluminium or brass that is attached to the floor (or hob),
and projects up so that the top is level with or projects above the level of the tile surface. The
purpose of the water stop is to prevent water movement across or over this barrier and into a non-
waterproofed area.

Water stop
Sealants
The purpose of a sealant is to provide a waterproof joint between two materials. Sealants should
be compatible with the materials to which they are adhered and be flexible and mould-resistant.

Stairs
Stairs
There are many different arrangements of stairs, however careful consideration must be given to
not only the correct selection of arrangement, the height of each step (riser) and the width of each
tread (going). The BCA lays down specific dimensional requirements for the construction of stairs
which must be adhered to.
Riser and Going Dimensions

(reproduced from the Building Code of Australia Volume 1)
When a staircase is designed for a domestic and commercial building, careful consideration must
be given to the correct ratio of riser to going (or in other words the inclination of the flight of stairs).
If the risers are too large the stairs will be too steep and if the going is too small a person won’t be
able to fit their foot on the tread.
Staircase terms
Balusters These are small vertical members fixed between the top of the string and the
handrail. They offer support to the handrail and act as a safety barrier. The
space between balusters is limited by the BCA
Balustrade The balustrade is the vertical side of the staircase and may include vertical
balusters and handrail or a solid barrier
Flight of stairs an unbroken series of steps between two or more areas on different levels
Going The going is the horizontal distance between one riser and another. This
does not include the nosing overhang.
The sum of the goings in a staircase equals the total going of the flight

Handrail The handrail runs parallel to the string at the required height to serve as an aid
and safety barrier for people using a flight of stairs.
Landing A landing is a space at the top of a flight of stairs or between flights.

Staircases that exceed 18 risers need a landing inserted so that the length of
the flight is reduced.
Newel post The newel post is the large vertical post that indicates the end of a flight of
stairs or a change in direction. Handrails are housed into the newel post for
stability.
Nosing A half-round overhanging edge to a stair tread.
Rise The rise of a step is the height from the top of one tread to the top of the next
tread.
The rise of a flight of stairs is the vertical height from the floor of one level to
the top of the floor of the next level.
Riser The riser is the vertical member in a timber staircase that closes the vertical
space between treads or the vertical rise between treads.
The rise of a flight of stairs is the vertical height from the floor of one level to
the top of the floor of the next level
Spandrel The spandrel is the triangular space bounded by the wall the staircase rests
on, the floor and the underside of the string. It may be closed off and used as
a useful storage space.
String or the inclined member which supports the end of the tread.
stringer
Tread The tread is the horizontal member of a step. It is generally rounded on the
leading edge and overhangs the riser by 25mm (if in a timber staircase).

Winders Winders are treads used in curved staircases that are cut wider one end than
the other so they can be arranged in a circular form.
Detail of stair construction

Angle of inclination
The angle of inclination of the flight must be comfortable and within the limits imposed by the BCA.
The building regulations state that the rise can be between 115mm and 190mm, and the going
between 240 and 355mm. However you must be aware that 2 risers + the going must not be less
than 550mm or more than 700mm. The flight of a staircase must not be less than 2 risers, or more
than 18 risers. If your flight of stairs has more than 18 risers, than you will have to include a
landing.
Types of Stairs (according to number of turns)

Stairs may be termed 'Straight', 'Quarter Turn', 'Half Turn' etc. according to the number of right
angles through which they turn. Figure 3 shows the arrangement of various types.
Open newel stair

with two quarter
space landings
L-Shaped stair or
quarter turn
L-Shaped stair with

winders
Open newel stair U-

Shaped stair

Straight flight with
landing
Straight flight
Circular stair
Elliptical stair
Stair type arrangements
Construction of Timber Stair

Timber stairs used in domestic constructions usually are either open or closed risers and may also
be open or closed strings. The use of laminated timber for use in stairs has allowed for much
wider staircases for use in public buildings.
Treads and risers

Treads are a nominal 30 mm in thickness and risers are 25 mm in thickness. They are housed into
the strings by 13 mm and are held tightly in place by long tapered wedges driven in behind the
members. Small mitre blocks are glued in position at the junction of the tread and riser.

