Principles of Heating Services Design &

Installation
1.0. Introduction
In cooler climates the provision of heating is an essential part of creating comfortable internal
environments, and therefore heating system design is a fundamental part of building services design.
Heating is a major sector within mechanical building services. There are millions domestic properties
across the world with gas-fired central heating, and such numbers are also reordered for commercial
properties with heating.

Given the current requirements to limit energy consumption and CO2 production, good design of
heating systems is essential to ensure that systems operate efficiently and safely and make effective use
of energy. Historically there have been problems with oversizing of heating systems which can lead to
inefficient operation, particularly at part load operation, to control problems and to a reduction in plant
operating life. The energy consumption for oversized plant can be 50% more than necessary.

1.1. Heating Systems Design Process

1.1.1. Introduction

Although heating is often considered to be a simple, basic system, there are many options and
permutations to be considered. The majority of Hong Kong buildings will require heating but different
building types and locations will have very different requirements and constraints, consider for example
the choices possible for a small ground floor flat in a city center development against those for a holiday
cottage in one of the National Parks, or the choices for an urban industrial unit against those for a rural
agricultural unit and farm shop.

The fundamental components of any heating system are:

a means of generating heat, i.e. the heat source

a means of distributing the heat around the building or buildings, i.e.

the distribution medium and network

a means of delivering the heat into the space to be heated, i.e. the

heat emitter.

Good design of heating systems is essential to ensure that systems operate efficiently and safely and
make effective use of energy. There are many possible options to be considered, some of which are listed
in Table 1 below. These can give many permutations, from the simple use of electric panel heating, using
electricity both as the heat source and distribution medium, to a conventional gas boiler system
distributing low temperature water to a convector system. A more complex system would be one serving
various buildings by using oil as the heat source to generate high temperature water for the main
distribution, which is then reduced in temperature and pressure to low temperature water, via heat
exchangers, to serve a radiator system.

Heating Systems
Heat sources gas
Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
LPG
solar
oil
biomass
coal
off-peak electricity
electricity
wind
air or water via heat pump
ground via ground source heat pump
Distribution medium air or water via heat pump
ground via ground source heat pump
Water: low, medium or high temperature
air
steam
electricity
Emitter types radiators
ceiling panels
forced convectors
natural convectors
panel heaters
underfloor heating coils
Table 1:Heating System Components

1.1.2. Factors to consider

Whilst heating systems may seem relatively simple, in practice there are many factors to be considered
during the design process, in order to achieve a well-designed system that delivers both the required
comfort conditions and level of control whilst still minimizing energy consumption.

Factors to consider
Building type Domestic
School
apartment building
retail
hospital
factory
office
Location city center
urban
 suburban
rural
Table 2: Heating System Considerations

The Design Process

Design involves translating ideas, proposals and statements of needs and requirements into precise
descriptions of a specific product, which can then be delivered. (See Figure 1.) Two major features
characterize the design process in general. Firstly, design tends to evolve through a series of stages
during which the solution is increasingly designed at greater levels of detail, moving from broad outline
through to fine detail. Secondly, design tends to contain iterative cycles of activities during which
designs, or design components, are continually trialled, tested, evaluated and refined. Feedback is
therefore an essential component of the design process, as shown in Figure 1.

Review Client Need

Inform

Implement Design
performance
Design delivery Design requirements
Heating design process
Review

Design
Select Develop

Figure 1: Design Process Flowchart

Within construction, design is a part of the larger construction process, as shown in Table 3. Both

the RIBA Plan of Work Stages and the ACE Conditions of Engagement Agreements A(2) and

B(2), which are commonly used for mechanical and electrical building services design, divide

design into the separate stages of outline design, scheme design and further/detail design. In

practice, therefore, the construction design process is invariably iterative, with many design steps

being revisited and revised as the design evolves and develops, and this necessitates constant

communication and clarification between team members.

