ENVIRONMENT

HANDOUT - 1
ENVIRONMENT,
HABITAT,
ECOLOGICAL NICHE
FOR MORE DETAILS : +91 89396 96868 / 69
FOR MORE UPDATES JOIN OUR TELEGRAM GROUP BY SCANNING CODE
 TABLE OF CONTENT

 ENVIRONMENT

 Components of Environment (Based on Orgin)

 Components

 Biotic Components

 Abiotic Components

 HABITAT

 Types of Habitat

 ECOLOGICAL NICHE

 Difference between Habitat and Niche

 Generalist and Specialist Species

 ENVIRONMENT
‘Environment’ is a term derived from the French word ‘environ’ or ‘environner,’ that means
‘to surround’. The word ‘environment’ is most commonly used to describe nature and means
all living and non‐living things surrounding an organism or group of organisms.

Definition: The environment is the sum total of all living and non‐living things in nature that
affect the survival and development of all organisms on earth. The environment includes
biotic (all surrounding living organisms) and abiotic factors (light, temperature, water,
atmospheric gases) that influence organisms.

Components of environment:
There are three different components based
on origin.

 Natural Environment
 Human‐made Environment
 Human Environment

Natural Environment:
Land, water, air, plants, and animals
comprise the natural environment which can
be studied under lithosphere, hydrosphere,
Atmosphere and Biosphere respectively.

Page 1 of 27
 Lithosphere: Lithosphere is the solid crust or the hard top layer of the earth. It is
made up of rocks and minerals and covered by a thin layer of soil consistingof various
landforms such as mountains, plateaus, plains, valleys, etc. The lithosphere is the
domain that provides us forests, grasslands for grazing, land for agriculture, and
human settlements.

 Hydrosphere: The domain of water is referred to as the hydrosphere. It comprises

various sources of water and different types of water bodies like rivers, lakes, seas,
oceans, etc. It is essential for all living organisms

 Atmosphere: The atmosphere is the thin layer of air that surrounds the earth. The
gravitational force of the earth holds the atmosphere around and it protects us from
the harmful rays and scorching heat of the sun.The changes in the atmosphere
produce changes in the weather and climate

 Biosphere: Plant and animal kingdoms together make the biosphere or the living
world. It is a narrow zone of the earth where land, water, and air interact with each
other to support life.

Page 2 of 27
Human made Environment:
The human made component of the environment are the creations by human beings
which include bridges, roads, dams, parks and monument etc

Human environment:
The human environment consists of the individual and his interactions which includes
Family, Community, Religion, Educational, Economic and political situations

Page 3 of 27
 Components of environment
I. Biotic component
II. Abiotic component

Biotic component:

Biotic components include living species at various trophic

levels of producer, consumer, decomposer which are
linked together in food chains and form complex food
webs. All of these biotic components work together to
create new generations, or to reproduce new organisms.

Producers or Autotrophs (self-

nourishers):

Producers convert water, carbon dioxide, minerals, and

sunlight into the organic molecules that are the foundation
of all life on Earth. There are two kinds of autotrophs.
i. Photoautotrophs
ii. Chemoautotrophs

Photoautotrophs: The most common are plants that carry out photosynthesis. Trees,
grasses, and shrubs are the most important terrestrial photoautotrophs. In most aquatic
ecosystems, including lakes and oceans, algae are the most important photoautotrophs.

Plants

Algae

Page 4 of 27
Chemoautotrophs:
 Ecosystems where there is not enough sunlight for photosynthesis to occur are
powered by primary producers that do not use energy from the sun.

 Instead, they break apart inorganic chemical compounds, such as hydrogen sulfide,
and use the energy released to make organic molecules.(Chemolithotrophy)

 Only bacteria and certain other microorganisms are chemoautotrophs. They are
much less abundant than photoautotrophs. Some live in soil, while others live deep
in the ocean, around volcanic features called hydrothermal vents.

 Eg: Sulfur‐oxidizing chemotrophs, nitrogen‐fixing bacteria, and iron‐oxidizing bacteria

Danakil depression, Ethiopia

Consumers (Heterotrophs):

Consumers constitute the upper trophic levels. Unlike producers, they cannot make their
own food. The term heterotroph stems from the Greek words hetero for “other” and
trophe for “nourishment. To get energy, they eat producers or other animals, while some
eat both. They depend on other animals for their food requirements directly or indirectly.
Scientists distinguish between several kinds of consumers ‐ Macro Consumer and Micro
Consumer.

