Construction of Wall Systems

Wall Systems
Wall and floor systems are dependent on each other structurally. Floors may provide support for
walls while walls may provide support for floors. The most common wall systems are brick cavity
wall, brick veneer and timber framed clad walls.
Wall Construction
Most walls are a composite construction, that is, they are made of more than one type of material.
Most of these walls have a structural component and a protective component which has the
purpose of resisting weather, thermal extremes, noise transfer, insect attack and fire.
The principal wall systems used in houses are:
• framed wall systems—hardwood, softwood, engineered timber or lightweight steel
• solid wall systems made from masonry—cavity brick or block, single skin brick, block,
stone, straw bale
Other systems that are used include:
• post and beam – timber, steel or reinforced concrete structure with infill walls
• portal frame – timber or steel with infill walls (commonly used for industrial buildings)
• tilt-slab—vertical concrete slabs (commonly used for industrial buildings
The areas applying to the walls of buildings that the drafter or building designer needs to pay
particular attention to as part of the building design are:
• water and moisture entry into the interior of the building
• moisture entering timber plates from slab floors, masonry supports and wet areas
• fixing of member to member for stability of the structure in relation to bracing and tie-down
requirements
Framing Methods
Framed walls are the most common wall system used in residential construction in Australia. This
system uses thin vertical members (called studs) fixed top and bottom to long horizontal
(sometimes the top will be sloping) members (called plates).
Framed walls generally consist of a basic frame which bears the loads and cladding on the
external face of the frame and lining on the internal faces of the external wall and both faces of the
internal walls. Additionally there is insulating sheeting between the frame and the lining.
Construction: Wall systems CPPBND5001A 1

© New South Wales Technical and Further Education Commission 2015
Timber is the most commonly used framing material, however steel is gaining a share of the
marketplace as the cost of timber increases.
Timber wall frames are easy to build and alter on site with a minimum amount of easily
transportable equipment. Factory built frames are also commonly used, especially in project
homes.
Steel frames can be built on-site, but often require special tools for fixing. More usually, steel
frames are built in a factory on special jigs then delivered to site and then erected.
Examples of wall construction
2 Construction: Wall systems CPPBND5001A

Typical Timber Framed Walls
Timber Framed dwelling
Timber Framed wall system

Timber Frames
Timber frame sizes are dependent on the loads and are designed as per AS 1684 Residential Timber
Framed Construction. Frames are braced for lateral loads and some examples are shown below.

Wall Framing & bracing

Timber framed clad cross section

Timber Framing Terms
Steel Wall Systems

Steel Frames
These are not widely used but are more common now than a few years ago. Frame systems in
steel and aluminium are light, strong, stable and quick to erect. The principal of metal framing is
the same as for timber although generally the components vary in profile. The diagram below
shows the arrangement of a metal frame.
Metal framed construction
Steel framing is versatile, light and strong and has time and labour savings. It is not attacked by
termites either.

Complete, integrated metal framing systems are available which include the floor, wall and roof
framing. The framing systems are engineered and result in structurally sound construction with
economic use of materials. The spacing of members is similar to that of conventional timber
framing.
Steel framing can be used with a wide range of architectural materials and styles including timber
floor and concrete slab-on-ground construction, timber roofs with tiles, steel or other roof
coverings, brick veneer, weatherboard, metal or any other sheet cladding.
The individual members of a steel frame are channels of various shapes and depths. Refer to
figure for a summary of these. Different manufacturers may produce different profiles. Members
may be joined by bolting, welding, screwing or clipping together.
Lightweight steel framing members
Steel floor framing is used with the whole range of conventional footings, dwarf walls, piers, timber
or concrete stumps. Any of the sheet flooring materials are suitable for use with steel floor bearers
and joists.
Sheet flooring is laid and fixed over the entire floor in the same way as for timber framed floors and
then the wall frames are erected. This method is called platform floor construction and it gives the
builders a good surface on which to work. The floor sheets are fixed with screws and adhesives in
accordance with the manufacturers specifications.
Metal framing parallels conventional construction in its use of wall plates, studs, noggings and
bracing. Metal wall frame members are usually 75mm thick. Economies can be achieved in metal
wall framing by simplifying construction and fabrication and, for example, using trussed lintels over
openings to save on materials. Wall frames can be pre-fabricated or assembled on site.
Standard roof truss designs are prefabricated for a range of roof spans and pitches. Steel trusses
are light but strong and easily handled. They are bolted or screwed to the top plate. Steel tiling
battens are then screws to the trusses and tiles fixed using spring clips.
A resource for more information on steel framing is the National Association of Steel Frame
Housing (NASH) or the Australian Institute of Steel Construction (AISC).

