Enterprising Women Tourism and Developme

International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism
Administration
ISSN: 1525-6480 (Print) 1525-6499 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wjht20
Enterprising Women, Tourism, and Development:

The Case of Bali
Kayhan Tajeddini, Alf H. Walle & Mela Denisa
To cite this article: Kayhan Tajeddini, Alf H. Walle & Mela Denisa (2017): Enterprising Women,
Tourism, and Development: The Case of Bali, International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism
Administration, DOI: 10.1080/15256480.2016.1264906
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15256480.2016.1264906
Published online: 23 Jan 2017.
Submit your article to this journal
Article views: 12
View related articles
View Crossmark data
Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=wjht20
Download by: [University of Newcastle, Australia] Date: 31 January 2017, At: 02:48
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM ADMINISTRATION
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15256480.2016.1264906
Enterprising Women, Tourism, and Development: The Case

of Bali
Kayhan Tajeddinia, Alf H. Walleb, and Mela Denisac
a
Institute for International Strategy, Tokyo International University, Saitama, Japan; bDepartment of
Psychology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska, USA; cGraduate School of Management,
GLOBIS University, Tokyo, Japan
ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Bali, the home of Indonesia’s Hindu minority, is experiencing a Received 7 April 2015
rapid growth in tourism and hospitality. The resulting oppor- revised 24 July 2015
tunities for small scale, locally owned businesses has greatly Accepted 7 August 2015
benefited women. Using in depth interviews and other supple- KEYWORDS
mental evidence, this trend is examined in order to explore Bali; enterprising women;
how women are influenced by the circumstances faced, as well qualitative research; tourism
as by their culture and heritage. Doing so provides an empiri-
cal evidence regarding how women can contribute to the
hospitality industry in places such as Bali.
Introduction
Policymakers and business experts often point to entrepreneurship involving
women as a means of raising incomes and encouraging local self-determin-
ism. These benefits influence public policies and academic theories that are
designed to promote female entrepreneurship (Sarri & Trihopoulou, 2005).
This phenomenon is a growing trend around the world (Davidson & Burke,
2004). In spite of this significance, issues involving women in entrepreneur-
ship have not received adequate attention in academic research (Tan, 2008).
More specifically, in Indonesia, women entrepreneurs are overlooked and
ignored. In any event, Mahot (1998) noted that women entrepreneurs are not
a homogeneous group; some possess minimal marketable skills start small
businesses because no other opportunities exist, while others come from a
business background and possess insider’s skills, advantages, and opportu-
nities. Typically, these more sophisticated women are involved in retailing
and enjoy a good chance of success.
As in many other developing countries, Indonesia has identified tourism
as an industry that deserves to be nurtured, and in recent decades, tourism
has emerged as an important source of foreign exchange. Current research,
furthermore, indicates that Indonesia’s ability to compete in the tourism
industry is growing. Indonesia’s position in the world’s travel and tourism
CONTACT Kayhan Tajeddini, PhD Ktajeddi@tiu.ac.jp, kayhan@tajeddini.ch Institute for International

Strategy, Tokyo International University, Office1-13-1 Matoba-kita, Kawagoe, Saitama, 350-1197, Japan.
© 2017 Taylor & Francis
2 K. TAJEDDINI ET AL.
competitiveness index, for example, has significantly increased in 2015 as

governmental priorities have come to favor it coupled with improved infra-
structures (Jakarta Post, 2015). According to the 2015 report released by the
Jakarta Post, the country’s ranking in the biennial Travel and Tourism
Competitiveness Report jumped 20 places, from 70th in 2013 to 50th in
2015. This report adds that the country’s ranking for national prioritization
for tourism improved from 19th in 2013 to 15th in 2015, while its air
transportation infrastructure ranking jumped from 54th to 39th. According
to the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index (TTCI), Indonesia’s pos-
sesses multiple competitive advantages including price competitiveness
(ranking 3rd), natural resources (19th), and biodiversity (4th in the total
known species indicator) and heritage sites (10th; Jakarta Post, 2015). The
Indonesian government aims to waive visa requirements for 30 countries,
making tourism in the country easier (Jakarta Post, 2015). As a result of these
assets, services, and governmental strategies, continued growth in tourism
industry is projected.
Bali is a province of Indonesia and the home of most of the country’s
Hindu minority. The island is celebrated for pristine beaches, biodiversity, a
cultural legacy, and an artistic heritage. These assets have encouraged a rapid
growth in tourism, creating opportunities for both large and small busi-
nesses. The situation of Bali parallels many other developing regions where
tourism has emerged as a major economic force. Tourism is responsible for
more than 10% of global GDP and is an important catalyst of socio-economic
development (World Tourism Organization, 2011).
In 2010, a total of 313,691 Balinese women were employed in the tourism
sector (Bali Tourism Board, 2011b). In earlier decades, however, Bras and
Dahles (1998) found that in Bali women lacked empowerment, despite their
entrepreneurial successes. Although the reasons behind the lack of empow-
erment are not clearly identified, it was noted that the Balinese women felt
that their activities in tourism reinforced their gender roles, resulting in their
lack of empowerment (Al Mazroei & Lynch, 2014).
Despite the fact that the majority of tourism workers are women, little
knowledge exists regarding their characteristics. This is especially true of
women who own and manage businesses. The objective of this research is
to explore the characteristics of and the challenges faced by the enterprising
women of Bali. A discussion of background information, followed by meth-
odological considerations, sets the stage to present the findings of this field-
work, and offer suggestions for further research.
Background of Enterprising Women of Bali

Indonesia’s archipelago is strategically located between Asia and Australia. In
addition, it possesses cultural richness and ecological diversity that
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM ADMINISTRATION 3
encourages tourism. According to Bandem (2003), many of the small islands

of Bali are rapidly embracing tourism because (a) they lack marketable
natural resources, (b) are unsuitable for manufacturing, (c) the small-scale,
labor-intensive environment facilitates tourism, (d) cultural and ecological
attractions exist, and (e) Bali lies in close proximity to populations possessing
discretionary wealth that support tourism (including Australia, Singapore,
Brunei, Malaysia, and Japan.). The interest in Bali tourism goes back at least
to the early twentieth century when the Dutch opened a tourist bureau to
promote the Dutch East Indies that extended to Bali (Copeland & Murni,
2010). The development of a tourism infrastructure in Bali and the arrival of
wealthy aristocrats resulted in Bali being nicknamed “the Last Paradise.”
After Indonesia won independence, Bali’s tourism sector continued to
expand. Positioning itself as a destination for leisure travel, Growth rates of
8%–10% annually have been the highest in Indonesia (Copeland & Murni,
2010). This rapid expansion in tourism over the past 35 years has seen the
average annual number of foreign visitors growing from 153,030 in 1981 to
in 2,576,142 in 2010 (Bali Tourism Board, 2011a). Although terrorist threats
existed in the first years of the twenty-first century, they have subsided and
no longer discourage tourists as the tourism industry continues to grow.
In Bali, women can benefit from the tourist industry. A great number of
hotels and galleries are owned and managed by women. According to one
estimate, women own 90% of such establishments (Copeland & Murni,
2010). There is a long tradition of women participating in the informal
tourism sector and gaining greater control over their lives as a result
(Wilkinson & Pratiwi, 1995). The influence of tourism upon traditional
food stalls (called warungs) is an example of adjusting traditional business
tactics to emerging situations. Many women, for example, open warungs near
tourist hotels (Cukier, Norris, & Wall, 1996). Particularly, after the economic
slowdown in Bali that was caused by terrorist bombings in 2002 and 2005,
women were urged to generate more income for their families. Food stalls
provide an opportunity to do so. Married women, in particular, use warungs
to become self-employed. This study explores how tourism can help women
open small enterprises to benefit themselves, their families, as well as pro-
moting general economic growth and development. In addition, the role of
women in the economy of Bali has been growing in importance for many
years and enterprising women have become a significant economic force. It is
believed that women can significantly contribute to economic growth and
development, as well as reducing poverty (Tambunan, 2006). In the future,
women are likely to be increasingly important to the economy (Ball, 2001).
In order to make a major positive impact, women need educational oppor-
tunities and the ability to gain skills, and business experience. Doing so has been
emphasized by the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
The MDGs are eight international development goals that 192 United Nations
member states and at least 23 international organizations established. The initial