Macro Consumers:

Primary consumers: Primary consumers make up the second trophic level. They are also
called herbivores. They eat primary producers—plants or algae—and nothing else. Example:
Grasshopper, Deer, Cow, Zooplankton etc.,

Page 5 of 27
 Daphnia (Zooplankton)
Secondary consumers: Secondary consumers eat primary consumers. Secondary consumers
are mostly carnivores, from the Latin words meaning “meat eater.” Example: wolf, cheetah,
owl, sardine etc.,

Tertiary consumers: A tertiary consumer is an animal that obtains its nutrition by

eating primary consumers and secondary consumers. Tertiary consumers often occupy the
top trophic level, and so are predated by no other animals; in this case they are called “apex
predators”. However, when they die their bodies will be consumed by scavengers and
decomposers. Example: Lion, Tiger, Eagle, Shark etc.,

Page 6 of 27
Omnivores: Some consumers eat both plants and animals. The term stems from the Latin
words omnis, meaning “all or everything,” and vorare, meaning “to devour or
eat.”Omnivores generally occupy the third trophic level alongside meat‐
eating carnivores.Omnivores can also be scavengers. Some tertiary consumers are
omnivores. Since omnivores have a diverse diet, they have the advantage of being able to
survive in a variety of environments. While a meat‐eating carnivore would quickly go extinct
in a habitat devoid of prey, an omnivore could still survive by eating plants.
 Example: Human, bear, Catfish, Chimpazee etc.,

Scavengers: A scavenger is an organism that mostly consumes decaying biomass, such

as meat or rotting plant material. Scavengers are higher order animals. While
most carnivores hunt and kill their prey, scavengers usually consume animals that have
either died of natural causes or been killed by another carnivore.They keep
an ecosystem free of the bodies of dead animals, or carrion. Scavengers break down
this organic material and recycle it into the ecosystem as nutrients.
Example: Vulture, Hyena etc.,

Page 7 of 27
Parasites: Parasites are plants or animals that live on or in a host getting their nutrients
from that host. A host is an organism that supports a parasite. Sometimes the host is
harmed by the parasite, and sometimes the relationship is neutral. But the host never
benefits from the arrangement. Example: Tick, Fleas, Roundworms, Leech, Loranthus etc.,

Micro Consumers (Saprotrophs):

These organisms get their nourishment from dead organic
material, such as decaying plant leaves or dead fish that sink to the
bottom of a pond called Decomposers. They decompose
externally. They act as Nature’s recycling system.
Example: bacteria and fungi

 Detritivores:Detritivores are type of decomposer which

feed on detritus and digest and obtain energy. They also
help in decomposition. Example: Earth worms, millipedes,
dung beetle etc.,

Page 8 of 27
 Abiotic factors
Abiotic factors pertain to all non‐living factors that
are present in the ecosystem, both physical and
chemical factors. Abiotic components are the
inorganic and non‐living parts that act as major
limiting factors.
Limiting factors: A limiting factor is a resource or
environmental condition which limits the growth,
distribution or abundance of an organism or
population within an ecosystem. Limiting factors
are theorized under Liebig’s Law of the Minimum,
which states that “growth is not controlled by the
total amount of resources available, but by the
scarcest resource”.
Example: Water – Without adequate water survival
of any organism is challenged.

Physical factors:
Water:
Life on the earth is known to have originated from water. Presence of water is one sign of
life. Water makes up 60‐75% of human body weight. A loss of just 4% of total body water
leads to dehydration, and a loss of 15% can be fatal. Water is excellent solvent for
polarsubstances and called universal solvent. Water is biologically significant as an essential
metabolite for biochemical reaction in cell. Water also provides a very constant external
environment for many cells and organisms. Water is the medium for aquatic environment.

Salinity:
 The salinity definition is that it is a measure of dissolved salts in a concentration of
water. Salts in water include not just sodium chloride (table salt) but other elements
such as calcium, magnesium, and potassium.

Page 9 of 27
  Salinity can affect the density of water: Water that has higher salinity is denser
and heavier and will sink underneath less saline, warmer water. This can affect the
movement of ocean currents.

 It can also affect life of aquatic animals, which may need to regulate its intake of
saltwater.

 Salinity is one of the environmental factors limiting the productivity of crop plants
because most of the crop plants are sensitive to salinity caused by high
concentrations of salts in the soil.