Brick Wall Systems
Brick Veneer
This is the combination of a single brick skin, a cavity and a timber or steel frame. Brick veneer
construction is an Australian development. It combines masonry construction from England and
lightweight timber frame construction from California.
The brickwork is used as a cladding only and generally preforms no structural function for the
building. As a cladding, it is there to protect the building and the occupants from the weather.
The veneer skin is built after the frame is erected, plumbed and straightened. Also all windows,
door frames and stops should be in place before the brick/block layer commences. This permits
the veneer to be accurately finished to prevent water penetrating at these points.
The brick veneer takes the role of cladding and serves no structural function. Allowances are made
for the differential movement between timber and brick by leaving gaps when anything such as
windows and doors pass across both frame and brick. The frame and brick are tied together
against possible overturning of the brickwork.
Brick Ties

Brick Veneer wall – Detailed Section

Brick Veneer – Sketch Section

Two storey brick veneer construction

Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC) Wall Cladding Systems - eg. CSR
Powerpanel
This product has been developed by CSR Hebel in association with the timber industry. It uses a
conventional timber house frame (one or two-storey) with horizontal top-hat sections for fixing of 75
mm thick Powerpanel. The whole assembly is then finished with a waterproof acrylic-modified
render/paint. The final result creates a solid looking rendered finish with the ability to add
decorative quoins or window surrounds for a cost similar to brick veneer construction.
Powerpanel is manufactured from Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC) which has been extensively
used for 50 years overseas. It is a form of lightweight concrete that has been aerated and then
steam cured under high pressure into reinforced panels (hence Powerpanel) These panels are
factory made to order and delivered to site.
Buildings should be designed and set out to the Powerpanel module (600 mm) as the panels
should not be cut. The panels are screw fixed to the top hat section. Only proprietary approved
fixings and finishes should be used.
Key features of the Powerpanel system are:
• design—features can be added to suit any style of home
• installation—should be done by experienced tradesmen
• frame—can be either timber or steel
• insulation—the material has good thermal insulation properties
• fire-resistance—Powerpanel achieves a three-hour fire rating and will not burn
• thinner walls—giving about 2% more floor space than equivalent brick veneer
• appearance—an easy way to achieve style and colour.

More information and details for Hebel PowerPanel should be sourced from the manufacturer’s
website www.hebelaustralia.com.au
There are numerous panels that now available for cladding and a web search will reveal all the
different types and manufacturers. There are panels to suit particular situations such as fire
retardant panels for high risk fire areas or sound insulating panels for acoustic separation.
Solid wall systems

Solid wall systems can include concrete blockwork, brickwork or autoclaved aerated concrete
(AAC).
Other systems are available with most provided by specialists or may be covered by propriety
patents:

• Foam sandwich—foam sandwiched between inner and outer sheeting, usually with light
weight metal frames at wide stud spaces. This system is extensively used in cold room
construction.
• Mud brick (adobe)—bricks usually made one or two at a time from mud and straw. Cement
or bitumen can also be added to improve serviceability. The wall is then laid similarly to
solid blocks.
• Rammed earth (pise)—stabilised (that means with cement/bitumen added to the mix) earth
is pneumatically rammed into vertical forms in layers to form the walls.
• Straw Bale Construction
Cavity Brick
Another form of structural wall system is brick work. Bricks are essentially burnt clay consisting of
aluminium silicates wither alone or combined with such impurities as iron, lime soda, potash or
magnesium in the relative proportions of which the character, quality and colour of the brick to a
great extent depend.
A standard brick in Australia is 230 x 110 x 76. The following terms are related to brickwork:
• A course is a horizontal layer of bricks, including the bed.
• The joint is the horizontal mortar bed between each course of bricks.
• A perpend is the vertical joint between the bricks. The perpend in adjacent bourse will be
staggered where bonding is correctly observed.
• A header is a brick laid with its length running across the wall, hence it can only be employed
in walls of 230mm or more in thickness.
• A stretcher is a brick laid with its length running in the same direction as the wall, hence a
110mm wall must of necessity be composed solely of stretchers.
• A frog is the indentation on one side of a brick.