schedule of achieving these goals by 2015 has proved to be overly optimistic, but
progress is being made. Currently the goals are being revised and expanded
beyond 2015. Collectively, these goals seek to reduce the major causes of human
misery. Helping women to gain equity, parity, as well as opportunities in
education and employment are key tactics in this quest. MDG 3 deals with
gender equality. This pursuit has a long history. The Fourth United Nations
Conference on Women held in Beijing, China in 1995, for example, sought to
advance and empower women. Specific goals include enhancing decision mak-
ing abilities and reducing poverty. The platform deriving from the conference
encouraged removing obstacles facing women, pointed to the responsibility of
governments to foster progress in this area, and recommended that other
organizations actively advance gender equality. Some disagreement over abor-
tion existed; otherwise there was wide agreement regarding these proposals. The
Beijing platform viewed women as victims and identified them as vulnerable to
poverty. The conference also concluded that inequality does not exist in isola-
tion. To a large extent, MDG 3 is a restatement and refinement of the platform of
the 1995 Beijing conference.
In addition, other MDGs encourage the empowerment of women. MDG 2,
“achieving universal primary education,” for example, is largely concerned
with providing opportunities for girls to go to school, develop the skills
needed to compete economically, and gain a degree of personal control
over their lives. In developing countries and regions, unfortunately, girls
often fail to get an adequate education and they are held back for the rest
of their lives as a result. In developing countries where tuition is typically
demanded, furthermore, poor families are likely to give preference to boys; as
a result, many girls are not able to go to school. Transportation and safety
issues can create additional barriers. Cultural traditions and religious beliefs,
furthermore, sometimes keep girls away from the classroom.
In Indonesia, stereotypical thinking regarding women and their roles has
often resulted in girls receiving educations that are ill suited to business and
management careers. As a result, women may be held back from gaining
business skills because female students are often expected to gain skills that
revolve around domestic life, while male students are encouraged to choose
programs related with hard science, technical, disciplines, and business
(UNDP, 2005). As a result, many girls who attend school do not gain the
skills needed to thrive economically. Broad educational opportunities, how-
ever, can provide other benefits to society in addition to facilitating social
mobility for individuals. As will be discussed next, many enterprising women
in Bali possess a minimal educational background and have little prior work
experience; as a result, they are relegated to participating in very small
businesses. Hopefully, attention to MDG 2 will make education and the
opportunity it provides available to all.
In any event, the businesses established by the women of Bali tend to be

small (employing five or fewer people). Contributing factors to this pattern
include (a) the nature of the food stall/small restaurant sector, (b) easy entry
and exit, and (c) low capital, managerial, and technological requirements.
Because women typically possess less formal education, and business-specific
work experience than men, they are attracted to such opportunities.
Furthermore, because of cultural factors that shape their education and
training (or lack thereof) of women, small-scale and family-run businesses
provide a realistic starting point for women seeking to be involved in
business (Tambunan, 2006, 2008).
Indonesian Women’s Business Association membership data indicates that
most businesses owned and managed by women are small with only 2%
being large enterprises (International Finance Corporation, 2008). This
trend, of course, is not unique to contemporary Bali; over the centuries,
many women throughout the world have worked in small “cottage indus-
tries.” In Bali, many women are involved in small businesses focused around
food and hospitality (Tambunan, 2008). Statistics regarding female owned
businesses in Bali are sorely lacking and estimates often exclude establish-
ments that are co-owned by men and women. Female owned and operated
businesses tend to cluster on the economic fringes, use informal sources of
financing, and operate in traditionally female sectors of the economy includ-
ing hospitality (Collins, 2002).
Cultural norms, furthermore, can play a role in channeling women into
particular economic situations. Cultures and ethnic groups often have well
defined attitudes and mores regarding what is appropriate and inappropriate
for men and women (Tajeddini & Trueman, 2014). The role of “home-
maker,” for example, is often associated with women; the nurturing nature
of providing hospitality services, therefore, may be considered socially accep-
table for women, leading to a concentration of women becoming involved
with “bed and breakfast” accommodations (Blackburn, 1999; Carter,
Anderson, & Shaw, 2001).
Statistics indicate that approximately three quarters of self-employed
women are involved with service industries or tourism (Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development, 2000; International Labor
Organization [ILO], 2010). Most occupations in tourism, furthermore, are
relatively low skilled positions that exhibit high employee turnover rates.
These characteristics often discourage employers from investing in their
employees (by, for example, providing training and educational opportu-
nities). The rationale for denying such benefits is often based on the percep-
tion that women are likely to abandon their positions due to family
obligations. Finally, many Bali tourism organizations are small and operate
on an informal basis. The type of work experience these women receive can
also inhibit them from gaining mainstream managerial positions.
The background information provided above provides a useful framework

for envisioning the women of Bali who seek to own and manage small
businesses. In many developing regions, women typically fail to develop the
skills needed for success in the larger, more industrialized sectors.
Consequently, they gravitate to small businesses, or (for lack of other
options) they start their own. Cultural, religious, and social expectations
may further restrict or channel women’s vocational choices. These pressures
appear to make hospitality (especially small freestanding restaurants or food
stalls) a logical choice for women of Bali who seek to enter the business
world. The implications of this trend will be analyzed after a methodological
discussion has been provided.
Method
Research results were derived from in-depth field interviews with owners of
small restaurants located in the Denpasar and Badung districts of Bali. These
districts were selected because they host the majority of tourists in Bali due to
the white sandy beaches and warm waters that are excellent for sunbathing
and kite surfing. A convenience sample of women restaurant owners was
selected based on their openness and willingness to participate in, and
potentially benefit from, this study. A total of 100 women restaurant owners
were contacted via a letter that introduced the project and requested parti-
cipation. Nine granted permission to conduct in depth face to face inter-
views. Following Hellström, Hellström, and Berglund (2002), it is important
to note that this study is not designed to make generalizations about beha-
viors and characteristics of all Indonesian women restaurant owners, but
rather to focus upon those in Bali as a distinct group.
Despite the shortcomings of a small convenience sample, this approach
was selected because of the availability of the participants and their will-
ingness to be a part of the study (Tajeddini & Mueller, 2012, Tajeddini,
2011). The individuals selected were Balinese women who owned small
restaurants, all with over 5 years of work experience (Table 1.), who consider
themselves active participants in entrepreneurship and innovation activities.
In-depth interviews using a semistructured protocol were conducted by two
interviewers. Each interviewer was (a) thoroughly briefed on the study’s
objectives and (b) received training in field interviewing. One interviewer
was fluent in both the native language and English. Both interviewers had
prior experience in both the study and practice of entrepreneurship and
social science. All interviews were recorded and transcribed. The interviews
ranged in length from one to two hours, and were conducted over a 6-month
period. Responses were confined to the respondents’ actual, practical experi-
ences (such as risk taking, innovation, and proactiveness) within their busi-
nesses. A summary of respondents is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Profiles of Respondents.

