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ABM MODULE – B
Chapter 12: Human Implications of Organizations
(PART-I)
What we will study?

*What is Human Resource?

HUMAN BEHAVIOUR AND INDIVIDUAL

DIFFERENCES:

Understanding and appreciating the importance

of individual differences and its impact on human
behavior is one of the most crucial aspects of
human resource management.

As each individual is different from the other in

his/her physical appearance, he or she is also
different from other person in his/her behavior
and other psychological parameters, viz..,
feelings, perception, value, etc.

One finds striking differences in intelligence,

physical features and personality traits, etc.,
among people
 Joi
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Fr
om thedayofbi r
th,eachpersonisuni
que;
i
ndiv
idualexperi
encesafterbi
rth,
makepeopleev
en
morediff
erent.
Humanbehaviouri
sacompl
exphenomenon.I
tis
mostdi
ff
icul
ttodefi
nei
nabsol
utet
erms.
I
tispr
imari
lyacombi
nat
ionofor
igi
nat
ingand
r
espondi
ngbehavi
our
.
Thebehaviourr
efl
ect
sthepsy
chol
ogi
calst
ruct
ure
ofaperson.
Iti
sal sotheresul
tofbi
ologi
cal
,psy
chol
ogi
caland
socialprocesses.
Accordi
ngtopsychologi
stKur
tLewin,“behav
iouri
s
afuncti
onofthepersonandtheenv
ironment
ar
oundhi m”
.
Theset
wof
act
orsar
eli
nkedwi
theachot
her
.
Anyoneoftheseindiv
iduall
ycannotexpl
ainf
ull
y
thebehav
iour
alcharacter
ist
ics.
Thus,
dif
fer
entpeopl
ebehavedi
ff
erent
lyi
nthe
sameorsimil
arenvi
ronment
.
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Thebehavi
ourofani
ndi
vi
duali
sinf
luencedby
sev
eralf
actor
s.
Thesecanbegr
oupedundert
hef
oll
owi
ngheads:
Env
ironment
alFact
ors:
(a)Economi
c,(
b)Soci
al(
nor
msandcul
tur
alv
alues)
,
and
(
c)Pol
it
ical
;
Per
sonalFact
ors:
(
a)Age (
b)Sex (
C)Educat
ion (
d)Abi
li
ti
es
(e)Mar
italStat
us (f)Famil
ybackgr
oundandot
her
demographicalf
act
ors,et
c.
Or
gani
sat
ionalFact
ors:
(a)Natur
eofJob(
b)Or
gani
sat
ionSt
ruct
ureand
Design,
(c)Leader
shi
p,(
d)Compensat
ionandRewar
d
System,
(
e)Gr
owt
hOppor
tuni
ti
eset
c.
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Psy
chol
ogi
calFact
ors:
(a)Personal
it
y( b)Percept
ion (
c)At
ti
tudes(
d)
Values(e)Learni
ngetc.
Env
ironment
alFact
ors:
Thesefact
orsar
emainl
yext
ernalandt
heyal
so
i
nfl
uenceindi
vi
dual
'
sbehavi
our.
Thesebroadl
yincl
udethesoci
al,
cul
tur
al,
pol
it
ical
andeconomicenvir
onments.
Amongt hese,
economicenvi
ronmentdeter
mines
thebehavi
ourofanindi
vi
dualtoagreatext
ent.
Economicenvi
ronmentconsist
softhel
evelof
employment,
wagerates,economi
coutl
ook,et
c.
Cult
uralfactor
ssuchasworkethic,
achi
evement
needs,values,
etc.
,for
m par
toftheenvi
ronment
al
fact
ors.
Thepoli
ti
calcl
i
mat
eal
soi
nfl
uencesi
ndi
vi
dual
behav
iour.
Thestabi
li
tyoft
hegovernmentcancont
ri
but
eto
employmentoppor
tuni
ti
es.
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Thequal
it
yofthepoli
ti
calsyst
em al
sohasa
bear
ingonindi
vi
dualbehavi
our.
Thesoci
alenvi
ronment
,whichincl
udessoci
etal
normsandthefamil
yatmosphere,
alsoi
nfl
uences
tosomeextentthei
ndi
vi
dualbehavi
our.
Per
sonalFact
ors:
Everyindiv
idualbri
ngst ohiswor kpl
acesev eral
personalcharacteri
sti
cssuchasage, sex,
education,knowledge,int
ell
igence,abi
li
ties,f
amily
dependentsandsi milarotherrel
atedfactors.
Perf
ormanceofanindiv
idualdependsont
hese
fact
orst
oagreatextent.
Or
gani
sat
ionalFact
ors:
Thest ructureoft heorganisati
on, t
heavail
abil
it
yof
physicalfaci l
it
ies,theexist
enceofr ewardand
compensat ionsy stem,thepersonnelpoli
cies,
the
organisati
onalcul t
ure,etc.
,inf
luencethebehaviour
ofani ndividualinanor ganisati
on.
Thequali
tyofl
eader
shi
pal
soi
nfl
uencesi
ndi
vi
dual
behav
iour.
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Psy
chol
ogi
calFact
ors:
Thei ndi
vi
dualbehaviouri
sdeterminedtoagr eat
extentbyt hephy
sicalandmentalpersonal
it
iesof
thatindi
vidual
.
Theval
ues,
percept
ionsandat t
it
udesal
so
cont
ri
butet
otheindiv
idualbehavi
our
.
Sinceeachpersonisindivi
dual
lydi
ff
erentimpl
ying
thati
nordertomot i
vatetheemployeestheyhave
tobetreat
eddiffer
entlykeepi
nginviewtheneeds
andmot i
vesoftheempl oyees.
I
ftheneedsandmoti
vesoftwopersonsare
di
ffer
entt
heymustbetr
eateddi
ff
erentl
y.
Ifi
twerenotforindivi
dualdif
fer
ences,
some
standar
dscouldhav ebeenadoptedfordeal
ingwi
th
employeesandmi ni
mum j udgmentwouldhave
beenrequi
redthereaft
er.
Theremi
ghthav
enotbeenanydi
ff
erencei
ndeal
ing
wit
hmenandmachines.
Fr
om theorganisat
ionalangle,
managersusual
ly
vi
ewtheiremployeesasr at
ionalhumanbei
ngswho
 Joi
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ar
epr
imar
il
ymot
ivat
edbymoney
.
Soci
alMan:
Accordi
ngl
y,t
heyadopt‘economicman’andthe
‘
rat
ionalman’approacht
ounderstandandpr
edict
humanbehaviour.
However
,ithasal
sobeenr
eal
isedt
hatmani
sal
so
asoci
albeing.
Hewantst
obelongt
oagr oup,
andhi
sbehav
iourat
t
heworkpl
aceshowsthi
s.
Oneofthewell-
knownstudies(Hawt
hornestudi
es)
hasmadei tcl
eart
hateconomicmotivesal
onedo
notexpl
ainhumanbehaviour.
Sociali
nteracti
onsatworkplace,especiall
yhow
theyaretreated,andhowtheircontri
butionsare
acknowledged, makeabigdiffer
encei ntheir
atti
tudetoper f
orm.
Thust
hei
deaof'
soci
alman’
wasdev
eloped.
Howev er
,ast
imepassedby,the‘
soci
alman'
appr
oachwasalsoconsider
edsomewhat
si
mplisti
c.
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Thi
sapproachdoesnotpayadequateatt
enti
ont
o
work,
itsi
ntr
insi
cnat
ureandit
sor gani
sati
on.
Nordoesitconcernit
selfwit
htheeconomic
funct
ionsandresponsibi
li
ti
esoftheent
erpr
ise.And
atti
mes, i
tispl
ainl
ymani pul
ati
ve.
Organisationalbehavi
ourtheorist
ssuchasAr gri
sG
C,LikertR, andMcGregorDar guedt hatpeopl
ein
organisati
onsneedoppor tunit
iestouset hei
r
creati
vityandt hi
sgrowthneedshoul dbemett o
enablethem t ocontr
ibut
eef f
ect i
vel
y.
Atthesametime,al
lemployeesmaynotwantto
devel
opandgrowont hei
rjob,t
heymayhavethei
r
pref
erenceel
sewher
e.
Hence,t
hecurrentt
hinki
ngistoacceptmanasa
complexbei
ngandt orecogni
sethatper
sonal
it
ies
al
waysdiff
er.
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ABM MODULE – B
Chapter 12: Human Implications of Organizations
(PART-II)
What we will study?
EMPLOYEES BEHAVIOUR AT WORK:

The behavior of people at workplace plays an

important role in organizations success.