 RIBA plan of work (1999) ACE Agreements A(2) & B(2)

(2002)
Pre-design A Inception/Identification of client requirements C1 Appraisal stage

B Strategic brief C2 Strategic briefing

Design C Outline proposals C3 Outline proposals stage

D Detailed proposals C4 Detailed proposals stage

E Final proposals C5 Final proposals stage

F Production information C6 Production information stage
Construction G Tender documentation C7 Tender documentation and

H Tender action tender action stage

J Mobilization/Project planning C8 Mobilization, construction

K Construction to practical completion and completion stage

L After practical completion

Table 3: Construction Process Stages

Heating design process

The problem with the standard design process is that it is both complex and lacking in design

task details. Although design is a clear part of the process, detail of the design tasks involved is

not given beyond global statements such as ‘develop the design and prepare sufficient drawings.

Therefore, a simple straightforward design sequence for heating design has been developed (see

Figure 2) to both clarify the process and allow detail of specific design tasks to be added. This

gives a simplified linear design sequence, from the pre-design stage through the various analysis,

decision and calculation steps through to the final solution, enabling design tasks to be clearly

linked to both preceding and succeeding actions. Although some feedback loops are shown, in

practice there are often feedback loops between all tasks and even within specific tasks,

reflecting the more iterative nature of real-life design.

It is important to still set this in the context of the full design process. In practice there are

several design repetitions within the various stages, and overlaps from one stage to another. For

example, information on overall space requirements and plant structural loadings is often

required by other team members at the outline design stage. This degree of detail is unknown at

this early stage therefore often assumptions and approximations have to be made in order to

provide information. It is vital that these are checked as the design progresses.

Key design steps Design tasks

1 Pre-design Obtain design brief.
Identify client and building user needs and requirements.
Refer to feedback and lessons learned from previous projects
2 Gather design Gather information about site, including utilities provision and fuel options. Obtain
information information on use of building, occupancy hours and on possible building form, fabric, etc
Establish and confirm key design requirements including Regulations and Codes of Practice.
Establish planning conditions for use of on-site renewables
3 Design data Establish the key design data and parameters that relate to the design of the heating system,
including building air tightness data, and potential use of renewables.
Develop room design data sheets
Check that design parameters comply with legislation, energy targets, etc
4 Building Analyze building – establish fabric thermal performance and infiltration.
thermal Determine whether intermittent operation is likely and consider potential pre-heat
performance requirements Estimate approximate building total heat loss to inform system selection
analysis process
5 Heating system Consider zoning requirements. Consider alternative heat source (fuel) and heating system
option analysis options. Establish contribution from renewable sources Consider operating and control
and selection strategies, and building usage and layout data. Assess options against client requirements,
performance, risk, energy use, etc
Select proposed system
6 Design Calculate space heat losses. Assess ventilation requirements and provision. Assess HWS
calculations provision
Space heat losses Check system selection choice still appropriate. Determine pre-heat requirements
and heat load
7 Equipment Consider suitable emitter positions and connections. Check distribution layout considering
selection and balancing and regulating requirements. Consider circuit layouts and connections and
sizing pumping choices – variable or constant volume. Develop control requirements
Size and select emitters and distribution network and determine any distribution losses
8 Design Determine other loads such as HWS and process. Calculate main heating loads. Analyze
calculations load diversity and pre-heat requirement and determine the total heating load
Heating load
analysis
9 Plant sizing and Consider any standby requirement. Determine number of boilers /modules required and size
selection and select main plant. Finalize control requirements
Check layouts and services co-ordination for clashes and ease of commissioning and
maintenance
10 Design Review system design and check predicted system performance.
calculations Check part load performance Control performance Check that the selected controls are
System analysis capable of achieving the required level of control, response and energy efficiency,
 particularly at part load

11 Final value Check that final system and components meet client requirements for performance, quality,
engineering and reliability, etc at acceptable cost; and also meet required energy targets and comply with
energy targets Regulations, such as meeting the seasonal efficiency requirements
assessment
12 Review Design review
Table 4: Heating system design

Main heating design calculation arrangement

Within the overall heating design sequence there are some specific calculations that will need to be
carried out, and the sequence of these can also be illustrated as shown in Figure 6. These mainly take
place during steps 4, 6 and 8 — building performance analysis, heat losses and load analysis; continuing
into system and equipment sizing in steps 7 and 9, and system analysis in step 10.