Marital Number of Experience Restaurant No. of
Person Age Qualification status children (years) scale employees
1 25 High school Married 1 8 Small 3
2 36 Diploma Married 2 17 Small 17
4 41 Junior high Married 2 3 Small 5
5 42 Diploma Married 3 15 Medium 40
8 61 Junior high Married 3 25 Medium 20
9 67 Junior high Married 4 29 Small 8
Note. Restaurant scale: Small = 1–19 employees; medium = 20–99 employees.
Research Procedures
Instead of hypothesis testing, a grounded theory approach (Glaser & Strauss,
1967; Locke, 2001) was applied to collect the information supplied by women
restaurant owners in Bali. In grounded theory, the evidence is initially gathered
and the analysis comes later—the opposite of what occurs in scientific experi-
ments where a hypothesis is initially stated before being tested and challenged.
The interview data were collected through in-depth interviews, which took place
on the restaurant premises. This method was chosen because a less structured
approach facilitates the incorporation of expert knowledge, experienced, and
personal judgments into the responses (Eldabi, Irani, Paul, and Love, 2002;
Walle, 2015a). Interviews began with general inquiries regarding the professional
background of the participant, the ambience of the establishment, and a descrip-
tion of target customers. With these preliminaries completed, the respondents
were encouraged to cite specific examples of business and tourism, which were
discussed in detail. Main questions relating to the subject were brought up and
continuously revisited during the interview. A complete list of questions was
distributed to interviewees beforehand to allow time for consideration and to
establish an atmosphere of trust between the two fieldworkers and the infor-
mant. A commitment to confidentiality was assured. Among the questions asked
were: What was your motivation to start this business? When you started this
business, who supported you? What kind of problems did you face when you
started this business? What is the most difficult thing about owning and
operating the business? What makes you happy in running this business? Has
your role in the household changed since you have been operating this business?
What do you think about women working? Do you encourage any ladies to
work, instead of stay at home and do housework? What do you think about
tourism? How is tourism influencing your life? Does tourism affect your busi-
ness and the industry in general? What do you think about the tourists? Do
tourists buy from you? Are they domestic or international tourists? How did the
Bali bomb affect your business? Do you have any problems related with tourism?
What do you think the main factors that cause women in Bali choose to run
business in tourism industry? Do you expect from the government to support
you? Do you see any encouragement in Bali for women to open new restau-
rants? What would you say to women who want to get involve in restaurant
industry? Do you have any further comment?
In addition to audio recording, the interviews were documented by detailed
note taking as recommended by Lofland, Snow, Anderson, and Lofland (1984).
Particular attention was given to key quotations that illustrate relevant aspects of
the subject (Tajeddini & Trueman, 2008, 2014). Reflective of the grounded
theory method, an inductive approach involving “meaning units” was used to
analyze the responses (see O’Donoghue, 2010 for details). In doing so, Hellström
et al. (2002) recommend that notes be transcribed for ease of comparison. These
transcripts were then crosschecked for accuracy and reliability. The text was
broken down into discrete parts, not according to syntactic rules (e.g. sentences)
but with respect to change of meaning in the text (Hellström et al., 2002;
Tajeddini & Mueller, 2009; Tajeddini, 2013, 2015). In this method, interviews
transcripts were read in detail to identify meaning units: meaningful segments of
text that can be used to support an emerging theory (Côté, Salmela, Trudel,
Baria, and Russell, 1995).
An Overview of the Informants

Data from the interviews that dealt with the restaurant industry (particularly in
the Denpasar and Badung districts) was developed with a focus upon women
business owners. Providing profiles of the women who participated in this
project is useful. A straightforward presentation is provided in Table 1.
The women who participated, therefore, are a diverse lot. This variation
provided a wide variety of responses and perspectives. Although this sample
was not used to provide a statistical analysis, it does offer vital clues regarding
these women, the influences impacting them, and their responses.
Contributing Factors
Key issues and influences that impact Balinese women and their responses to
economic opportunity include gender, religious/ethnic identity, and educa-
tional attainment. Each is discussed with reference to the interviews.
Gender
According to Balinese Hinduism and adat (traditional practices), women and
men are considered to be equal (Wiratmaja, 1991). Nevertheless, a de facto
hierarchy of the sexes exists that place women on the lower rungs of the scale
(see Hermawati & Kindon, 1993; Miller & Branson, 1984; Suryakusuma,
1991). These are long-term patterns that evolve slowly and are distinct from
more rapidly changing phenomena such as gross national income, number of
tourists, degree of economic growth, and so forth. This culturally sanctioned
positioning of women (even if, perhaps, covert) exerts an influence upon
women and their options.
The culture encourages women to adhere to the Five Duties of Women
(Panca Dharma Wanita) which includes (a) being a loyal companion to the
husband, (b) managing the household, (c) educating and providing guidance to
children, (d) earning supplementary income as required, and (e) being a useful
member of the community. (Suryakusuma, 1991, p. 52). This code is consistent
with the premise that women have traditionally been economically autonomous
in Bali’s informal economic sector. Women have a tradition of working in small
businesses in order to provide for their families’ needs (Kindon, 1993a; Mabbett,
1987; Miller & Branson, 1984). The research reported here demonstrates that
this cultural pattern continues to be important.
Decision making by Indonesian business women can be grouped into at least
three categories. First, in some instances women make their own decisions. On
other occasions women make decisions after consulting with their husbands,
parents, and/or relatives. Lastly, in some cases husbands dominate the decision
making process (Firdausy, 1999). The specific women interviewed for this
project all fell into the second category (i.e., they made decisions in consultation
with family members. Respondent 9, for example notes:
My husband supported me to open and run this business. So, if there is any
decision that I should make, especially if it is related to my family, I always ask his
opinion. However, I’m free to spend the money as I wish. I can buy whatever I like
and I can give whoever [sic] I want. I’m not dependent on him anymore.
In parallel fashion, Respondent 8 states: “I always ask my husband and children

regarding everything I want to do, if they agree, I continue, if not, I’ll stop.”
Similarly, Respondent 3 suggests that, “It is not good for a woman to make her
own decision. Everything should be consulted with my husband and family.”
These responses are consistent with Balinese culture and traditions. According
to Kindon (1993b), in almost all levels of decision-making (governmental policies
and the traditional indigenous adat system), men dominate the leadership posi-
tions, situation that provides them with greater control over the decision-making
process. While, in theory, it is possible for women to attend meetings with men, for
example, in reality they are expected to wait for invitations from men who
ultimately decide if they should be included. Kindon (1993b), furthermore,
found that in Bali women are often depicted as too emotional to make rational
decisions. In addition, the informants stated that socially conservative men do not
support women’s participation in economic matters or even allow it. They tend to
have little respect for women leaders.
In Bali, women serve in many different vocations such as office workers,

businesswomen, hotel staff members, and laborers. A common thread, how-
ever, is that most of them work in low paying, unskilled positions. As is the
case in many cultures, men are regarded (at least covertly and informally) as
superior to women. In addition, men, not women, typically inherit or control
large amounts of lands. Women, furthermore, are not likely to inherit land
upon marriage. Although women are revered as homemakers, they have no
rights to their children if the case of divorce. The informants of this research
project were well aware of this double standard.
Although women may be viewed as something of an underclass, the
women had pride in their sex. Thus, Respondent 6 states:
Regarding . . . income generation, Balinese women are not dependent to their
husbands. Women are stronger than men. You may even see women as masons,
women laying bricks for construction or breaking stones to pave a road. They
know what responsibility means. On the other hand, men do whatever they like to
do, like gambling or cock fights. Rarely [do] you find them as cheap labors. But,
they are expected to respect and honor of the family and household. How sad it is!
Although the informants believed women are strong and have potential,
they lament that they face obstacles. Respondent 2 explains:
Most of women in Bali get married soon. It is true that they have many opportunities, but
if there is no motivation and skill, isn’t [it] difficult? [Regarding requests for operating
capital] it is not possible for them to ask for aid from their husbands, they will not give it.
Respondent 5 believes this inequality might drive women into starting

their own businesses. She states:
Women are responsible to support their husbands . . . by being [the] family income
earner as well as household manager. However, women are not encouraged to take
part in . . . [the] decision making process or seek to become leaders. This may be
one reason many women choose to work in informal sector.
These attitudes regarding gender are portrayed in Table 2. The sample of enter-
prising women who participated in this study, therefore, tended to question the sex
roles that have been thrust upon them. The informants believed women were
strong and equal to men, if not superior. They viewed women as hard working and
men as lazy creatures who seldom exert themselves.
Religion and Ethnicity