The behavior of an employee as an individual as

well as his behavior in a group makes a difference
in achievement of organizational and group
objectives.

The technical competence of an individual is

important but beyond that his behavior and
interpersonal skills are extremely important.

The people in the organizations do not work in

isolation, their role and performance are
interdependent.

They work in teams where contribution of each

member is important and significant.
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Theteam-buildi
ngski l
lswhicharefoundedon
i
ndivi
dualbehav iourandinterper
sonalski
ll
scan
helpi
nget ti
ngsy nergyatwor kpl
acewherethe
cooperat
ionandcol l
aborat
ioncanimpr ov
et he
groupperformanceandout putbeyondthe
i
ndivi
dualcont r
ibuti
ons.
Synergyist
hehighestact
ivi
tyofl
ife,i
tcreatesnew
untappedal
ternat
ives;
itv
aluesandexploitsthe
ment al
,emoti
onalandpsychol
ogicaldi
ff
er ences
betweenpeople.
Therearesomebasi
cassumpt
ionsabouthuman
behavi
ouratwor
k:
1.Ther
ear
edi
ff
erencesbet
weeni
ndi
vi
dual
s.
2.ConceptofWhol
ePer
son.
3.Behav
iourofani
ndi
vi
duali
scaused.
4.Ani
ndi
vi
dualhasdi
gni
ty.
5.Or
gani
sat
ionsar
esoci
alsy
stems.
6.Therei
smut ual
it
yofint
erestamong
organi
sat
ionalmembers.
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7.Or
gani
sat
ionbehav
iouri
shol
ist
ic.
Per
sonsdi
ff
erandagai
n,ther
earecer
tai
n
‘
commonal
iti
es'
int
hepersons.
Ev
eryper
soni
s,i
ncer
tai
nrespect
s:
*
li
keal
lot
herper
sons,
*
li
kesomeot
herper
sons,
and
*
li
kenoot
herper
son.
Itindicatesthatanindivi
dualpossessessome
commonchar acteri
sti
csofmostoft hepeople
(gener al
izedcharacteri
sti
csofhumanbei ngs)l
ike
mostoft hepeopl eareself
ishormoneyis
i
mpor tanttoeveryoneorev er
yonewantst obe
treatedwel l
.
Hemayhav esomef eat
uresofsomeot herpeopl
e
whi
chcanbedi videdintobroadgroupsl i
ke
i
ntr
ov er
tsandextravert
sorhighrisktakers,
medium ri
sktakersandlowr i
sktakers.
Hemayal sohavesomecharacteri
sti
cswhichot
her
per
sonsdonothav e,
i.
e.,
thefeaturesuni
quetoan
i
ndivi
dualforwhi
chheisknown( hi
sunique
 Joi
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per
sonal
it
ychar
act
eri
sti
cs)
.
Someofthehumancharact
eri
sti
csmaynotbe
cl
assi
fi
edint
ofewsub-gr
oupsrathert
hancanhav
e
aposi
ti
oninacont
inuum.
Humanpersonali
tyisthusacomplexand
mult
idi
mensionalphenomenon.Therei
sindeedno
si
mpledef
ini
tionofwhatpersonal
ityi
s.
Howev er
,personali
tycanbeexaminedint
ermsof
cert
ainstabl
echar act
eri
sti
cs,
tendenci
esand
behavi
ourpatterns.
Salvot
oreMaddidef i
nedper sonalit
yasast abl
eset
ofcharacterist
icsandt endenci esthatdetermi
ne
thosecommonal it
iesanddi fferencesinthe
psychologicalbehav i
our(thought s,f
eeli
ngs,and
acti
ons)ofpeopl et hathavecont inuit
yintimeand
thatmaynotbeeasi l
yunder stoodast hesoleresul
t
ofthesocialandbi ologicalpressuresofthe
moment .
Thisdefi
nit
iondoesnoti
mpl
ythatpeopl
edonot
everchange.
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I
tsi mplyi
ndi
catesthati
ndivi
dualsdonotchange
drasti
call
yover
nightandthei
rthought
s,feel
ings,
valuesandacti
onsremainrelat
ivel
yst
ableov er
ti
me.
Changesinpersonal
it
y/behavi
ourpatt
ernthattake
pl
aceinindiv
idual
soccurslowlyoveranextended
per
iodoftime.
Thusbyunder standingcertai
ndi mensionsof
personal
ityandbehav i
our,manager scan, t
oagreat
ext
ent,predictt
helikelybehaviourintermsof
act
ionsandout comesofact i
onsi nrespectof
employees.
Therearesever
alt
heor
iest
oexpl
aint
heconceptof
personal
it
y.
Onedimensionofpersonalitywhi chi
sgett
ing
att
enti
onbothf r
om organisationalaswel
las
medicalr
esearchersi
st heTy peAandTy peB
behavi
ourprof
iles.
Aper sonexhi
biti
ngTypeAbehav
iouri
sgener
all
y
rest
less,i
mpatientwi
thadesi
ref
orquick
achi
ev ementandperf
ecti
oni
sm.
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Type'B'personal
it
ypeopl
ear emuchmor eeasy
going,r
elaxedaboutti
mepr essure,
less
competiti
veandmor ephi
losophicalinnat
ure.
Fri
edman,MeyerandRayRosemanhavementi
oned
thefol
lowi
ngcharact
eri
sti
csofTy
pe‘
A’per
sonal
it
y:
Rest
lessbynature,
sot
hatheal
way
smov
es,
wal
ks
andeatsrapi
dly
.
Isi
mpati
entwit
hthepaceoft
hings,
disl
ikeswai
ti
ng
andisi
mpati
entwit
hthosewhoarenotimpati
ent
.
Mul
ti
tasker-doessev
eralt
hingsatonce.
Tri
estoschedulemoreandmorei
nlessandless
ti
me, i
rr
espect
iveofwhet
herev
ery
thi
ngisdoneor
not.
Usual
lydoesnotcompl
eteonet
hingbef
orest
art
ing
onanother
.
Oftendi
spl
aysner
vousgestur
essuchascl
enched
fi
standbangi
ngonatable.
Doesnothav
eti
met
orel
axandenj
oyl
if
e.
 Joi
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TypeBper
sonali
tyexhi
bit
sjusttheopposit
e
char
act
eri
sti
csandismor erel
axed,soci
ableand
hasabal
ancedoutl
ookonl i
fe.
Wecomeacr
ossbot
hTy
peAandTy
peBManager
s
i
nbanks.
Usual
lyTy
peAManager'
scabi
nisunt
idy
,andgi
ves
aMessyappear
ance.
Furt
her,hi
stabl
eisfullofpaper
sandmanyat i
me,
i
tisdif
fi
culttot
raceimportantpaperskeptonhi
s
tabl
e.Hehasat endencyeventolosesomepapers
andtoblameothersforsuchal oss.
TypeBper sonal
it
y,however,
issyst
ematicand
methodicali
nhisday -
to-
daywork.Hehasfull
cont
rolovertimeanddoesnotcompl ai
noflackof
ti
meev enduet opressur
eofwork.
Thisisbecauseheplansthewor kinsuchaway
thaturgentandimport
antmat t
ersaredisposedof
i
nt i
me.Al t
houghheisbusyl i
kemanyot her
manager s,heappear
stotaket hi
ngseasyand
normallydoesnotgetdist
urbed.
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ABM MODULE - B
Chapter 12: Human Implications of
Organizations (PART-III)
What we will study:
Development model of personality described by E H
Erikson also helps us to understand the concept of
personality.

