For Shiva and Shasta

and their generation of nature lovers

First published in 2014 by Hachette India

(Registered name: Hachette Book Publishing India Pvt. Ltd)
An Hachette UK company
www.hachetteindia.com

This ebook published in 2014

Text Copyright © 2014 Vivek Menon

Copyright for photographs rests with the individual photographers
Distribution maps, illustrations and evolutionary charts Copyright © Wildlife Trust of India
Map of India – Biogeography (page 16) Copyright © Vivek Menon and Smita Bodhankar Warnekar

Vivek Menon asserts the moral right to be identified as the author of this work

All rights reserved. No part of the publication may be copied, reproduced, stored in a retrieval system
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Print edition ISBN 978-93-5009-760-1

Ebook edition 978-93-5009-761-8

The maps in this book are pictorial representations and not to scale.
They do not represent exact or accurate geographical boundaries

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Contents

INTRODUCTORY PAGES

PRIMATES

ELEPHANTS

ODD-TOED UNGULATES

EVEN-TOED UNGULATES

CARNIVORES

HARES AND PIKAS

PANGOLINS

TREE SHREWS
SHREWS AND MOLES

HEDGEHOGS

RODENTS

BATS

WHALES AND DOLPHINS

DUGONGS

ENDNOTES

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

CONTRIBUTORS AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

INDEX
 NATIONAL SYMBOLS

F
OUR OF INDIA’S national symbols have mammals associated with
them. The regality of the lion, the charisma of a tiger, the power of
an elephant and the grace of a dolphin are celebrated, according
them a unique status.

National Emblem
LION CAPITAL
Adapted from the Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath, by Madhav
Sawhney in 1950, this shows three lions, the fourth being hidden from
view. The wheel appears in the centre of the abacus, with a bull on the
right and a galloping horse on the left.
 National Aquatic Animal
GANGES RIVER DOLPHIN
Declared the National Aquatic Animal in October 2009 to save it from
extinction.

National Heritage Animal

ELEPHANT
In October 2010, the Indian Government declared the elephant a National
Heritage Animal.

National Animal
TIGER
 The tiger was accorded the status of National Animal in 1973, with the
initiation of Project Tiger, a national tiger protection programme. Before
this, the National Animal was the lion.
 AUTHOR’S INTRODUCTION

M
AMMALS ARE THE most charismatic of all fauna. Perhaps it is
because we belong to the order ourselves that we find them of
perennial interest. Majestic big cats fascinate us, gigantic
elephants hold us spellbound, and primates with their forward-facing eyes
and human-like faces remind us of our own origins. These charismatic
mega-fauna serve as flagships for a class that encompasses 5,488 distinct
species.

India has about 400 mammals, some of them widely recognized such as the
national animal – the tiger, and others such as the tree shrew – enigmatic
and evolutionarily unique. Around 65 per cent of the world’s wild tigers and
Asian Elephants are found in India, as are 85 per cent of its One-horned
Rhinoceroses. It is also the only country to have the Asiatic Lion. India
teems with antelope and deer, has five species of big cats, four massive wild
cattle, 11 wild goat and sheep, and at least 22 primates. Add to these the
numerous bats, rodents and cetaceans, and you have the most incredible
array of wildlife. Herds of elephants at the Kabini reservoir in Karnataka in
the months of March and April, the bats that swarm into Robber’s Cave
every evening at Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra, or the temporary
associations of wild goat and sheep as they shift their altitudinal range in
response to the climate, offer unforgettable glimpses into the world of
mammals.
 Blackbuck male and female

Ever since it was published in 1948, S.H. Prater’s The Book of Indian
Animals has been the standard reference on the subject of Indian mammals,
providing detailed accounts of all the common species. In 2003, I brought
out A Field Guide to Indian Mammals, which was then the first
comprehensive guide that attempted to cover all the mammal species of
India. Just over a decade down the line, this second offering to the
interested layperson, the amateur naturalist and the wildlife professional
differs in some ways from the first. It follows the latest classification that
has since evolved, based on available genetic knowledge, and thus includes
what was listed as the Common Langur as six different species, or the
Hoolock Gibbon as two different species. It preliminarily includes species
such as the Arunachal Macaque and the Leaf Deer, which have been
described from India since 2003. It also takes the identification of all
species to the subspecific level so that different-looking animals can all be
identified in the field. In this book, maps have been included for every
species and in more detail. Finally, tracks, signs, horns, antlers, pellets and
other characteristics (all of which can be used for identifying mammals)
have been included for the first time. While doing this, care has been taken
to retain key ID markers, field behaviour and, of course, stunning
photographs. In the intervening decade, Indian photography has come of
age and a large number of Indian photographers have made their resources
available gratis for this book, which requires a great debt of gratitude.
Several mammologists of repute have also gone through the text and visuals
to ensure that the book is as error-free as possible.

I would hope that just as with my earlier guide, this book will serve the
conservation-conscious and the tourist alike in enjoying the wonderful
offerings of the Indian wild.
 WHAT ARE MAMMALS?

T
HE TERM ‘MAMMAL’ originates from the Latin word ‘mamma’
meaning teat or breast. Mammals are animals that are distinguished
from other taxa by the presence of body hair, mammary glands in
females, as well as a specialized brain structure called the neocortex, which
generally results in a larger body–brain size ratio compared to other taxa of
animals. Mammals are also marked by a high level of infant dependency,
although the degree of dependency may be highly variable.

Mammals have unique skeletal characteristics as well, which distinguish

them from other taxa. For example, in all mammals, the dentary bone meets
the squamosal bones to form the lower jaw joint. Mammals share a
specialized structure of the middle ear with three unique bone structures
(malleus, incus and the stapes) attached to the tympanum, or eardrum.
Dentition in a mammal does not get continuously replaced and is either
lifelong or replaced just once. Also unique to the Class is that the skull has
two knobs, called occipital condyles, at its base.

Anatomical Peculiarities of Mammals

Sharing a characteristic with birds, most mammals are endothermic or
warm-blooded (the Naked Mole Rat is an exception to this).

There is high variability amongst mammals with most being adapted to a

terrestrial life although aquatic cetaceans and aerial bats are equally
members of the Class Mammalia. Most mammals are placental, i.e., they
give birth to live young except the Monotremes that lay eggs.

A 2008 assessment of the IUCN says that the world has 5,488 mammalian
species.

ANATOMY AND CHARACTERISTICS

Bonnet Macaque and infant, Nilgiris
EVOLUTION OF MAMMALS:
The Tree Of Life
Evolutionary tree of Indian mammals (Adapted from Macdonald D., 2001)

W
HILE CREATURES WITH certain mammalian features such as
a jaw joint made of the squamosal and dentary bones, or those
possessing hair, appeared between the Lower and Middle
Jurassic Period (i.e., 195–165 mya), the first placental mammals appeared
only after the dinosaurs became extinct in the Paleocene Epoch. They took
over empty ecological niches from many of the large reptilians that went
extinct, and then flourished in the Cenozoic Era. Indian mammals are
ancient beings as well, and there was mammalian life in the Indian
subcontinent when the split with Gondwanaland took place. A 66-million-
year-old condylarth tooth found in India is supposed to belong to the
precursor of modern hoofed animals. Some evolutionary biologists have
named India as the place of origin for cetaceans.
 One of the oldest living mammals in India, the Greater One-horned
Rhinoceroses are solitary by nature but may come together in temporary
aggregations at a beel.

Another example of an ancient mammalian lineage is that of the Chinese

Pangolin, which branched out as a distinct clade by 55 mya.
 USING THIS BOOK:
Abbreviations, contractions and symbols

The following abbreviations, contractions and symbols have been used in

the book to make it simpler for the reader to access the information.
AS antler size
cm centimetre
EL ear length
g gramme
FA forearm length
FF forefoot length
HBL head and body length
HAS height at shoulder
HF hind foot length
HL horn length
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
kg kilogramme
km kilometre
m metre
mm millimetre
mya million years ago
NP National Park
RF Reserve Forest
sp species
spp plural; indicates ‘several species’
ssp subspecies
TL tail length
TR Tiger Reserve
WLS Wildlife Sanctuary
WPA Wildlife Protection Act
Wt weight

CONSERVATION STATUS
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (the IUCN Red List or Red
Data List) is a comprehensive international inventory of the global
conservation status of biological species. Using specific criteria to evaluate
and monitor the risk of extinction, it classifies species and subspecies into
nine groups ranging from Extinct in the Wild and Critically Endangered,
through Near Threatened and Least Concern, to Data Deficient and Not
Evaluated.

The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 is the Indian legislation that lays down
schedules of protected biological species; hunting these animals or birds, or
harvesting of these plant species is against the law. Its six schedules offer
different degrees of protection. Schedule I and part II of Schedule II provide
total protection and strict penalties. Species listed in Schedule III and
Schedule IV are also protected, but the penalties are much lower.

Local Status has been determined by the author.

SYMBOLS

Adult

Genus

Female

Form

Juvenile

Male

Species

Subspecies

Summer

Winter

Monsoon

Family

Family
Reproductive Strategies

Male

Female

Offspring
USING THIS BOOK:
Understanding a page layout
 USING THIS BOOK:
Taxonomy and classification

What is a taxa?
Taxa represent evolutionarily related groups of animals. A single taxon
(singular) incorporates animals that share a close phylogenetic relationship,
such as a species or a genus.

What is the system of taxonomy?

Taxonomy involves classification based on the known evolutionary history
of different animals.

Why does it change so often?

With the advent of new techniques to anaylze phylogeny such as genetics,
classificatory schemes are no longer based on morphology and, therefore,
change when new genetic evidence of relatedness is found out.

How do I know who is right?

