Discrete point techniques are those which lead to objective scoring, and are usually associated

with the testing of aspects of grammar, vocabulary as well as reading and listening
comprehension skills. Such techniques operate at sentence level, and the sentences usually lack
context. Some common examples of discrete point techniques include the following:

1. Transformation technique

Instructions: Rewrite the sentence in another way. Remember to express the same idea.
John Brown is a very fast runner
John Brown runs ___________________________________. ( answer:John Brown runs very
fast )

2. Completion or addition technique

Instructions: Complete the blank space with the correct word(s).

A: What time is it?
B:The time is now half _________ ten. ( answer: past / after )

Instructions: Insert or add the word in parentheses to the sentence. Rewrite the sentence
with the new word included.
(YET) Haven't you seen this film? ……. (answer: Haven't you seen this film yet?)

3. Combination technique

Instructions: Combine the sentences using the word in parentheses.

Ann was driving to work. She got my phone call. (while)
__________________________________________________________________________
( answer: While Ann was driving to work, she got my phone call )

4. Rearrangement technique (Scrambled sentences)

Instructions: Order the words and make a sentence. Make sure not to add new words or
leave one out.
at / poor / that / woman / old / look …….. (answer: Look at that old poor woman)

5. Correct / Incorrect technique

Instructions: Read the following sentences and circle C ( correct ) or I ( incorrect )

The train left to time this morning. C I

He's doing some research on natural medicine. C I

6. Matching elements technique

Instructions: Put the words in the box into the correct column.

bed, bus, car, chair, cow, desk, dog, horse, train

animals furniture transport

_____ _____ ______
_____ _____ ______
_____ _____ ______
7. Dual choice technique

Instructions: Is the meaning of these two sentences the same or different? Why?

a) She stopped to talk to him

b) She stopped talking to him

( the meaning is different because …)

8. Multiple choice technique

Circle the letter of the alternative that best completes the sentence.
My sister always ___ the cooking early on Saturdays
a) is doing b) does c) doing d) do

Discrete item design has some disadvantages, the major one is that the elements take a long
time to construct and must be tested carefully to make sure that they do test only one element,
and that there is only one right answer. The detailed list of problems includes the following:

a. Linguistic selection: Discrete items have more than one answer that is linguistically
acceptable. It is the search for "wrong items" ( for MCQ’s ) that perhaps takes most
time for those who write these types of testing items.

b. Contextualization conflicts: Discrete items have more than one answer that is
“contextually”
possible.

c. Previous knowledge: Discrete items require previous knowledge of the culture or of the
world in order to be answered correctly, or they can be answered simply from previous
knowledge of the world, so that they do not actually test language.

d. Construction: There is something faulty in the construction or format of an item (e.g.

inconsistent grammar, insufficient distractors etc.)

e. Rubric *: The rubric is too complicated or the item is worded in such a way that it is
difficult for the learner to understand what is required
(*) A rubric is a guideline for rating student performance. The guidelines specify what a
performance is like at various levels (poor, good, superior, excellent). The key elements
of a rubric are the descriptors for what a language performance is like within the full range
of possible performance levels.

f. Backwash effect: Discrete items are more likely to have a negative backwash effect on
teaching or learning.

Backwash effect refers to the impact of testing on curriculum design, teaching practices,
and learning behaviors. It is a phenomenon known to us all from our school days: ‘Will
this be in the exam, teacher?’;
 Teachers tend to model their curriculum around the focus areas, form and content of an
examination or a test.

As G. Buck wrote,
‘There is a natural tendency for both teachers and students to tailor their classroom
activities to the demands of the test, especially when the test is very important to the
future of the students, and pass rates are used as a measure of teacher success. This
influence of the test on the classroom (referred to as backwash by language testers) is,
of course, very important; this backwash effect can be either beneficial or harmful.’ (Buck
1988).

In one word, the influence of a backwash on teachers and students can be positive or
negative, beneficial or harmful. If the test has no speaking component, teachers might
neglect practicing this skill in their classes. This is harmful backwash. In order to foster
positive backwash effects that will improve language education, tests must integrate all
parts of language competence. Arthur Hughes (Hughes, 2001) gave some good advice
on what is important in testing. He claims that teachers should:

First  test the abilities of those students whose development teachers want to test
Second  use direct testing: “If we want people to learn to write compositions, we should
get them to write compositions in the test”
Third  sample widely and unpredictably
Fourth  make testing criterion-referenced (measuring a student’s performance based
on mastery of a specific set of skills, assessing what the student knows and
doesn’t know at the time of assessment)
Fifth  ensure the test is known and understood by students and teachers
Sixth  base achievement tests on objectives

WEEK 03 - Material 2