Figure 2: Main heating design calculation arrangement

Thermal comfort

For heating design, thermal comfort could be regarded as the main output of the design process.
Certainly, most clients do not ask for a heating system as part of their design brief, their focus is on what
systems deliver and not how they do it. What clients really require is the building services design to
deliver comfortable working or living conditions to enable their business to function efficiently. An
understanding of thermal comfort is therefore central to good heating system design. Although there are
many factors to take into account, thermal comfort is fundamentally about how people interact with
their thermal environment. Generally, a reasonable level of comfort is achieved where there is broad
satisfaction with the thermal environment, i.e. most people are neither too hot nor too cold.

The four main environmental factors that affect thermal comfort are:

air temperature (ta)

relative humidity

mean radiant temperature (tr )

air velocity (v)

All of these are affected by the choice of heating system and the way it delivers heat to the space.

Building designers should aim to provide comfortable conditions for the greatest possible number of
occupants and to minimise discomfort. This is achieved by considering comfort requirements and setting
appropriate design criteria.

For the thermal environment, these would usually be the operative temperature and humidity, together
with a fresh air supply rate. A typical initial winter design condition might therefore be written as 21 °C
and 50% RH for operative temperature and relative humidity respectively, with 10 l/s per person of fresh
air required. More often some variation is allowed, i.e. 21 °C ±1 °C and 50% RH ±10%.

Human Comfort Health and Safety Applications.

When human comfort, health, and safety are the primary concern, the HVAC system must control air
temperature, humidity, cleanliness, and air distribution to maintain an acceptable environment for
personnel. The following conditions should be maintained for the level of activity noted.

a. Low Activity and Sedentary Work

(1) Temperature above 68 ºF and below 78 ºF.

(2) Humidity above 30 percent and below 70 percent relative humidity.

(3) Cleanliness above 85 percent.

(4) Air motion above 50 ft/min and below 75 ft/min.

(5) Provide minimum outdoor air ventilation of 15 cfm per person in non-smoking areas and 60 cfm per
person in smoking areas.

High Activity or Maintenance Work

(1) Temperature above 45 ºF and below 85 ºF.

(2) Humidity above 20 percent and below 80 percent relative humidity.

(3) Cleanliness above 85 percent.

(4) Air motion above 100 ft/min and below 300 ft/min.

(5) Provide minimum outdoor air ventilation of 15 cfm per person or as required to control contaminants
in the space, whichever is higher.

Standards & Regulations – Statutory & regulatory requirements:

Various strands of legislation affect the design of heating systems. Aspects of the design and
performance of heating systems are covered by building regulations aimed at the conservation of fuel
and power and ventilation and regulations implementing the EU Boiler Directive (6) which sets minimum
efficiency levels for boilers. Heat producing appliances are also subject to regulations governing supply of
combustion air, flues and chimneys, and emissions of gases and particles to the atmosphere. Designers
should also be aware of their obligations to comply with the Construction (Design and Management)
Regulations and the Health and Safety at Work Act. Beyond strictly legal requirements, the client may
wish to meet energy and environmental targets, which can depend strongly on heating system
performance.

Key design steps

Step 1: Pre-design/design brief

Depending on the type of project, the design brief may evolve during the course of the initial project
stages. However, design briefs do not usually ask for specific heating systems, they tend to concentrate
on the outcomes that must be achieved, i.e. the internal conditions that must be delivered. The brief
may simply ask for a heated building, with specific comfortable working conditions. Design of any system
must therefore relate to the functional brief, and be seen in the context of the full design requirements.