Much of the variation is at the finer level, such as between subspecies.
Follow standard references such as Wilson and Reeder (2005) or IUCN Red
List (2012).

What is a class, order, family, genus and species?

All these are taxonomic levels that help us determine relatedness among
different forms of life.
 USING THIS BOOK:
Getting it down to the order

PRIMATES Front-facing eyes; soft-skinned, contoured palms of hands and soles

of feet; opposable thumbs on forelimbs or all limbs.

ELEPHANTS Large body size; long trunk; fused digits on limbs with visible toe
nails; rough, thick skin with spiky hair.

ODD-TOED UNGULATES Hoofed herbivores with a unique digestive system

and an odd number of toes.

EVEN-TOED UNGULATES Mostly horned or antlered hoofed herbivores with a

unique digestive system and an even number of toes.

CARNIVORES Primarily meat eaters; enlarged canines and claws.

LAGOMORPHS Strictly herbivorous animals with four incisors in the upper jaw
(not two as in rodents).

PHOLIDOTES Scaly, insectivorous animals with long tails, tubular snouts and
strong claws.

TREE SHREWS Small, slender omnivores, with long tails, poorly developed
canines and unspecialized molars; territorial; nocturnal.

INSECTIVORES Small insectivores with sharp teeth and long, pointed snouts;
simple molars, simplified gut lacking caecum, and small pinnae and eyes;
pentadactyl and plantigrade.
HEDGEHOGS Spiny, nocturnal, insect-eating mammals, with the ability to roll
into a tight ball.

RODENTS Small body size (except the Capybara); enlarged top incisors;
elongated, pointy snouts.

BATS Large wings of extended skin; claws; roost upside down; most are nocturnal.

CETACEANS Water dwelling, with blowhole on dorsal surface for breathing by

surfacing on waters; limbs converted to fins.

SIRENIANS Marine herbivores with aquatic adaptations of limbs: fusiform,

hydrodynamic; modified skulls; dentition reduced.
 USING THIS BOOK:
Biogeography of India and mammalian
distribution

W
HILE BIOGEOGRAPHIC MAPS of India have been available
in the past (Rodgers and Panwar, 1988, and Rodgers, Panwar
and Mathur, 2002) there has been no map looking specifically at
mammal distribution. Biogeography affects different taxon in different
ways, and for most mammals, large rivers and mountains are barriers to
dispersal or colonization in ways more than, for example, for birds or
insects. This map is loosely based on the earlier maps but has been
completely redone using topography, presence of rivers, climatic zones, soil
and vegetation types, and known mammalian distribution.
USING THIS BOOK:
Places mentioned under ‘Best Seen At’
 SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

T
HERE IS A different term to describe an aggregation of each
mammal: a pride of lions, a pod of dolphins, a troop of macaques, a
sounder of pigs. Social living is a way of life for many mammals,
and calling them different names is a linguistic exercise in description.

A colony of bats cluster overhead in a cave.

 A herd of swamp deer congregating in the plains for feeding or
breeding is a common sight.

A romp or pod of Smooth-coated Otters, a group formation of the

carnivores of the river.
A troop of Bonnet Macaques huddle for warmth in the early morning.
 FIELD CONDITIONS

A
NIMALS IN THIS field guide have been photographed using long
lenses by professionals and the results then enhanced by
magnifying and cropping. In the field, visibility is quite different
and this must be borne in mind when using the book. Use good binoculars,
be prepared to walk and stalk (where permitted) and have tonnes of
patience.
Species that live in tall grass are invisible if you drive through it. Going
on elephant back is a good option of sighting them. Mountain ungulates are
in inaccessible terrain and can be very shy.
Most Indian wildlife resides in forest, much of it thick and impenetrable.
When it comes to nocturnal species like the Leopard Cat, viewing it through
the overlay of vegetation and low lighting is a challenge. Camouflage is key
even for large and flamboyant animals, such as the tiger. Its stripes and
colour are meant to merge into tall, dry grass, making it difficult to observe.
A forest is the natural abode of wildlife, not a zoo for tourists to watch
animals. Remembering this dictum is useful when visiting a park.
 Bharal on the horizon.

Pygmy Hog sounder in tall grass.

 Tiger in tall grass.

Leopard Cat in canopy.

 DIETS:
Herbivores

O
N THE BASIS of diet, most mammals can be grouped into two
broad categories: carnivores (that eat flesh) and herbivores (that
feed on plants). Omnivores can feed on both. There are also
dietary specialists such as insectivores that feed on insects, frugivores that
eat fruit, and piscivores whose diet consists chiefly of fish. Diet is a major
factor that influences physiology, and mammals have developed specialized
aids to gather food and to feed. The powerful forelimbs of a tiger help it
hunt, primates use their opposable thumbs to forage, the large molars of
herbivores help them chew, while the complex stomach of leaf-eating
species helps them in digestion.

GRAZERS: Most cervids and bovids are grazers like this herd of
Blackbuck (above) enjoying the succulent grass of Velavadar NP,
Gujarat.
FRUGIVORE: Gibbons and some macaques are frugivores, as are
some bats. A Lion-tailed Macaque (below) rips out flesh from a
jackfruit.

RODENTS: Rodents live on a variety of plant and animal food but

largely rely on gnawing to get at their food. An Orange-bellied Tree
 Squirrel tackles a nut in Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh.

BROWSERS: Browsers are those who feed on leaves and edible plant
parts high up on plants. A Sambar (top) rarely grazes. Browsers are
also known to be, therefore, more specialized in their adaptation to
exploit various types of plants. They may be highly specific or more
generalist feeders.
 EXUDATIVORE: The Slow Loris is a unique example of a mammal
that may feed majorly on plant gums and resins, besides a variety of
insect species. Although gum and resins are not nutrient-rich, they are
available almost yearround and may help lorises tide over periods of
low food availability.
 DIETS: Carnivores and omnivores

LARGE CARNIVORES: Many felids and canids are terrestrial

carnivores indulging in eating herbivores. A lion typifies meat-eating in
the Gir, but large carnivores include the Killer Whales in the seas, the
Brown Bear in the Himalayas and large canids.
SMALL CARNIVORES: All carnivores are not dependent on large
prey. This Indian Fox shows what a number of them survive on: small
rodents, lagomorphs, birds and insects.

OMNIVORES: Omnivores, such as the bear, the macaque and the pig,
eat animal and plant matter without obvious prejudice. They may
scavenge and predate. They will, like most ungulates, take minerals
such as the rock salt being licked by this Sloth Bear.
 PISCIVORES: Otters are the only true piscivores among mammals
and even they are not obligatory. In specialized habitats such as the
Sunderbans mangroves, even tigers take to eating fish.

INSECTIVORES: Micro-chiropterans, such as this Lesser Mouse-

tailed Bat (above), pangolins, shrews, hedgehogs and moles are
speciailized insectivores although only some of them belong to the order
Insectivora.
 BALEEN FEEDERS: Baleen is a filtration structure (above) in the
mouth of certain animals that replaces teeth. Made of keratin, it is used
for filtering in specific types of food. A number of marine species,
especially whales, such as baleen whales, possess this. They primarily
consume phytoplankton or zooplankton from ocean surfaces.

SCAVENGERS: Hyaenas can be powerful carnivores as well but also

represent the scavenging world. They steal kills, or appropriate ones
killed or left over by other carnivores.
 WHERE TO LOOK FOR ANIMALS:
Habitats and niches

S
IXTEEN DIFFERENT FOREST types exist in India: Wet evergreen,
dry evergreen, semi-evergreen, moist deciduous, dry deciduous,
littoral and swamp, thorn scrub, broadleaved, pine, dry montane
subtropical evergreen, dry temperate montane, moist temperate montane,
wet temperate montane, subalpine, dry alpine and moist alpine.

Aquatic realms include rivers, lakes, ponds and the seas; waters that
are home not only to fish. Whales, dolphins and dugongs treat the
watery reserve as home. Here, a Sperm Whale shows us its tail.
A tiger in the shade of a bamboo culm in a deciduous southern Indian
forest. The deciduous forest of peninsular India is the favoured habitat
of the tiger and also the wildlife tourist.
 The tall elephant grass habitats of the Terai and the short montane
grasslands of the Anamalais are both home to several highly adapted
grasslanddependent species, including this Hog Deer.

The Thar in Rajasthan is the only true desert in India. Semi-arid lands
and salt flats spread across western India. They are lifeless at first
glance, but a closer look shows myriad life including a hedgehog
(above).
A Nilgiri Langur in an evergreen forest: evergreen and semi-evergreen
forests are cauldrons of endemism and species diversity.

A Tahr stands on a crag: Mount Everest looms in the background

(above). The Himalayas are the habitat of several wild goat and sheep.
The Himalayan marmots and many ungulates including the wild ass live
on the open plateaus and cold deserts of the Trans-Himalayas. Here,
the marmot in Ladakh.

Mangroves, such as in the Sunderbans of West Bengal, are invariably

associated with coastal areas. A number of species, including the Royal
Bengal Tiger, inhabit these relatively inhospitable ecosystems (below).
 WHERE TO LOOK FOR ANIMALS:
The edge effect

T
HE EDGES OF two sorts of habitats often have the most richness
and diversity of species. Species adapted to both habitat niches
often inhabit this interphase.

A woodland–grassland edge is often the most productive of all habitat

edges. The tall tree-fringed grassland in Kishanpur WLS, Uttar
Pradesh, is one such example.

Grassland–swamp and the riparian ecosystems are equally productive.