Stretcher bond is used for walls a half-brick, such as 110mm cavity walls, brick veneer and
partition walls.
Cavity systems are a masonry constructed wall with mortar as the bonding agent. They have
an inner and an outer masonry wall separated by an air gap or cavity. The two walls (called
‘leafs’ or ‘skins’) are held in place by metal ties (called cavity ties) fixed into the joints
between courses of masonry. The outside leaf is the weather wall while the cavity should
prevent any water that penetrates the outside wall from reaching the interior.

Cavity Brick wall Construction
Bricks are not moisture resistant and need to be protected from water to stop dampness entering
the dwelling. Methods used to stop moisture entering the dwelling through the wall is to have a
cavity (a gap of 50-60mm) between the two leaves of brickwork to break the contact and not permit
the water to enter the inside face. To stop rising damp from the foundation a damp course must be
placed above the ground level but below the floor level.
The down side of a cavity is that you end up with two thin walls unable to rely on each other for
structural stability, therefore wall ties were introduced to improve stability. The inner wall is the one
on which the load is supported and therefore may need strengthening by tying to the outer wall.
Other solid wall systems

Other solid wall systems include concrete blockwork, autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC), earth
construction and straw bale construction. To prevent water or moisture penetration to the interior,
these systems depend on a weatherproof exterior skin or coating.
Hebel (AAC) Block Wall Systems are loadbearing external wall solutions for homes as an
alternative to traditional double brick construction. The systems consist of a single skin external
wall, typically constructed from 200mm Hebel Blocks and internal walls using a single skin of 100 -
125mm Hebel Blocks or 150mm Hebel Blocks for loadbearing walls. Hebel Lintels are also
available to negate the need for steel over window and door openings

Hebel Block construction
For detailed information and technical specifications on AAC blockwork construction go to the
following website:
http://www.hebelaustralia.com.au
For single skin solid wall systems there is a huge range of coating systems available and care
should be taken in selecting a coating system for the appropriate application or as recommended
by the manufacturer.
Portal frame
Portal frame is a combined wall and roof system. It is made up of a frame composed of vertical
side columns fixed to either a single run rafter or two pitched rafters. The area between the portal
frames is infilled with a non-loadbearing wall.
Portal frames (uncommon in houses) are usually made from laminated timber beams, ply box
beams or more commonly from structural steel sections. Portal frames are used extensively in
industrial buildings, prefabricated metal sheds and garages or where large open spans are
required.
Post and Beam

In this method of construction the wall itself bears no vertical loading apart from its own weight.
The posts are the load bearing structure. However the walls have to contend with wind loads.
Figure 34 shows a typical post and beam construction. This method can be used to permit the
inclusion of large areas of glass or other lightweight material. That is why they are mostly used in
verandas. This form of wall system uses large sections (200x200 or 250x150 or spaced double
250x50) and loadbearing posts or poles (150 to 300 diameter) spaced at 2.4m up to 6.0m intervals.
Single or double beams run from post to post to support the floor and/or roof structure. Like the
portal frame systems, the spaces between the posts are infilled with non-loadbearing walls.
Structural steel is also used for this form of construction.

Post and Beam
This type of construction requires that the joints are built to be rigid (that is they cannot rotate) by
using a minimum of two bolts per joint, or some alternative form of bracing is used.

form of structural wall system is the brick wall. The following gives you a summary of brickwork.
The use of brick as a building material dates from very early times and was used in the building of
Babylon and ancient Egypt. Brick is essentially a burnt clay consisting of aluminium silicates either
alone or combined with such impurities as iron, lime, soda, potash or magnesium in the relative
proportions of which the character, quality and colour of the brick to a great extent depend. In most
recent times bricks have been made from other materials such as lime and sand; these are known
as sand lime, or cement and sand bricks, but are merely cement bricks.
Clay bricks
Bricks are classified firstly according to their methods of manufacture, and secondly in relation to
their quality, according to their methods of manufacture. Such methods are sandstocks, plastic or
wire cut and dry pressed.
Sandstock bricks
Sandstock bricks are manufactured by the old hand process in which the clay is placed in sand-
dusted wooden moulds before drying and burning in the usual way.
Plastic or wire cut