During the initial design process the building services engineer can potentially provide input on ways to
optimise building performance and reduce energy loads, including advice on:

 building form and orientation to optimise the impact of solar gain

 building air tightness, to reduce infiltration
 fabric insulation
 optimisation of glazing, balancing daylighting needs against thermal performance
 building thermal mass

Much design data and information can be gained from the client brief and occasionally additional input
will be needed from the client to clarify points or to provide missing data in order to develop the design
brief. Some client briefs will include the necessary initial design data such as internal design conditions,
in some cases this will need to be advised. In both cases it is sensible to check any data provided against
good design practice.

Input to the design brief can include advice on:

future need design requirements

comfort requirements
ventilation strategy

spatial requirements

standards and regulations

energy strategy

operating strategy including facilities maintenance requirements

plant life expectancy and replacement strategies

control strategy.

Information required from the design brief can include:

required functional performance

occupancy

usage details and potential internal loads

internal design conditions

cost plan

The building services engineer will also need to provide information to other design team members
throughout the project. At the initial design stages this can include advice on optimising building
performance, and can also include information on potential spatial requirements, which can be refined
as the design develops. The new Building Regulations Part L (2006) requires that both fabric and services
heat losses are limited and that energy efficient services with effective controls are provided.

design data

The fundamental initial design data needed for design of a heating system to deliver comfortable
conditions are the: internal design conditions and external design conditions. The design conditions
selected can have a substantial impact on both system loads and subsequent system performance and
therefore care must be taken to select appropriate values. Internal design criteria may be specified in the
brief, or a required functional performance may be asked for and the designer will have to specify the
required conditions. In either case these will need to be checked against good practice design standards.
Table 5 gives example winter internal design conditions for thermal comfort for a range of common
building types.

Building type Winter operating temperature Suggested air supply rate l/s per
range 0C person (unless stated
otherwise)
Dwellings
Bathrooms 20-22 15 l/s
bedrooms 17-19 0.4-1ACH
halls, stairs 19-24 19-24
kitchen 17-19 60 l/s
living rooms 22-23 0.4-1AC
Offices
conference/board rooms 22-23 10
computer rooms 19-21 10
corridors 19-21 10
drawing office 19-21 10
entrance halls/lobbies 19-21 10
general office space 21-23 10
open plan 21-23 10
toilets 19-21 >5ACH
building thermal performance analysis

The thermal performance of the building will need to be established to enable the calculation of heat
losses, assess preheat requirements and calculate the heating loads. As the thermal insulation
performance of the building fabric has improved, the infiltration component of heat loss can now
comprise a substantial percentage and therefore needs to be estimated as accurately as possible.
Although building air leakage testing will be required for most buildings, and will form part of the design
requirements, this sets an expected standard, generally specified for a specific applied pressure
difference such as 50 Pa, and therefore does not provide data for infiltration calculations. An initial
assessment of building use and hours of occupancy will determine if intermittent, rather than
continuous, operation is likely. Details of the overall building thermal response will be needed to
determine the likely preheat requirements and the impact on heating system performance. This
information, together with the design conditions, and site data, will also enable the analysis of
condensation risk, if this is part of the agreed design duties.

Figure 3 U-values for patty walls

A U-value is a measure of thermal transmittance. Heat flow through a material is usually expressed in

terms of thermal resistance (R). Transmittance is the inverse of resistance and can therefore be

expressed as the reciprocal of resistance:

Thermal Transmittance (U-value) = 1 ÷ Thermal Resistance (R)

R value = thickness of a substance ÷ K value (Thermal Conductivity)

l is the thickness of the material in metres and

λ is the thermal conductivity in W/mK

heating system option analysis and selection

Heating system choice depends on many factors. These can be loosely grouped into two areas relating to
practical system installation and to performance and use factors.

Installation factors include: space required/available, potential plant room locations related to the spaces
to be served, capital cost of installation, zoning requirements, flexibility, ease of installation, ease of
commissioning.

Performance and use factors include: cost, comfort, control and convenience

To determine the most appropriate system to meet the client’s requirements, an assessment of options
against some of these factors can be helpful. System choices can be compared using, for example, a
ranking and weighting matrix to assess suitability using some of the key usage factors related to system
choice. Information on the client’s operating and control strategy will also inform the decision process.

