KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING.

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING.

PCE 353 - PETROCHEMICAL ENGINEERING LAB 2

PERMEABILITY/FLUIDIZATION STUDIES.

GROUP 5A

NAMES INDEX NUMBER SIGNATURE

MACCARTHY COMFORT SIKA 8369119 ….…………

AMOANYI JOYCELIN AKUWA 8365619 …………….

AZU AZARIAH JONATHAN 8367319 ……............

MENSAH COLLINS 8369519 ……………..

KPAKPO JOCHEBED NAA A. 8368619 ………..........

1
 Contents
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES .............................................................................................. 3
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 4
APPARATUS/CHEMICALS ........................................................................................... 8
PROCEDURE ................................................................................................................... 9
TABLE OF RESULTS ................................................................................................... 10
PRECAUTIONS ............................................................................................................. 13
ERROR ANALYSIS ....................................................................................................... 14
DISCUSSIONS ............................................................................................................... 15
REFERENCES................................................................................................................ 17
POST LAB ...................................................................................................................... 18

2
 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
 To determine the permeability coefficient of a given sample

 To determine the void ratio of a given sample

3
 INTRODUCTION
The permeability of soil describes how fluids (water, air or other liquid) are able to

move through the soil. It describes the property of the soil to transmit water and air. It

depends on the physical and chemical properties of the soil, notably grain size

distribution (the range of particle sizes present), pore space, pore size, solid type, soil

history and the continuity of the spaces. The degree of permeability is characterized by

the coefficient of permeability and often referred to as hydraulic conductivity by

hydrologists and environmental scientists. They define it as the ability of a soil to

conduct water. Hydraulic conductivity, or K, is measured in cm/hour – that is, how far

water will move through soil in a given time.

Hydraulic conductivity is a complex feature of soils, varying with location, soil type,

depth, soil moisture content and direction of flow; for example, horizontal conductivity

is often greater than vertical on account of soil horizons. There are two main types of

hydraulic conductivity namely;

1.Surface infiltration rate. This is the rate at which a soil surface will take in irrigation

or rainfall. It is influenced by plant cover, the initial moisture content, and the texture

and structure of the soil. Surface compaction, slaking, dispersion and crusting impede

surface infiltration.

2. Saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat). This is the rate at which a soil that is

already saturated with water will conduct water away from the source. It is necessary

for predicting such things as whether a purchased soil will have good drainage, whether

a dam will hold water, how quickly a subsoil will allow ponded or perched water to

drain away, and whether a landfill liner will leak contaminants into the surrounding

ground water.’

4
The coefficient of permeability, k is a product of Darcy’s law. When the soils are

saturated (soils that contain only water in their pore spaces) and homogenous or when

they are unsaturated (soils that contain only water and air in their pore spaces), the

Darcy or Buckingham-Darcy equations can be solved to determine the rate of water

flow and the distribution of water potentials in a one-dimensional soil column under

steady state conditions.

The Darcy’s equation is often used to describe water movement in saturated soils. For

one- dimensional water flow, it can be written as:

∆𝑃
𝑞 = −𝐾
∆𝐻

Where q is the flux density of water passing through the soil, K is the saturated

hydraulic conductivity, P is the total energy and H is the height.

For unsaturated soils, this equation takes the modified form developed by Buckingham

for this one:

∆𝑃
𝑞 = −𝐾(𝜗)
∆𝐻

∆𝑃
𝑞 = −𝐾(ℎ)
∆𝐻

Where K (𝜗) or K(h) is the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity function, (𝜗) is the

volumetric water content and h is a matric potential. The total potential is the sum of the

matric potential and the gravitational potential. For uniform saturated soils, we can

write this equation as

𝑃2 − 𝑃1
𝑞 = −𝐾
𝐿

Where q can also be expressed in terms of volumetric flow and cross-sectional area as ;
𝑄
𝑞 = 𝐴, cm/s

5
Where P1 and P2 are the total potentials at the inlet and outlet of the soil system

respectively. The difference in total potential divided by the length of the system is the

driving force causing water to flow. This equation is applicable to layered or

unsaturated soils if the hydraulic conductivity, K, in the equation is regarded as the

equivalent conductivity of the entire soil system.

When the soils are saturated and homogenous, the flux density can be easily obtained if

the conductivity of the soil is known because it is more difficult when the soil is not

homogenous or when it’s unsaturated. The soil is assumed to be either homogenous or

composed of two layers. The table below shows the various soil types, their degree of

permeability and their coefficient of permeability.