Erikson has identified 8 development stages in

explaining the personality.

These stages which are based on a person’s state of

mind at a given point of time are mentioned below:
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust of trust
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
Stage 4: Industry Vs. Inferiority
Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Diffusion
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Stage 7: Growth vs. Stagnation
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
 Joi
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St
age1:Tr
ustv
s.Mi
str
ustoft
rust
Aschil
drenwedependonot
her
sforourv
ari
ous
needs.
I
ntheprocesswedev el
opfeel
ingsormi
strust
t
owardsothersdependi
ngonourexperi
enceabout
t
heful
fi
ll
mentofourneeds.
Simil
arl
y,i
ntheworkplace,
wemaynotknow
ever
ythi
ngaboutthejobandt her
efor
e,wear
e
dependentonot
hersforguidance.
Inthepr
ocesswealsodevelopfeeli
ngsoft r
ustor
mistr
usttowar
dsot
hersintheor ganisat
ion
dependi
nguponhowwel lt
heyrespondt oour
needsandhelpust
of i
ndourplacei nthesystem.
St
age2:Aut
onomyv
s.ShameandDoubt
Aschil
drenweexperiencedagr
eatneedt
obeon
ourownandwhenev erwesucceeded,
wefel
twe
arei
ndependentandautonomous.
Whenwef ail
edi
nsuchatt
empt
s,weexper
ienceda
senseofshameanddoubt.
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Simil
arl
y,i
ntheworkplaceaf
teri
nducti
onandini
ti
al
tr
aini
ng,wefeelhappywhenwecanf unct
ion
i
ndependentl
y.
Butwhenwecommi tmist
akeswest ar
tdoubt
ing
ourowncompetenceandexperi
enceasenseof
shamefornotdoi
ngthi
ngsright
.
St
age3:I
nit
iat
ivev
s.Gui
lt
Thisstagei
ndicat
est
hechild'
seff
ortsatt
ryi
ngto
dothingsonit
sowniniti
ati
veandfeel
inggui
lt
yif
mistakesar
ecommi t
ted.
Simil
arl
yasemployeeswet akei
niti
ati
veanduse
ourtal
entstoset
tl
edowni nthej
obs; i
fthi
ngsgo
wrong,wemayexperienceasenseofgui l
tthatwe
havewastedourenergyandtheresourcesofthe
organi
sati
on.
St
age4:I
ndust
ryv
s.I
nfer
ior
it
y
Aswegrowupwebecomedil
igentand
i
ndust
ri
ous.Wewantt
opur
sueourgoalsand
manageourli
fe.
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Ifwearesuccessf
ulintheseef
fort
s,wefeelgood
aboutoursel
f;i
fwefail
,wedevelopasenseof
i
nferi
ori
ty.
Similar
ly,
intheworkplacewet r
ytoworkhar
dto
fi
ndapl aceintheorganisati
on; i
fwearenot
successful,
wet endtosufferfrom af
eeli
ngofl
ow
self
-conceptandlowsel f
-esteem.
St
age5:I
dent
it
yvs.Rol
eDi
ff
usi
on
Aswegr ow,weexperienceconfl
ictduetothe
soci
all
yimposedrequirementofbecomi ngan
i
ndependentandeffecti
veadult
.This,atti
mes,
becomesdiff
icul
t.
I
ntheworkpl
acealso,
weareexpect
edtopr
ove
our
sel
vesashigh,
perfor
mingmembers.
Obv
iousl
y,t
hisi
snotal
way
seasyf
orev
ery
body
.
I
ntheprocesssomemayfindthei
rrol
eident
it
y
di
ff
usedrathert
hani
dent
if
iedanddist
ingui
shed.
St
age6:I
nti
macyv
s.I
sol
ati
on
Asay out
h,onefeel
stheneedt
odev
elopi
nti
mat
e
rel
ati
onshi
pwithother
s.
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Howev er,
theremaybeimpedi
ment
stodevel
op
suchrelat
ionshi
pandhencesomemightf
eel
i
solat
ed.
Samei
stheexper
iencei
nthewor
kpl
aceal
so.
Wemaydevel
opclosecontactwit
hot
her
sandwe
mayal
sof
eelasenseofisolat
ion.
St
age7:Gr
owt
hvs.St
agnat
ion
I
nmi ddl
eadul
thood,t
herearecompulsi
onst
o
for
egoone'
simmediateneedsinfav
ourof
devel
opi
ngone'schi
l
dren.
I
fthi
sisnoteff
ecti
vel
yr esol
vedwi
thi
nthe
i
ndiv
idual
,asenseofstagnati
oncr
eepsin.
Similar
ly,i
nanorgani
sati
onasonereachesmid-
career,t
herei
sanexpectati
onandneedt odev
elop
othersinthesyst
em andhelpt
hem t
ogr ow.
I
fthi
sisnotdoneproper
ly,
theper
sonsensesa
f
eeli
ngofstagnat
ion.
 Joi
nCAI
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St
age8:I
ntegr
it
yvs.Despai
r
Duringthelat
erpar tofli
fe,t
herei
sanat ur
aldecl
ine
ofsocialandbiologicalr
olesduetotheageing
process.Asar esultonemayexperienceasenseof
uselessness.
I
fheisinaposit
iontoacceptreal
it
y,hemay
r
esolvet
heconfl
ictandfeelhappyabouthi
s
l
if
elongachi
evements.
Likewise,i
nanorgani
sati
on, asoneapproaches
reti
rementage,hemayexper ienceeit
herahigh
senseofsel f
-wor
thduetohi spercei
ved
accompl i
shmentsint
hecar eerorhemaywi thdr
aw
himselfwithasenseofpurposelessnessand
despair.
Thetwot heori
es(TypeAandB)andErikson'
s
modelofper sonal
it
ybri
ngoutdi
ff
erentaspect
sof
theconcept.
WhileTypeAandBf ocusoncertai
npersonal
ity
feat
ures,Eri
kson’
smodelnarratesdif
fer
entstages
ofanindivi
dual'
sgrowthandtheiref
fect
sonhi s
mentalpersonal
ity
.
 Join CAIIB WITH ASHOK on YouTube & App
ABM MODULE – B
Chapter 12: Human Implications of Organizations
(PART-IV)
What we will study?
*What are the different Personality Theories?
Personality Theory:

There are certain common patterns and variables

which determine the personality of people.

The patterns of behavior can be, up to some extent

predicted if we can identify the type of personality.

People with similar attributes can be classified in one

category and their behavior can predicted.

Accordingly, experts have developed certain

personality theory.
Some of which we will discuss here.