Key design decisions will include the choice of:

heat media and distribution system

system — centralized or de-centralized

heat emitter

heat source.

design calculations: space heat losses and heat load

The next step in the design sequence is to take the information on the building fabric and infiltration
performance from building thermal performance analysis and use this to establish both infiltration and
fabric heat losses for each space to give an individual heat loss for each building space that will require
heating. Information on the type of heating system and emitter selected is also required, as both manual
calculations and the majority of software packages will require information on the relative radiant and
convective outputs as part of the input data.

With better fabric insulation the infiltration heat loss can now account for up to 50% of the total heat
loss in some smaller buildings and therefore infiltration rates need to be estimated as accurately as
possible.
To move from the heat loss to the heat load for a space, additional factors need to be considered,
including any additional loads within the space and any preheat requirements An assessment of
ventilation provision is required at this stage, as although this is likely to be met by a separate system in
most buildings, it will in some cases be met by natural ventilation, in which case it will add an additional
heat load directly to the space.

The general heat loss formula is: Q=U*A*ΔT (measured in watts)

Fabric Loss (W) = U-value*(Area)*(Room Temp - External Temp)

Ventilation Loss (W) = 0.33*Infiltration Rate*(Room Height*Area)*(Room Temp - External Temp)

Internal gains

Normally no allowance would be made for internal gains in establishing space heating loads as a worst-
case scenario is always considered, i.e. to bring the unoccupied building up to temperature. However,
exceptionally, if the heating will be operating continuously and there are constant heat sources such as
electric lights and occupants in a continuously occupied building, then the steady state heat requirement
can be reduced by the amount of the constant gains. However, the risks of this should always be made
overt to the client as if any gains are removed or reduced or the building is operated intermittently then
the system may not be able to achieve the design temperatures.

Preheat requirements

The building thermal capacity will affect the way the building responds to heat input, meaning the rate
at which it warms up and cools down. For any building that is heated intermittently this will need to be
considered as the building will cool down during the unoccupied periods and then need to be brought
back to temperature. For heavyweight buildings with a high thermal capacity, and/or those
intermittently occupied, some additional heating capacity will be required to ensure that the building
can warm up and achieve the design temperature before the start of the occupied period; the preheat
time. This additional capacity is required by the space heating system, i.e. the emitters, as well as by the
main heating plant. In order to assess the preheat requirements, information on both intermittent
operation and on the building thermal response is needed. For normal intermittent operation the plant
and equipment will need to be larger than the steady state requirements, with the required capacity
calculated by applying an ‘intermittency factor’ F3, based on the thermal response factor for the building
and the total hours of plant operation:

Peak heating load = F3 x space heat load

If the calculated value of F3 is less than 1.2, CIBSE suggests that the value be taken as 1.2 to ensure that a
reasonable margin of 20% for preheat is applied, although other values may be used, for example by
using a dynamic simulation model to more accurately assess the required excess capacity.

For highly intermittent systems, a steady state heat loss is inappropriate to size the system and a
dynamic simulation model that considers the way heat is absorbed by the building fabric is required.

equipment sizing and selection

Once the individual room losses and space heating loads have been determined and decisions have been
made on the system, emitters, etc, then the system can be sized and emitters selected. It is possible that
alternative solutions are still being investigated at this stage, in which case further comparison in terms
of cost, performance and energy efficiency may be required to reach a final decision.

The intermittency factor F3 can also be expressed as a plant size ratio (PSR) defined as:

installed heat emission

PSR=
design peak steady state heat load
The heat output from the emitter, and therefore the size required, will be affected by its position within
the space and local effects such as furniture positions. For example if emitters are situated behind
furnishings then most of the immediate radiant heat output will be lost, and in some cases even the
convective heat output can be obstructed and reduced. Although much of the heat will eventually enter
the space it may not be available during preheat and therefore an allowance may be need to be made
and the required heat output increased to compensate.