Throughout the world, religions dictate dietary restrictions. This is true in
Bali as well as elsewhere. In particular, Muslims who adhere to their religion
avoid pork and honor strict dietary requirements (the halal system). The
halal system also requires that the name of Allah must by invoked by a
Muslim before an animal is slaughtered. Restrictions upon diet such as these,
Table 2. Perceptions of the Impact of Gender.

Issue Analysis
Overt belief The overt system belief of the Balinese emphasizes the equality of the sexes.
Covert belief A covert traditional holds that males to be superior to females. Men often enjoy
rights and privileges that are denied to women.
Work available For a variety of reasons, most women are forced to settle for low paying laboring
positions. These women are held back by their lower levels of education (and/or a
lack of adequate training) and by cultural norms. As a result, they are available to
work in small informal businesses
Depictions of men The informants portrayed men as lazy idlers who waste their time in diversions of
no economic value while women work hard.
Depictions of women The informants portrayed women as strong, hardworking, and responsible to their
families even when receiving minimal support from their men.
Discussion Apparently, a covert tradition of male superiority and dominance exists. The
informants indicates the men in their lives tended to exploit this situation. The
informants indicated that women work very hard under trying conditions and are
responsible.
of course, can have serious implications for the hospitality and restaurant
industry. Muslim patrons of restaurants tend to prefer establishments that
are owned and managed by fellow Muslims because they fear other restau-
rants are likely to use pork that Moslems avoid. This issue can create a
handicap for non-Muslims who operate in the catering industry. In this
regard, Informant 6 states:
There are so many tourists in Bali and most of them are fanatic with certain beliefs.
Even though there is a “halal” label and the cook is Moslem, if they find that the
owner is Balinese, they go away. This issue is difficult to overcome. Maybe that is one
reason that many restaurant entrepreneurs from Java are more successful here.
Similarly, Respondent 7 notes, “In Bali, there is a chaos related with ‘halal’ and
‘non-halal’ restaurants. Sometimes, restaurants which are owned by Balinese put
‘halal’ label in their restaurants. It creates confusion for Moslems, especially tourists
from Java.” Because the Balinese are a minority ethnic group, their distinctiveness
sometimes works against them when they participate in the hospitality and
restaurant industry. The strict dietary code of the Muslim religion compounds
this problem.
Levels of Education
In general, gender inequality in the labor market is closely connected to
educational opportunities (or lack of them) and the availability of profes-
sional training (ILO, 2011b). In Indonesia, education levels of women
employed in the service sectors tend to be higher than for other economic
sectors. Historically, in Bali, education levels for women were lower than
those for men (Cukier & Wall, 1995) and this has become a major factor
influencing women’s roles in the tourism industry (Long & Kindon, 1997).
The general level of education for women is rising even though rural women
have been less educated than urban women (Thorbecke and van der Pluijm,
1993). The interviews reflected this historic tendency. Respondent 3, for
example, states that, “Many of Balinese women in the city graduated from
tourism school. Their [goal] is to be employed in hotels or restaurants. . . .
For those who live in less developed areas . . . [in contrast, the women] prefer
to be cheap labors.” Respondent 4 observes:
It is hard for . . . [women] to start a business. [Few] are well educated, nor do they
have particular skills or [an enterprising background]. How can they get the money
to start business? So, it is easier to be a farmer or laborer.
Thus, women appear to respond to circumstances in their vocational

choices that are often dictated by a lack of training and/or experience.
Rural women often become cheap laborers because they lack other options.
Urban women with some education are often able to work in the hospitality
and restaurant industry.
Marital Status
Conventional thinking in Bali envisions men as the head of the household.
Women, therefore, are expected to prioritize their role as housewives and
accept the demands of that role. As a result, married women in Bali have a
lower rate of participation in the mainstream labor force than single women
(Hugo, 1995). Married women, however, might find work in the informal
sector of the economy (Ariani & Gregory, 1992). In particular, older and
married women are more likely to be found in informal enterprises such as
owning small business; this arrangement allows them to combine household
duties with paid work.
This pattern could be found when the informants emphasized that self-
employment provides the flexibility needed to balance their work with their
family responsibilities. Respondent 2, for example, states:
I started this business, because I do not want to depend . . . [upon] other
people. By having my own business, I can manage it by myself. As a woman,
I have to be dynamic and flexible. I can maximize my time between work and
taking care of my family. Family is my priority. Moreover, I am happy that I
can create jobs for other people.
Similarly, Respondent 9 notes:
I’m happy that I have my own business. Although it is not big, everything is mine
and the money I earn is due to my hard work. It is good for women to go to work,
but we should not forget that, [my] family is No.1. We can go to work after
everything is done at home, then after we finished our work, we go home directly.
The success of a marriage depends on the wife.
In summary, many factors contribute to the situations that are faced by

women. These variables can exert an important impact upon what people
want and expect and are abstracted in Table 3. To a large extent, women are
channeled into restaurant work due to their status as women and because
hospitality work is often associated with women. These factors were acknowl-
edged by the informants.
Strategies, Tactics, Markets

As discussed previously, a useful way to document the findings of quali-
tative research is to select and discuss particular responses that are thought
to be particularly revealing. That strategy is employed here. Although this
approach is not scientific nor replicable and although it relies upon sub-
jective analysis, doing so is a respected and valuable technique of explora-
tory research. It is utilized here for that reason. In specific, key responses
are discussed in terms of the relevant information they reveal. In particu-
lar, self-esteem, responses to economic circumstances, a proactive style and
networking/innovative habits were discussed. The findings are reported
below.
Enhancing Self-Esteem
The findings of this research indicate that the informants benefited in multi-
ple ways form business ownership. Typically, however, they were initially
driven to their decision by necessity and opportunity. Respondent 4, for
example, states: “After I started the business, I felt my husband appreciated
me more in everything I do. I also feel that I am respected in the commu-
nity.” Closely related to the respect that was gained is the fact that the
Table 3. Key Factors.