In the manufacture of plastic or wire cut bricks, the clay is first ground, then mixed and kneaded in
the pug mill. It then goes to the cutting table in a continuous band to be cut into individual units by
wire.
Dry pressed
Dry pressed is the modern process most universally used. The clay or ground shale is reduced to a
powder which contains only sufficient moisture to allow it to cake. The material is crushed and
ground and fed into plunger presses which mould the brick before it is taken to the kiln.
Bond brickwork
Bond brickwork, unlike concrete, is composed of small individual components or units, joined by
mortar, the strength of which is inferior to that of the unit bricks.
It becomes necessary, therefore, to build brickwork in such a way as to mould the parts into a
whole with a view to minimising the weakness of the jointing material. This applies more
particularly to vertical jointing. Bricks in horizontal planes are so arranged to form an interweaving
pattern, difficult to dislocate, and tending to disperse the loading evenly throughout the walling.
This arrangement of brickwork is what is known as bond.
The standard brick size in Australia is 230 x 110 x 76 mm, being so dimensioned that twice the
width plus a 10 mm joint shall equal the length. The standard brick weighs approximately 4 kg.
You should know terms relating to bond brickwork. These are:
A course is a horizontal layer of bricks, including the bed, and in structural work these are
invariably level to avoid any tendency for the brickwork to slide. The height of a course varies with
the thickness of the bedding joint, but is normally 86 mm.
The joint is the horizontal mortar bed between each course of bricks.
A perpend is the vertical joint between bricks. The perpends in adjacent courses will always be
staggered where bonding is correctly observed.
A header is a brick laid with its length running across the wall, hence it can only be employed in
walls of 230 mm or more in thickness.
A stretcher is a brick laid with its length running in the same direction as the wall; hence a 110 mm
wall must of necessity be composed solely of stretchers.
Quoins are the external corners of a wall and also the corner bricks.
A frog is the indentation on one side of a brick.
Brickwork bonds
Bonding is the interlocking of bricks by arranging them to overlap one another. It should:
• distribute the load throughout the mass of brickwork
• tie the mass of brickwork together as a unit
• provide a pleasing arrangement of bricks and joints.
In order to distribute the load, bond should be arranged through the thickness as well as along the
length of the wall.
Types of bonds
There are four generally recognised types of bonds as shown in Figure 7.14.
These are English bond, Flemish bond, colonial bond and stretcher bond. English bond is regarded
as the best for strength, colonial bond is only applicable to walls 230 mm thick and stretcher bond
is used for walls a halfbrick thick, such as 110 mm cavity walls, brick veneer and partition walls.

Brick bonds.
Mortar preparation
Mortar may be defined as a mixture of an aggregate or filler material and a matrix or binding
material. Sand is the aggregate and lime and cement are binding materials. Mortars shall consist of
cement, hydrated lime or lime putty, clean sharp sand, nominally proportioned by volume and
mixed with clean fresh water at time of use.
Ready mixed retarded mortar

This is factory produced mortar that contains a chemical retarding agent which slows up the setting
process and can be kept in covered containers for several days in a usable condition. It is sold in
bulk or small lots and is generally used for brickwork because of its convenience and the reduced
costs in relation to mixing on the site. The mix proportions are specified by the purchaser.
Additives
Plasticising agents of many kinds, other than lime, are frequently used to make cement mortar
more workable. Retarding agents are used in ready mixed cement mortar to retard the setting time,
for a working period of three days. Patent compounds are sometimes included to give water-proof
mortars.
Remixing
Cement mortar is best when used before the initial set takes place, normally about one hour after
mixing. Mortar remixed after the initial set loses some strength and should not be remixed for use.
Coloured mortars

Mortars of all types may be coloured red, brown, black, cream or green by adding mineral oxides in
dry powder or liquid forms. When used as a powder the oxide should be dry mixed with the cement
prior to combining with the sand.
Grout
Grout is thin or liquid mortar, usually cement, which is used for filling up joints. An excess of water
makes the mortar weak. When strength is required additional cement is added to the grout. It is
preferable to wet the work and allow the water to soak in before ‘grouting’.
Mortar joints
In laying brickwork a bed of mortar is spread on the course laid, a brick is then tipped or buttered
with a trowel of mortar on each side of the brick at one end, and then it is placed in position.
Brick reinforcement
This is a method of reinforcing brick footings by building in strands of galvanised steel or hoop iron,
approximately 31 mm wide and of 10 gauge thickness. The steel is laid in the cement mortar joint
horizontally and lapped at intersections and corners. This method is not often used in present day
construction. The use of some mild steel rods in the first course is preferred.
The present method of reinforcing brickwork is by the introduction of a galvanised wire mesh
approximately 62 mm wide laid in the cement mortar bed joints. It is common practice today to
build brick lintels using this reinforcement, so that the stretcher course can be continued over the
opening.
http://img.diytrade.com/cdimg/633135/28585300/0/1347508114/StripMesh_Brick_Mesh_01.jpg