1-Psycho-analytical Theory (PT)

2-Trait Theory
3- Self-Concept Theory
4-Social Learning Theory
 Joi
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Psy
cho-
anal
yti
calTheor
y(PT)
:
PTisbasedpr imaril
yontheFreudi
anconceptof
unconscious,subconsci
ousandconsci
ousnatur
e
ofpersonali
ty.
Fr
eudnot
edthathispat
ient
'sbehav
iourcoul
dnot
al
waysbeexpl
ained.
Thisledtohim beli
evethattheper
sonali
ty
str
uctureispri
mar i
lyf
oundedonunconsci ous
fr
amewor kandt hathumanbehav i
ourand
mot i
vati
onaretheoutcomeofpsy choanalyt
ic
el
ement s,vi
z.,
id,t
heego, andthesuperego.
I
dist
hef
oundat
ionoft
heunconsci
ous.
I
tstr
ivesforsexualpl
easur
eandot herbi
ological
pl
easuresandhasani mali
nst
inct
sofaggr ession,
poweranddomi nati
on.
Egoisconsci
ousi
nnatur
eandrel
atesour
consci
ousurgest
otheoutsi
dewor
ld.
Itkeepst hei
dincheckthr
ought
her
eal
it
iesoft
he
externalenvi
ronment.
Whi
lei
ddemandsi
mmedi
atepl
easur
e,what
ever
 Joi
nCAI
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thecost
,egocont
rolsitsothatt
hesepl
easuresare
grant
edatanappropri
ateti
meandi nanacceptabl
e
manner.
Becauseofdi
ffi
cul
tyofkeepi
ngthei
dundercont
rol
,
egoissuppor
tedbysuperego.
Thesuperegoi
sthehigherl
evelr
estrai
ningfor
ce
andcanbedescri
bedastheconscienceofthe
per
son.
Theconsci
encecreat
esst andardsofwhatiswrong
andwhatisri
ghtandisgener al
lysubconsci
ousl
y
devel
opedbytheabsorpti
onofcul tur
alandethi
cal
val
uesofthesoci
alenvir
onment .
Allt
heset
hreeFreudi
anelementsarei
nterr
elat
ed
andeachcannotexi
stini
solat
ionfr
om others.
I
nor dertocreat
ea‘
normalpersonal
it
y’,
ther
emust
beabal anceint
her
elat
ionshi
pamongt hesethr
ee
for
ces.
Forexample,anover
devel
opedsuperegowoul d
maket heper
sonhighl
ymor alandmakehimf eel
gui
lt
yforeveryli
tt
let
hingt
hatsl i
ght
lydev
iat
esf r
om
 Joi
nCAI
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t
henor
m.
Thi
swoul
dnotbeconsi
der
edpr
act
icalorr
ati
onal
.
Si
mi l
arly
,anunder
devel
opedsuperegowoul
dleti
d
urgeslooseandwoul
dcharact
eri
setheper
sonas
onehav i
ngweakmoralsandval
ues.
Thispsy choanal
yti
calappr
oacht
oper
sonali
ty
st
r uct
ureanalysi
shasmadesomei mpacton
organisati
onalbehavi
our.
Similar
ly,suchempl oyeebehav i
ourasdaydreaming,
forgetf
ulness,absenteeism,tar
diness,
sabotage,
alcoholi
sm anddr ugabuse, canbeanalysed
throughpsy choanal
y t
icalst
udiesandanalysis.
Tr
aitTheor
y:
Traitt
heorybeli
evesthatthetrait
sofaper
son
whichdeterminehispersonal
ityandbehav
iourar
e
basical
lyi
nherenttoaperson, i
.e.
,mor
eofa
heredit
yimpactthantheenv i
ronment.
Trai
ttheoryexpl
ainspersonal
ityasa
demonstrati
onofcertai
nt r
ait
softheindi
vi
dual
.
 Joi
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Whil
etherearemanyt
rai
tscommont omost
peopl
e,ther
earemanyot
hertrai
tst
hatareunique
toapersonandar
enotsharedbyotheri
ndi
vidual
s.
OnthebasisofTrai
ttheory,
peoplecanbe
descr
ibedasaggressiv
e,loy
al,pl
easant,fl
exi
ble,
humorous,sent
imental,
impulsi
ve,coolandsoon.
Tr
ait
sarethebasicelementsofpersonal
it
yandcan
beusedt
oexplaintheirbehav
iour
.
Peopl
ebehavinginaforcef
ulmannerinmost
si
tuat
ionscouldbedescri
bedasaggressi
ve.
Si
mi l
arl
y,ifapersonall
owsother
stot
aket
he
i
nit
iati
ve,heis‘submissi
ve'
.
Sel
f-
ConceptTheor
y:
Thistheorybeli
evest
hatper
sonal
it
yandbehavi
our
aretoagr eatext
entdet
ermi
nedbythei
ndiv
idual
hi
msel f.
Wehaveanimageofourownandouract i
ons
woul
dbeconsistentwi
ththati
mage.Car
lRoger
sis
cl
osel
yassoci
atedwiththi
stheor
y.
 Joi
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Accordi
ngtohim, t
hebestvant
agepointfor
under
standingbehavi
ouri
sfrom t
heinter
nalfr
ame
ofref
erenceoftheindi
vi
dualhi
mself
.
Ani
ndi
vi
dualhi
msel
fist
hecent
erofexper
ience.
Hi
ssel
f-
imagei
sanint
egralofhowheviews
hi
msel
fandhi
sper
cepti
onofhowot her
sv i
ewhi
m.
Thissel
f-concepti
saresultofaper
son'
s
i
nteract
ionwi t
hhisenv
ironment.
Thi
sinter
acti
oninthef
orm ofl
ear
ningexperi
ence
hel
psustogr owandmatur
e,andwemodi fyour
sel
fconceptasaresul
toft
heseexperi
ences.
Whenwegetposi ti
vefeedbackfrom othersi
n
responsetoourbehav
iour,ourself
-concepti
s
posit
ivel
yrei
nfor
ced.
Ontheotherhand,whenwegetnegati
vefeedback,
oursel
f-
regar
dislowered,
resul
ti
ngintensi
onand
anxi
ety
.
Thus,anemployeewithaself
-conceptofhi
gh
i
ntel
li
gence,
independence,
andconf i
dencemaynot
l
ookforsuchreinf
orcementtechni
quesas
 Joi
nCAI
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monetaryrewar
ds,
jobsecur
it
yordi
rect
ive
super
visi
on.
Hemaylookforachal
lengi
ngenv i
ronmentwher
e
heget
srecogni
ti
on,r
esponsibi
li
tyandachiev
ement
.
Ontheotherhand,themonetaryrewardsandjob
secur
it
ymaybemor eef
fect
iveonempl oy
eeswho
haveaself
-conceptofdependence,i
nsecuri
tyand
wholackconfi
dencei nt
hemselves.
Soci
alLear
ningTheor
y:
Thistheor
ybeli
evesthatper
sonali
tydev
elopment
i
smor earesul
tofsoci
alvar
iabl
esthanbiol
ogi
cal
fact
ors.
Muchofhumanbehaviouri
sei
therl
ear
ntor
modi
fi
edbylear
ning.
Throughlear
ning,oneacqui
resknowl
edge,
att
itudes,
val
ues,skil
ls,
etc.
Per
sonali
tyi
sthesum t
otalofal
lthataper
sonhas
l
earned.
Thesoci
all
ear
ningtheoryuses‘r
einf
orcementand
puni
shment
’approachinunderst
andingper
sonali
ty.
 Joi
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Forexample,fr
ustrat
ioncausedbyexter
nal
envi
ronment,causesandr ei
nfor
cesaggressi
onas
apersonal
itytr
ait
.
Also,
goodbehavi
ouri
srewardedbythesoci
etyi
n
termsofprai
sewhi
chfur
therrei
nfor
cesgood
behavi
our.
Thus,behavi
ourandext
ernalenv
ironmenthav
e
mutualint
eract
ion.
Behavi
ourpart
lycr
eatestheperson'
senvi
ronment
andtheenvi
ronmentaffect
stheperson'
sbehavi
our
aswell
.
 Join CAIIB WITH ASHOK on YouTube & App
ABM MODULE – B
Chapter 12: Human Implications of Organizations
(PART-V)
What we will study?
*What is motivation?
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION AND THEIR PRACTICAL
IMPLICATIONS:

What is Motivation?

To begin with, we will define the term motivation.

The word motivation is derived from Latin word
‘movere’ (to move).

Accordingly, It attempts to account for the ‘drives’ and

‘wants’ of an individual rather than just focusing on the
individual’s actions.

The term motivation is commonly used and

understood by everyone but there is no uniform
definition of the term.