Here, a herd of Swamp Deer in Kaziranga in lush elephant grass
(below).
 Trans-Himalayan and montane water bodies breathe life into a
sometimes arid ecosystem. Tibetan Wolves patrol a lakefront set in a
cold desert in Ladakh.
Bamboo brakes intervening between tall grasslands and deciduous
forests are ideal habitat for mega-herbivores such as this herd of
elephants in Wayanad WLS, Kerala.
 WHERE TO LOOK FOR ANIMALS:
Use of stratum

Aerial mammals are truly only the bats such as this Flying Fox,
although some gliders among the squirrels also temporarily occupy the
aerial niche.
Aquatic freshwater mammals such as dolphins use rivers, streams and
ponds. Marine mammals use the high seas and coastlines. A Sperm
Whale blows in the high seas.

Arboreal mammals use trees as their primary habitat. Some of them are
canopy specialists (such as the Lion-tailed Macaque), others,
middlelayer and bottom-layer dwellers.

Terrestrial mammals form the bulk of all living mammals and include
most ungulates, carnivores, rodents and small mammals. A jackal
drinks at a forest pool.
Fossorial mammals such as moles, foxes, pikas and gerbils, like this
one in a Rajasthan burrow, create their underground niche in largely
arid land although moles do live in hilly and forested regions.
 WATCHING MAMMALS:
Sexing a mammal by observation

I
N MANY MAMMALS, telling a male from the female is easy. The
male has huge adornments like horns, antlers and tusks, while the
females have none or have poorly developed ones; the males could be
larger or more coloured, or the male sexual organs could be visible. In many
others, however, they are not distinguishable in the field. Sexual
dimorphism may also manifest itself in characteristics such as coat colour,
size, length of canines and so on.

Many ungulates have males bearing horns or antlers (bony growths on

heads). Females have none or have very small ones. The other clue is
size. In most mammals, males are larger. Bharal on a cliff, Ladakh.
 Most male elephants have tusks, an easy indicator that it is a male, but
some don’t. A penis bulge is then the only way to make out a bull from a
cow. Tusker in Mudumalai.

Colour differences are also marked in many mammals. Male Nilgais,

such as this one (above) in the bhal grasslands of Velavadar NP,
Gujarat, are steel–blue; the female is the colour of the earth. Other
mammals assume a nuptial coat that is darker or more colourful than
that worn year round.
 In young animals, telling sexes apart is next to impossible. Physical
handling might reveal sex organs, but in some – like bears – even this is
not easily visible. Here, Himalayan Black Bear cubs in Pakke,
Arunachal Pradesh.

In mammals such as bats, rodents and cetaceans, telling sexes apart

even in adults in the field is extremely difficult. Mammae or genitalia,
when seen, are indicators; if not, the best thing to do is to not guess!
Fruit bats in Kerala.

Mammae are characteristic in females of all mammals. Look for teats,

especially swollen ones, to distinguish females. Here, a wild sow in
Bandipur, Karnataka.
 WATCHING MAMMALS:
Ageing a mammal by observation

A
GE PLAYS AN important role in the way an animal looks. Infants
may look completely different from adults, and as they grow, may
change coat colour several times before they reach adult
colouration. In some species such as the langur, the difference in colour can
be astonishing. Among Wild Boar, piglets are striped for the first few
months, although the adults are uniformly brown, while the Gaur calf
changes colour from golden yellow to fawn to light brown and then coffee–
brown. In wild goats and antelopes (and many other species), younger
males have shorter or less developed horns while other characteristics, such
as the saddleback of the Nilgiri Tahr, or the beard of the Markhor, are
present only in the adult male. Ageing mammals is a specialized skill for
professionals and for each order, if not species. These are generic clues to
ageing mammals in the field. Terms used in ageing are normally ‘infant’
(fully dependent on mother), ‘juvenile’ (still not weaned but partially
independent), ‘subadult’ (independent and beginning sexual maturity but
not with full adult characters), and ‘adult’. In this book, in each order and
on the species pages, more specific information is given on how to age that
kind of mammal.
 Juveniles in mammals are sometimes spitting replicas of adults but the
very young (infants) mostly have a different look. It could be the colour,
it could be one character that appears later; in the pigs, it is the stripes
that disappear in the adult. Wild Boar piglet in Kaziranga, Assam.

The young often have very rounded faces. The whole look is that of a
‘chubby baby’. Facial proportions turn more linear in adults. A
Clouded Leopard cub, Manas NP, Assam
 Counting annulations, where they are visible, on horns is a good
indicator of age. In Ibex they are easily countable. One ridge may
indicate two years. Ibex in Pin Valley NP, Himachal Pradesh.
In deer, the number of tines of an antler is a good indicator of age. This
Barasingha in Kanha, Madhya Pradesh, should at full maturity have 12
tines, or at the very least 10. Eight means a full grown animal but still
young.
Brooming, or chipping off of horns and antlers, is characteristic of old
male goats and sheep. Losing part of its horn can be the result of many
a fight. Age can leave permanent scars. Blue Sheep in
Khangchendzonga, Sikkim.

The size of the animals in relation to a full-grown adult, e.g., its mother,
is a good indicator of age. Look for shoulder height: a third of
mother’s, half of mother’s, threequarters of mother’s and so on. Here, a
herd of elephants.
 WATCHING MAMMALS:
Effect of season and geography on pelage

M
ammals change coat colour and quality depending on climatic
conditions, and this is striking in subspecies that live in colder
climates. In winter, the coat of many animals becomes thicker,
while in summer it becomes more sparse. In some cases, this also results in
a change of colour; for example, the Himalayan Stoat or Ermine goes from
chestnut–brown in summer to pure white in winter. The look of an animal
changes with age and geography as also the seasons.
 Many males turn more colourful and grow spectacular appendages
during breeding season, none more so than the males of the deer family.
In the non-breeding season, stags may be antler-less or may have small
velvet knobs that grow into antlers, but in the rutting season, they sport
the most impressive headgear among mammals. An adult Sambar stag
in Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan, changes his velvet (above left) to hard
antlers (above).
The Red Fox in Ladakh changes from a furry winter beast (above) to a
sparsely furred one in summer (below).
 Different races or subspecies can look dramatically different,
depending on the geographical region they are found in. The Indian
Giant Squirrel, for example, has seven different pelage colours
including the one in the Nilgiris (below right) and the one in the
Malabar (below left). The subspecies of the Red Fox are so distinct that
they have three different common names. A host of other species, such
as the Capped Langur (above left) in upper Assam and (above right) in
Manas, show marked subspecific variations.
 Albinos are animals that lack melanin. They are not unusual but are
rarely able to survive in the wild. Albinos can be identified by their pink
eyes. A White Tiger is not an albino; it is a different, recessive gene that
causes it. An albino Gaur calf with a normal coloured female, Chinnar
WLS, Kerala.

Melanism is the opposite of albinism. Black panthers are nothing but

melanistic Common Leopards. Here, a rare melanistic Chital in
Parambikulam WLS, Kerala (above).
 WATCHING MAMMALS:
Interpreting fear, threat and aggression

Canines being shown in a primate can be both fear or aggression. A

combination of eyes and canines helps solve this mystery. Notice the
shut-eyed display (above) and the open-eyed, fear-grin (below) in a
Bonnet Macaque.
Animals with spikes use them both for defence and offence. A hedgehog
curls up in defence in the desert sands of Rajasthan (below) while an
Indian Porcupine bristles its spines at an intruder, Chhattisgarh
(above). Both animals don’t shoot out spines as is believed, but the
porcupine backs rapidly into its aggressor and leaves its spines
embedded in them. The hedgehog cannot shed its spines while
defending itself.
 The snarl of a big cat, mouth half open, nose wrinkling up, eyes open
and ears pressed back on to the face, such as in the tiger at
Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan (above left), is a precursor of a full-
throated roar and perhaps a charge (above right). not to be confused
with a yawn with mouth fully open, eyes shut, ears normal and nose not
as wrinkled (below). Aggressive behaviour is often invariably
associated with aggressive vocalizations or sounds, such as the loud
snarls of most cats, or the low-pitched barks of most canids.
 A jackal exposes its canines and gums, eyes open and ears erect in
threat over an unseen opponent while at a kill (below right), Keoladeo
Ghana NP, Rajasthan, and it vocalizes in fear, ears laid flat against
body and tail between legs in Kolkata (below left), West Bengal. Most
aggressive and submissive behaviours have evolved to potentially
gauge individual strengths, and thus avoid more costly physical battles.
 WATCHING MAMMALS:
Interpreting alarm

When ungulates flee, they often warn their kith and kin by flashing the
white undersides of their tails. In no other animal is this as exaggerated
as in the Tibetan Gazelle, which fans out its powder-puff tail when it
takes to its heels. Such behaviour is believed to have evolved as a
response to extensive stalking by predators. A flash of the tail, or a high
‘stot’, tells the predator that they are too agile and healthy to pick for
the kill.
 When predators are in full view, such as these hyaenas in Velavadar,
Gujarat, the prey – in this case, the Blackbuck – indicate high alert by
raising their ears, muscles tautened and in most cases with their eyes
focused on the source of alarm. Ungulates, unless habituated. do this
even if humans approach.
 WATCHING MAMMALS: Interpreting grooming,
scratching, wallowing and dust bathing

Many mammals scratch, when it itches, but if the animal cannot reach
itself with its hands or groom other con-specifics as these Bonnet
Macaques are doing, it uses vegetation to the same end. Grooming in
 primates is an elaborate social ritual, though, and is not just about
removing parasites or scratching; dominance hierarchies indicate who
grooms whom and for how long!