Issue Analysis
Gender Although “officially” men and women are equal, men tend to dominate and exert control.
The informants, however, depicted women as superior to men, stronger and more dedicated
to their families then men are portrayed as lazy idlers.
Religion The Halal system puts strict restrictions of the dietary habits of Muslims. This can work
against the interests of Balinese women who are of Hindu descent.
Marital Younger women tend to work in mainstream jobs. Married women are more prone to accept
status work in the informal economic sector. Operating food stalls or small restaurants is an
example of this type of employment that allows women to combing work with family
responsibilities.
Education Women tend to possess lower levels of education than men. As a result, they tend to work
as cheap labors or in the informal economic sector. As a result, they are available to work in
food stalls and small restaurants.
Discussion Although men and women are officially equal, a system of male dominance exists. This
results in lower vocational opportunities for women, which make them candidates for jobs
in the informal economic sector. As a result, women often choose to work in food stalls and
small restaurants.
informants indicated that they gained a greater self-esteem. This increased

confidence, self-respect, confidence, and prestige is related to the fact that
they were making a financial contribution to the household. They also gained
confidence through their contact with customers and patrons. Similarly,
Respondent 3 admits:
I felt bad by just staying at home and depending upon my husband. Women have
the same rights and obligations as men; we [as women] have to stand by ourselves.
If I have my own income, my man will not say that I ask too much from him. I also
need to support my parents in the village. Because both my husband and I love to
cook, we decided to open a food stall.
These responses are consistent with the findings of researchers (such as

Gürol & Atsan, 2006; Koh, 1996; Tajeddini & Mueller, 2009, 2012; Tajeddini
& Trueman, 2016) who note that entrepreneurs exhibit a higher degree of
self-esteem than the population in general. The informants in this research
project indicate that their participation in business helped them develop a
positive identity and image of themselves (see Mahto, Davis, Pearce, &
Robinson, 2010).
Responding to Economic Circumstances

As noted previously, the Balinese code of conduct for women (the Five
Duties of Women, or Panca Dharma Wanita) emphasizes that women
should supplement the family income as required. As a result, if circum-
stances of need arise, women are expected to help relieve financial short-
falls. In that regard, Respondent 5 recalls that “During the financial crisis
in 1998, my husband was laid-off and it was very hard for him to find
another job. As a wife, it is my job to support my husband.” Besides
economic motives, some informants mentioned that they wish to assure
that their families are protected and/or that their children will be able to
receive a good education at Indonesian “supplementary schools.” Similarly,
Respondent 9 states:
My husband was just a hotel employee, his wage was barely enough to support our
daily life. We couldn’t save anything; we couldn’t give any money to our parents or
our siblings. We also have four children and I really want them to get educated. So,
I sold my land that I had at the village to start this business. I’m grateful I have this
business as my source of income, especially after my husband passed away. I could
go on with my life, give my own money to my parents and have this as a family
legacy.
Finally, Respondent 6 notes:

I started my business in 1996. My children were getting older and their education was
getting more expensive. Meanwhile, I felt useless by just staying at home, I want to be
progressive. By having more income, I could assure that my children received a good
education, so they can have a better life . . . and have a voice in society.
It is important to note that although all of the informants were initially

motivated to overcome financial difficulties, once they had started their
businesses they benefited in other ways (such as gaining freedom and
achieving a greater sense of personal worth and self-esteem).
A Proactive Orientation
Some of these respondents realize that women entrepreneurs have to be
strategically proactive in order to effectively cater to their customer base.
Some of the informants introduced different cuisines in Bali. They recall that
building customer demand took a long time. Respondent 8 recalls:
When I wanted to open this restaurant, I was wondering what kind of food is
suitable for Moslems. It was very difficult to find restaurants, which offer Halal
food. I tried to introduce Ayam Taliwang from Lombok, a spicy and salty food that
fit with Balinese taste. Many people love it and now I have loyal customers, who
always come here since they were kids. I’ve been expanding my business and
opened a second restaurant. Now, most of my customers are middle to high
income people, even the president came here several times.
Similarly, Respondent 3 says:

I was the first to sell Coto Makassar in Bali. I am happy that many people like it. In
specific, visitors from the Netherlands like it so much, some of my patrons even
took the food to their home country. With tourism, we can promote Indonesian
food to foreign countries, without going there. . . . Actually, because I’m a Javanese,
I just wanted to introduce the healthy traditional Javanese food here.
Likewise, Respondent 1 boasts, “In 1997, I was the first who had idea to sell
the food for breakfast in this Puputan Square with a van. Then, because of
my idea, many people started to follow me.” These women, therefore, engage
in a sophisticated and systematic process of observing what their customers
want, taking risks by introducing new products, and responding to demand.
Networking and Innovation

Some of the informants mentioned that promotions, networking, and inno-
vation are important tactics that can use useful in competitive markets, In
addition, they felt that pursuing these options incurs minimal risk.
Respondent 7, for example, states, “The menus have been devised on a trial
and error basis, according to the sales and customer preferences.”
In addition, the informants understood the importance of the “marketing
concept” which affirms that “customers are kings” and their wants and needs
must be respected. Thus, Informant 2 notes “Promotion and having good
connections with our customers are the most important strategy to survive.
Moreover, if the customers are satisfied and they keep coming.” Respondent
1 states, “We do not only offer this menu [referring to current offerings].
Sometimes diversification of the menu is important, otherwise the customers
will get bored.” Similarly, Respondent 6 states, “Actually . . . [my] target
customers are the students who live near this restaurants, that’s why I
provide the food at an affordable price. However, since I offer ten percent
discount to tour guides, many international tourists are brought here.” This
evidence is consistent with earlier research indicating that women entrepre-
neurs are innovative (Miller & Friesen, 1982, 1986), proactive (Stevenson &
Jarillo, 1990; Venkatraman, 1989), and prone to take calculated risks (Miller
& Friesen, 1978; Norton & Moore, 2002, 2006).
Tourism and Women in Bali

The tourism industry is highly labor-intensive and a valuable source of
unskilled employment in rural areas. As a result, tourism is especially attrac-
tive to women in both the formal and informal sectors (ILO, 2011a). Women
work in a variety of tourism roles, as both employees and as business owners/
managers. In Bali, most female tourism workers tend to earn above the
minimum wage. Reflecting upon benefits to the local economy, Respondent
6 affirms that, “Tourism significantly effects the economy of Bali and
increases family welfare. In addition, tourism gives women many opportu-
nities to grow and expand their businesses.” In addition, Respondent 7
summarizes that, “Tourism and service industries are developing rapidly
in. . . [Bali], which creates many [job] opportunities [including a chance to
own a small business]. I firmly believe that Balinese women are very hard
working people.” The shift towards tourism in the mainstream economy has
resulted in many small-scale informal businesses being established. In this
regard, Respondent 8 recognizes that “Because of tourism development,
many hotels, restaurants, shops were built. Many people, including women,
shifted their jobs from primary sectors, as farmers, to tertiary industry, as
employees in hotels or restaurants.”
The informal sector has increased the participation of women in the
hospitality industry. As a result, many female business owners have emerged
as relatively well off financially. Despite a heavy workload, women participat-
ing in the informal tourism sector gain greater control over their lives and
greater economic independence than other women (Wilkinson and Pratiwi,
1995). The hospitality industry, furthermore, provides a socially acceptable
way for women to earn income through an extension of traditional gender
roles. In a country that is coming to be known for sex tourism, such socially
acceptable options are welcome. In addition, women are able to pursue
restaurant work while simultaneously satisfying their family responsibilities

(Long & Kindon, 1997).
Women often cycle from one segment of the tourism industry to another.
Respondent 3, for example states:
A large number of Balinese women work at hotels or restaurants as employees,

until they get married. At that point they tend to quit their jobs and work in the
informal sector (opening a warung or making handicrafts at home), which is easier
for them if they need to take care of their families.
In Bali, the influence of tourism upon food stalls and small restaurants is
an example of traditional institutions evolving to take advantage of emerging
(tourism) opportunities. Although relatively few international tourists from
outside Asia eat at warungs, these small family-owned establishments serve a
wide range of local employees, especially in the tourism industry. According
to some respondents, the number of restaurants and warungs in Denpasar
and Badung areas is increased because of a growing demand. In this regard,
Respondent 4 states that:
Tourism affects my business, indirectly, because most of my customers work in

tourism industry, nearby here. They work in hotels. . . . If the business at their
hotels increases, they are more willing to spend their money. In contrast, if they
earn less, my sales decline.
Respondent 7 continues this chain of thought: “My customers mostly work

in hotels and travel agencies. Tourism is the major industry in Bali; if it keeps
expanding, the cash flow in Bali will get better.” Respondent 9 adds, “My
restaurant is located near Ngurah Rai Airport. Tourists rarely eat here; the
people who work at the airport are my main customers. Lately, because of so
many development projects are in progress, my sales have increased.”
Although mainstream Western tourists seldom eat at informal food stalls,
domestic tourists and those from Asia are patrons. Respondent 1 recalls,
“Many of my customers are domestic tourists, especially Javanese.”
New Target Markets