Spans up to 2.44 m have proved quite satisfactory using this method, but there is one important
point to remember. There must be no removal of the forming and tom supports from the opening
for at least two weeks. This retention will ensure the curing of the newly formed lintel.
The brick reinforcement method of forming openings is especially desirable close to the sea where
the use of mild steel angle and flat bars has proved unsatisfactory because of rust and scaling
which increases thickness and lifts the brickwork and is responsible for ugly fractures.
Cavity walls
Cavity walls are used more particularly in domestic work for the purpose of preventing moisture
from reaching the interior wall surface of a building. In a cavity work the wall is built up with two
skins and a 50 mm space between. The outer skin or wall is normally 110 mm in thickness and in
single or two-storey residential work a 110 mm wall is sufficient thickness for the inner skin. In
cases where the building is more than two storeys in height or where loading is excessive, the
extra strength required is obtained by an increase in thickness of the inner wall since the inner wall
is the one on which the loading is supported.
The whole wall is stiffened and strengthened by galvanised wall ties built in at intervals between
the two walls to tie them together. These ties are manufactured from No 10 gauge galvanised wire,
cut and bent as illustrated in Figure 5.15. The kink in the centre is placed downwards by the
bricklayer to cause any moisture forming on it to drip into the centre of the wall cavity and not to
carry across the cavity to the internal brick skin.
Care must be taken to see that these ties are kept free of mortar droppings, otherwise a bridge will
be formed over which the water can run. Ties are built in every 910 mm horizontally, every fourth
course. Both walls are carried up at the same time to ensure that the level of the course of both
correspond.
Cavity walls with galvanised wire wall ties. Ties are used in a similar way when the internal wall is timber
framing as in brick veneer.
Other brickwork terminology

Other common terms used for brickwork are:
• An arris is the edge or angle of a brick.
• A soldier course is a course of bricks laid on their ends so that a 230 mm by 76 mm

vertical face is seen. This method of laying bricks was much used some few years ago for
lintels or heads over window and door openings. They were supported on mild steel angles
or flat bars with a bearing at each end let into the mortar joint.
• Grouting is the filling with mortar of vertical joints which have not been completely filled
during the laying of each course of bricks. The mortar used is more fluid than the bedding
mortar and is termed grout. Grout is of the consistency of cream and is worked into the
joints after the bricks have been laid in position.
• Toothing is the term applied to the method of leaving a brick wall which is to be expanded
at some future time. Projecting bricks are left in alternate courses to allow the new work to
be bonded to the old as seen in Figure 5.16.
• Racking back is the term is applied to that part of the wall which is stepped or racked at
each end, as shown in Figure 5.16, while the remainder is carried up. Work is left overnight
in this manner so that there is less evidence of a break in work, which may be continued by
tradesmen other than the one who began the job.
Diagrams showing racking and toothing.

Cladding
Wall cladding can be broadly classified as:
1. board cladding or boarding - with flat, textured or profiled finish
2. sheet cladding - with flat, textured or profiled finished sheets
3. impervious coatings - applied over cladding and solid walls
1. Board Cladding
Boarding may be made from:
• solid timber
• fibre cement - using cellulose fibres and cement binder
• hardboard - a reconstituted timber product
• aluminium
• plastic
Boarding comes in a wide variety of profiles. Not all profiles are available in all materials. Some of
the more common timber board profiles and variations are:
• weather boards - rough and smooth splay sawn, dressed with or without a rebate
• chamfer boards - rebated, extended tongue and grooved, smooth, double log cabin
• shingles and shakes – small pieces or lengths of board fixed and overlapped onto framing
• board and batten
• shiplap
Timber boards may be left with a rough sawn texture or dressed to a smooth finish. Manufactured
boards are produced with or without textures such as simulated rough sawn timber.

