I&s Mod-1

INSTRUMENTATION AND SENSOR
3rd Sem
K Sujita Kumar Achary

Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
VSSUT Burla
Department Electrical Engineering VSSUT Burla 1

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Introduction
• Measurement is the act, or the result, of a quantitative comparison between a
predetermined standard and an unknown magnitude.
• The device or instrument used for comparing the unknown quantity with the unit of
measurement or a standard quantity is called a measuring instrument.
• The result of the measurement is expressed by a pointer deflection over a predefined

scale or a number representing the ratio between the unknown quantity and the
standard. Measurand
(quantity to be
measured)
• The value of the unknown quantity can be measured by
1. Direct comparison methods Process of
comparison
2. Indirect comparison methods Standard (Measurement)
(Known Qut.)
Result
(Read out)
1.Direct comparison methods
• Direct methods of measurement are of two types, namely, deflection methods and
comparison methods.
• In deflection methods, the value of the unknown quantity is measured by the help of a
measuring instrument having a calibrated scale indicating the quantity under
measurement directly, such as measurement of current by an ammeter.
• In comparison methods, the value of the unknown quantity is determined by direct

comparison with a standard of the given quantity, such as measurement of emf by
comparison with the emf of a standard cell.
• Comparison methods can be classified as null methods, differential methods, etc. In

null methods of measurement, the action of the unknown quantity upon the instrument
is reduced to zero by the counter action of a known quantity of the same kind, such as
measurement of weight by a balance, measurement of resistance, capacitance, and
inductance by bridge circuits.
2.Indirect Comparison Methods
• In indirect measurement methods, the value of the unknown quantity is determined by
measuring the functionally related quantity and calculating the desired quantity rather
than measuring it directly.
• In indirect measurement methods, the comparison is done with a standard through the
use of a calibrated system. These methods for measurement are used in those cases
where the desired parameter to be measured is difficult to be measured directly, but
the parameter has got some relation with some other related parameter which can be
easily measured.
• For example, the elimination of bacteria from some fluid is directly dependent upon
its temperature. Thus, the bacteria elimination can be measured indirectly by
measuring the temperature of the fluid.
• Measurement of EHV lines by using CT and PT.

Introduction
• An instrument is a device in which we can determine the magnitude or value of the
quantity to be measured. The measuring quantity can be voltage, current, power and
energy etc. Generally instruments are classified into two categories.
1. Absolute Instrument
2. Secondary instrument
1.Absolute Instrument
• The instruments of this type give the value of the measurand in terms of instrument
constant and its deflection. Such instruments do not require comparison with any other
standard.
• The example of this type of instrument is tangent galvanometer, which gives the value
of the current to be measured in terms of tangent of the angle of deflection produced,
the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field, the radius and the number of
turns of the wire used.
• Absolute instruments are mostly used in standard laboratories and in similar
institutions as standardizing. Department Electrical Engineering VSSUT Burla 5
2.Secondary instrument
• This instrument determines the value of the quantity to be measured directly.
Generally these instruments are calibrated by comparing with another standard
secondary instrument.
• Examples of such instruments are voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter etc. Practically
secondary instruments are suitable for measurement.
a. Indicating Instrument
b. Recording Instrument
c. Integrating Instrument
a. Indicating instrument:
• Indicating instruments are those which indicate the magnitude of an electrical quantity
at the time when it is being measured.
• The indications are given by a pointer moving over a calibrated scale. Ordinary
ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeter, frequency meters, power factor meters, etc., fall
into this category.
b. Recording instrument:
• Recording instruments are those which keep a continuous record of the variation of
the magnitude of an electrical quantity to be observed over a definite period of time.
• In such instruments, the moving system carries an inked pen which touches lightly a
sheet of paper wrapped over a drum moving with uniform slow motion in a direction
perpendicular to that of the direction of the pointer. Thus, a curve is traced which
shows the variations in the magnitude of the electrical quantity under observation over
a definite period of time.
• Such instruments are generally used in powerhouses where the current, voltage,
power, etc., are to be maintained within certain acceptable limit.

c. Integrating Instrument:
• Integrating instruments are those which measure the total amount of either quantity of
electricity (ampere-hours) or electrical energy supplied over a period of time.
• The summation, given by such an instrument, is the product of time and an electrical
quantity under measurement. The ampere-hour meters and energy meters fall in
this class.