Some heating systems, such as warm air, can lead to considerable temperature stratification in the space
This means that the inside temperature at high level is much higher than that used in heat loss
calculations and therefore the heat loss through the ceiling/roof will be greater than anticipated. A
correction to the heat loss, to allow for the height of space and system used, will need to be applied.
These corrections can now mean that, for certain heating systems, the required emitter load is larger
than the original space heating load. Once the emitters have been sized then the distribution layout can
be determined and the system sized. When determining the most appropriate layout for the distribution
system, balancing and regulating requirements should be considered.

The system distribution losses will need to be assessed. Those from within the space can contribute to
the required space heating load. However any non-useful distribution losses will need to be allowed for
within the overall heating load for the building. Whilst for energy efficiency distribution losses should be
minimized, for example by insulating pipes that run through nonoccupied areas, an allowance will still
need to be made.

design calculations and heating load analysis

Once individual space heating loads have been determined, and the emitters and distribution system
sized, an overall heating load can be determined. This will require establishing all the various heat loads
that may need to be met, such as space heating loads, any system distribution losses, HWS load, central
fresh air ventilation heating load that is if ventilation air is provided centrally by mechanical ventilation
systems and any potential process load. The first step is to establish the maximum simultaneous space
heating load. Having already considered the preheat requirements for the space(s), and sized the
emitters, an allowance needs to be made for any non-useful distribution losses.

Infiltration load diversity

For individual spaces the maximum heat loss is always required to size any emitters for that space.
However when considering the total space heating load for sizing central plant, some diversity can be
applied to infiltration, to allow for the fact that infiltration of outdoor air will only take place on the
windward side of the building at any one time, with the flow on the leeward side being outwards. This
suggests that the total net infiltration load is usually about half of the summation total for the individual
spaces, although the infiltration patterns for individual building configurations should always be
considered carefully. This exercise is important as, given current high levels of fabric insulation, the
infiltration component of heat loss is now substantial, often accounting for up to 50% of the total in
small buildings.

Load diversity analysis

An analysis of load diversity is needed as the maximum demands for each separate part of the overall
load are unlikely to coincide. In addition to the infiltration diversity within the total space heating load,
there can be zone diversities, perhaps due to differing hours of occupancy. Process loads could be
intermittent and the HWS load could perhaps peak at the middle or towards the end of the occupied
period, rather than the beginning.

The individual and zone space heating loads should be reviewed to check when the peak demand occurs.
While it is most likely that the worst case scenario will be for all spaces to require heating at the same
time it is possible in certain buildings that there could be spaces or zones which only have very
occasional use and do not coincide with the main demand times from other areas.

For intermittent heating, the period of maximum demand for the heating systems will be during the
preheat period. In practice the preheat periods for all spaces and zones will generally be co-incident and
therefore the maximum space heating load will be the sum of these, after considering infiltration
diversity.

Heating system sizing and selection

Once the overall heating load has been determined, then the heating plant can be sized and selected,
together with other plant items such as the flue and fuel supply system if required.

Standby capacity

Occasionally standby capacity may be required so that, in the event of partial system failure or plant
maintenance, the main loads can still be met and the building continues to function. The decision on this
can require risk assessment. However, this can add still more additional capacity to the system increasing
the overall risk of oversizing and poor performance, therefore this should be considered together with
the load diversity analysis as there may already be sufficient capacity within the system. Where further
capacity is required careful consideration is needed of the load breakdown to ensure that the various
expected load combinations can be met efficiently, for example considering the optimum module size for
modular boiler installations. If the heating plant consists of modular boilers then adding one extra
module may be sufficient to both meet the requirement and still ensure system operating efficiency.

Control requirements should be finalised, considering the required system operation. With the main
system design layouts completed, the final layouts and services co-ordination should be checked again
for any clashes and for ease of commissioning and maintenance.