As discussed above, historically these informal food stalls and restaurants
primarily served local people, and Asians. But this might be changing. Some
adventurous Westerners, for example, actively seek out what they call “street
food” in the belief that doing so provides a degree of authenticity to their
travels. In particular, so-called “backpacker tourist,” is young, on a tight
budget and interested in experiencing a culture on its own terms. As a result,
these tourists shun modern and westernized facilities that cater to “main-
stream” tourists. As an alternative, these backpackers typically gravitate to
informal restaurants and food stalls. This is the pattern in Central America,
Asia, and other places (Walle, 2015b).
Other long-term changes are impacting Bali and transforming economic
opportunities. Thus, Respondent 6 states that “Perhaps because Bali is
getting more secure and safe, we are seeing more Western tourists.
Many of them stay for several months and some even choose to live
here. Therefore, they like to taste our food.” In all likelihood, this increase
in sales to Westerners is triggered by an emerging trend in retirement.
Many Americans, for example, have been forced to settle outside of the
United States once they quit working because they have not saved enough
to maintain their lifestyle at home. As an alternative, they are moving to
countries where the money they do have will go further. These retirees
often seek out economical restaurants and food. As a result, the informal
hospitality sector might benefit by catering to this group. Apparently,
Westerners (in the form of expatriates and backpackers) might be emer-
ging as new target markets.
Concerns Regarding Tourism

In contrast to these aforementioned positive observations, the informants
also shared concerns about the negative effect of tourism. Respondent 6, for
example, says:
Bali is very attractive mainly because of its distinctive culture and unique rituals.
Balinese culture is very different with the other areas in Indonesia. I’m happy that
many foreign tourists come here to enjoy its beauty. However, the visitors also
bring their lifestyle and a variety of clubs have opened. They are open day and
night. Young people imitate their behavior, use drugs, and show affection in
public. Nothing is taboo anymore.
Similarly, Respondent 8 says, “Bali has changed a lot, it is not pure any-
more. As many foreigners come here, they have shifted the Balinese culture
more and more. I feel that Bali is becoming Westernized.” Thus, women who
own and manage food stalls and small restaurants respond to circumstances
in a number of ways and are transformed accordingly. And while they
benefit, they are also aware of drawbacks in the growing tourism industry.
An overview of these impacts and influences is presented in Table 4..
Consequently, the informants in this study point to a complex picture of
people who are progressive and innovative in some ways, while being tied to
tradition in others. A number of opportunities and barriers exist in regard to
their economic lives. As a result, we can expect change as adjustments are
made that take full advantage of emerging opportunities. At the present time,
however, accurately predicting the future is difficult.
Table 4. Strategic Responses.

Issue Analysis
Self-esteem Women who own and manage small business often gain a higher degree of self-
esteem and gain the respect of their family and the larger community.
Circumstances Women often choose to start businesses due to circumstances and needs. They
report, however, that other benefits including psychological wellbeing results
from their efforts.
Proactiveness The informants indicated that they are constantly thinking strategically and
adjusting their products and services to cater to demands.
Networking/ Networking and innovation were seen as easily accomplished and low risk ways
innovation of dealing with change and accepting new opportunities.
Tourism and women The growth of tourism has had a profound impact upon women who own and
operate food stalls and small restaurants. Historically they have served employees
in the hospitality industry.
Potential markets It appears that Western expatriates and young backpacking tourists might
emerge as lucrative target markets. If so, adjustment might have to be made.
Problems with Many rural and indigenous peoples are troubled by changes wrought by tourism
tourism and Westernization. The informants in this project were concerned even though
they were intimately involved with tourism.
Discussion Although the businesses they run are small and their level of education typically
minimal, it appears that the women who run and manage food stalls and small
restaurants are strategic in their thinking and thoughtful in their actions. It is
hoped that those dealing with them will recognize this fact and respond to their
depth, abilities, and vision.
Discussion and Conclusion

During the last decade, the role of gender in economic activity has been the
subject of extensive research, debate, and policy concerns as part of a wider
interest entrepreneurship and business ownership among women (Harrison,
and Colin, 2007). The current study examines women who are small business
owners in the informal hospitality and tourism industry. It documents that
significant opportunities are open to women. Ease of entry, flexibility of work
hours, the fact that specialized business skills are not required are important
reasons why women gravitate towards small hospitality businesses such as
restaurants and food stalls. The lack of investment capital and the low level of
education of these women presented barriers to successfully participate in
other areas. Moreover, the informants indicated that they are consciously or
unconsciously willing to sacrifice growth and potential larger profits in order
to avoid unacceptable risks. In addition, many women entrepreneurs lack
mainstream marketing and management skills. The fact that they can com-
bine professional and family responsibilities is an incentive to stay with small
informal businesses.
In addition to merely gaining financially, the informants emphasize that
owning and managing businesses help them develop confidence, build self-
esteem, and earn respect in the eyes their families and community. The
informants also appeared to gain greater autonomy and independence as a
result of their business lives. Significantly, they were able to do so without

ignoring their traditional roles within their families and religious life.
A wide number of influences including Balinese gender traditions, reli-
gion, ethnicity, education attainment, and marital status combine to build the
ability and willingness of women to become business owners. In Bali, religion
and ethnicity play important roles both the personal and professionals lives
of people. Strong social, religious, ethnic networks, furthermore, often pro-
vide important financial and moral support for women who start their own
businesses.
Balinese women anticipate serving as supplementary wage earners as
required. Women, however, are also expected to prioritize their role as
wives, mothers, and homemakers. The flexibility offered by establishing
small informal hospitality business facilities balancing employment and
family responsibilities. It is often an attractive option for this reason, espe-
cially after women marry and start families. This is consistent with the
findings of Sarri and Trihopoulou (2005) who state that the increasing
interest in female entrepreneurship is “fed” by the continuous increase in
the participation of women in the job market and the ownership of small
businesses, which indicate the need for a reduction in the obstacles faced by
women on a national level. In a nutshell, encouraging women to own and
manage their own businesses can promote economic growth and develop-
ment as well as increasing the wellbeing of specific women and their families.
Doing so reflects the vision of the United Nations MDGs (United Nation
Development Fund, 2005).
Although the situation of Bali is unique in some ways, it seems to reflect a
pattern that exists elsewhere. In Central America, for example, parallels
clearly exist (Walle, 2015b). The fact that the United Nations is concerned
with empowerment, education, and professional activity, indicates issues that
extend far beyond Bali. It is hoped that while this research will illuminate key
issues regarding Bali, it will also provide insights regarding other regions.
Limitations and Further Research