Soil Coeff. Of Perm., k, Degree of Permeability

cm/sec
Gravel > 0.1 Very high
Sandy Gravel, clean sand, fine 0.1> k > 10 -3 High to medium
sand
Sand, dirty sand, muddy sand 10 -3 >k>10-5 Low
Silt, muddy clay 10-5 >k>10-7 Very low
Clay <10-7 Virtually impermeable

The coefficient for soil escape can be calculated in a variety of ways, including in-situ

(field) approaches and laboratory procedures. This soil attribute is often assessed in the

lab using two common methods. Falling head and continuous head permeability are

these two tests. The soil being analyzed will determine this. Constant head is employed

for soils with high permeability.

The instrument used for this experiment is the EDIBON Permeability/Fluidization

Studies Unit, "PEFP. This unit allows to observe the behavior of liquid fluidization in a

granular bed.

6
The main element is a permeability meter. It is a transparent cylinder that supports the

soil sample to be studied. Water will flow downward to study permeability or upward to

study fluidization. The cylinder has four pressure taps: one at the top and one at the

bottom to measure the pressure drop through the bed and two along the cylinder to

measure the total pressure at those specific points of the sample. Water is supplied to

the permeability meter by a constant pressure supply device. It is a transparent tank with

an overflow located above the permeability meter. The height of this tank can be

changed, thus modifying the pressure. Two metal filtering discs are placed between the

floor and the porous element at the top and bottom of the cylinder. These discs act as

filters and distribute the flow over the cross-sectional area of the sample. The unit has

two manometers: a tube manometer used to measure low pressures and a Bourdon

manometer used to measure high pressures.

EDIBON Permeability/Fluidization Studies Unit, "PEFP.

7
 APPARATUS/CHEMICALS
1. PEFP unit

2. Mass Balance

3. Source of water(tap)

4. Soil sample

8
 PROCEDURE
The mass of sand required for the experiment was measured. Dry sand was Placed in the

permeameter up to the desired height in a loose way. the apparatus was not jarred or

bumped. Course grained soils are densified rather easily with vibrations. The height of

sand in the cylinder and cross-sectional area of the cylinder were noted. The

permeameter was covered, screwed down tightly and placed in the clamps. The upper

tank was filled up to the overflow. V2 was Opened slowly until water was seen at the

bottom inlet. V2 Valve was closed. The level of water level L1 was recorded. The purge

valve located at the top of the cylinder was opened. V2 valve was Opened until water

came out of the purge valve. The new level of water L2 was recorded. The difference of

height was Measured by selecting the water manometer with the corresponding valves.

The valves were opened and closed to configure the unit as described in the table below:

Valve Bottom inlet

V1 Closed
V2 Open
V3 Open
V4 Closed

9
 TABLE OF RESULTS
Q(L/min) H1(cm) H2(cm) ∆𝐻 =H1-H2(cm)

0.25 28.0 20.8 7.2

0.50 29.2 20.8 8.4

0.75 29.2 20.8 8.4

1.00 28.6 21.0 7.6

1.25 28.2 21.0 7.2

1.50 27.4 20.8 6.6

1.75 27.2 20.6 6.6

2.00 27.0 20.6 6.4

A GRAPH OF PRESSURE AGANIST FLOWRATE

9 8.4 8.4
7.6
8 7.2 7.2
6.6 6.6 6.4
7
Pressure Head/mm

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Flowrate/ L per min

Determining The Mass Of Saturated Sand

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 + 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝜌𝑉)

𝑑2
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 (𝑉) = 𝜋 × 4
×ℎ

1442
𝑉 = 𝜋×( ) × 150𝑚𝑚 = 2442902.447𝑚𝑚3
4

10
 𝑑2
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 (𝑉) = 𝜋 × ×ℎ
4

1442
𝑉 = 𝜋×( ) × 125𝑚𝑚 = 2035752.04𝑚𝑚3
4

Volume of water for saturation, Vs = (Initial – Final )volume of water

Vs =2442902.45mm3 - 2035752.04mm3

Density of water = 0.001 g/mm

Mass of water for saturation = Density of dry sand × Volume of water

= 0.001g/mm3 × 407150.4mm3

= 407.15g

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 = (1147.66 + 407.15)𝑔 = 1554.81𝑔

Determining the densities of dry and saturated sand.

𝜌 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 1147.66𝑔

𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 = = = 0.0004698𝑔.𝑚𝑚−3
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 2442902.45

𝜌 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 1554.81𝑔

𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 = = = 0.00076375𝑔𝑚𝑚−3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 2035752.04

Void Ratio Determination.