One can find as many definitions as number of books

on the subject.
 Joi
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Init
ssimpl estform moti
vati
oni nanorganisat
ional
contextisreferr
edast heextentofwil
li
ngnessof
anempl oyeet orespondtotheor gani
sat
ional
requir
ement s.
Motivati
onisgener
all
ydir
ected,consci
ousl
yor
unconsciousl
y,t
owardssati
sfacti
onofneeds
(moti
v es)
.
Moti
vati
onhasdi
rectimpactont
hej
ob
per
for
manceofindi
vidual
s.
Moti
vat
ioni
saprocessbegi
nni
ngfr
om innerst
ate
ofaper
sonandendingwi
thneedf
ulf
il
lment.
Forexample,whenanemployeeworkshar
d,hi
s
l
evelofmot i
vat
ionmaybeconsider
edashighand
i
fheav oi
dswor k,
hismot
ivat
ionlev
elmaybe
consi
deredaslow.
Thel
evelofmoti
vat
ionofanemployeecanbe
j
udgedbyhisact
ualworkbehav
iour
.
Themanager sar
e,therefor
e,i
nterestedinknowi
ng
thef
actorswhichmot i
vateemploy eestoworkhard
andalsothefact
orswhi chcont
ributeto“de-
moti
vation’
.
 Joi
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Ever
yhumanbei
nghasagi
venl
evelofsat
isf
act
ion
atagiv
enpoi
ntoft
ime.
Moti
vationasabehav iour
alconcepti
sofgreat
i
nter
estt otheexecuti
vesandmanagersin
or
ganisationst
oday .
Oneoft
hebi
ggestpr
oblemsamanagerfacesi
s
howtomot
ivat
ethepeopl
ewor
kingunderhim.
Whatismoti
vat
ionandhowcanempl
oyeesbe
moti
vatedt
owor k?
Whati
stherel
ati
onshi
pbet
weenmot
ivat
ionand
per
for
mance?
Whetherahighl
ymotivat
edemployeei
snecessar
il
y
agoodperformeroremployeewhoseper
for
mance
i
snotgoodcanbeconsi der
edasde-moti
vat
ed?
Thesearesomeoft
heissueswhichar
edr
awi
ng
theat
tenti
onoft
heorgani
sat
ions.
 Joi
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Thev
ari
oust
heor
iesofmot
ivat
ionar
e:
1.Scient
if
icManagementorRat
ionalEconomi
c
View
2.HumanRel
ati
onsModel
3.Abr
aham Masl
ow'
sNeedHi
erar
chyTheor
y
4.Fr
eder
ickHer
zber
g'sTwo-
Fact
orTheor
y
5.Cl
ayt
onAl
der
fer
'sERGTheor
y
6.Achi
evementMot
ivat
ionTheor
y
7.Vi
ctorHVr
oom'
sExpect
ancyModel
8.JamesSt
acyAdams'
Equi
tyTheor
y
9.LymanW.Port
erandEdwardELawl
er–
Perf
ormanceSat
isf
act
ionModel
10.Rei
nfor
cementTheor
y
 Joi
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6-Achi
evementMot
ivat
ionTheor
y:
Thi
stheor
ywasdev el
opedbyDav
idC.McCel
land
andhi
sassoci
ates.
Accor
dingt othi
stheor
y,t
herearet
hreeneeds,
namel
y ,needforachi
evement,
needforpowerand
needforaffi
li
ati
on.
Needf
orAchi
evement
:
Employeeswithhighachievementmoti
vat
ion
der
ivesati
sfacti
onfrom achiev
inggoal
s.
Succeedi
ngatat
aski
simpor
tantt
othem.
Alt
houghpeopl ewithahighneedf
orachi
evement
areoftenwealthy
,thei
rwealt
hcomesfrom t
hei
r
abil
it
yt oachi
evegoals.
However,
highachi
ever
sar enotmoti
vat
edby
moneyperse;moneyistheiri
ndi
cat
orof
achi
evement.
Theyprefert
oworki ndependent
lyanddisl
ikeeasy
taskswhichdonotthrowanychal l
engeora
competit
ivesi
tuat
ion.
 Joi
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Needf
orPower
:
Theemployeesexhi biti
ngt heneedforpower,
der
ivesat
isfact
ionf rom theabili
tyt
ocontrolot
her
s
andhavi
ngcont rolov erresour
ces.
Actualachi
evementofgoal
sislessimport
antto
them thant
hemeansbywhi chgoalsareachi
eved.
Indi
vi
dualswit
hahighneedf
orpowerderi
ve
sati
sfact
ionfr
om bei
ngi
nposit
ionsofi
nfl
uence
andcontrol
.
Organisati
onsthatfostert
hepowermotivetendto
attr
actindiv
idual
swi t
hahi ghneedf
orpower( f
or
exampl e,
mi l
it
ary,
civi
lservi
cesandpol
it
ical
organi
sations).

Needf
orAf
fi
li
ati
on:
I
ndiv
idualsexhi
bit
ingthi
sneedasadominant
moti
ve,deri
vesati
sfacti
onfr
om bei
ngsoci
alwit
h
i
nter
personalact
ivi
ti
es.
Theyhaveast
rongneedfori
nter
per
sonalt
iesand
togetcl
oset
opeoplepsy
chologi
cal
ly.
 Joi
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Ifaskedtochoosebetweenwor kingatat askwith
thosewhoar etechni
call
ycompet entandt hose
whoar ethei
rfri
ends,i
ndivi
dualswithhighneedf or
affi
li
ati
onwillchoosethei
rfri
ends.

7-Vr
oom'
sExpect
ancyModel
:
Thistheor
yhassev er
alnamessuchas
i
nstrumentali
tytheory,path-
goalt
heor
yandv
alence
-
instrumental
it
y-expectancytheor
y.
Thet
heor
ywasdev
elopedbyVi
ctorHVr
oom.
Theexpectancymodelisbasedonthebeli
eft
hat
motivat
ionisdeter
minedbythenat
ureofthe
rewardpeopleexpectt
ogetasaresultoft
hei
rjob
perf
ormance.
Theunder l
yingassumptioni
sthatamanisa
rat
ionalbeingandwi l
ltr
ytomaximisehi
sper
cei
ved
val
ueofsuchr ewards.
Hewi
llchooseanal
ternat
ivet
hatwoul
dgi
vehi
m
t
hemaximum benef
it.
 Joi
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Peoplearehi
ghlymotivatediftheybel
ievethata
cert
ainty
peofbehav i
ourwi l
lleadtoacertaintype
ofoutcomeandt hei
rextentofpersonalprefer
ence
fort
hattypeofoutcome.
Ther
ear
ethr
eei
mpor
tantel
ement
sint
hemodel
.
Thesear
e:
1-
Expect
ancy
:
Thisisaper son'
sper
ceptionoftheli
kel
ihoodthata
parti
cularoutcomewil
lresultf
rom apar
t i
cul
ar
behaviouroracti
on.
Thisli
kel
ihoodisprobabi
li
sti
cinnat
ureand
descri
bestherelat
ionshi
pbetweenanactandi
ts
outcome.
Forexampl e,
ifastudentworkshardduri
ngthe
semester,hewi l
lexpectt
odowel li
nthefi
nal
examinati
ont houghhecannotbehundredpercent
cert
ain.
Ther
eissomepr
obabi
li
tyat
tachedt
othi
sout
come.
 Joi
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2-
Inst
rument
ali
ty:
Thisfactorrelatestoaper
son'
sbel
iefand
expectati
ont hathisper
for
mancewilll
eadtoa
parti
culardesiredrewar
d.
I
tisthedegr
eeofassociat
ionoff
ir
stlev
eloutcome
ofapart
icul
areff
ortt
othesecondlev
eloutcome
whichi
stheult
imaterewar
d.
Forexample,wor
kinghardmayl eadtobet t
er
perfor
mance–whi chi
st hefi
rst
-lev
eloutcome, and
i
tmayr esulti
narewardsuchassal ar
yincreaseor
promotionorbot
h–whi chisthesecond-level
outcome.
Ifapersonbeli
ev esthathi
shighperf
ormancewil
l
notber ecogni
sedorl eadt
oexpectedanddesi
red
rewards,hewillnotbemotivat
edtoworkhard.
Theinst
rument
ali
tyi
stheper
for
mance-
rewar
d
rel
ati
onshi
p.
 Joi
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3-
Val
ence:
Valenceist
hev
alueaper
sonassi
gnst
ohi
sdesi
red
reward.
Hemaynotbewil
li
ngtoworkhardt
oimpr
ove
per
for
mancei
ftherewar
dforsuchi
mprov
ed
per
for
mancei
snotwhathedesir
es.
I
tisnottheactualv
alueofther
ewardbutt
he
per
ceptualval
ueoftherewardi
nthemindoft
he
per
sont hati
simportant
.
Anemployeemaybemotiv
atedtowor
khardnott
o
getpayr
aisebutt
ogetr
ecogni
ti
onandst
atus.
Anotheremployeemaybemor
eint
erest
edi
njob
securi
tythanst
atus.
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ABM MODULE – B
Chapter 12: Human Implications of Organizations
(PART-VI)
What we will study?
*What is Maslow’s theory of hierarchy of need?