This research focused on the personal characteristics and motivations of
female entrepreneurs and lays the groundwork for further research involving
entrepreneurship among women in Bali and elsewhere that involve, among
other issues, a focus upon self-fulfillment, creativity, autonomy, and inde-
pendence. Questions that remain include the typical initial investments of
these sorts of business: the barriers to entry, the extent of profitability
management skills of these women. Policy considerations might include
exploring the relationship between stakeholder cooperation, in terms of
government and local business, as well as their impact upon entrepreneur-
ship and organizational structure. Clearly, a multifaceted model is needed in
which different components, including econ orientation and employee invol-

vement, are considered from within a macro context. In addition, further
research is required to explore the operations of these businesses, the average
initial investments, the actual and potential barriers to entry, the effectiveness
of their management style, the ownership and leadership styles, etc.
In any event, a better understanding of how women can contribute to
economic activities and do so in equitable and culturally appropriate ways in
much needed. This article is offered as a pioneering project in this regard.
References
Al Mazroei, L., & Lynch, P. (2014, July). The experiences and meaning of empowerment for
omani women in tourism entrepreneurship. Paper presented at XVIII ISA World Congress
of Sociology, Yokoyama, Japan.
Ariani, A. A., & Gregory, A. (1992). Women’s participation in the tourist industry in Bali:
Characteristics, effects, and possible strategies for the future. San Jose, Costa Rica: Fifth
International Interdisciplinary Congress on Women.
Bali Tourism Board. (2011a). Number of foreign visitors arriving directly by nationality to Bali,
1981–2010. Retrieved from http://bali.bps.go.id/series_data/tampil_data_series.php
Bali Tourism Board. (2011b). Number of population aged 15 years and over who worked
during previous week by industrial origin and sex in Bali Province, 2010. Retrieved from
http://bali.bps.go.id/eng/tabel_detail.php?ed=605002&od=5&id=5
Ball, S. (2001). Entrepreneurship and small business development for the hospitality and
tourism industry. BSc (Hons) Hospitality Management - distance learning module work-
book. South Yorkshire, UK: Sheffield Hallam University.
Bandem, I. M. (2003). Tourism in Bali: A cultural approach to development. Retrieved from
http://www.isi-dps.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2010/02/Tourism-In-Bali.pdf
Blackburn, R. M. (1999). Is housework unpaid work? International Journal of Sociology and
Social Policy, 19(7/8), 1–20.
Bras, K., & Dahles, H. (1998). Women entrepreneurs and beach tourism in Sanur, Bali:
Gender, employment opportunities, and government policy. Pacific Tourism Review, 1,
243–256.
Carter, S., Anderson, S., & Shaw, E. (2001). Women’s business ownership: A review of the
academic popular and Internet literature. London, UK: Small Business Service, Department
of Trade and Industry.
Collins, J. (2002). Chinese entrepreneurs: The Chinese diaspora in Australia. International
Journal of Entrepreneurial of Entrepreneurial Behavior and Research, 8(1/2), 113–133.
doi:10.1108/13552550210423750
Copeland, J., & Murni, N. W. (2010). Secrets of Bali. Bangkok, Thailand: Orchid Press.
Côté, J., Salmela, J., Trudel, P., Baria, A., & Russell, S. (1995). The coaching model: A
grounded assessment of expert gymnastic coaches' knowledge. The Journal of Sport and
Exercise Psychology, 17, 1–17.
Cukier, J., Norris, J., & Wall, G. (1996). The involvement of women in the tourism industry of
Bali, Indonesia. The Journal of Development Studies, 33(2), 248–270. doi:10.1080/
00220389608422465
Cukier, J., & Wall, G. (1995). Tourism employment in Bali: A gender analysis. Tourism
Economics, 1(4), 389–401.
Davidson, M. J., & Burke, R. J. (2004). Women in management worldwide: Facts, figures and
analysis. Aldershot, UK: Gower Publishing.
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). (2005). The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research
(3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Eldabi, T., Irani, Z., Paul, R. J., & Love, P. E. D. (2002). Quantitative and qualitative decision-
making methods in simulation modeling. Management Decision, 40(1/2), 64–74.
Firdausy, C. M. (1999). Women entrepreneurs in SMEs in Indonesia. In Women
Entrepreneurs in SMEs in the APEC Region. Singapore: APEC Project. Retrieved from
http://www.apec.org/Groups/SOM-Steering-Committee-on-Economic-and-Technical-
Cooperation/TaskGroups/~/media/Files/Groups/GFPN/99_aggi_entrep.ashx
Gürol, Y., & Atsan, N. (2006). Entrepreneurial characteristics amongst university students:
Some insights for entrepreneurship education and training in Turkey. Education and
Training, 48(1), 25–38.
Harrison, R. T., & Colin, C. M. (2007). Does gender matter? Women business angels and the
supply of entrepreneurial finance. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, May, 445–472.
Hellsrtöm, T., Hellström, C., & Berglund, H. (2002). The innovating self: Exploring self
among a group of technological innovators. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 17(4),
267–286.
Hermawati, P., & Kindon, S. (1993). Gender roles, Relations and needs in the Balinese
development process. Student publication Series Research Paper no.14. Waterloo, Ontario,
Canada: University Consortium on the Environment.
Hugo, G. J. (1995). International labor migration and the family: Some observations from
Indonesia. Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, 4(2/3), 273–301. doi:10.1177/
011719689500400206
International Finance Corporation. (2008). Voices of women in the private sector. Retrieved
from http://www1.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/topics_ext_content/ifc_external_corporate_
site/ifc+sustainability/publications/publications_report_voiceswomenprivatesector__wci__
1319576542864
International Labor Organization. (2010). Women in labour markets: Measuring progress and
identifying challenges. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Office.
International Labor Organization. (2011a). Hotels, catering and tourism. Retrieved from www.
ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/—ed_dialogue/—sector/documents/briefingnote/
International Labor Organization. (2011b). Promoting decent work in a green economy.
Retrieved from www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/%40ed_emp/%40emp_ent/docu
ments/publication/wcms_152065.pdf
Jakarta Post. (2015). RI tourism leaps forward. Retrieved from http://www.thejakartapost.
com/news/2015/2005/2015/ri-tourism-leaps-forward.html
Kindon, S. (Ed.). (1993a). Bali sustainable development project: Gender and development
training workshop, June 22–23 1992 (University Consortium on the Environment
Publication Series Research Paper No. 48). Waterloo, Ontario, Canada: University
Consortium on the Environment.
Kindon, S. (Ed.). (1993b). From tea makers to decision makers: Applying participatory rural
appraisal to gender and development in Rural Bali Indonesia (University Consortium on
the Environment Publication Series Research Paper No. 16). Waterloo, Ontario, Canada:
University Consortium on the Environment.
Koh, H. C. (1996). Testing hypotheses of entrepreneurial characteristics: A study of Hong
Kong MBA students. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 11(3), 12–25.
Locke, K. (2001). Grounded theory in management research. London, UK: Sage Publications.
Lofland, J., Snow, D., Anderson, L., & Lofland, L. H. (1984). Analyzing social settings: A guide
to qualitative observation and analysis. Belmont, CA.: Wadsworth.
Long, V. H., & Kindon, S. L. (1997). Gender and tourism development in Balinese villages. In
M. T. Sinclair (Ed.), Gender, work and tourism (pp. 60–90). London, UK: Routledge.
Mabbett, H. (1987). In praise of Kuta. Wellington, New Zealand: January Books.
Mahot, P. (1998). Funding for women entrepreneurs: A real—though disputed problem.
Women Entrepreneurs in Small and Medium Enterprises, OECD Proceedings, pp. 218–225.
Mahto, R. V., Davis, P. S., Pearce, J. A., & Robinson, R. B. (2010). Satisfaction with firm
performance in family businesses. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 34(5), 985–1001.
Miller, D., & Branson, J. (1984, May 13). Pollution in Paradise: Hinduism and the
Subordination of Women in Bali. Asian Studies Association of Australia Fifth National
Conference, University of Adelaide.
Miller, D., & Friesen, P.H. (1978). Archetypes of strategy formulation. Management Science,
24(9), 921–933.
Miller, D., & Friesen, P. (1982). Innovation in conservative and entrepreneurial firms: Two
models of strategic momentum. Strategic Management Journal, 3, 1–25.
Miller, D., & Friesen, P.H. (1986). Porter’s (1980) generic strategies and performance: An
empirical examination with American data. Part 1: Testing Porter. Organisational Studies,
7, 37–55.
Norton, W. I., & Moore, W. T. (2002). Entrepreneurial risk: Have we been asking the wrong
question? Small Business Economics, 18, 281–287.
Norton, W. I. Jr., & Moore, W. T. (2006). The influence of entrepreneurial risk assessment on
venture launch or growth decisions. Small Business Economics, 26(3), 215–226.
O'Donoghue, P. (2010). Research methods for sports performance analysis. New York:
Routledge.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2000). Small businesses, job
creation and growth: Facts, obstacles and best practices. Retrieved from www.oecd.org/
dataoecd/10/59/2090740.pdf
Sarri, K., & Trihopoulou, A. (2005). Female entrepreneurs’ personal characteristics and
motivation: A review of the Greek situation. Women in Management Review, 20(1), 24–36.
Stevenson, H. H., & Jarillo, J. C. (1990). A paradigm of entrepreneurship: Entrepreneurial
management. Strategic Management Journal, 11, 17–27.
Suryakusuma, J. (1991). State Ibuism: The social construction of womanhood in the
Indonesian new order. New Asian Vision, 6, 46–71.
Swain, M. (ed.). (1991). Gender and tourism, special issue. Annals of Tourism Research, 22, 2.
Tajeddini, K. (2011). Customer orientation, learning orientation, and new service develop-
ment: An empirical investigation of Swiss hotel industry. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism
Research, 35(4), 437–468.
Tajeddini, K. (2013). Using grounded theory to model market orientation experiences at
practice. International Journal of Business Excellence, 6(5), 553–571. doi:10.1504/
IJBEX.2013.056108
Tajeddini, K. (2015). Exploring the antecedents of effectiveness and efficiency, International.
Journal of Hospitality Management, 49(7), 125–135. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2015.06.007
Tajeddini, K., & Mueller, S. (2009). Entrepreneurial characteristics in Switzerland and the UK:
A comparative study of techno-entrepreneurs. Journal of International Entrepreneurship, 7
(1), 1–25. doi:10.1007/s10843-008-0028-4
Tajeddini, K., & Mueller, S. L. (2012). Corporate entrepreneurship in Switzerland: Evidence
from a case study of Swiss watch manufacturers. International Entrepreneurship and
Management Journal, 8(3), 355–372. doi:10.1007/s11365-011-0179-y
Tajeddini, K., & Trueman, M. (2008). The potential for innovativeness: A tale of the Swiss
watch industry. Journal of Marketing Management, 24(1–2), 169–184. doi:10.1362/
026725708X273984
Tajeddini, K., & Trueman, M. (2014). Perceptions of innovativeness among Iranian hotel
managers. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology, 5(1), 62–77. doi:10.1108/JHTT-
12-2012-0036
Tajeddini, K. & Trueman, M. (2016). Environment-strategy and alignment in a restricted,
transitional economy: Empirical research on its application to Iranian state-owned enter-
prises. Long Range Planning, 49(5), 570–583.
Tambunan, T. (2008). SME development, economic growth, and government intervention in
a developing country: The Indonesian story. Journal of International Enterprise, 6, 147–
167. doi:10.1007/s10843-008-0025-7
Tambunan, T. T. H. (2006). Development of small & medium enterprises in Indonesia from the
Asia-Pacific perspective. Jakarta, Indonesia: LPFE-Usakti.
Tan, J. (2008). Breaking the “bamboo curtain” and the “glass ceiling”: The experience of
women entrepreneurs in high-tech industries in an emerging market. Journal of Business
Ethics, 80, 547–564.
Thorbecke, E., & Van Der Pluijm., T. (1993). Rural Indonesia: Socio-economic development in
a changing environment. New York, NY: New York University Press.
United Nation Development Fund (UNDP). (2005). Millennium Development Goals progress
report for Indonesia. Retrieved from http://www.undp.or.id/pubs/IMDG2005/index.asp
UNWTO. (2011). UNWTO tourism highlights [Fact sheet]. Retrieved from http://mkt.unwto.
org/sites/all/files/docpdf/unwtohighlights11enhr.pdf
Venkatraman, N. (1989). Strategic orientation of business enterprises: The construct, dimen-
sionality, and measurement. Management Science, 35(8), 942–962.
Walle, A. H. (2015a). Outside perspectives and local traditions: Charting a strategic course for
the Middle East. Middle Eastern Journal of Management, 2(2), 95–109.
Walle, A. H. (2015b). Qualitative research in business: A practical overview. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge Scholars Publishers.
Wilkinson, P., & Pratiwi, W. (1995). Gender and tourism in an Indonesian village. Annals of
Tourism Research, 22(2), 283–299. doi:10.1016/0160-7383(94)00077-8
Wiratmaja, A. (1991). Hindu women in a projection (Wanita Hindu dalam Suatu Proyeksi).
Bandung, Indonesia: Ganesa Exact Bandung.
World Travel and Tourism Council. (2011). Economic impact research. Retrieved from http://
www.wttc.org/research/economic-impact-research/