= 𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝜌𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑

= (0.00076375– 0.0004698)𝑔𝑚𝑚−3

= 0.00029395𝑔𝑚𝑚−3

Dividing by the density of the dry sand we have,

0.00029395𝑔𝑚𝑚−3
𝑉𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = 0.626
0.0004698𝑔𝑚𝑚 −3

Determination of k (permeability coefficient of the sample)

According to Darcy’s equation,

11
 ∆ℎ
𝑄 = 𝑘𝐴 ( )
𝑙

Where k = permeability coefficient of the sample

L = height of cylinder filled with sand = 480.0mm

𝑑2
Volume of cylinder = 𝜋 × ×ℎ
4

462
=𝜋 × × 480𝑚𝑚
4

=797713.2066 mm3

A = cross-sectional area of the cylinder filled with sand

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 797713.2066𝑚𝑚3

𝐴= =
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑 480𝑚𝑚

𝐴 = 1661.9025𝑚𝑚2

From the graph (the line of best fit equation), the slope is 4.8

𝐾𝐴
Slope = 𝐿

Making k the subject,

𝐿×𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 480𝑚𝑚×4.9048 𝑚𝑚
𝑘= = = 1.3863 = 0.01386𝑐𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 1661.9025𝑚𝑚2 𝑠

From the standard Table the calculated K value lies between 1x10-1 and 1x10-3

Therefore, the sample has a high to medium degree of permeability.

12
 PRECAUTIONS

 There should be no volume change in the soil sample used during the test.

 There should be no compressible air present in the voids of soil i.e. soil should be

completely saturated.

 The flow should be laminar and in a steady state condition.

13
 ERROR ANALYSIS
 The mass of the dry sand was not accurately measured and this could affect the

result.

 The presence of air in the permeameter affected the permeability of the dry sand.

14
 DISCUSSIONS
In this experiment, the Edibon permeability unit was used to observe the behavior of

liquid fluidization in a granular bed and to determine the permeability of some soil

materials. Here, sand was used in the experimentation and water used as the fluid for

fluidization. The permeability of the sample was determined using Darcy’s formula:

Q=kA(∆h/L)

Rearranging the equation above gave;

k=(QL/∆hA)
𝐾𝐴
by plotting the change in pressure head against flow rate. The slope, was used to
𝐿

identify the permeability coefficient, k, which gave a value of 0.01386cm/s from the

graph. This shows that the sample has a high to medium degree of permeability and

could be sandy gravel, clean sand or fine sand. The volume of water saturation was

found by subtracting the final volume of water from the initial. This was found to be

407150mm3. The density of water is known to be 0.001g/mm3. Hence, the mass of

water for saturation was found to be 407.15g. this gave the mass of saturated sand (that

is, the mass of dry sand + mass of water for saturation) to be 1554.81g. the densities of

dry sand and saturated sand were found to be 0.0004698 gmm-3 and 0.00076375 gmm-3

respectively. Void ratio can be defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume

of the soil. The volume of voids was 0.00029395 gmm-3. Dividing by the density of the

sand, the void ratio was 0.626. Generally, the higher the void ratio, the higher the

coefficient of permeability. Thus, the higher the permeability.

Generally, four laboratory techniques can be employed in determining the permeability

coefficient. These are:

a. Constant-head test.

b. Falling-head test.

c. Indirect determination form consolidation test.

15
d. Indirect determination by horizontal capillary test.

Of these, the Constant-head test and the falling-head test are widely used to determine

the permeability coefficient of the soil sample and is briefly described as follows;

Constant-head test: For granular materials that are more permeable, the constant head

test is used. The test sample of soil is placed inside a cylindrical mold and by regulating

the supply, the head loss, h, of water passing through the soil is measured and recorded.

The bottom in flow water observed in the cylinder containing the soil sample is

measured and recorded as R1. The experiment is carried out up to the point where the

purge valve releases water, then the new water level in the cylinder is measured as R2.

From Darcy’s law, the total amount of flow can be calculated as;

Q=kA(∆h/L) ……. A,

Where Q= flux density of water passing through the soil,

k= the saturated hydraulic conductivity

A= cross sectional area

∆h= head loss

L= length of the system

Rearranging the equation above gives;

k=(QL/∆hA) ………. B

Once all the quantities on the right-hand side of equation have been determined, the

coefficient of permeability of the soil can be calculated.

Falling-head test: This test is performed in a manner similar to that of the constant-head

test. The major difference is that the falling-head test is more suitable for fine-grained

soils.

16
 REFERENCES

A.Ivan Johnson, David S. M (2014) Permeability and capillarity of soils- 6th edition,

Published by Wiley publications, USA,page 507-582.

ASTM D6391, Standard Test Method for Field Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity

Using Borehole Infiltration, 2011.