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:

Abraham Maslow, a clinical Psychologist from USA

submitted that people have the following 5 basic levels
of needs.
He identified 5 needs in an order of hierarchy:

1- Physiological needs,
2-Safety/Security Needs,
3- Social Needs,
4-Self-esteem needs,
5-Self-actualisation Needs.
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Thepr omi
nenceoftheseneedsgenerall
yfoll
owa
hi
erarchyi
.e.whenaneedissati
sfiedthenonlythe
nextneedbecomespr omi
nentinthathier
archal
order
.
Buttherehavebeenf oundexcepti
onst othi
sorder
forcert
ainpersons.Theyarepreparedtosacri
fi
cea
l
oweror derneedforachiev
ingahi gherneed.

1-
Phy
siol
ogi
calNeeds:
Thisgroupofneedincludestheneedsforfood,
dri
nk,shel
ter
,oxygen,sleep,
sex,weather
,etc.
Thesephysiol
ogicalneedsar
erequi
redt
omai
ntai
n
thephy
sicalenti
tyoftheindi
vi
dual
.
Thesearet
hebasi
cneedsinthesensethatthey
sat
isfyt
hever
yli
vel
ihoodoft
heindi
vidualf
or
surv
ival
.
Physi
ologicalneedsdomi
nat ehumandesiresand
onl
ywhent heseneedsar
er easonabl
ysat
isfi
ed,
one'
sattentionturnst
ootherneeds.
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Intheorganisati
onalcontext,
phy si
ologi
calneeds
arerepresentedbytheempl oyee'
sconcer nfor
salar
iesandgoodphy si
calwor ki
ngconditi
ons.
Theorgani
sat
ionshouldtheref
oreendeavourto
sat
isf
ythephysi
ologi
calneedsoftheempl oyee.
Onl
ythentheywil
lbemot iv
atedtoperfor
m better
.
2-
Saf
ety
/Secur
it
yNeeds:
Saf
etyneedsbecomemotiv
ator
saf
ter
phy
siol
ogicalneedsar
emet.
Maslowsuggestedthatthesafetyneedsaremost
readi
lyobser
vedininfant
sandy oungchil
dren
becauseofthei
rrel
ativehel
plessnessand
dependenceonadults.
Safetyandsecuri
tyneedsi ntheor gani
sat
ional
contextrel
atetosuchf actor
sasj obsecur
ity,sal
ary
i
ncreases,safewor ki
ngconditi
ons, uni
oni
sati
on,
andlobby i
ngforprotecti
velegi
slation.
Manager
ialpracticestosatisf
ythesaf
etyneedsof
t
heemployeei ncludepensionscheme,group
i
nsur
ance,prov i
dentfund,gratui
ty,
saf
ewor ki
ng
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condi
ti
ons,
gri
evancepr
ocedur
e,et
c.
Arbitrar
yorunpr edictabl
eact ions,whi chcreat
ea
feeli
ngofuncer tai
nt y(parti
cularl
yr egardi
ng
cont i
nuedempl oyment ),favourit
ism, or
discri
mi nat
ionont hepar tofthemanagementdo
notcr eateafeeli
ngofsecur it
yint heempl oyee'
s
mi nd.

3-
Soci
alNeeds:
Thi
sneedi
sexpr
essedthr
ought
hedesir
eto
bel
ongi
ngandaf
fect
ioni
nasoci
alcont
ext.
I
nt heor ganisat
ionalcontext
,socialneeds
representtheneedf oracompat ibleworkgroup,
peeraccept ance,professi
onalfr
iendship,
and
fri
endlysuper vi
sion.
Thesearet
heneedsoneacqui
res,l
ear
nsoradopt
s
thr
oughexperi
enceandt
heseneedsaremost
ly
cul
tur
all
ydeter
mined.
Theyar
elar
gel
yamani f
est
ati
onofthedesi
ret
o
bel
ongandbeaccept
edbyother
s.
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Manager swoulddowel lt
oencouragei nformal
groupsamongstt heemployeessot hatthisneedi
s
adequatelymet.Careshouldbetakent hatthe
i
nformalgr oupsshoul
dnotwor kcontrarytothe
requi
rement softheor
ganisati
on.
Maybe, i
fwor ker
shavethefreedom tof or
mt heir
ownwor kteamsanddeci deupont hedistr
ibuti
on
ofwor kwi
thintheteamsandt othateffectorgani
se
theteam,onemaybeabl etoseeapr oducti
ve
outcome.
4-Sel
f-
est
eem-
Needs:
Theesteem needsforself
-respectandrecogni
ti
on
andforrespectofother
sareof tenref
err
edt oas
egoorstatusneeds.
Thesati
sfact
ionoft
hisneedgener
atesafeel
ingof
sel
f-
confi
denceandofbeingusef
ulandnecessar
y
i
nthewor l
d.
Incontr
ast,thethwarti
ngofthi
sneedl eadstoa
feeli
ngofinfer
iori
ty,
inept
ness,weakness,and
helpl
essness.
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Maslowemphasisedthatthehealt
hiestsel
f-est
eem
i
sbasedonearnedrespectfrom othersrat
herthan
onfame,st
atusoradulat
ion(prai
se).
Inthecontextofworkpl
ace,self
-esteem needs
correspondtojobti
tl
e,merit
,payincrease,peer/
supervisor
yrecogni
ti
on,chall
engingwor k,
responsibi
li
ty,
etc.
Manager i
alpr
acti
cestofulfi
lltheseneedsi ncl
ude
chall
engingworkassi
gnment s,perf
ormance
feedback,per
for
mancer ecogni t
ion,personal
encouragementandinvolvi
ngempl oyeesingoal
setti
nganddecisi
on-making.
5-Sel
f-
Act
ual
isat
ionNeeds:
Inanorgani
sati
on,self
-act
ualisati
onneeds
corr
elat
etothedesireforexcell
inginone'
sjob,
advanci
nganimpor t
antidea,successful
ly
managingtheunit
.
Thisl
evelofneedsencompassestheabi
li
tyto
accompli
shandachievesomethingi
nli
fe,i
.e.t
o
maximiseone'
spotenti
alandthedesi
retobecome
whatoneiscapableofbecoming.
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Bybeingawareoft heself
-actual
isat
ionneedsof
subordinat
es,managerscanuseav ari
etyof
approachestoenablethem toachievethei
r
personalaswellastheorganisat
ionalgoal
s.
Theworker
swhooper at
eatsel
f-
actual
isat
ionneed
dopr
eferautonomyanddonotrequi
resupervi
sion.