An elephant rubbing up against a tree, such as this lone bull elephant,

is a common sight.
 Bath time, pesticide time: A Sambar takes a wet mud wallow in
Ranthambore, Rajasthan, (above), and a tusker dust bathes at Rajaji
NP, Uttarakhand (below): both strategies to remove pests from their
bodies and help cool down at the same time.
 WATCHING MAMMALS:
Interpreting male–male aggression

M
ALE–MALE AGGRESSION among mammals largely involves
access to fertile females. Males fight each other through
aggressive gestures or actual physical battles to gain priority
access to fertile females. Sometimes, this may also translate into males
defending territories, which ultimately attracts females.
 Most male–male aggression in the animal kingdom is subtle, where
individual males assess each other’s strengths through vocalizations or
displays. Overt physical battles are often rare, and in most cases, end
very quickly. Swamp Deer males battle it out in water in Kanha,
Madhya Pradesh (above); male Woolly Hares box in a territorial stand-
off (below) in Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir, and two tired Khur stallions
stand bruised and battered after a long encounter involving kicking and
biting in the Rann, Gujarat (above).
 WATCHING MAMMALS:
Interpreting parental interactions with the young

Behaviour between mother and infants among mammals involves a

variety of friendly and caring gestures and vocalizations. However,
when it is time to be weaned of mother’s milk, females can be quite
intimidating towards their own offspring, although they rarely cause
physical damage. Among many primates, females are known to form
strong bonds with their offspring, which may sometimes last a lifetime!
A Sambar fawn raises its tail as it walks towards its mother in
Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan.
 A macaque mother grooms and suckles its infant (below) at
Turkeshwari Temple, Assam, and in a rare show of paternal interaction,
a male lion keeps watch over its cub in Gir, Gujarat (above). The latter
is contrary to what many male felids and canids and some primates
(especially the langurs) do to their infants as some of them practise
male infanticide or even carnivory, killing and sometimes eating their
own offspring, thus avoiding potential territorial conflicts.
 WATCHING MAMMALS:
Interpreting specialized behaviour

C
ERTAIN BEHAVIOURS ARE specialized and have evolved for
certain groups of mammals over millennia. While in-depth treatises
are required to recognize, study and understand such behaviour, a
couple of them are outlined here as examples.

Play behaviour serves as a splendid bonding mechanism between

siblings, as well as a ‘playground’ to test hunting and fighting skills,
needed later in life. Wolves in Velavadar NP, Gujarat (below left), foxes
(above) and Desert Cats in Kutch, Gujarat (below right) show such
play.
 Flehmen response is a behaviour in many mammals, especially cats
(lioness in Gir, Gujarat, below left; tiger in Bandhavgarh, below right),
where pheromones received by the nostrils are pushed into the
Jacobson’s organ. This organ receives the molecules and interprets
information such as the oestrus status of females and the familiarity of
the animal.
 WATCHING MAMMALS:
Interpreting tracks

I
T IS OFTEN difficult to discern signs of closely related species, since
subtle differences in size and structure may render it ambiguous to the
untrained eye. It is always useful therefore to carry pictorial guides and
document such signs of animal presence using a relative scale such as a pen
or a small ruler.

An easy pointer distinguishing tracks of a small cat (above left) with

that of a canid (above right) is the presence of claw marks on the latter.
Cats sheath their claws and don’t leave marks.
 The substrate is a critical factor to keep in mind when identifying
tracks. The tiger’s pug marks are deeper in loose sand (above right) and
just an imprint on firm sand (below), both in Rajaji NP, Uttarakhand,
while forming raised pads on wet mud in Kishanpur WLS (above left),
Uttar Pradesh. The outline of the pad, if traced on the sand, will form a
big square (adult male forefeet, above right), a big rectangle (adult
male hind feet) or smaller rectangle, adult female), right, and a small
square (male cub, above left). The stride of the male is longer than the
female’s; space between digits and main pad indicate younger animals.
A leopard is smaller and like a large tiger cub, but a tiger cub is seldom
alone and a solitary small pug mark could be that of a leopard.
The riverbank is a good place to check for tracks as is wet mud near
waterholes. Otters form a loose imprint on sand (above) and a dug-in
imprint on wed mud (below) – see spraint on right as well – in
Kishanpur WLS, Uttar Pradesh. Their rounded, five-digit print with
well-marked claws is a giveaway.
 Tracks on snow are easier to read than on mud. A Markhor leaves its
tracks and pellets (above right) – it is always useful to try and find both
wherever possible as they confirm an identification – while a Yellow-
throated Marten leaves only its clear, rounded (like otter) but four-toed
pad (above left); both in Kazinag NP, Jammu & Kashmir. At times,
tracks on snow can be of multiple species: a Red Fox and a marten
leave criss-cross tracks (below) at Hirapora, Jammu & Kashmir,
visiting a domestic sheep kill.
 Bear hind tracks (above right) often resemble human footprints.
However, look for the front-paw impressions (above left) and the
difference becomes clear. In sandy substrates, Dachigam NP, Jammu &
Kashmir (both above), the sharpness of the edges of the print can often
help in discerning the relative age of the print, i.e., when the animal
passed by. Bear footprints will often be associated with droppings, and
footprints will often be more prolific close to feeding sites, such as
fruiting trees or termite mounds.
 Deer and antelope tracks such as the Swamp Deer’s (above) can be
confusing and can be told apart using an identification guide (see page
210) although associated pellets are a good confirmation (above).
Tracks of Gaur (below right), Wild Buffalo (below left) and domestic
cattle can be told primarily by size and, therefore, measuring them is
critical in identification. The same holds true for distinguishing jackals,
Dholes, wolves and foxes, although small domestic dogs can resemble
foxes and bigger ones, jackals.
 WATCHING MAMMALS:
Interpreting animal use sites

Other than just footprints, many animals also leave behind larger
evidences in the form of use sites, which are, of course, invariably
associated with tracks. However, unlike just tracks, use sites also bear
other signs such as body hair. Body hair along with the tracks can often
help in determining the exact species of animal. For instance, hair
texture and length can often help in determining if a resting place was
used by a tiger or a leopard! This is also true for a number of larger
herbivorous species. Specialized animal use sites may include nests of
Pygmy Hog (above) in Manas, Assam, or wallows of Wild Buffaloes,
rhinos or Swamp Deer (below) in Kaziranga, Assam.
WATCHING MAMMALS:
Interpreting feeding signs

Large carnivore kills attract vultures and are thus easy to spot and also
easier to detect as large prey decompose and their smell carries a long
distance in the forest. Tigers (above) in Ranthambore, and leopards
(below) in Nagarhole, Karnataka, attack their prey by ambush and kill
with a bite to the neck or throat. Look for puncture marks in this region
of the prey. Dholes attack the belly and softer underparts of the animal
first. The Sambar is the size of animal that is favoured by the tiger; the
Chital’s size is more favoured by the leopard or the Dhole.
 WATCHING MAMMALS:
Interpreting feeding signs

Elephants debarking and pulling down branches and even whole trees
in the process of feeding is an unmistakable sign of the presence of the
pachyderm (above right). This is different from the girdling of a tree by
a porcupine, which occurs at the base of the tree (above left) or the
debarking by squirrels (where teeth marks can be observed on the tree
(above middle).
 Often, feeding signs such as broken termite mounds can help in
determining the nature of the predator or feeder. For instance, Stripe-
necked Mongooses often feed on freshwater fishes, and crustaceans,
and patches of broken crab shells, or fish scales may be good
indications that they were left by a Stripe-necked Mongoose (below).
Holes dug in the ground are also typical feeding signs left by animals
such as pangolins, Sloth Bears and Wild Boar (above).
 WATCHING MAMMALS:
Interpreting scats

Scats of a mammal are not just undigested food material for the animal
but also a method of marking home range and territory, of assessing
females in heat and of communicating inter-and intra-specifically. It
does this by a combination of chemical scent-posting and by passing its
droppings at pre-assigned sites. For the biologist or naturalist, a scat
also tells you about an animal that has passed, the food it has eaten and
when it has passed that area. Many mammals use regular ‘latrine sites’
for depositing their droppings, and large ones like the rhino (in
Kaziranga, Assam, below) are unmistakable. Large elephant dung
bolus, Nilgiris, (above), are easy to see and, depending on the forest
type and climate, make it easy to guess the number of days ago that the
animal passed the area.
 Big cat scats are long, segmented and tapered at one end. The tiger
scats (Dudhwa, Uttar Pradesh, below left) have been deposited days
ago and are dried out, while the leopard scats (Biligiri Rangaswamy
Temple WLS, Karnataka, below right) are fresh, and indicate that the
animal has passed a short while ago.
Wild dogs have a coiled scat (Assam, above) that has a sharply pointed
end while Palm Civet droppings (Craigmore, below) are agglomerated
sausage-shaped ones, normally studded with seeds of fruit consumed.
Herbivore pellets such as those of the Chital (above left) and Chinkara
(above right) can be differentiated by size and shape.

Small cigar-shaped droppings can be those of squirrels (Biligiri

Rangaswamy Temple WLS, above) or some other rodents. Bird
 droppings are often liquid and even larger semi-solid droppings have
the telltale white uric acid marks that differentiates them from those of
all mammals. Similarly, reptile droppings are small and capped at one
end with white uric acid.
 USING THIS BOOK FOR TOURISM:
Visiting a protected area

T
HERE ARE MORE than 600 national parks and sanctuaries in
India, of which about half are accessible to the ordinary wildlife
tourist. Visitors are expected to follow a prescribed code of conduct
that is designed to have minimal impact on the fragile ecology and species
of the region. Whenever you visit wildlife, remember that you are in their
territory. Six simple rules to make their and your life safer and better.