BS 5930 Code of Practice for Site Investigations British Standards Institution (1999)

191 pages

Hart, J. Roger, Furia T( 1964) Manual of soil laboratory testing- 3rd edition, Published

by Dr. Henry and sons, page 333-335.

Lakshmi R, Havard L., Holler F(2009) Laboratory Measurement of soil permeability-

2nd edition, page 378-386.

17
 POST LAB
1. Permeability coefficient allows us to estimate the type of soil sample we are

working with.

2. The permeability of a soil is a measure indicating the capacity of the soil to allow

fluids to pass through it. It is often represented by the permeability coefficient (k)

through the Darcy’s equation

 Knowledge in permeability is applicable in the following areas:

 Estimation of quantity of underground seepage water under various hydraulic

conditions.

 Quantification of water during pumping for underground construction

 Stability analysis of slopes, earth dams, and earth retaining structures

 Design of landfill liner

 Permeability helps in the purification of water.

 Permeability helps determine the flow characteristics of hydrocarbons in oil

and gas reservoirs.

3. Porosity is taken to be the ratio of the volume of empty space (or pores) in a rock to

its total volume, and it is often expressed in terms of a fraction or a percentage and

as such has no unit whereas permeability is a measure of the ability of a porous

media to transmit fluids and has unit of area (m2 in the SI system).

4. a. Particle size

b. Void ratio

c. Mass of soil sample.

18
d. Structural arrangement of soil particles.

e. Properties of pore fluid

f. Degree of saturation

g. Stratification of soil

 Particle size: The coefficient of permeability of a soil is directly proportional to

the square of the particle size. If the soil is coarse grained, permeability is more

and if it is fine grained, permeability is low. Particle size can be gauged

by performing sieve analysis.

𝑒3
 Void ratio: The coefficient of permeability varies with the void ratio as 1+𝑒. for

a given soil, the greater the void ratio the higher the value of the coefficient of

permeability. Here, e is the void ratio. But it is not applicable to all types of

soils. For example, clay has a higher void ratio than any other types of soil but

permeability of clays is very low. This is due to the flow path through voids, in

case of clays, it is extremely small such that water cannot permit through this

path easily.

 Structural arrangement of soil particles: permeability is inversely proportional

to specific surface. As angular soil has more specific surface area compared to

round soil therefore, the soil with angular particles is less permeable than soil

of rounded particles. For fine grained soils if the soil particles are arranged in

flocculated structure, then its permeability will be more when compared to that

if the particles are arranged in the dispersed structure as we know flocculated

structure has more voids than in the dispersed structure. e.g.

 Properties of pore fluid: Pore fluids are fluids that occupy pore spaces in a soil

or rock. Permeability is directly proportional to the unit weight of pore fluid

and inversely proportional to viscosity of pore fluid

19
  Degree of saturation: If the soil is not fully saturated, it contains air pockets.

The permeability is reduced due to the presence of air which causes a blockage

to the passage of water. Consequently, the permeability of a partially saturated

soil is considerably smaller than that of fully saturated soil. In fact, Darcy's

Law is not strictly applicable to such soils.

 Stratification of soil: Stratified soils are those soils which are formed by layer

upon layer of the earth or dust deposited on each other. If the flow is parallel to

the layers of the stratification, the permeability is max. while the flow in

perpendicular direction occurs with min. permeability.

5. Packer Method:

A packer is an expandable cylindrical rubber sleeve. Packers are used as a means of

sealing of a section borehole. Two types of packer methods are used.

They are:

i. Single Packer Method :

In single packer method the hole is drilled to the required depth. The packer is fixed at a

desired level above the bottom of hole and the water pumped into the section below the

packer. The constant rate of flow, q that is attained under an applied head, H is found.

ii. Double Packer Method:

In the double packer method, the hole is drilled to the final depth and cleaned. Two

packers are fixed at a distance apart equal to 5 times the diameter of borehole. Both

packers are then expanded and water pumped into the section between the two packers,

the constant rate of flow, q that is attained under an applied head, H is found. The

coefficient of permeability, k is computed using the following equations –

20
 𝑞 𝐿
𝑘= 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐿 < 10𝑟
2𝜋𝐿𝐻 2𝑟

𝑞 𝐿
𝑘= 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐿 ≥ 10𝑟
2𝜋𝐿𝐻 𝑟

Where, r = radius of borehole

H = differential head for maintaining a constant rate of flow in test section

q = constant rate of flow into the test section

L = length of the test section the unit

6. 3.6 × 10−3 = 0.2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 0.5 = 𝑥

𝑥 = 9 × 10−3 𝑐𝑚/𝑠.

The soil sample is likely to be sandy gravel, clean sand or fine sand.

21