Euryhaline: Organism that can tolerate a wide range of salinity is called euryhaline
organisms. Example: Turtles, Salmons
Stenohaline: Organism that can only live within a limited range of salinity is called
Stenohaline organism. Example: Corals, Fresh water dolphins.

Light:
 Light is an important abiotic factor of the ecosystem.
For plants: Essential for preparing their food as light plays
an important role in the process of photosynthesis. Light
affects not only photosynthesis but also enzyme action,
flowering, transpiration, plant movement, i.e., phototropic
movement, etc. the quality, the intensity, and duration are
significant.
 Based on tolerance to intensities of light, the plants
are divided into two types. They are:
 Heliophytes: light loving plants.
Example: angiosperms

Page 10 of 27
  Sciophytes: Shade loving plants. Example: bryophytes, pteridophytes, lucky
bamboo etc.,

Lucky bamboo

For animals: Light brings pigmentation to the skin of terrestrial animals. Light also affects
reproductive activities in birds. There are many animals that can see the infrared or
ultraviolet light, helping them to find a source of food. The metabolic rate of differen t
animals is greatly influenced by light. The influence of light on the movement of animals is
evident in lower animals. Regularly occurring daily cycles of Light (day; and darkness (night)
have been known to exert a profound influence on the behaviour and metabolism of many
organisms.

Circadian Rhythms: Circadian rhythms are physical, mental, and behavioral changes that
follow a 24‐hour cycle. These natural processes respond primarily to light and dark and
affect most living things, including animals, plants, and microbes. In 2017, researchers
Jeffrey C. Hall, Michael Rosbash, and Michael W. Young won the prestigious Nobel Prize for
their circadian rhythms research by studying fruit flies.

Phototropism: Phototropism is the ability of a plant, or other photosynthesizing organism,

to grow directionally in response to a light source.
 An example of a plant that is highly phototrophic is the sunflower (Helianthus annus).

Page 11 of 27
Phototaxis: Oriented locomotory movements towards and away from a source of light.
Example:
 Positively phototactic animals: Moths, grasshoppers, and flies etc.,
 Negatively phototactic animals: Earthworms,cockroaches, copepods, etc.,

Photokinesis: It has been observed that animals when responding to light reduce their
velocity of movement and these movements which are non‐directional. Photokinesis may be
a change in linear velocity (rheokinesis) or in the direction of turning (klinokinesis).

Page 12 of 27
  Photoklinokinesis: During photokinesis when only a part of the body of an animal
deviate always from the source of light. Example: Larvae of Musca.

 Phototropotaxis: When animals are confronted with two lights of equal brightness
they move towards or away to a position that is distance between the two lights.

Impact of Light on Organisms:

 Diurnal: The animals which are active during the daytime. Example: Humans, Honey
Bees, Hummingbirds etc.,

 Nocturnal: Those animals active during the night. Example: bats, owls, cockroaches
etc.,

 Crepuscular: The animals which are active during Dawn and Dusk. Example: house
cat, rabbit, jaguar, panda etc.,

 Balbacus, bobcats, bats etc., are auroral animals primarily active during the dawn
or twilight.

 Flies, moths, some bats and owls are vespertine animals active at dusk.

 Cathemeral: Applied to an activity pattern in which an animal is neither prescriptively

nocturnal, nor diurnal, nor crepuscular, but irregularly active at any time of night or
day, according to prevailing circumstances. Example: frogs, coyotes, and mountains
goats.

Page 13 of 27
Temperature:
Temperature is considered an important part of the lives of plants and animals. It varies
with season and changes from the equator towards the poles and from plains to the
mountain tops. Without the right temperature, many livings will not be able to function
properly, and many will not survive. One reason behind the importance of temperature in
living things is that it affects the metabolic activities, physiological process, behaviour,
reproduction etc., Temperature also affects development of animals for example,
dependence of hatching time of eggs, increase in body size of oysters, corals, sea urchins,
etc. with an increase in temperature etc. In some animals, temperature has been shown to
affect sex ratio, for example olive ridley.

Page 14 of 27
Similarly, effect of temperature on distribution of animals has also been observed, for
example, coral reefs cannot grow in colder regions where temperature is below 21°C;
Speckled trout cannot live in streams where temperature is above 25°C.
Some birds, for example, migrate to other countries to adapt to climates and temperature
changes. This is also true for some sea creatures that travel long distances to ideal locations
with the right temperatures for breeding or egg‐laying purposes
Effect of temperature on morphology of animal body is known as Bergman’s rule. For
example, big size of birds and mammals in cold region than in warmer areas.
Smaller body parts of mammals in cold regions than in warmer regions is known as Allen’s
rule.
Narrow and acuminate wings of birds of colder areas than broad wings of birds of warm
regions are known as Rensch’s rule.
In some animals, phenotypic changes are also evident due to effect of temperature for
example, changes in eye size or number of legs of fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster.
 Migration: Migration is the seasonal movement of animals from one habitat to
another in search of food, better conditions, or reproductive needs.