Dr
awbacksofMasl
ow’
sTheor
y:
WhileMasl ow'sneedsclassif
icat i
ontheorymakes
goodsense, problemsar i
sewithhi scontent
ionthat
theyarearrangedi nahierar
chicalfashionandthat
thelowerlevelneedsmustbef irstsati
sfi
edbefore
thehigherlevelneedsinthepy rami dwil
lbe
acti
vated.
Takef orinstancet hecaseofteachers,poets,
arti
stsandmusi ciansallovert
hewor ldwhohav e
tr
iedtosel f-
actualisethemselvesbytheiri
mmor tal
workwi thoutev erhavingsati
sfiedt
heirlowerlev
el
needs.
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Thus,i
tispossi
blef
orsomeatleast
,nott
ogo
thr
ougheveryst
epinthehi
erar
chy.
Anot
herproblem wit
hMaslow'
st heoryi
sthe
oper
ati
onali
sationofsomeofhisconceptswhich
makeitdi
ffi
cultforr
esear
cher
st otesthi
stheory
.
Fori
nstance,
howdoesonemeasur
esel
f-
act
uali
sati
on?
Despi
tethepr
oblemsthet
heoryhasusef
ul
pr
acti
calimpl
icat
ionsf
ormanager
s.
Iti
saf actthatthev astmaj ori
tyofemployees
j
oiningorganisati
onatl owerlevel
s,arebyandlarge,
seekingtosatisfytheirphysiologi
calneedsfi
rst
andt henmov eupt hel evel
sst epbystep.
Itt
husoffer
sagoodconceptualschemef or
managerstounder
standanddealwi t
hissuesof
employ
eemot i
vati
onattheworkplace.
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ABM MODULE - B
CHAPTER 12: HUMAN IMPLECATIONS OF
ORGANISATION (PART-VII)
What we will study?
*How personality and brain is connected?
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Personality and Brain (Left and Right Brain):

An important biological factor which influences

personality is the role of brain of an individual.

Two types of contribution can be found in this area:

Electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) and split-brain

psychology.

Human brain is believed to contain certain definite

pleasurable and painful areas.

Accordingly, it may be possible physically to manipulate

personality through ESB.

It may also be possible to use ESB as a method of

reducing stress and tension and stimulate creative
thinking. Split brain, right vs. left, psychology is closely
related to ESB and is probably more popular.

The characteristics and dimensions attributed to the left

and right hemispheres of the brain are indicated in the
following table:
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Left Hemisphere Right Hemisphere
Controls Right side of body Controls Left side of body

● Speech/Verbal
●Logical/Mathematical
● Linear/Detailed
● Sequential
● Controlled
● Intellectual
● Dominant
● Active
● Analytic
● Reading, writing, naming
● Sequential ordering
● Perception of significant
order comprehension
● Complex motor
sequences patterns
● Spatial/musical
● Holistic
● Artistic/symbolic
● Simultaneous
● Emotional
• Intuitive, creative
● Minor (quiet)
• Spiritual
● Synthetic, gestalt-oriented
● Facial recognition
● Simultaneous
• Perception of abstract
• Recognition of complex
figures

The Left and Right hemispheres of the brain are

attributed with some specific dimensions and
characteristics as shown in above table.

These areas are, however, still open for further

research.
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Matching Personality with Jobs:

John Holland's personality job fit theory is of late

receiving increasing attention.

The theory is based on the match of personalities with

jobs.

Holland presents six personality types and proposes

that satisfaction and dissatisfaction with the job
depends on how individuals successfully match their
personality with their occupations.

Table describes the six types, their personality

characteristics, and gives examples of occupations.
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ABM MODULE - B
CHAPTER 12: HUMAN IMPLECATIONS OF
ORGANISATION (PART-VIII)
What we will study?
*What are the various theories of motivation?
*Scientific Management Theory?
*Human Relations Model Theory?
* Clayton Alderfer's ERG Theory?
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Theories of Motivation:

The various theories of motivation are:

1. Scientific Management or Rational Economic View

(This lecture)

2. Human Relations Model (This Lecture)

3. Abraham Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory (Part-VI)

4. Frederick Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

5. Clayton Alderfer's ERG Theory (This lecture)

6. Achievement Motivation Theory (Part-V)

7. Victor H Vroom's Expectancy Model (Part-V)

8. James Stacy Adams' Equity Theory

9. Lyman W. Porter and Edward E Lawler - Performance

Satisfaction Model

10. Reinforcement Theory

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Scientific Management or Rational Economic View:

FW Taylor, who is known as the Father of Scientific

Management, has contributed much to the theory of motivation.

Scientific Management is a set of methods and

techniques applied to organization of work at the
operational level for the purpose of increasing
efficiency.

He believed that the best way to increase output was to improve

the techniques and methods used by workers.

Workers had to adjust to the management and not the

management to the people.

Taylor's logical and rational approach to management

explained that people are primarily motivated by
economic considerations and will exert more if offered
opportunity to improve their economic gains.

To put simply, Taylor's theory stated that:

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1.Physical work could be scientifically studied to
determine the optimal method of performing a job.

2.Workers could thereafter be made more efficient by

giving prescriptions for how they were to do their jobs.

3.Workers would be willing to adhere to these

prescriptions if paid on a differential piece work basis.

Scientific approach to motivation based on rational

economic view has however been criticized severally.

In particular, behavioral scientists have argued that

Taylor and his colleagues de-humanized workers by
treating them as mere factors of production, who could
be manipulated completely through economic incentives.

The most fundamental problem with Taylor's approach

from a motivational viewpoint is concerned with his
rather simplistic assumption about human behavior.

Taylor believed that workers would be motivated more

by the need for money (this assumption is called 'rabble
hypothesis').
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He thought that the primary interest of the worker is
economic gain in the form of higher wages.
Contrary to this rabble hypothesis, workers seek
satisfaction of a variety of needs in the workplace like
need for security, social fulfillment, and a challenging
job, including pay.

Human Relations Model:

Elton Mayo in 1920s and early 1930s conducted

Hawthorne Studies at Western Electric Company.

He found that in addition to finding the best

technological methods to improve output, management
needs to look into human affairs.

The real power centers within an organization were the

interpersonal relations that developed within the
working unit.

The organizations were to be developed around the

workers and had to take into consideration human
feelings and attitudes.

The leader was to facilitate co-operation for attainment

of goals by followers.
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Leader was to provide opportunity for the personal
growth and development of workers.

The main focus was on individual needs rather than the

organizational needs.

Eventually it became clear that the assumption that

workers are primarily motivated by money, may not be
correct.

Elton Mayo and his team found that the social contacts
which the workers have at workplaces are also
important.

Mayo and others also believed that the managers could

motivate employees by acknowledging their social needs
and by making them feel useful and important.

As a result, employees were given some freedom to

make their own decisions on their jobs.

Greater attention was paid to the organization’s

informal work groups.
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More information was provided to employees about the
manager's intentions and about the operations of the
organization.

In the Scientific Management Model, the workers were

expected to accept management's authority in return
for higher wages.

In the Human Relations Model, workers were expected

to accept management's authority because supervisors
treated them with consideration and were attentive to
their needs.

The problem with the Human Relations Model is its

undue reliance on social contacts at work situation for
motivating employees.

Social contacts, though desirable, by themselves do not

always help motivate workers.
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ERG Theory:

ERG theory was developed by Clayton Alderfer. E=

Existence
R= Relatedness
G= Growth

This theory is based on existence, relatedness and

growth. These are the 3 sets of needs in organization.
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Alderfer argued on the same lines of Maslow that
people have needs in a hierarchy and that these needs
are important determinants of human behavior relating
to work performance.

All 3 needs must be satisfied simultaneously in order for

an employee to feel motivated.

Existence (E):
*Our basic survival needs as human.
Ex: Food, water, shelter, good health, and feeling safe.

Relatedness (R):
*Our need to relate to other people
*We all share this need but this need is not as strong as
our basic need of survival.