Electromechanical indicating instrument:

• For satisfactory operation electromechanical indicating instrument, three forces are
necessary. They are
(a) Deflecting force
(b) Controlling force
(c)Damping force

a) Deflecting Torque/Force:
When there is no input signal to the instrument, the pointer will be at its zero position. To
deflect the pointer from its zero position, a force is necessary which is known as
deflecting force. A system which produces the deflecting force is known as a deflecting
system. Generally a deflecting system converts an electrical signal to a mechanical force.

i. Magnetic effect:
• When a current passes through the coil, it produces a imaginary bar magnet. When a
soft-iron piece is brought near this coil it is magnetized. Depending upon the current
direction the poles are produced in such a way that there will be a force of attraction
between the coil and the soft iron piece. This principle is used in moving iron
attraction type instrument.
• If two soft iron pieces are place near a current carrying coil there will be a force of
repulsion between the two soft iron pieces. This principle is utilized in the moving
iron repulsion type instrument.Department Electrical Engineering VSSUT Burla 11
ii. Force between a permanent magnet and a current carrying coil :
• When a current carrying coil is placed under the influence of magnetic field produced
by a permanent magnet and a force is produced between them. This principle is
utilized in the moving coil type instrument.

iii. Force between two current carrying coil:
• When two current carrying coils are placed closer to each other there will be a force of
repulsion between them. If one coil is movable and other is fixed, the movable coil
will move away from the fixed one. This principle is utilized in electrodynamometer
type instrument.

b) Controlling Torque/Force :
• To make the measurement indicated by the pointer definite (constant) a force is
necessary which will be acting in the opposite direction to the deflecting force. This
force is known as controlling force. A system which produces this force is known as a
controlled system.
• When the external signal to be measured by the instrument is removed, the pointer
should return back to the zero position. This is possibly due to the controlling force
and the pointer will be indicating a steady value when the deflecting torque is equal to
controlling torque. (Td = Tc)
• Controlling torque are two types

• Spring control
• Gravity control

i. Spring Control:
• When a current is supply, the pointer deflects due to rotation of the spindle. While
spindle is rotate, the spring attached with the spindle will oppose the movements of
the pointer. The torque produced by the spring is directly proportional to the pointer
deflection ϴ .

i. Spring Control:
• Two springs are attached on either end of spindle. The spindle is placed in jewelled
bearing, so that the frictional force between the pivot and spindle will be minimum.
• Two springs are provided in opposite direction to compensate the temperature error.
• The spring is made of phosphorous bronze.

i. Spring Control:
The deflecting torque produced Td proportional to ‘I’. When Tc = Td , the pointer will
come to a steady position. Therefore
𝑇𝑐 ∝ 𝜃, 𝑇𝑑 ∝ 𝐼
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝜃∝𝐼
Since, q and I are directly proportional to the scale of such instrument which uses
spring controlled is uniform.

ii. Gravity Control:
• In a gravity-controlled instrument, a small weight is attached to the moving system

in such a way that it produces a restoring or controlling torque when the system is
deflected.
• The controlling torque, when the deflection is θ, is ωl sin θ, where W is the control
weight and l its distance from the axis of rotation of the moving system

ii. Gravity Control:
• Therefore, proportional only to the sine of the angle of deflection, instead of, as
with spring control, being directly proportional to the angle of deflection.
• Gravity controlled instruments must obviously be used in a vertical position in order

that the control may operate.
• Gravity-controlled instrument would have a scale which is ‘cramped’ at its lower

end instead of being uniformly divided, though the deflecting torque is directly
proportional to the quantity to be measured
• Gravity control has the following advantages when compared with spring control:
• It is cheaper
• Independent of temperature
• Does not deteriorate with time
c) Damping Torque/Force :
• The deflection torque and controlling torque produced by systems are electro
mechanical. Due to inertia produced by this system, the pointer oscillates about it final
steady position before coming to rest.
• The time required to take the measurement is more. To damp out the oscillation is
quickly, a damping force is necessary.
• This force is produced by different systems.
i. Air friction damping
ii. Fluid friction damping
iii. Eddy current damping

• In this method, a light aluminium piston is attached to the moving system and moves
in an air chamber closed at one end.
• The clearance between the piston and the sides of the chamber should be small and
uniform.
• If the piston is moving rapidly into the chamber, the air in the closed space is
compressed and the pressure opposes the motion of the piston (and, therefore, of the
whole moving system).
• If the piston is moving out of the chamber rapidly, the pressure in the closed space
falls, and the pressure on the open side of the piston is greater than that on the
opposite side. Motion is thus again opposed.