The two types of organisms according to the ways of regulation of temperature are
 Warm‐blooded Animals
 Cold‐blooded Animals
 Warm‐blooded Animals: These animals can produce heat through the various
processes in the body and maintain their body temperature in a constant range. The
other name for warm‐blooded animals is homeothermic animals. The body
temperature of warm‐blooded animals is independent of the environmental
temperature. Example: Mammals, birds, human etc.,

Page 15 of 27
  Cold‐blooded Animals: Cold blooded animals change their body temperature with
the changes in their environmental temperature. These animals are also called
Poikilotherms. The body temperature of such animals is approximately equal or a bit
higher than that of the environment’s temperature. These animals change their
environment to normalize their internal functions. Examples: Reptiles and
Amphibians.

 Stenothermal Animals: those who are able to tolerate a narrow range of

temperatures. Since stenothermal animals are temperature sensitive, they are greatly
affected by the temperature fluctuations. And the temperature of the stenothermal
animals varies from species to species. Stenothermal animals are main two types
namely thermophilicanimals and cryophilic animals. Thermophilic animals can live
only in higher temperatures. Examples of thermophilic animals include mango, palm,
reptiles, insect species, etc. Cryophilic animals can live only at low
temperatures.Examples of cryophilic animals include salmon, crustaceans, etc.
Over the period of time, by evolution animals have adapted by forming heat resistant
spores, cysts (entamoeba), antifreeze proteins (Arctic fishes).
Hibernation and aestivation are both forms of dormancy, a period of inactivity that allows
animals to conserve energy and survive periods of adverse conditions, such as cold weather
or drought.
 Hibernation: Hibernation typically occurs during the winter months, when food is
scarce and temperatures are cold.
 Aestivation: Aestivation takes place during the summer months, when temperatures
are hot and food is less readily available

Page 16 of 27
Frost:
Frost is defined as a thin layer of ice that forms when water vapor changes from a gas to a
solid as it is exposed to temperatures below the freezing point.The physiological
consequence of formation of ice crystals is often death of the plants, or at least of sensitive
parts like flowers buds, ovaries and leaves. It also results in freezing the soil moisture which
affects water absorption, transpiration and translocation in plants. Browning of Leaf, canker
some diseases caused by frost. Frost can result in widespread loss of food supplies for an
animal species, either through killing the leaves that folivores need, or through loss of fruits
or seeds.
Dieback: Dieback is characterized by
progressive death of twigs, branches, shoots,
or roots, starting at the tips. Dieback is felt to
be the result of a combination of numerous
adverse stress factors, such as drought,
extremes of temperature. There are numerous
examples of forest dieback related to local
sources of pollution.

Snow:
Snow plays a dual role in terms of temperature regulation hence protects plants from
extreme cold and frost. The weight of snow can deform and break trees, branches. Snow
shortens the period of vegetative growth.

Soil
Soil is the outermost layer of the surface of the earth in which plants grow. It is composed of
eroded rock, mineral nutrients, decaying plant and animal matter, water, and air. Most
plants are terrestrial in that they are anchored to the soil through their roots, with which
they absorb water and nutrients.
Variation in the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil has distinct effects on
plant growth and development, depending on natural adaptation. The physical and chemical
properties of the soil are referred to as edaphic factors of the plant environment.
The physical properties include the soil texture, soil structure, and bulk density or
compactness which affect the capacity of the soil to retain and supply water while the
chemical properties consist of the soil pH and cation exchange capacity (CEC) which
determine its capacity to supply nutrients. Humus of soil contains dead or decayed remains
of plants and animals, making the soil fertile. Fertile soil is rich in nutrients sustainable for
plant growth.
Biological properties refer to the living organisms present in the soil including both
beneficial microorganisms and pathogens.

Page 17 of 27
Soil provides an open habitat for various plants and microorganisms by nurturing them with
essential minerals and nutrients. It helps in carbon and nutrient recycling. Soil particles filter
the running surface water into the groundwater. Soils are the stomachs digesting all the
recyclable wastes in the environment.