Rule 1: Take permits: Inform the forest officer on duty where you are
going. Where relevant, take a guide, such as these forest guards and
trackers in Gir, Gujarat (above). Follow park rules to a T.
Rule 2: Respect wildlife and be safe: Remember that all the animals you
are watching are wild and many of them are dangerous. Many parks do
not permit you to walk. Even if permitted, do not approach dangerous
animals on foot. Even if you are experienced in the field, treat wildlife
with caution. Watch for signs of their losing their tolerance, such as this
tusker raising its foot and spreading its ears in Rajaji NP, Uttarakhand,
(below), a precursor for a charge.

Rule 3: Leave the forest as you found it:. Do not break branches, pluck
wild flowers, or collect wildlife souvenirs from inside the park. The
forest floor is not for plastic bags, cans and other litter. Not only is it
unaesthetic and unhygienic, it can prove fatal to wildlife if ingested.
 Rule 4: Keep distance and don’t threaten: Animals watch you just as
you watch them, just as this herd of Swamp Deer peer in Kaziranga
(above). Flight distance is that distance beyond which the animal feels
uncomfortable and flees. Don’t cross that line.

Rule 5: Do not harass: Do not hem an animal in, nor pursue it for long
distances. This stresses wildlife. Do not do what these tourists are doing
in Ranthambore, Rajasthan (above).
Rule 6: Blend with the forest: Don’t wear loud colours. Don’t make loud
noises. The forest is not a picnic spot, so avoid loud conversation when
an animal is close. Avoid microphones, music players and suchlike even
in campsites or resorts. Avoid bright lights in wilderness areas. Use
eco-friendly modes of transport like coracles (Nagarhole, Karnataka,
above right) or licensed park elephants (Kaziranga, Assam, below) and,
when permitted, go on foot (Manas, Assam, above left).
 CONSERVATION:
An imperative

I
NDIA HAS A long history of conservation going back to a time when
kings set aside areas as preserves for hunting. Communities like the
Bishnois, concepts like the ‘sacred groves’ and, in later years, projects
of governments and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have all
contributed to conserving animals. These measures are often built around
large, charismatic fauna, but more than two-thirds of India’s mammal
species are made up of shrews, rodents and bats, which are equally
threatened by habitat loss and alteration as the larger species.

Wildlife is part of the Indian cultural mindscape as well as the physical

landscape. The grey langur (above left) is as much a god, worshipped
in the form of Hanuman, as a part of the urban landscape – here, on top
of a government vehicle (above right).
 Hemmed in by 1.2 billion Indians, wild mammals appear in the
strangest of places. Here, two endangered wild species: framed by the
windows of an ancient fort (tiger in Ranthambore, above) and that of a
rural house (a Lion-tailed Macaque in the Anamalais, below).
Poaching and the illegal wildlife trade in wildlife parts and derivatives
(tiger skin seizure in New Delhi, below) as well as the live animal trade
that supplies the needs of zoos, circuses and private owners, both in
India and abroad, are major threats to wild animals. Subsistence-level
hunting adds fuel to this fire. Poaching may be the primary cause for
sudden decline in species numbers, but habitat loss and fragmentation
are the insidious, long-term threats. Habitats are being lost largely
because of the burgeoning needs of the human population.

The enormous fuel, timber and fodder requirements mean that more and
more forests are being cut and pastures overgrazed. Industry, mines and
dams take away vital habitats. Encroachment of forests by the landless
and shifting cultivation in the North –East (Jhum clearance of forests in
the Garo Hills, Meghalaya, above) add to extinction pressures.

However, all is not lost. India has sixty per cent of the world’s tigers,
sixty-five per cent of the Asian Elephants, eighty per cent of the One-
horned Rhinoceroses (here in Jaldapara, Assam, above) and hundred
per cent of the lions in Asia (here in Gir, Gujarat, below). Two classic
stories of mammalian conservation in India involve the Asiatic Lion and
the One-horned Rhinoceros in Jaldapara. Over the past century, lion
numbers have gone up from a few dozen to a few hundred. The rhinos
has fared even better and number nearly two thousand.
 CRITICALLY ENDANGERED
MAMMALS OF INDIA

Viverra civettina, the Malabar Civet (above) is one of the rarest

mammals in India. With virtually no recorded sightings or any sort of
evidences emerging in the last 20 years, it may be extinct or hanging on
in very small numbers in India.
 Porcula salvania, the Pygmy Hog (above left), exists in small
populations of a few hundred individuals in Assam while the Namdhapa
Flying Squirrel: Biswamoyopterus biswasi (above right) is isolated in
and around Namdapha NP, Arunachal Pradesh. Other smaller species
include the Andaman White-toothed Shrew: Crocidura andamanensis,
(below right); Jenkin’s Andaman Spiny Shrew: Crocidura jenkinsi
(below left), Nicobar White-tailed Shrew: Crocidura nicobarica;
Kondana Rat: Millardia kondana (below), and the Elvira Rat:
Cremnomys elvira (below left).
 USING THIS BOOK FOR
RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION

T
HIS BOOK WILL aid start-up researchers in the identification of
species and help even experienced researchers in identifying taxa
outside their expertise. Key pointers draw the reader’s observation
to features that provide help in differentiating species and subspecies.
Information on various other aspects such as identification of species
through their telltale signs of presence, such as tracks, scat and so on, allow
enthusiastic wildlifers to pick up tracking skills when visiting wildlife
reserves or parks.
Equally importantly, this book helps the readers in identifying gaps in
knowledge, which can be filled through advanced study. This could be to
range-extend the maps that are indicated in this edition, to report differing
physical charaterisitcs of subpopulations, or come up with new research that
challenges currently held views of behaviour.
This book is perhaps the first attempt to provide information on
subspecies of Indian mammals, based on scientifically mined and peer-
reviewed information. This is vastly under-researched and will stand the
scrutiny of those in the field who can field-test these data.
 A radio-collared Gaur in Bandhavgarh NP, Madhya Pradesh (above
left), a radio-collared Wild Boar in Ranthambore NP (above right), and
treatment of animal by a veterinarian at a WTI rescue centre (below).
Primates
INDIAN PRIMATES AT A GLANCE
NUMBER OF SPECIES 221
BIGGEST PRIMATE Himalayan Grey Langur
SMALLEST PRIMATE Malabar Grey Slender Loris
MOST COMMON PRIMATE Rhesus/Bonnet Macaque
MOST ENDANGERED PRIMATE Western Hoolock Gibbon
Activity
Lorises, Macaques

Langurs, Gibbons

Niche Occupancy
 Bonnet Macaque eating Flame of the Forest flowers, Bandipur NP,
Karnataka

Primate Skulls and Dentition

a) Human
b) Grey Langur
c) Rhesus Macaque
d) Loris

Primate Feet

Langur Fore and Hind feet

Macaque Fore and Hind feet

SHEETAL NAVGIRE (ADAPTED FROM MACDONALD, D., 2001)

WHAT IS A PRIMATE?
Primates, ranging from the great apes to the lorises, are bound by certain
anatomical and physiological features. Most of these are not exclusive to
the order and are shared with other mammals. However, it can be said that
all primates have forward-facing eyes surrounded by a bony orbit, a fore-
shortened muzzle, an opposable thumb or big toe, nails instead of claws on
digits, the ability to stand upright to varying degrees, mammae on the chest,
and, in males, a pendulous penis and scrotum.2
Indian primates can be divided into four groups: the small, round-eyed
lorises; the stocky, short- to medium-tailed macaques; the long-tailed
langurs; and the tailless gibbons. Except in gibbons, which are sexually
dimorphic when adult, most Indian primates have males and females that
look alike superficially.

LOCOMOTION
Among Indian primates, lorises and gibbons are the specialized locomoters.
Lorises are whole-hand graspers; they do not possess the truly opposable
thumb of the macaques and langurs.3 Despite not being able to touch all
four digits with their thumb, lorises clasp thin branches and lock themselves
onto them with a tenacious grip. They do not jump like the galagos of
Africa but slowly release one or two limbs from the perch and ‘creep-crawl’
forwards. This slow movement is said to aid a low metabolic rate that
allows them to eat a specialized diet (especially exudates of plants).
The gibbons have the most specialized locomotion among Indian
primates, using a swing-arm type of locomotion along treetops, called
brachiation. They hang by the arms and swing at high speed, reaching 40
km per hour. Since the fingers are hooked onto branches, the thumbs are
irrelevant and set well onto the palms. Their arms are more than one and a
half times the size of their legs. Gibbons can also stand up and run along
branches. They seldom come to the ground and, if forced to do that, walk
like ‘tipsy sailors’ or ‘surrendered terrorists’ with their hands held high
above their heads. They are supremely agile in trees and clumsy on the
ground.
Both macaques and langurs are versatile primates, adept both in the trees
and on the ground. Some langurs are high-canopy dwellers (e.g., the
Capped Langur), some are primarily arboreal (e.g., the Lion-tailed
Macaque) and others are primarily terrestrial (e.g., Rhesus). In the trees,
both macaques and langurs walk along thick branches or jump agilely
between branches. Langurs are far better at this as their hind limbs are
longer than their forelimbs and they are balanced by a longer tail. Both
langurs and macaques can walk for short distances on two limbs although
their primary terrestrial gait is four-legged.