Timber wall cladding profiles
Installation
Boards may be installed horizontally or at an angle with some profiles also used vertically. Angled
and vertical cladding requires a vapour barrier behind as capillary action can cause water to
penetrate where the boards join or lap over each other.
Boards may:
• lap over each other - usually installed horizontally but sometimes used on an angle up to
15° or 20°
• fit into a rebate on the thick edge - usually installed horizontally but sometimes used on an
angle up to 15° or 20°

• fit together using a tongue and groove - all angles
• not lap but have batten cover strips over gaps between the boards - vertical boards only
Butt end joins for boards should occur at a stud but some of the manufactured boards can use ‘off-
stud’ joiners. This permits greater economies to be achieved as the manufactured boards are
usually only available in one, or possibly two, set lengths.
Internal and external corners require special attention. Treatments include:
• mitre cut - used for external corners for timber boards
• profile cut - used for internal corners for dressed timber boards
• timber stops - used for internal and external corners for all boards
• corner moulds - used for internal and external corners for manufactured boards
Other areas requiring special attention occur at openings and service penetrations.

External corners and moulding
2. Sheet cladding
Sheet cladding is made from:
• fibre cement
• hardboard
• plywood
• Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC)

• polystyrene and composite sheeting
The sheets may be finished with a surface that is:
• smooth
• textured
• grooved - to imitate boarding with either random or equal spaced grooves
Installation
Sheet cladding is generally installed with only vertical joints as horizontal joints require special
provisions to eliminate access for water.
All joints in sheet cladding should be backed by timber to keep both edges in line. Joints can be
• exposed butt joints - with either a DPC or neoprene waterstop behind
• over laid with cover strips - timber batten or purpose made
• fitted with joint moulds - plastic ‘H’ section strips
• taped and sealed with water proof sealer - usually used under affixed texture finishes such
as texture paints or ‘Granosite’ finish.
3. Impervious coatings
Impervious coatings are applied over cladding such as fibre cement, polystyrene sheet, AAC,
masonry veneer or sold walls such as AAC.
The area applying to the cladding of buildings that the drafter or building designer needs to pay
particular attention to as part of the building design is that of water and moisture entry into the
interior of the building. Points where this is likely include:
• at joints and laps of the cladding
• at joints between different claddings
• all round windows, doors and openings
• changes of direction such as corners

Windows & Doors
Openings in Walls
Openings in walls are required to permit the passage of people, admit light and provide ventilation.
There are also small openings for pipework and services. These latter holes are usually small and
cemented up and don’t present many problems. The main factor of importance with openings is
loads from the structure being diverted around the openings.
If the opening is large and the member supporting the wall above the opening is too flexible it will
bend or deflect as shown below.
Lintel over entrance
Therefore lintels or arches must be adequately sized. The diagram below shows some different
forms of lintels.
Examples of Lintels
A lintel must be made of a material that is strong in tension. As masonry is weak in tension it can
only be used for small spans. Steel and timber are the most common lintel materials.
Openings placed in brickwork must correspond to the brick multiples otherwise there will be a lot of
cutting and wastage. However openings in a timber frame wall are more complex as the stud wall
may need to be strengthened either side of the opening to transfer the load. This can be done a
couple of ways:

Lintel Support options
When windows and doors are placed in the opening the frame of the window or door must finish off
the wall end, close off any openings and provide for the fixing of the door or window. An important
factor of their construction is to keep the weather out.
Windows
A window is a glazed opening in a wall, its function is to admit light and air, exclude rain and wind,
to conserve the heat within the building or to prevent its penetration.
Glass is set in timber or metal sashes or frames. Sashes can either be fixed in position or made to
open in various ways for ventilation.
A window consists of a frame containing glass panels. The glass is sealed in the frame to prevent
water penetration. Window frames are generally made from timber, aluminium and occasionally
steel.
The join between the frame and the cladding provides a point of entry for moisture and requires
careful detailing. To provide a weather seal between the window frame and the cladding, a damp
proof membrane (or flashing) is generally used to act as a moisture barrier.
Information on the recommended installation of windows is available from the window supplier. In
most cases the windows can be supplied with flashings already fixed to the frame.
Figure 4 shows a detail of window joinery. Flashing is very important in stopping moisture entering
the dwelling and the position of flashing needs to be correct.
Another consideration when fitting doors and windows is to leave expansion and contraction joints
when fitting different materials together which expand and contract at different rates.