Wind:
Wind is the movement of air caused by the uneven heating of the Earth by the sun.
Wind helps in dispersal of pollen, seeds and fruits. It aids in pollination and transpiration.
Each time a plant is pushed by the wind, it releases a hormone called an auxin that
stimulates the growth of supporting cells. Wind helps in formation of rain. Deformation of
shoots of trees growing in coastal regions by strong winds is a well‐known effect of wind on
plants
Wind causes soil erosion and strong winds sometimes uproots trees

Page 18 of 27
Altitude:
Altitude, like elevation, is the distance above sea level. At high latitudes, the velocity of wind
remains high, temperature and air pressure decreases with humidity and intensity of light
increases. Due to these factors vegetation varies in various altitude creating zonation.
It refers to the natural layering of different ecosystems that occur at dissimilar heights as a
result of diverse environments due to the differing heights. Factors like temperature, soil
composition, humidity, solar radiation, altitude, type of rocks, and disturbance frequency
(like fire and monsoons) are responsible for the determination and occurrence of the zones.
The zones are equipped to support several species of vegetation and animals.

Latitude:
Latitude is the measurement of distance north or south of the Equator. It is measured with
180 imaginary lines that form circles around the Earth east‐west, parallel to the Equator.
These lines are known as parallels. Like altitudes, zonation can also be seen across latitudes
due to difference in temperature, sun light etc.,

Chemical factors:
Organic compounds & Inorganic compounds:
Organic compounds such as fat, carbohydrate, proteins and inorganic compounds such as
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium etc., are essential for sustenance of life.

Page 19 of 27
 HABITAT
The term habitat has its origin in the Latin word ‘Habitare”, which means “To live or dwell
in”. It is a place where an organism makes its home. The natural environment in which an
organism lives or the physical environment that surrounds a species population. A habitat is
made up of physical factors such as soil, moisture, the range of temperature, and light
intensity as well as biotic factors such as the availability of food and the presence or absence
of predators. Deep oceans to the ice caps are habitats for various organisms.

Definition: A habitat is an environment where an organism lives throughout the year or for
shorter periods of time to find a mate. The habitat contains all an animal needs to survive
such as food and shelter.

Page 20 of 27
Every organism has certain habitat needs for the conditions in which it will thrive, but some
are tolerant of wide variations while others are very specific in their requirements. A habitat
is not confined to a geographical area, but it can be the interior of a stem, a rotten log, a
rock or a clump of moss, and for a parasitic organism it is the body of its host, part of the
host’s body such as the digestive tract, or a single cell within the host’s body.
The habitats can be further subdivided into parts, which exhibit distinct properties and give
shelter to different types of organisms, such habitats are called microhabitats. For example,
the muddy bottom (Crab) and a surface water of a pond (lotus); tree canopy (Birds) and
forest floor (Earthworms) are microhabitats.

Habitat always has life whereas Environment does not necessarily have life. Environment
governs the properties of Habitat not vice‐versa. Habitats might change over time either
due to important environmental changes like volcanoes, and tornadoes or due to changes in
climate over a lengthy period. Changes in the composition of habitat can lead to species
migration or sometimes extinction of the species.

TYPE OF HABITATS:
The two main types of habitats:
1. Terrestrial (land habitat)
2. Aquatic (water habitat)
Terrestrial habitat: Forests, deserts, grasslands, tundra, and mountains are just a few
examples of terrestrial habitats. Because their moist climate supports a wide range of
organisms, rainforests have more biodiversity than any other habitat type. In contrast,
relatively few organisms are adapted to survive in the dry, harsh conditions typical of
deserts; thus, these habitats tend to be low in biodiversity.
Aquatic habitat: Aquatic habitat may contain fresh water or salt water. Freshwater habitats
include streams, rivers, swamps, marshes, ponds, and lakes. Saltwater habitats include
oceans, seas, salt lakes, salt marshes, and saltwater swamps. (Oceans and seas are also
described as marine habitats.) Estuaries are coastal bodies of water located where rivers

Page 21 of 27
meet the sea, and thus contain a mix of seawater and river water. The salinity, or
concentration of salt, of an aquatic habitat is a critical factor. Organisms adapted to life in
saltwater habitats would be unlikely to thrive in a freshwater habitat, and vice versa.

Page 22 of 27
 ECOLOGICAL NICHE

Definition: A niche is a term that defines an organism’s position and functional role in an
ecosystem. Each species of a community lives in a very specific part of a habitat and performs
certain functions.