ii. Fluid-Friction Damping
• In this type of damping, a light vane, attached to the spindle of the moving system,
dips into a pot of damping oil and should be completely submerged by the oil.
• The frictional drag in the disc is always in the direction opposing motion. There is no
friction force when the disc is stationary.

iii. Eddy-Current Damping
• When a sheet of conducting material moves in a magnetic field, so as to cut through

lines of force, eddy currents are set up in it and a force exists between these currents
and the magnetic field, which is always in the direction opposing the motion.
• The force is proportional to the magnitude of the current and to the strength of the
field.
• The magnitude of the current is proportional to the velocity of movement of the

conductor, and thus, if the magnetic field is constant, the damping force is
proportional to the velocity of the moving system and is zero when there is no
movement of the system.

• An aluminum circular disc is fixed to the spindle. This disc is made to move in the
magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet.
• When the disc oscillates it cuts the magnetic flux produced by damping magnet.

• When the disc oscillates it cuts the magnetic flux produced by damping magnet. An
emf is induced in the circular disc by faradays law.
• Eddy currents are established in the disc since it has several closed paths.
• By Lenz’s law, the current carrying disc produced a force in a direction opposite to
oscillating force. The damping force can be varied by varying the projection of the
magnet over the circular disc.

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS:
• The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are used to measure the
quantities which are slowly varying with time or mostly constant, i.e., do not vary
with time, is called ‘static characteristics’.
• The various static characteristics are:
i) Accuracy
ii) Precision
iii) Sensitivity
iv) Linearity
v) Reproducibility
vi) Repeatability
vii) Resolution
viii) Threshold
ix) Stability
xi) Tolerance

Accuracy:
• It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the true value of the
quantity to be measured. The accuracy can be expressed in following ways:
a) Point accuracy:
Such an accuracy is specified at only one particular point of scale. It does not
give any information about the accuracy at any other point on the scale.
b) Accuracy as percentage of scale span:
When an instrument as uniform scale, its accuracy may be expressed in terms
of scale range.
c) Accuracy as percentage of true value:
The best way to conceive the idea of accuracy is to specify it in terms of the
true value of the quantity being measured.

Precision:
It is the measure of reproducibility i.e., given a fixed value of a quantity, precision is a
measure of the degree of agreement within a group of measurements. The precision is
composed of two characteristics:
a) Conformity:
Consider a resistor having true value as 2385692 , which is being measured
by an ohmmeter. But the reader can read consistently, a value as 2.4 M due to
the nonavailability of proper scale. The error created due to the limitation of
the scale reading is a precision error.
b) Number of significant figures:
The precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of significant
figures, in which the reading is expressed. The significant figures convey the
actual information about the magnitude & the measurement precision of the
quantity.

Sensitivity:
The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the
instrument responds. It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an
instrument to a change in the value of the quantity to be measured.
Thus, if the calibration curve is liner, as shown, the sensitivity of the instrument is the
slope of the calibration curve. If the calibration curve is not linear as shown, then the
sensitivity varies with the input.
Inverse sensitivity or deflection factor is defined as the reciprocal of sensitivity.
Linearity:
• The linearity is defined as the ability to reproduce the input characteristics
symmetrically & linearly.
• Linearity is the closeness of the calibration curve of a measuring system to a straight
line. If an instruments calibration curve for desired input is not a straight line, the
instrument may still be highly accurate. In many applications, however, linear
response is most desirable.
Resolution:
• Resolution is defined as the smallest incremental of the input quantity to which the
measuring system responds.
• If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input value, it will again be found
that output does not change at all until a certain increment is exceeded. This increment
is called resolution.