A social macaque unit, Bandipur NP, Karnataka

Gibbon brachiating and (inset) opposable thumb, Kaziranga NP, Assam
 Evolutionary tree of Indian primates (Adapted from Macdonald D., 2001)

Slow Loris Features

Slow Loris dentition (lower jaw)

Slow Loris exudate feeding signs

SHARADA ANNAMARAJU (ADAPTED FROM MACDONALD, D.,

2001)

DIET AND FORAGING

Insects and bird eggs are the main food of lorises, but they may also eat
nestlings, frogs, lizards, fruits, tender leaves, and seeds. Nectars and
exudates (gums and resins) form a large part of the food of the Bengal Slow
Loris.4 They can eat exudates that are difficult to digest and even some
poisonous or blister-causing insects (such as the Cantharidin Beetle)
because of their slowmoving, slow-metabolic lifestyle and a large caecum
containing special bacteria tailored to aid digestion.
The diurnal macaques are largely omnivorous, the colobines largely
folivorous and the gibbons primarily frugivorous. Langurs have complex
molars and sacculated stomachs to help them grind and digest leaves while
macaques have longer incisors to bite into fruits, but simpler molars and
stomachs similar to that of human beings. Lorises have simple guts but
complex teeth for their specialized diet (especially the lower incisors and
canines that merge to form a ‘tooth comb’ which is used for scraping gums
and resins).
The success of primates has not got much to do with a specialized diet
but a lot to do with their being highly adaptive. Some have adapted to the
food available in their locales, e.g., the Crab-eating Macaque to a seashore
diet that includes crustaceans. The newly described Arunachal Macaque
feeds mostly on the pith of Erythrina rather than fruits in the winter while
the Lion-tailed Macaque is known to even eat giant squirrels! The Rhesus,
the Bonnet, the Assamese Macaque and the Grey Langur are known to feed
on human-cooked food fed to them by religious Indians.

VOCALIZATION AND COMMUNICATION

Many primates, during the evolutionary process, gave up the acute olfactory
abilities of many other animals in favour of stereoscopic colour vision and
rich vocalization. They combine this vocalization with touch and an array of
facial expressions to communicate.
Slender Lorises screech more than slow lorises, sounding like a cross
between an owl and a monkey. Their varied calls are described as whistle
(territorial), chitter (agonistic), growl (aggression), zic (infant call), kriks
(appeasement) and screams (fear).5
Gibbon vocalizations are amongst the most complex and loud among
Indian primates, and resound at dusk and dawn. Vocalized as a loud ‘hooko-
hooko-hooko’, gibbon songs are sung by one family group at a time, the
chorus continuing till the sun is high up in the sky.
Macaques and langurs have a range of vocalizations: For e.g., in Rhesus
a short bark and grunt are the most common; while the Assamese
Macaque’s call is a loud ‘pio’ note, rendered musically. The
Trachypithecines are exceptionally silent in the North–East, but the Nilgiri
Langur hoots resoundingly and the Grey Langur has a range of
vocalizations.
A Slow Loris eats a cicada, captive
Omnivorous adaptiveness: Assamese Macaque eating ice cream,
Turkeshwari Temple, Assam
Lion-tailed Macaque showing open-mouthed display, Anamalai WLS,
Tamil Nadu
 Threat displays: a Golden Langur hoots, Manas NP, Assam

Social Organization of Primates

Male and female

Male and female with offspring

Alpha male and alpha female, multi–male, multi–female with offspring

Solitary male

Solitary female

Female with offspring

Alpha male, multi-female and offspring

Multi-male, multi-female and multioffspring

SHARADA ANNAMARAJU (ADAPTED FROM MACDONALD D.,

2001)

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
A high degree of social bonding is a common behavioural trait amongst
most primates. It is well known that elephants and monkeys suffer more
than any other creature if kept alone in captivity, since they have a complex
social organization in the wild. All primates have a distinct family unit
(commonly referred to as ‘troop’), though the way a troop is structured may
differ. For e.g., lorises are described as solitary foragers living in socially
complex but dispersed communities.6 They have been known to live in
polygynous social systems with overlapping home ranges. They spend time
grooming each other when they meet and may scent mark themselves (self
anoint) and others of the opposite sex from glands.7 They have clear home
ranges with males seldom overlapping amongst themselves, females
overlapping at times and a male overlapping at least with two females.8
Males leave the maternal territory at puberty while females hang around a
little longer till they establish a territory of their own. Females seem to
attain maturity at 8–9 months.
Hoolocks are the only primates in India that may have a monogamous,
single male-female bonded social system.9 Occasionally, more gibbons are
present in the family, but they are always related. Subadults and juveniles
are closely bonded to the adults and stay with them till dispersal.
Being mainly fruit- and leaf-eaters, macaques and langurs forage together
in the forest and live in relatively large troops. In Rhesus sometimes, these
troops come together (fusion), or if they get very large, break into two or
more splinter groups (fission). While having larger troops may have
disadvantages such as high competition amongst individuals for vital
resources like food and safe roosts, the early detection of predators, dilution
of chances of predation and deterrence of predators by a larger troop seem
to compensate for this competitiveness.10
Within macaque and some langur troops, males form dominance
hierarchies largely through competitive bouts and sometimes through
female support. Such hierarchies are highly dynamic. In macaques, alpha
males have to continuously display to beat off younger challengers. The
hierarchy thus achieved gives males the first right to mate with available
females and also access to food. Females, on the other hand, seem to have
more stable hierarchies. They compulsively groom one another, which not
only helps remove ectoparasites and dirt from the fur but also acts as a
stress reliever. This behaviour is known to be one of the key tools that
cements existing bonds between individuals and creates new ones. In some
species, monkeys may use such behaviours selectively, as a currency, to
purchase tolerance, access to food or other resources. Female macaques
may have hereditary hierarchies (daughters of high-ranked females
becoming high-ranked themselves).11 More dominant females are known to
have first access to food.

Companionship: Northern Plains Grey Langurs embrace, Jodhpur,

Rajasthan

Grooming in Bonnet Macaque, Bandipur NP, Karnataka: Grooming is a

typical primate social trait
Alpha male aggression in Northern Plains Grey Langur, Jodhpur, Rajasthan

Grooming in Rhesus Macaque, Delhi

Telling Males from Females

In langurs, ischial callosities of males (left) are closely placed and females
(right) are separated
Langur male and female (with teats)

Penis Bones of Primates

Langur

Gibbon

Macaque

Loris

MAYUKH CHATTERJEE (ADAPTED FROM MACDONALD D., 2001)

REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES
Generally, most Old World monkeys are seasonal breeders and long-lived.
Langurs are known to have a gestation period of 190– 220 days while
macaques have shorter ones, for e.g., the Rhesus has one of 150–180 days.
Within set breeding periods, males and females of most species of monkeys
display a variety of reproductive strategies that enhance the reproductive
success of individuals. While females in different species can display
strategies such as cryptic oestrus and oestrus synchrony, males may also
display varied counter strategies, ranging from formation of coalitions to
formation of specific bonds with particular females.12
Within large multi-male–multi-female groups, females may have a
greater mate choice but also run the risk of infanticide. Infanticide is a way
to reduce future competition among males. Females may then exhibit
oestrus synchrony, as well as cryptic oestrus, which inhibit male breeding
monopolization, and induces paternity confusion, thereby reducing the risks
of infanticide.
In some species where inter-male sexual competition is high, females
may overtly advertise their ovulation status, and the strongest males fight to
gain and/or maintain access to ovulating females. Similarly, adult males
may form bonds with each other to maintain their dominance status and
consequent access to breeding females.13
Conversely, in single-male–multi-female groups, or harem groups, single
males may employ mate-guarding tactics, such as herding, to maintain
reproductive monopoly. Females in such groups, on the other hand, may
face a constrained mate choice, and may therefore indulge in more extra-
group copulations.14 In such groups, for instance, in a number of langur
species, incursive males tend to commit infanticide (if the infant is fathered
by another male), promoting resident females to start ovulating, and the
new male to mate and pass on his genes. Under some scenarios, female
primates may also disperse from their natal troops to counter pressures of
constrained mate choice as well as to gain access to other vital resources.
Prosimians have a simpler reproductive strategy. During copulation,
lorises have a lock system comprising certain keratinized plates that form a
large ‘penis bone’ or ‘baculum’ that is used to increase the copulation time.
The gestation period is over 100 days for the lorises, and generally twins
and sometimes single infants are born. These are parked at three weeks and
weaning takes up to five months (six in the Slow Loris).
In gibbons, both males and females attain maturity by around seven
years. They mate during the monsoon and have a single offspring after a
gestation period of close to seven months. Infants are weaned close to two
years but still remain close to the adults until they disperse.
Female Lion-tailed Macaque displaying reproductive readiness to a
seemingly uninterested male, captive

Bonnet Macaques mating, Mudumalai WLS, Tamil Nadu

 Western Hoolock Gibbon: Mother and infant bond

Dominance related mounting by Bonnet Macaque and Lion-tailed Macaque,

Someshwara WLS, Karnataka
 Hybrid langur, a possible cross between Nilgiri and Grey Langurs,
Anamalais, Tamil Nadu

A harem troop of Tufted Grey Langur, Bandipur, Karnataka

Useful Contacts for Primate conservation

DR AJITH KUMAR
National Centre for Biological Sciences ajith@ncbs.res.in www.ncbs.res.in

DR ANINDYA SINHA
Nature Conservation Foundation asinha@ncf-india.org http://ncf-india.org

DR IQBAL MALIK
Vatavaran immalikiqbal@gmail.com www.vatavaran.org

DR MEWA SINGH
Mysore University msingh@psychology. uni-mysore.ac.in
http://www.unimysore.ac.in

DR P.C. BHATTACHARJEE
Wildlife Trust of India pcbhatta@wti.org.in www.wti.org.in

DR RAUF ALI
Foundation for Ecological Research, Advocacy and Learning (FERAL)
rauf@feralindia.org www.feralindia.org/