System analysis and control performance

With the system selected and plant and equipment sized and plant selected, it is now possible to more
accurately predict system performance and check energy performance targets are still met. Predicted
system performance, including part load performance, should be investigated to check that the selected
systems can operate efficiently under all predicted load conditions. This is particularly important if
additional capacity has been added, for example for preheat or standby, as this effectively adds a margin.
It is important to check that this does not unduly oversize the system, leading to poor performance at
normal operating conditions. It is also essential to check whether other margins have been added at any
stage in the design process, including those that will occur by selecting standard plant sizes.

System control performance

In order to achieve an energy efficient building that delivers the required level of functionality and
occupant comfort it is essential to form a clear and integrated control strategy at a very early design
stage. In all cases the control strategy should be set out first so that the control options can be evaluated
against the required level of functionality. As such, the controls should be considered at an early stage as
an integral part of the system design.

At this design stage the task is to carry out a final evaluation of the controls, now that the final system
design is complete and part-load performance evaluated, to ensure that they can deliver the required
level of control, response and energy efficiency.

Final value engineering and energy targets assessment

Final value engineering assessment

Value engineering should be carried out at several stages within the project to ensure that the design is
on track to meet the client requirements for performance, quality, reliability, etc at least cost. For
example, value engineering workshops can be held during both the scheme and detail design stages to
ensure that the design decisions made are the ones that achieve best value.

Energy targets

The final system performance will need to be checked again to ensure it complies with regulations and
meets required energy targets, for example meeting the seasonal efficiency requirements and achieving
a building emission rate (BER) less than the target emission rate (TER)

Design review

There are a number of different interim reviews that can be done throughout the design stages of a
project, from the feasibility and innovation review to straightforward progress reviews, culminating in a
post-project review after project completion which can provide valuable feedback lessons to inform
future work.

During the design stages there should be review meetings of the design team at regular intervals to
review design progress, agree changes, check compliance with the brief, etc. The intent of these is to
monitor the progress of the design against the programme and cost targets, anticipate potential
problems, and ensure that required information will be available when needed. Review meetings can
involve one or several design disciplines.

Some design practices hold a formal peer group in-house design review near the end of the design
stages, presenting to other design teams, perhaps from other regional offices. This can be a useful part
of the project quality checks, and provide additional valuable cross-checks on the proposed design
solutions, as well as sharing experience and expertise within the organisation.

Post-project review is usually held by the in-house design team at the end of the project, after
completion and handover, to review the inputs and outcomes and provide the opportunity to summarise
key points learnt. This can provide the opportunity to review both the technical content of the design
and the management of the design process to provide feedback to inform future work, including the
provision of design benchmark data for future projects. A post-project review meeting can also be held
with the entire project team. Sometimes there is the opportunity to obtain further feedback after
handover and occupation, e.g. via post-occupancy surveys. The client may also require additional duties
to include monitoring system operation.

Sometimes there is the opportunity to obtain further feedback after handover and occupation, e.g. via
post-occupancy surveys. The client may also require additional duties to include monitoring system
operation. For example, the energy performance of the system can be monitored using the CIBSE
logbook approach, and the actual operation of the system and comfort performance monitored for
compliance with the intended design operation. This can provide valuable feedback to inform briefing
and design guidance for future projects

Design data for a heating system for the given building.

Fresh air

10 L/S/person

Recommended comfort criteria

200C

Infiltration

1.0 (ACH)

Outside Temperature

Winter -50
Assumptions are:

Total Brick Wall Area (2044.7M²)

U-values for the given structure

U-value calculations:

External walls: 115mm brick, 115mm mineral wool, 115mm Aerated block, 13mm Dense plaster.