Timber Stair Construction
The 'going' and 'rise' is the most critical factor because this dictates the ease or difficulty with which
a staircase may be used. For public buildings a low rise may be used with a very long going. This
allows an easy ascent although wastes much space. A rise of 180 mm with a going of 270 mm
would be a reasonable ratio. Where the staircase is particularly wide a centre board is placed on
edge under the treads and fixed by soldiers to the risers. This reduces the risk of sag and undue
movement in the treads.
The whole of the underside of the staircase may be trimmed across with 50 x 38 mm noggins and
closed in with 12 mm plywood or similar. This sheeting is called the soffit lining and gives a
finished look to the underside of the stairs.
Newel posts

The newel post houses the tenons of the strings and handrail (see below). The double tenons of
the strings and the single tenon of the handrails are both drilled and a dowel is used to pin them in
position. This pinning prevents undue movement within the joint. The last riser is also housed into
the newel post. The top of the newel post is generally given a fancy finish as it is a major feature in
the staircase. The size of newel posts varies but a nominal size would be 100 x 100 mm.
The newel at the ground level is either dowelled in position or fixed in position by means of a steel
bracket. This will prevent undue movement.

Balusters and Handrails
The balusters are housed into the capping that sits on top of the string and the underside of the
handrail. The balusters are normally about 30 mm x 30 mm, and the Building Regulations state
they shall be spaced at a maximum of 125 mm. In an open riser staircase it is not uncommon to
see 19 mm square steel tubing used as balusters. They are screwed or bolted to the string and
handrail. The diagram also shows a common method of fixing the strings at the termination of
levels. The top of the handrail should be 900 mm minimum above the top of the tread that it
serves.
Junction of string and newel

Open riser staircase
Reinforced concrete stairs

Concrete stairs are commonly used in most industrial/commercial buildings due to their non-
combustible nature and the variety of forms they can be produced in.
Straight string stairs

It is normal when forming in situ reinforced concrete staircases to form up strings and steps in one
operation. The strings fall into two categories.
Straight string stairs
Continuous slab stairs

This is a reinforced double flight concrete stair that receives support from the floor above and the
floor below with the half space landing being cantilevered. This type of stair is not cheap to
construct due to the additional stress caused by the torsional effect. So not only must the
construction take into account bending and shear but also torsion.
Continuous slab stair
Cranked slab stairs

With this type of stair the top and bottom landings plus the flight are one unit. This gives a neat
clean appearance and is a suitable type of stair where there are no side supports, e.g. in a glazed
stairwell. the landings at the top and bottom require support but in themselves act as beams.

Cranked slab stair
Monolithic cantilever stairs

With this type of stair the landings and flight are poured in situ and are cantilevered from a wall.
The cantilever may be from the wall enclosing the stair or may be from a spine wall. The soffit of
the stair may be smooth or stepped giving a neat clean appearance. Due to the nature of
construction this type of stair may be used on the face of a building completely enclosed in glass.
This is useful if space saving is desired or noise reduction is required.

Monolithic cantilever stair
Inclined slab stairs

This type of stair is ideal for short flights and has no strings. The flight is designed as an inclined
floor slab and the thickness being the 'waist' of the stair. The reinforcing fabric is used in the same
way as if it were a slab.
Inclined slab stair

Metal stairs
Again a straight single string staircase is the example. The strings may be mild steel tube, channel
or rolled steel beams. The treads are generally open and are of mild steel plate, hardwood or
precast concrete. The treads are supported and held by angle brackets bolted or welded to the
strings. These brackets should be designed to give a neat appearance for a satisfactory finish to
the stair.
Steel staircase
It may be deemed necessary to offer the steel some protection from fire. This especially applies to
stairs used as a means of egress or escape. The strings may be clad with expanded metal and
the steps may be precast concrete.
Pressed steel stairs are a lightweight, mild steel alternative to the heavier types previously
discussed. They consist of pressed metal plate strings supporting treads and risers formed in one.
The shape and nature of this type of staircase depends upon the width and going of the stairs.
The actual tread is pressed into a shape that allows a topping of granolithic concrete, or terrazzo to
be used. Alternatively the strings and tread may be encased in timber. There are clips on the
under-side of the stairs to allow the fixing of expanded metal to which a coating of plaster may be
added to produce a smooth, clean soffit.