Enterprising Women Tourism and Developme

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Enterprising Women Tourism and Developme

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism

ISSN: 1525-6480 (Print) 1525-6499 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wjht20

Enterprising Women, Tourism, and Development:

Kayhan Tajeddini, Alf H. Walle & Mela Denisa

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15256480.2016.1264906

Published online: 23 Jan 2017.

Submit your article to this journal

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

Enterprising Women, Tourism, and Development: The Case

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

CONTACT Kayhan Tajeddini, PhD Ktajeddi@tiu.ac.jp, kayhan@tajeddini.ch Institute for International

competitiveness index, for example, has significantly increased in 2015 as

Background of Enterprising Women of Bali

encourages tourism. According to Bandem (2003), many of the small islands

member states and at least 23 international organizations established. The initial

In any event, the businesses established by the women of Bali tend to be

The background information provided above provides a useful framework

Table 1. Profiles of Respondents.

An Overview of the Informants

In parallel fashion, Respondent 8 states: “I always ask my husband and children

In Bali, women serve in many different vocations such as office workers,

Respondent 5 believes this inequality might drive women into starting

Religion and Ethnicity

Table 2. Perceptions of the Impact of Gender.

Thus, women appear to respond to circumstances in their vocational

In summary, many factors contribute to the situations that are faced by

Strategies, Tactics, Markets

Table 3. Key Factors.

informants indicated that they gained a greater self-esteem. This increased

These responses are consistent with the findings of researchers (such as

Responding to Economic Circumstances

Finally, Respondent 6 notes:

It is important to note that although all of the informants were initially

Similarly, Respondent 3 says:

Networking and Innovation

Tourism and Women in Bali

restaurant work while simultaneously satisfying their family responsibilities

A large number of Balinese women work at hotels or restaurants as employees,

Tourism affects my business, indirectly, because most of my customers work in

Respondent 7 continues this chain of thought: “My customers mostly work

New Target Markets

Concerns Regarding Tourism

Table 4. Strategic Responses.

Discussion and Conclusion

result of their business lives. Significantly, they were able to do so without

Limitations and Further Research

which different components, including econ orientation and employee invol-

You might also like