K value (Thermal Conductivity) of a 115mm outer leaf brick = 0. 77W/mK

= 0.115m ÷ 0.77 W/mK = 0.8855

R value = 0. 8855²K/W

K value (Thermal Conductivity) of a 115mm mineral wool = 0. 035W/mK

= 0.115m ÷ 0. 035 W/mk = 0.3286

R value (Thermal Resistance) of a 115mm mineral wool = 0. 3286m²K/W

K value (Thermal Conductivity) of a 115mm Aerated block = 0.11 W/mK

= 0.115m ÷ 0.11 W/mK = 1.0455

R value = 1.0455 m²K/W

K value (Thermal Conductivity) of a 13mm, Dense plaster = 0.50 W/mK

13mm = 0.013m ÷ 0.57 W/mK = 0. 02281

R value = 0.02281 m²K/W

R value total = 0. 8855²K/W + 0. 3286m²K/W + 1.0455 m²K/W 0.02281 m²K/W

2.28241m²K/W

1 ÷ 2.28241m²K/W

Total external U value = 0.4381W/m ²K

Internal Walls: 115mm aerated lightweight concrete block, 13mm dense plaster each side.

K value (Thermal Conductivity) of a 115mm Aerated block = 0.11 W/mK

100mm = 0.1m ÷ 0.11 W/mK = R value 0.9091 m²K/W

K value (Thermal Conductivity) of 13mm, Dense plaster = 0.57 W/mK

13mm = 0.013m ÷ 0.57 W/mK = R value 0.02281 m²K/W (x2)

= 0.04561 m²K/W

R value total = 0.04561 m²K/W + 0.9091 m²K/W

R value total = 0.9547m²K/W

Total Internal l U-value = 1 ÷ 0.9547m²K /W

Total Internal U value = 1.0474W/m ²K/W

U-values Assumptions:

U-value of floor slab = 0.25 m²K /W

U-value of all windows double glazed = 1.6 m²K /W

U-value of roof slab = 0.16 m²K /W

U-value doors = 2.0 m²K /W

Heat loss for spaces within the given building.

The general heat loss formula is: Q=U*A*ΔT (measured in watts)

ΔT = 20—5 = 250C

Internal Walls heat loss

Q=U*A*ΔT (measured in watts)

Note: all internal areas to be 210C, no internal heat transfer will occur, measurements made by floor
instead of internal rooms.

external walls heat loss

Q=U*A*ΔT

Fabric Loss (W) = U-value*(Area)* ΔT

A = total length × height

A = (14.975 + 6.615 + 2.340 + 16.980 + 12.250 + 23.095 + 6.830+ 11.830) × 3= 284.745m2

= 0.4381W/m ²K/W × 284.745m2 × 250C

Fabric Loss (W) = 3118.6696W

floor slab heat loss

Q=U*A*ΔT

Fabric Loss (W) = U-value*(Area)* ΔT

ΔT = 20—5 - 25

A = 371m²

= 0.25 m²K /W × 371m² × 250C

=2318.75 W

all windows double glazed heat loss

Q=U*A*ΔT

Fabric Loss (W) = U-value*(Area)* ΔT

A = (L × W × Number of windows)

A = (1500 × 1200 × 4) + (900 × 400 × 3) + (700 × 2000 × 4) + (900 × 900 × 7) = 19.5m2

= 1.6 m²K /W × 19.5m2× 25

Fabric Loss (W) = 782W

Roof slab heat loss

Q=U*A*ΔT

A = total length × width

371m2

Fabric Loss (W) = U-value*(Area)* ΔT

= 0.16 m²K /W ×371m × 25

Fabric Loss (W) = 1484W

doors heat loss

Q=U*A*ΔT

Fabric Loss (W) = U-value*(Area)* ΔT

A = L × W (Number of doors)

(0.91 × 2.11 × 2) + (3×2.11×1.510)

= 2.0 m²K /W ×13.3985m2× 25

Fabric Loss (W) = 669.925W

Ventilation Loss (W) = 0.33*Infiltration Rate*(Room Height*Area)* ΔT

Infiltration: 1.0 ACH

Total Fabric Loss (W) = 0.33 × 1.0 ACH × (3 × 371) × 25

Ventilation Loss (W) = 9182.25W

Total heat loss = ∑ of all the losses

Total heat loss = 9182.25W + 669.925W +1484W +782W +2318.75 W +3118.6696W

Total heat loss =17555.5964W

Total heat load

Total heat load = 17555.5964W + 20% recommended Surplus allowance