Repeatability:
• It is the characteristic of precision electrical measuring instruments. It describes the
closeness of output readings when the same input is applied repetitively over a short
period of time, with the same measurement conditions, same instrument and observer,
same location and same conditions of use maintained throughout.
Reproducibility:
• It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured. It
is specified in terms of scale readings over a given period of time.
• It is the closeness with which the same value of the input quantity is measured at
different times and under different conditions of usage of the instrument and by
different instruments.
Speed of response:
• It is ability to respond to sudden changes of amplitude of input signal. It is usually
specified as the time taken by the system to come close to steady state conditions, for
a step input function.
Stability:
• It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout is specified
operating life.
Tolerance:
• The maximum allowable error in the measurement is specified in terms of some value
which is called tolerance.
Dead Zone:
• It is the largest change of input quantity for which there is no output of the instrument.
For instance, the input applied to the instrument may not be sufficient to overcome the
friction and will, in that case not move at all.
• It is due to either static friction(stiction), backlash or hysteresis. All elastic mechanical
elements used as primary transducers exhibit effects of hysteresis, creep and elastic
after- effect to some extent.
Dead time
• Dead time is defined as the time required by a measurement. system to begin to
respond to a change in the measured.
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
The types of errors are follows
i) Gross errors
ii) Systematic errors
iii) Random errors
I. Gross Errors:
• The gross errors mainly occur due to carelessness or lack of experience of a
human begin.
• These errors also occur due to incorrect adjustments of instruments
• These errors cannot be treated mathematically
• These errors are also called personal errors’.
Ways to minimize gross errors:
• The complete elimination of gross errors is not possible but one can minimize them by
the following ways: Taking great care while taking the reading, recording the reading
& calculating the result, Without depending on only one reading, at least three or more
readings must be taken preferably by different persons.
II. Systematic errors:
• A constant uniform deviation of the operation of an instrument is known as a
Systematic error
• The Systematic errors are mainly due to the short comings of the instrument & the
characteristics of the material used in the instrument, such as defective or worn parts,
ageing effects, environ metal effects, etc.
• Types of Systematic errors: There are three types of Systematic errors as:
i) Instrumental errors
ii) Environmental errors
iii) Observational errors

i. Instrumental errors:
These errors can be mainly due to the following three reasons:
a) Short comings of instruments:
• These are because of the mechanical structure of the instruments.
For example friction in the bearings of various moving parts; irregular spring
tensions, reductions in due to improper handling , hysteresis, gear backlash,
stretching of spring, variations in air gap, etc .,
Ways to minimize this error:
• These errors can be avoided by the following methods:
• Selecting a proper instrument and planning the proper procedure for the measurement
recognizing the effect of such errors and applying the proper correction factors
calibrating the instrument carefully against a standard

b) Misuse of instruments:
• A good instrument if used in abnormal way gives misleading results. Poor initial
adjustment, Improper zero setting, using leads of high resistance etc., are the examples
of misusing a good instrument. Such things do not cause the permanent damage to the
instruments but definitely cause the serious errors.
c) Loading effects
• Loading effects due to improper way of using the instrument cause the serious errors.
The best example of such loading effect error is connecting a well calibrated voltmeter
across the two points of high resistance circuit. The same voltmeter connected in a low
resistance circuit gives accurate reading..
to minimize this error:
• Thus the errors due to the loading effect can be avoided by using an instrument
intelligently and correctly.

ii. Environmental errors:
These errors are due to the conditions external to the measuring instrument. The various
factors resulting these environmental errors are temperature changes, pressure changes,
thermal emf, and ageing of equipment and frequency sensitivity of an instrument.
Ways to minimize this error:
The various methods which can be used to reduce these errors are:
i. Using the proper correction factors and using the information supplied by the
manufacturer of the instrument
ii. Using the arrangement which will keep the surrounding conditions Constant
iii. Reducing the effect of dust, humidity on the components by hermetically
sealing the components in the instruments
iv. The effects of external fields can be minimized by using the magnetic or
electro static shields or screens
v. Using the equipment which is immune to such environmental effects.

iii. Observational errors:
• These are the errors introduced by the observer.
These are many sources of observational errors such as parallax error while reading a
meter, wrong scale selection, etc.
Ways to minimize this error
• To eliminate such errors one should use the instruments with mirrors, knife edged
pointers, etc.,
III. Random errors:

• Some errors still result, though the systematic and instrumental errors are reduced or
at least accounted for. The causes of such errors are unknown and hence the errors are
called random errors.
• Ways to minimize this error The only way to reduce these errors is by increasing the
number of observations and using the statistical methods to obtain the best
approximation of the reading.
PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT
Basic range: 10 μA-100 mA
Coil resistance: 10 Ω-1 kΩ
Usage:
- dc PMMC ammeters and voltmeters
- ac PMMC ammeters and voltmeters (with rectifiers)
Principle of Operation:
• The principle on which a Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
(PMMC) instrument operates is that a torque is exerted
on a current-carrying coil placed in the field of a
permanent magnet (AlNiCo).
• The coil C has a number of turns of thin insulated wires wound on a rectangular
aluminium former F.
• The frame is carried on a spindle S mounted in jewel bearings J1, J2. A pointer PR is
attached to the spindle so that it moves over a calibrated scale. The whole of the moving
system is made as light in weight as possible to keep the friction at the bearing to a
minimum. Department Electrical Engineering VSSUT Burla 41
PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL INSTRUMENT
• The coil is free to rotate in air gaps formed between the
shaped soft-iron pole piece (pp) of a permanent magnet
PM and a fixed soft-iron cylindrical core IC.
• The core serves two purposes; (a) it intensifies the
magnetic field by reducing the length of the air gap, and
(b) it makes the field radial and uniform in the air gap.
• Thus, the coil always moves at right angles to the
magnetic field. Soft-iron pole pieces (pp) are attached to
the permanent magnet PM for easy machining in order to
adjust the length of the air gap.
• A soft-iron yoke (Y ) is used to complete the flux path
and to provide shielding from stray external fields.

Deflecting Torque Equation of PMMC Instrument
Let, B = flux density in the air gap (wb/m2)
i = current in the coil (A)
l = effective axial length of the coil (m)
b = breadth of the coil (m)
n = number of turns of the coil.
➢ Force on one side of the coil is,
➢ Torque on each side of the coil,
➢ Total deflecting torque exerted on the coil,
➢ For a permanent magnet, B is constant. Also, for a given coil l, b and n are constants
and thus the product (Blnb) is also a constant, say k1.