DR S.M. MOHNOT
Primate Research Centre, Jodhpur prcindia@sancharnet.in

THREATS AND CONSERVATION

In the 1970s, some primate species such as the Rhesus Macaque were
exported in large numbers for medical experimentation to the west. While
this was stopped by the Indian Government in the 70s, illegal pet trade still
threatens certain species like the lorises while the traditional dancing of the
Rhesus for entertainment continues to this day. However, it is habitat loss
and fragmentation that is the biggest threat to Indian primates. Consumption
of primate meat is largely restricted to tribal populations in which taboos
may play a part in the non-targeting of a species while particular medicinal
qualities attributed to a species (such as the Nilgiri Langur) may result in its
specific targeting.
Forest fragmentation mainly threatens gibbons, which are canopy
dwellers and brachiators, thereby needing canopy linkages to make their
way from one forest patch to the other. On ground, they are clumsy and fall
easy prey to dogs and man. Forest fragmentation is also critical for
endangered forest dwellers such as the Lion-tailed Macaque in southern
India.
The commensal macaques, on the other hand, are accustomed to raiding
crops and for them retaliatory killings are the most important threat. Rhesus
Macaques face this the most, but Bonnets and Assamese Macaques are also
targeted.
Roadkills and electrocutions also form threats to primates, with even the
highly arboreal Lion-tailed Macaques dying due to road accidents, and
lorises and golden langurs being frequently electrocuted in the North–East.
Monkeys around settlements are also affected by the cutting of avenue
trees.
Despite primates being obvious targets of conservation projects given
their universal appeal, most projects focusing on them in India are related to
research. This includes work done in the North–East under an Indo–US
Primate Project, and other projects that have been spawned by pioneering
work around Jodhpur on langurs, in Delhi on Rhesus, and on southern
Indian primates by primatologists based in Bangalore and Mysore (in
Karnataka, and Puducherry.
Interesting primate conservation projects include the three gibbon
projects run by the Wildlife Trust of India and state forest departments.
These include the one aimed at connecting forest fragments using
community-based village reserves in the Garo Hills, Meghalaya,
rehabilitating rescued individuals at the Centre for Wildlife Rehabilitation
and Conservation (CWRC) in Kaziranga, Assam, and the complete
translocation of an isolated population of the Eastern Hoolock in Dello,
Arunachal Pradesh.
Crop raiding is common in macaques: A troop raids a paddy field, Borajan
WLS, Assam
Madaris, traditional ‘monkey dancers’, represent an old way of life, Delhi
A langur lies on the highway: A road-hit victim, Abu Road, Rajasthan
 Monkey catching in Angul, Odisha, a traditional practice among certain
tribes in parts of India

COMMON NAME: WESTERN HOOLOCK GIBBON

Family: Hylobatidae Latin Name: Hoolock hoolock Harlan, 183415 Local Names: Haukuk (Mizo),
Holou (Assamese), Huliang (Khasi), Hulu (Jaintia), Hulu makhra (Bodo), Huru (Garo), Keng hoidu
(Karbi), Lagabandar (Chakma),16 Lungkhang (Tangsa), Ulu bandor (Bengali), Uluk (Hindi),17
Yongmu (Manipuri) Best Seen At: Borajan WLS, Assam IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered /
I/ Uncommon Social Unit: Paired couples, or small families of 3–618 Size: HBL: 54.2 (male); 48.3
cm (female),19 Wt: 6.1–7.9 (male); 6–6.6 kg (female)20

DESCRIPTION: One of two closely related apes in India, this tailless

primate is a jungle gymnast that is known more by its distinctive calls than
by sight. The Western Hoolock Gibbon is the second largest gibbon in the
world after the Siamang.21
Newborns are milky white or yellowish, but turn dark brown in nine
months. Both sexes turn fully black by the age of two. Males stay black and
a clear scrotum emerges by four years of age and becomes distinct by
seven. Females, during their subadult phase, may have varying light patches
on their juvenile black coat till they turn a golden blond colour with white
brows and a white frame to the face between 18–24 months.22 These very
visible white brows (also found in males) give this ape the alternate name of
White-browed Gibbon. Long arms, almost double the length of its legs, help
in brachiating on treetops.23 When standing upright, the Western Hoolock
Gibbon is the height of a small human child.
BEHAVIOUR: Gibbons are monogamous and are thought to pair for life.24
This and the fact that they are very territorial and do not move into a
neighbouring territory even if food is scarce, make them more prone to
extinction.25 Gibbons pair-bond and then duet from dawn till late mornings
or sometimes even till noon. They may sing only once in a few days, but
when they do, the forests resound for 15–20 minutes with an introductory,
an organizing and a great call sequence.26
DISTRIBUTION: The Western Hoolock is present in the seven North–
East states bound by the Dibang–Brahmaputra river systems in the north
and the Salween (in Myanmar) in the east.27
HABITAT: Evergreen, semi-evergreen, montane and moist deciduous
forests (30–1,400 m).28

COMMON NAME: EASTERN HOOLOCK GIBBON

Family: Hylobatidae Latin Name: Hoolock leuconedys Groves, 1967 Local Names: Amelo (Idu
Mishmi), Chemi (Lisu), Holou (Assamese), Hagrao (Singhpo), Howtu (Khampti), Hulu (Digaru
Mishmi and Mizo Mishmi) Best Seen At: Mehao WLS, Arunachal Pradesh IUCN/WPA/Indian
Status: Vulnerable / I/ Uncommon Social Unit: Same as in Western Hoolock Gibbon Size: HBL:
54.2 cm (male); 48.3 cm (female), Wt: 6.1–7.9 (male); 6–6.6 kg (female)

DESCRIPTION: The Eastern Hoolock is very similar to the Western in

size and looks except that the adult female is paler, with even more
distinctly paler arms compared to its body. In contrast, the Western Hoolock
female is a uniform blonde. The Eastern Hoolock male has white genital
tufts, its white eyebrows have a distinct gap and it may have strands of
white in the beard.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: The Eastern Hoolock Gibbon is found within Indian
limits only in the Dibang Valley in Arunachal Pradesh and the adjoining
Sadia reserve forests in Assam.29
HABITAT: Same as that of the Western Hoolock.
 Hoolock hoolock male, Makum, Borajan WLS, Assam

H. hoolock juvenile female, Kaziranga NP, Assam (sexing juveniles is not

possible in the wild; this one is rehabilitated)
 H. hoolock adult female, Makum, Borajan WLS, Assam

H. leuconedys adult female and infant, Roing, Arunachal Pradesh

 Hoolock leuconedys female and male, Dibang Valley, Arunachal Pradesh

COMMON NAME: BENGAL SLOW LORIS

Family: Lorisidae Subfamily: Lorisinae Latin Name: Nycticebus bengalensis30 Lacepede, 1800
Local Name: Besung Raye (Adi), Bweda Rui (Nishi), Galwee (Garo), Ingren (Karbi), Lajuki bandor
(Assamese), Lajigusu mwkra (Bodo), Sahuai (Mizo), Samrok gamkok (Manipuri)
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ I/ Uncommon Best Seen At: Kaziranga NP (Panbari and
Kanchenjuri RFs), Assam Social Unit: Solitary, in pairs,31 or mother and young Size: HBL: 33.5 cm
(female), FF: 19 cm, HF: 24 cm, Wt: 950–2,700 g (male); 880–900 g (female)32

DESCRIPTION: A small, furry, nocturnal primate, the Slow Loris has

large eyes that dominate its face. Its fur can vary from ash–grey to buff–
yellow, with head and shoulders a shade lighter. It has no tail. At night, its
eyes shine a bright orange in torchlight.
Males are distinctly bigger than females, but sexes are difficult to
separate in the field as females have a long clitoris that can be mistaken for
a penis. If the animal is in hand, the scrotum is diagnostic.
BEHAVIOUR: The Slow Loris can hang upside down while feeding on
exudates,33 gouging out dozens of characteristic holes into soft tree bark.
DISTRIBUTION: Throughout the North–East, more commonly south of
the River Brahmaputra. The westernmost distribution was believed to be the
southern bend of the Brahmaputra (26° N and 90° E),34 but more recently
there have been sighting reports in northern West Bengal.35
HABITAT: In subtropical and tropical semi-evergreen and evergreen
forests (at altitudes up to 2,400 m but more commonly at lower altitudes).36

COMMON NAME: GREY SLENDER LORIS

Family: Lorisidae Subfamily: Lorisinae Latin Name: Loris lydekkerianus Cabrera, 190837
Subspecies: Mysore Slender Loris38 L.I. lydekkerianus Cabrera, 1908; Malabar Slender Loris L.I.
malabaricus Wroughton, 1917 Local Name: Chinge kule/Bidira mele chigare (Kodava), Devanga
pilli (Telugu), Kadupapa/Mala manushya/vana manushya (Kannada), Thevaangu (Tamil), Kutti
tevange (Malayalam) Best Seen At: L.I. malabaricus: Aralam WLS, Kerala; L.I. lydekkerianus:39
Chennai, Tamil Nadu IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Near Threatened / I/ Uncommon Social Unit:
Solitary, couples, or small families of mother and one to two young Size: L.I. lydekkerianus: HBL:
20–22 cm, FF: 15.5–16.5 cm, HF: 17–19.5 cm, Wt: 260–275 g; L.I. malabaricus:40 HBL: 18–19 cm,
FF:14–15 cm, HF: 17–19 cm, Wt: 180 g