Growth(G):
*Our need for personal development, to be creative and perform
meaningful work.
*Growth allows us to explore what our potential might
be within our current environment.

However, the ERG theory differs from the Maslow's

theory in following respects:
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First, instead of 5 levels of needs, the ERG theory
indicates only 3.

Second, Maslow's theory postulates a rigid step like

progression. The ERG theory, instead, postulates that
more than one need may be operative at the same time.

Third, Maslow argues that a person will stay at a certain

level until that need is satisfied.

The ERG counters by noting that when a higher-level

need is frustrated, the individual's desire to increase a
lower-level need takes place.
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ABM MODULE - B
CHAPTER 12: HUMAN IMPLECATIONS OF
ORGANISATION (PART-IX)

What we will study?

* Adams' Equity Theory?
*Porter's Performance Satisfaction Model?
* Reinforcement Theory?
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Adams' Equity Theory:

Equity means fairness or impartial.

Example: A person with MBA and 2-year experience is

getting salary of Rs. 70,000 and another person with
MBA and 2-year experience is getting salary of Rs.
80,000 then this is inequity or this is unfair.

The theory is based on idea that individual is motivated

by fairness.

Although several authors have contributed to this

theory, it was James Stacy Adams whose formulation
became prominent.

Two assumptions of theory:

1- Individual make contribution (Inputs) and expect

certain rewards (outcome).

2- They analyze whether exchange is satisfactory or not

by comparing their input and output with others.
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The following terms are relevant to this theory:

*Person: The individual for whom equity or inequity

exists.

*Comparison: Any group or individual used by a person

as a reference regarding inputs and outcomes.

*Inputs: Characteristics which individuals bring with

them to the job, namely, education, knowledge, skills,
attitudes, experience, etc.

*Outcomes: Salary, promotion, perquisites received

from a job.

The theory proposes that the motivation to act develops

after the person compares inputs/outcomes with the
identical ratio in comparison to the other person.

Inequity is defined as the perception that person's job

inputs/outcomes ratio is not equal to the inputs/
outcome’s ratio in comparison to the other.

The basic equity proposal assumes that, upon feeling

inequity, the person is motivated to reduce it.
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Further, the greater the felt inequity, the greater would

be the motivation to reduce it.

When attempting to reduce inequity, the person may

try a number of alternatives.

He may alter his inputs or, alter his outcomes or, distort
his inputs and outcomes cognitively or, leave the field or
try to alter or cognitively distort input and outcomes in
comparison to the other.

Porter's Performance Satisfaction Model:

Motivation, satisfaction and performance are all

separate variables but are related to each other in
different ways.

Assumption:

*If performance in an organization result in equitable

and fair rewards, people will be more satisfied.

*High performance can lead to rewards and high

satisfaction.
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Types of Rewards:

Extrinsic Award: Increased Pay, Commission, Job

Promotion
Intrinsic Award: Sense of Achievement, Job Satisfaction,
Positive inner feeling.

This model starts with the premises that:

(A) Motivation (effort or force) does not equal

satisfaction and/or performance.

(B) Effort (force or motivation) does not directly lead to

performance. It is mediated by abilities/traits and role
perceptions.
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(a) The rewards that follow and how these are
perceived will determine satisfaction.

The model suggests that performance leads to

satisfaction.

Reinforcement Theory:

This theory was given by BF Skinner and his associates.

The theory suggests that the behavior that has positive

consequence is repeated.

Negative is not repeated.

behaviors are shaped/selected by their consequence.

This theory is based on law of effect.

This theory aims at increasing strength of desirable

behavior and decrease negative behavior.

This can be done by:

1- Positive reinforcement
2- Negative reinforcement
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3- Punishment
4- Extinction

1- Positive reinforcement:

Strengthen the desired behavior.

Giving Reward - Monetary or Non-Monetary (Praise,

appreciation).

2- Negative reinforcement:

Strengthen one's behavior to avoid undesirable

consequences.

Criticizing

3- Punishment:

Weakens and decrease the behavior which has been

punished.

Disciplinary action
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4- Extinction:

Withdrawal of positive reinforcement that led to

undesirable behavior.

This theory assumes that the consequences of an

individual's behavior in one situation influences that
individual's behavior in a similar situation.

Techniques based on this principle have been developed

to change human behavior.
Such a technique, generally known as 'operant
conditioning', has been advocated by BF Skinner.
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Its implication is that individual behavior can be
predicted, from a person's past experiences.

The operant conditioning approach to behavior is based

on the law of effect, which states that behavior which
has a rewarding consequence is likely to be repeated.
There is positive reinforcement.

On the other hand, behavior that leads to negative or

punishing consequence, tends not to be repeated.
There is negative reinforcement.

When operant conditioning is used to control behavior of

employees in an organization, it is called organizational
behaviors modification or OB Mod in its acronym.

Many of the negative traits and behavior pattern are

developed because the earlier similar behavior was
rewarding or encouraged.

For example, a thief has not been caught several times

earlier; he will have courage to repeat his act and
behaviors again and again. Similarly, a ticketless traveler
in a Mumbai local train repeats his act because he has
not been caught.
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ABM MODULE - B
CHAPTER 12: HUMAN IMPLECATIONS OF
ORGANISATION (PART-X)
What we will study?
* Herzberg's Two-Factor or Motivation-Hygiene Theory?
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Herzberg's Two-Factor or Motivation-Hygiene Theory:

Frederick Herzberg extended the work of Maslow and developed

a specific content theory of work motivation.

He conducted a widely reported study on about 200

accountants and engineers from 11 industries in
Pittsburg, USA.
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He used the critical incident method of obtaining data
for analysis.

He asked them two questions:

1. When did you feel particularly good about your job -

what turned you on?

2. When did you feel exceptionally bad about your job -

what turned you off?

He then asked them to describe the conditions that led

to these feelings.

Herzberg found that employees named different types

of conditions for good and bad feelings.

His study revealed that the factors responsible for job

satisfaction are quite different from the factors that led
to dissatisfaction.

Reported good feelings were generally associated with

job experiences and job content.
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Reported bad feelings, on the other hand, were
generally associated with the surroundings, peripheral
aspects of the job - the job context.

These two feelings were not averse to each other.

If a person was satisfied with a job in a particular

condition, the absence of such condition would not
mean job dissatisfaction, but it might be called no job
satisfaction.

Similarly, opposite of job dissatisfaction is not job

satisfaction but it might be no job dissatisfaction.

Thus, Herzberg suggested that the opposite of

satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, as was traditionally
believed.

Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does

not necessarily make the job satisfying.

Herzberg's theory is based on a two-factor hypothesis,

that is, factors leading to job satisfaction and the factors
leading to job dissatisfaction.
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The factors so identified were classified by him into two
categories:

• Motivational Factors (Satisfier) &

• Hygiene or Maintenance Factors (Dissatisfier).

Motivational Factors (Presence: Motivates, Absence: No

effect):

These factors are related directly to the job itself.

The presence of such factors creates a highly motivating

situation, but their absence does not cause
dissatisfaction.

People tend to respond positively to the presence of

such factors.

Herzberg mentioned 6 such factors:

3. Recognition
4. Advancement
5. Responsibility
6. Achievement
7. Possibility of Growth
8. Work itself
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Hygiene or Maintenance Factors (Presence: No effect,
Absence: Badly affect):

This set of factors is such that their presence does not

significantly motivate the employees but their absence
causes serious dissatisfaction.

The non-availability of such factors is likely to affect

motivation and bring down the level of performance.

Maintenance factors mostly are related to environment,

outside the job.

Herzberg named 10 such factors:

• Company policy and administration

• Technical supervision
• Interpersonal relations with subordinates
• Salary
• Job security
• Personal life
• Working conditions
• Status
• Interpersonal relations with supervisors
• Interpersonal relations with peers/colleagues.