Control Torque
• The control on the movement of the pointer over the scale is provided by two spirally
wound, phosphor-bronze springs S1 and S2, one at each end of the spindle S.
• The control torque of the springs is proportional to the angle θ turned through by the
coil.
• Where, TC is the control torque and ks is the spring constant.
• At final steady state position, Control torque = Deflecting torque
So, angular deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the current. Thus the
scale of the instrument is linear or uniformly divided.
2. Damping Torque
• When the aluminium former (F) moves with the coil in the field of the permanent
magnet, a voltage is induced, causing eddy current to flow in it. These current exerts a
force on the former.
• By Lenz’s law, this force opposes the motion producing it. Thus, a damping torque is
obtained. Such a damping is called eddy-current damping.
Swamping Resistor
• The coil of the instrument is made of copper. Its resistance varies with temperature.
• A resistor of low temperature coefficients, called the swamping resistor, is connected in
series with the coil. Its resistance practically remains constant with temperature. Hence
the effect of temperature on coil resistance is swamped by this resistor.
PMMC Instrument
Advantages of PMMC Instruments
• Sensitive to small current
• Very accurate and reliable
• Uniform scale up to 270° or more
• Very effective built in damping
• Low power consumption, varies from 25 μW to 200 μW
• Free from hysteresis and not effected by external fields because its permanent
magnet shields the coil from external magnetic fields
• Easily adopted as a multirange instrument
PMMC Instrument
Disadvantages of PMMC Instruments
• This type of instrument can be operated in direct current only. In alternating current,
the instrument does not operate because in the positive half, the pointer experiences
a force in one direction and in the negative half the pointer experiences the force in
the opposite direction. Due to the inertia of the pointer, it retains it’s zero position.
• The moving system is very delicate and can easily be damaged by rough handling.
• The coil being very fine, cannot withstand prolonged overloading.
• It is costlier.
• The ageing of the instrument (permanent magnet and control spring) may introduce
some errors.
PMMC Instrument
The coil of a PMMC instrument has 60 turns, on a former that is 18 mm wide, the
effective length of the conductor being 25 mm. It moves in a uniform field of flux density
0.5 Tesla. The control spring constant is 1.5 × 10-6 Nm/degree. Calculate the current
required to produce a deflection of 100 degree.
PMMC Instrument
A PMMC instrument has a coil of dimensions 15 mm × 12 mm. The flux density in the air
gap is 1.8 × 10-3 wb/m2 and the spring constant is 0.14 × 10-6 N-m/rad. Determine the
number of turns required to produce an angular deflection of 90° when a current of 5 mA
is flowing through the coil.
EXTENSION OF RANGE OF PMMC INSTRUMENTS
Ammeter Shunts
• The moving-coil instrument has a coil wound with very
fine wire. It can carry only few mA safely to give full-scale
deflection.
• For measuring higher current, a low resistance is
connected in parallel to the instrument to bypass the major
part of the current. The low resistance connected in parallel
with the coil is called a shunt.
The resistance of the shunt can be calculated using conventional circuit analysis.
Rsh = shunt resistance (Ω)
Rm = coil resistance (Ω)
Im = Ifs = full-scale deflection current (A)
1sh = shunt current (A)
I = current to be measured (A)
The voltage drop across the shunt and the meter must be same as they are connected in parallel.
The ratio of the total current to the current in the meter is called multiplying power of shunt.
Multiplying power,
Voltmeter Multipliers
• For measuring higher voltages, a high resistance is connected in series with the
instrument to limit the current in the coil to a safe value. This value of current should
never exceed the current required to produce the full scale deflection.
• The high resistance connected in series with the instrument is called a multiplier.
The value of multiplier required to extend the voltage range, is calculated as under:
Rsc = multiplier resistance (Ω)
Rm = meter resistance (Ω)
Im = Ifs = full scale deflection current (A)
v = voltage across the meter for producing current Im (A)
V = voltage to be measured (A)
V = ImRm
V = Im(Rm + Rsc)
V = ImRm
V = Im(Rm + Rsc)
Now multiplying factor for multiplier
Sensitivity
• The moving-coil instrument is a very sensitive instrument.
• The coil of the instrument may require a small amount of current (in the range of μA) for full-scale
deflection. The sensitivity is sometimes expressed in ohm/volt. The sensitivity of a voltmeter is given by
Moving Iron (MI) instruments
One of the most accurate instrument used for
both AC and DC measurement is moving iron
instrument. There are two types of moving iron
instrument.
• Attraction type
• Repulsion type
Attraction type M.I. instrument
Construction:
The moving iron fixed to the spindle is kept
near the hollow fixed coil. The pointer and
balance weight are attached to the spindle,
which is supported with jeweled bearing. Here
air friction damping is used.
Moving Iron (MI) instruments
Principle of operation
• The current to be measured is passed through the
fixed coil.
• As the current is flow through the fixed coil, a
magnetic field is produced, by magnetic induction the
moving iron gets magnetized.
• The north pole of moving coil is attracted by the south
pole of fixed coil. Thus the deflecting force is
produced due to force of attraction.
• Since the moving iron is attached with the spindle, the
spindle rotates and the pointer moves over the
calibrated scale.
• But the force of attraction depends on the current
flowing through the coil.
Torque Equation MI instruments
The energy relations when there is a small increment in current
supplied to the instrument. When this happens there will be a small
deflection dϴ and some mechanical work will be done.
Let Ta =deflecting torque, :. Mechanical work done= Ta. dϴ
Alongside there will be a change in the energy stored owing to inductance. Suppose the initial current is I,
the instrument inductance L and the deflection ϴ, lf the current increases by di then the deflection changes
by dϴ and the inductance by dL.
In order to effect an increment dl in the current there must be an increase in the applied voltage given by
T is in newton-metre,
I in ampere,
L in henry, and ϴ in radian.
The moving system is provided with control springs and it turns the deflecting torque Td is balanced by the
controlling torque Tc.
Controlling torquer.= Kϴ. .

where K=control spring constant ; Nm/rad,
ϴ =deflection in rad.
At equilibrium (or finai steady) position, Tc=Td

Construction: The repulsion type instrument has a hollow

fixed iron attached to it. The moving iron is connected to the
spindle. The pointer is also attached to the spindle in
supported with jeweled bearing.
Principle of operation:
When the current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is
produced by it. So both fixed iron and moving iron are
magnetized with the same polarity, since they are kept in the
same magnetic field.
Similar poles of fixed and moving iron get repelled. Thus the
deflecting torque is produced due to magnetic repulsion. Since
moving iron is attached to spindle, the spindle will move. So
that pointer moves over the calibrated scale.
Damping: Air friction damping is used to reduce the