The term niche was first time used by ‘Grinnell’ in 1971. It may also rely on the sort of
response it generates to the availability of resources, predation, competition etc. The
habitat together with the functions forms the niche of the species.
The idea of ecological niche can be understood by the following factors:
 On what does it feed on?
 Where does it shelter?
 How many mating partners are present?
 What is the reproductive ability of the organism?
 How does the organism respond and interact with biotic factors like predators,
competitors, parasites etc.?
 How does the organism react and adapts to the availability of the abiotic resources?
 What is its function?
Each species within a community has a separate ecological niche. No two species within a
given community can have exactly the same niche and live permanently together. In such
case, there would be a direct competition with each other till one eliminates the other.
Niches allow and promote the fittest species to grow and survive. Reduce the amount of
competition by segregating the organism based on their elementary needs. When occupying
different niches, different species minimize the competition among the organisms, making
the habitat stable. Niche ensures that the resources get recycled in habitat. A species can
change its niche according to its need. Factors like Competition, Seasons, Resources affect
species to change their niche.

Page 23 of 27
Examples:
 Earthworm
 Habitat: earth soils.

 Ecological niche: large decomposers (feed on dead), improve the quality of the
soil, They serve as food for birds, mammals and reptiles.
 Tiger
 Habitat: Grasslands and forest

 Ecological niche: top predator, checks herbivores population

 Vultures
 Habitat: deserts, savannas, grassland, plains, mountains

 Ecological niche: scavengers. By ridding the ground of dead animals, vultures

prevent diseases from spreading to humans and animals.
 Finches
 Habitat: The Galapagos Islands.

 Ecological niche: Different species of finches have their unique beak. This beak
structure is responsible for their distribution in the niches.

 The Warbler finches have thin beak as it eats insects.

 The ground finches have short beaks as they feed upon the seeds left on the
ground.

Page 24 of 27
  Separated niches allow them to prosper and survive in the same habitat.

 Dung beetle
 Habitat: dung

 Ecological niche: It rolls dung into small balls and are buried in the soil. Balls are
used for brooding. Promotes aeration in the soil. Dung releases nutrients. In
addition, the beetle’s use of dung leaves less available for flies to breed on, thus
controlling some of the fly population.

Difference Between Habitat and Niche:

A habitat is a place that provides the organism with its basic need of air, water, food and
shelter. The organism living in a particular habitat utilises all the resources available in the
surrounding for survival.

Whereas the niche is the sub‐part of any habitat. It is a small place or position that a
particular species holds in the ecosystem according to its functional role. It basically defines
how an organism responds to the availability and distribution of resources, predation,
competition etc.

The habitat can have several numbers of niches as its sub‐unit. In contrast, the niches don’t
have any further smaller units. The habitat supports more than one species at a time. But the
niche specifically deals with single species at a time.

Page 25 of 27
Generalist species and Specialist species:
Based on the adaptability to habitat and food there are two types of species:

 Generalist species
 Specialist species
Generalist species: Generalist species can feed on a wide variety of things and thrive in
various environments.

Raccoon Mice

Page 26 of 27
 Specialist species: Specialist species eat a limited diet and occupy a much narrower niche.
Example: tiger. Koala bear, panda etc.,

Koala bear

Ecosystem Habitat Microhabitat Niche

Cannot be defined
in spatial scale
Spatial Scale Large Small Much Smaller

Focal Species Community – Species – Centric Species – Centric Species and

Centric invididual / sub
group‐ centric

Foundation of the Empirical Empirical Empirical Theoretical

concept
Multiple Species Multiple Species May or may not Restricted to only
and communities can occupy same be occupied by one species
Species
occupy the habitat multiple species
occupancy
ecosystem
Large are in A place within Small subset of Role of species in
which species any ecosystems habitat which is nature
Short definition
exists and where species is preferred by
interacts found species
Typical Examples River, Svanna, Stream Submerged rock
Tropical Forest in a stream

Page 27 of 27
 KIND ATTENTION !!
OUR BOOK IS THE ONLY BOOK
ON GOVERNANCE WHICH COVERS
THE WHOLE SYLLABUS

GOVERNANCE IN INDIA
By M. KARTHIKEYAN

# C-40, 2nd Avenue, 89396 96868 info@aramiasacademy.com

Anna Nagar West, Chennai - 40. 89396 96869 www.aramiasacademy.com

aramias_academy Aram.Academy.IAS aramias_academy aimcivilservices aramiasacademy.com