Pressed steel stairs
Residential Staircase Design and the BCA

Stair construction for residential buildings is governed by the relevant Clauses in the Building Code
of Australia and the associated Standards.
Volume 2 of the BCA has two Sub-sections devoted to staircase design. These are:
• part 3.9.1
• Part 3.9.2
The BCA also refers to compliance with the following Australian Standards:
• AS1657
• AS1170
AS1657 relates directly to staircases and balustrades , while AS1170 deals with the forces
involved and the requirements to meet these forces.


Construction of Linings, Finishes and Stairs

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Linings - Floor, walls and ceiling

Plaster and plasterboard

Solid backing can include any of the following:

• No fines concrete has a good keying capacity.

Lath backing can include any of the following;

• plasterboard lath: a proprietary perforated plasterboard used for internal applications.

Construction: Linings, finishes and stairs CPPBND5001A 1

• wire mesh with buttons.

• strengthening the bond with smooth surfaces

• eliminating suction on porous surfaces

• increasing the tensile strength of cement render

• permitting very thin coats of render down to a feather edge.

• Gunned or pneumatically placed concrete and plaster is a comparatively recent

Plaster battens for ceiling fixing

2 Construction: Linings, finishes and stairs CPPBND5001A

Plasterboards with tapered edges.

Construction: Linings, finishes and stairs CPPBND5001A 3

4 Construction: Linings, finishes and stairs CPPBND5001A

• Two-pack varnishes set by polymerisation of synthetic resins.

Construction: Linings, finishes and stairs CPPBND5001A 5

Gelled or thixotropic paints

Natural grain timber finishes

• creosote stains for exterior use only

The painting process

• surface preparation including sanding, cleaning and burning off

• pre-treatment including sealing, knotting and etching

• stopping and sanding

6 Construction: Linings, finishes and stairs CPPBND5001A

• applying the finishing coat.

• Varnish is treated with a solvent paint remover.

• Wax polish must be carefully removed with a rag and turpentine.

Specific preparations are required for timber. These are:

• The timber must be dry and the surface sanded smooth.

Previously painted timber

A proprietary product such as Spackle is usually used for stopping.

A wide range of metal filling putties is marketed.

8 Construction: Linings, finishes and stairs CPPBND5001A

Read the BCA Part 3.8.1 Wet Areas.

Waterproofing wet areas

Performance is highly dependent on the quality of installation (strictly to manufacturer’s

Main Waterproofing Materials

Waterproofing system components

Construction: Linings, finishes and stairs CPPBND5001A 9

• concrete and masonry, treated to resist moisture if for walls,

• fibre cement sheeting (CFC) for walls and floors,

• water-resistant plasterboard or particleboard sheeting, and

• structural plywood for floors.

Water resistant surface materials (finishes) include:

• pre-decorated fibre cement sheeting,

• water-resistant flexible sheet material with sealed joints, and

10 Construction: Linings, finishes and stairs CPPBND5001A

Construction: Linings, finishes and stairs CPPBND5001A 11

• water based epoxies

• acrylic membranes (a water based system that is applied in coats)

• water based polyurethane

• solvent based polyurethane

• PVC sheet membrane

Three types of bond breakers

12 Construction: Linings, finishes and stairs CPPBND5001A

Preformed shower trays and bases

Construction: Linings, finishes and stairs CPPBND5001A 13

14 Construction: Linings, finishes and stairs CPPBND5001A

Construction: Linings, finishes and stairs CPPBND5001A 15