oscillation.
Control: Spring control is used.
Advantages
MI can be used in AC and DC
It is cheap
Supply is given to a fixed coil, not in moving coil.
Simple construction
Less friction error.
Disadvantages
It suffers from eddy current and hysteresis error
Scale is not uniform
It consumed more power
Calibration is different for AC and DC operation
Extension Range for Moving Iron Instruments
Moving iron instruments can be built for a range upto 50 A (moving parts do not carry any current)
Difference between attraction and repulsion type instrument
• An attraction type instrument will usually have a lower inductance, compare to repulsion type instrument.
• But in other hand, repulsion type instruments are more suitable for economical production in manufacture
and nearly uniform scale is more easily obtained. They are therefore much more common than attraction
type.
Error in M.I instrument
Temperature error
Due to temperature variation, the resistance of the coil varies. This affects the deflection of the instrument. The
coil should be made of manganin, so that the resistance is almost constant.
Hysteresis error
Due to hysteresis affect the reading of the instrument will not be correct. When the current is decreasing, the
flux produced will not decrease suddenly. Due to this the meter reads a higher value of current. Similarly when
the current increases the meter reads a lower value of current. This produces error in deflection. This error can
be eliminated using small iron parts with narrow hysteresis loop so that the demagnetization takes place very
quickly.
Eddy current error

The eddy currents induced in the moving iron affect the deflection. This error can be reduced by increasing the
resistance of the iron.
Difference between attraction and repulsion type instrument
Stray field error
• Since the operating field is weak, the effect of stray field is more. Due to this, error is produced in deflection.
This can be eliminated by shielding the parts of the instrument.
Frequency error
• When the frequency changes the reactance of the coil changes.
• Deflection of moving iron voltmeter depends upon the current through the coil. Therefore, deflection for a
given voltage will be less at higher frequency than at low frequency. A capacitor is connected in parallel with
multiplier resistance. The net reactance, ( X L − XC ) is very small, when compared to the series resistance.
Thus the circuit impedance is made independent of frequency. This is because of the circuit is almost
resistive.
Electrostatic instrument
• In multi cellular construction several vans and quadrants
are provided. The voltage is to be measured is applied
between the vanes and quadrant.
• The force of attraction between the vanes and quadrant
produces a deflecting torque.
• Controlling torque is produced by spring control. Air
friction damping is used.
• The instrument is generally used for measuring medium
and high voltage. The voltage is reduced to low value by
using capacitor potential divider. The force of attraction
is proportional to the square of the voltage.
Torque develop by electrostatic instrument
Advantages
It is used in both AC and DC.
There is no frequency error.
There is no hysteresis error.
There is no stray magnetic field error. Because the instrument works on electrostatic principle.
It is used for high voltage
Power consumption is negligible.
Disadvantages
Large in size
Cost is more
Electrostatic instrument
• In multi cellular construction several vans and quadrants
are provided. The voltage is to be measured is applied
between the vanes and quadrant.
• The force of attraction between the vanes and quadrant
produces a deflecting torque.
• Controlling torque is produced by spring control. Air
friction damping is used.
• The instrument is generally used for measuring medium
and high voltage. The voltage is reduced to low value by
using capacitor potential divider. The force of attraction
is proportional to the square of the voltage.
Advantages
It is used in both AC and DC.
There is no frequency error.
There is no hysteresis error.
There is no stray magnetic field error. Because the instrument works on electrostatic principle.
It is used for high voltage
Power consumption is negligible.
Disadvantages
Large in size
Cost is more

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INSTRUMENTATION AND SENSOR

K Sujita Kumar Achary

Department Electrical Engineering VSSUT Burla 1

• The result of the measurement is expressed by a pointer deflection over a predefined

• In comparison methods, the value of the unknown quantity is determined by direct

• Comparison methods can be classified as null methods, differential methods, etc. In

• Measurement of EHV lines by using CT and PT.

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Electromechanical indicating instrument:

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• Controlling torque are two types

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• In a gravity-controlled instrument, a small weight is attached to the moving system

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• Gravity controlled instruments must obviously be used in a vertical position in order

• Gravity-controlled instrument would have a scale which is ‘cramped’ at its lower

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• When a sheet of conducting material moves in a magnetic field, so as to cut through

• The magnitude of the current is proportional to the velocity of movement of the

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III. Random errors:

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➢ Total deflecting torque exerted on the coil,

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• At final steady state position, Control torque = Deflecting torque

Now multiplying factor for multiplier

Controlling torquer.= Kϴ. .

At equilibrium (or finai steady) position, Tc=Td

Construction: The repulsion type instrument has a hollow

Damping: Air friction damping is used to reduce the

Eddy current error

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