Aluminium Window joinery detail
Typical timber window joinery in brick veneer

Double hung or vertically sliding sashes
Windows are divided horizontally into two sashes which slide vertically in grooves formed by the
construction of the frame, and are counterbalanced either by weights suspended by cords in the
hollow jambs of a box frame or by patent spring balances let into the thickness of the sash and
secured to the solid frame. Sashes can be opened top and bottom for ventilation and flywire
screens can be fitted without difficulty.
Casement windows
The sash is hinged at one side to a solid rebated frame so as to open inwards or outwards, the
latter more usually as it is easier to make waterproof.
Hardware includes hinges to suit the sash, a casement stay to hold the sash in an open position
and a casement fastener.
Aluminium Windows
Aluminium windows and doors are made from standardised extruded sections and built up to stock
designs or to suit specific applications. Styles available include double hung, horizontal sliding,
awning type casement and pivot hung.
These styles are also available made of hot rolled mild steel sections which are cut, machined and
welded together and in some cases riveted with special interlocking joints. Inferior quality windows
are fitted with die-cast openers and fasteners whilst the better type usually have brass
attachments.
Metal windows and metal doors are normally provided with lugs which enable fixing to timber,
metal or masonry. The flashing must be compatible with the metal in the window or door because if
metals are not compatible, chemical reaction can take place and corrode the flashing or the frame
and enable water to get into the building. Caulking should be carefully carried out where metal
frames are contained in masonry walls.
Doors
Doors are generally sliding, hinged or pivoted and are installed in a timber or metal frame.
As with windows, the prevention of moisture penetration at the join of the frame and cladding
requires careful detailing. Doors also need to exclude wind and water at the door threshold.
Timber Doors
In domestic work the usual size of doors is 2040 x 820 mm. This is enough for normal luggage and
furniture to pass through. WC doors, shower recess doors and linen room doors may be narrower.
For examples of stock width doorsets refer to AS 1224. Door thicknesses vary from 25 mm for
cupboard doors to 38 mm and 44 mm for room doors.
Frames may be solid rebated as in the case of most external doors, or they may consist of jamb
linings with stops planted on. Widths are determined by the wall thickness and application.

Hanging and locking of doors
The most common method of hanging a door is by hinging the door to the frame to allow swinging,
however there are other ways to hang a door. Specialised types of door require specialised
methods of hanging.

Four methods of hanging a door.


Construction of Wall Systems

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Construction of Wall Systems

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Wall Systems

The principal wall systems used in houses are:

• framed wall systems—hardwood, softwood, engineered timber or lightweight steel

Other systems that are used include:

• tilt-slab—vertical concrete slabs (commonly used for industrial buildings

• water and moisture entry into the interior of the building

Construction: Wall systems CPPBND5001A 1

Examples of wall construction

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Timber Framed dwelling

Timber Framed wall system

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Steel Wall Systems

Metal framed construction

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Lightweight steel framing members

Construction: Wall systems CPPBND5001A 7

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• design—features can be added to suit any style of home

• installation—should be done by experienced tradesmen

• frame—can be either timber or steel

• insulation—the material has good thermal insulation properties

• fire-resistance—Powerpanel achieves a three-hour fire rating and will not burn

• appearance—an easy way to achieve style and colour.

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Solid wall systems

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• Straw Bale Construction

• A course is a horizontal layer of bricks, including the bed.

• A frog is the indentation on one side of a brick.

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Other solid wall systems

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Post and Beam

Structural steel is also used for this form of construction.

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Plastic or wire cut

You should know terms relating to bond brickwork. These are:

A frog is the indentation on one side of a brick.

• distribute the load throughout the mass of brickwork

• tie the mass of brickwork together as a unit

• provide a pleasing arrangement of bricks and joints.

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Ready mixed retarded mortar

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Other brickwork terminology

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• An arris is the edge or angle of a brick.

• A soldier course is a course of bricks laid on their ends so that a 230 mm by 76 mm

Diagrams showing racking and toothing.

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1. board cladding or boarding - with flat, textured or profiled finish

2. sheet cladding - with flat, textured or profiled finished sheets

3. impervious coatings - applied over cladding and solid walls

• fibre cement - using cellulose fibres and cement binder

• hardboard - a reconstituted timber product