DESCRIPTION: The Slender Loris is the southern lanky cousin of the

Slow Loris, with an indistinct spinal stripe. The Mysore Slender Loris is
slightly bigger and greyer than the Malabar Slender Loris. The more reddish
brown Malabar subspecies has closer set, circular eye patches as opposed to
the oval, wide-set ones of the former.
BEHAVIOUR: The Slender Loris signposts trees by spraying urine on its
palms and leaving scented handprints on the branches.
DISTRIBUTION: L.l. lydekkerianus to the south of the River Godavari in
the Eastern Ghats and the eastern slopes of the southern Western Ghats, and
L.l. malabaricus in the western slopes of the Western Ghats, south of the
River Tapti.41 They may overlap in the Western Ghats, south of the Palghat
(Palakkad) Gap.
HABITAT: In open scrub jungle, drier deciduous forests (more L.l.
lydekkerianus) and wetter evergreen forests (more L.l. malabaricus).
Nycticebus bengalensis are solitary or in pairs, Manas NP, Assam
 N. bengalensis, Kaziranga NP, Assam

Loris lydekkerianus lydekkerianus, Anamalai WLS, Tamil Nadu

L.l. lydekkerianus, Chennai, Tamil Nadu

L.l. malabaricus, Neliampathy, Kerala

COMMON NAME: RHESUS MACAQUE
Family: Cercopithecidae Subfamily: Cercopithecinae Latin Name: Macaca mulatta42
Zimmermann, 1780 Local Names: Baandar (Punjabi), Banar (Pahari), Bandar (Hindi), Chree
(Khasi), Lal tondi bandar (Marathi), Makado (Gujarati), Makhre (Garo), Molua bandar (Assamese),
Markat (Bengali), Ponz (male); Punz (female) (Kashmiri), Yong (Manipuri), Zwong (Mizo) Best
Seen At: Most northern Indian towns IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/II/ Abundant
Social Unit: Multi–male/multi–female troops of 2–250; mean size: 32 Size: HBL: 47–53 cm
(female); 48–63 cm (male), TL: 18.9–28.4 (female); 20.3–30.5 cm (male), 43 Wt: 7.7–8.6 kg (male);
5.3–7.7 kg (female)

DESCRIPTION: The most widespread of all Indian primates, the Rhesus

is the common commensal monkey of northern India, living in close
association with humans. It is brown in colour with fur varying from very
thick and dark in Kashmir to sparse sandy brown in Rajasthan. The
orangish tint to the fur on its hindquarters and loins is constant, and
distinguishes it from the similar looking Assamese Macaque. The Rhesus
also carries its medium-sized tail erect with a slight bend at the tip. Onset of
oestrus in the female and the breeding season in the male is indicated by
reddish skin on the rumps and flushed faces. Females are smaller with
distinct mammae, the latter being a good way to identify females of most
primates. Infants have pink faces, hands and feet that change to flesh
coloured in two months. Subadult males have a pink scrotum that turns red
in adult males.
BEHAVIOUR: Dominance behaviour by alpha males and subadults
include threat displays, such as shaking tree branches. In cities, this
translates into shaking electric lines.
DISTRIBUTION: All over northern India, except trans-Himalayan cold
deserts, high-altitude Himalayas and the hot deserts of the Thar. Its
southernmost boundary was thought to be the rivers Tapti and Godavari in
the south–west and the south–east respectively, although recent studies have
shown that there are incursions in the south–eastern sectors into Bonnet
Macaque realms, thereby extending its range southwards.44
HABITAT: The Rhesus Macaque is possibly the most diverse habitat user
of all monkeys in India and is known to inhabit eight distinct habitats, i.e.,
temple surrounds, urban, rural, village-cum-pond, pond sides, roadsides,
canal sides and forests.45
HYBRIDIZATION
Hybrids between closely related primates are known, especially
when two species come into contact with each other in the wild,
although fertility of the offspring is unknown. Hybridization is
known to occur at all taxonomic levels and even between groups of
old evolutionary divergence, or in the case of macaques, of different
penile structure groups. At times when such interbreeding occurs,
the offspring are mistaken in the field for a new species or
subspecies as they show characteristics of both parent species. In
southern India, Nilgiri Langurs and the Grey Langurs (S.johnii and
S.priam) are known to produce hybrids where their ranges overlap.
Similarly, in Assam, Assamese Macaques and Rhesus are known to
hybridize. In the picture (right), the Assamese male of the troop was
present but had been overtaken in dominance hierarchy by a Rhesus
male who had taken over the troop. Hybridization is now also
thought to be one of the causes of speciation, as in the case of the
Sulawesi Macaque.
 Macaca mulatta male, Borajan WLS, Assam

M. mulatta female and infant, Kaziranga NP, Assam

M. mulatta subadult at high altitude, Kazinag NP, Jammu & Kashmir

 M. mulatta male: breeding pelage showing red rump, Delhi

A hybrid association between a male M. mulatta and an M. assamensis

female, Borajan WLS, Assam (Note the tail carriage)
 M. mulatta female and male: breeding pelage showing flushed faces,
Kaziranga NP, Assam

COMMON NAME: BONNET MACAQUE

Family: Cercopithecidae Subfamily: Cercopithecinae Latin Name: Macaca radiata E. Geoffroy
Saint-Hilaire, 1812 Subspecies: Dark-bellied Bonnet Macaque M.r. radiata E. Geoffroy Saint-
Hilaire, 1812; Pale-bellied Bonnet Macaque46 M.r. diluta Pocock, 1931 Local Names:
Korangan/Vella maanthi (Malayalam), Kurangu (Tamil), Kothi (Telugu), Kwehhdrnn (Toda), Lal
tondi bandar (Marathi) Best Seen At: Periyar, Kerala; southern Indian towns IUCN/WPA/Indian
Status: Least Concern/ II/ Abundant Social Unit: Troops of 5–40; average of 29 individuals47 Size:
HBL: 50–60 cm (male); 34–52 cm (female), TL: 50–70 cm (male); 40–68 cm (female), Wt: 5.5–11
kg (male); 3–5 kg (female)

DESCRIPTION: This is the medium-sized, common commensal monkey

of south India. It is distinguished by two clear characteristics: a cap or
bonnet of long hair, arranged in a whorl and parted clearly, and a very long
tail that is longer than its body. The back, tail and limbs are all dark greyish
brown in colour, which changes from a lustrous brown in winter to scraggy
buff–grey in summer.48 It has a whitish grey venter, which is darker in M.r.
radiata and paler in M.r. diluta. M.r. diluta is also reported to have longer,
yellower hair on the bonnet, and longer hair on the neck and back than M.r.
radiata. M.r. diluta is said to be slightly smaller in size than its northern
counterpart. These subspecific nomenclatures require confirmation.49 The
face is flesh coloured and, as in most macaques, turns pink or flushed red
during breeding seasons. As in most primates, the males are larger and more
heavyset than the females.
BEHAVIOUR: The Bonnet Macaque has many facial displays, including
the ‘tongue flick’ by the male inviting copulation from the female,50 the
‘fear grimace’ of open clenched teeth to reduce interspecific aggression,
and ‘neck chewing’ of subordinate males by dominant males.51
DISTRIBUTION: M.r. radiata: All over southern India up to the northern
end of the Western Ghats, i.e., near Pune in Maharashtra in the south–west
and the north of the Velikonda Range of the Eastern Ghats in the south–east.
M.r. diluta is restricted to southern Kerala and southern Tamil Nadu from
the Kambam Ghats in the north to Puducherry in the east and Kanyakumari
in the south.52
HABITAT: In urban and rural areas, tropical dry thorn, scrub, dry and
moist deciduous forest, semi-evergreen and evergreen forests. M.r. radiata
is common in places that have human habitation while M.r. diluta is more a
forest inhabitant.53
Macaca r. radiata family at one of its northernmost distributions, Hampi,
Karnataka

Macaca r. radiata male, Bandipur NP, Karnataka

M.r. radiata, female and infant, Bandipur NP, Karnataka
M.r. diluta female, Chinnar, WLS Kerala
 M.r. radiata juveniles, Muthathi, Karnataka

M.r. diluta male, Periyar NP, Kerala

COMMON NAME: ASSAMESE MACAQUE

Family: Cercopithecidae Subfamily: Cercopithecinae Latin Name: Macaca assamensis
M’Clelland, 1840 Subspecies: Eastern Assamese Macaque M.a. assamensis M’Clelland, 1839;
Western Assamese Macaque54 M.a. pelops Hodgson, 1840 Local Names: Ahomia bandor
(Assamese), Asamia bandar (Bengali), Kala bandar (Hindi), Makre dow (Garo), Pio (Bhutia), Sahu
(Lepcha), Zawng (Mizo) Best Seen At: M.a. pelops: Siliguri and Darjeeling, West Bengal; M.a.
assamensis: Turkeshwari Temple, Assam IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Near Threatened/ II/ Locally
Common Social Unit: 5–50 animals, but around 20 animals is the norm55 Size: HBL: 44–68 cm,
Wt: 4.6–12 kg

DESCRIPTION: The Assamese Macaque is a heavy, thickset forest

macaque with a brownish grey coat and pale venter. The dorsal fur varies
from dark chocolate–brown to much paler, with the lower body being
darker than the upper. It superficially resembles the Rhesus, but lacks the
orange-tinted posterior and has a different tail carriage. Adults have a
pronounced beard, long cheek hairs and white eyelids. Adult males have a
visible pinkish white scrotal sac and glans penis. The subspecies are easily
separated by their tail length: M.a. pelops has a longer tail that is half the
length of its head and body, and twice the length of its hind foot while M.a.
assamensis has a shorter tail that is less than half or even a third of the
length of its head and body and only a little longer than its hind foot.56
BEHAVIOUR: Like many macaques, it drops from trees to the ground, if
suddenly alarmed, and scampers into the bushes.
DISTRIBUTION: M.a. pelops from western Arunachal Pradesh, through
Central Assam to Sikkim and northern West Bengal. M.a. assamensis from
eastern Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland and Manipur to Mizoram.57
Throughout its range it has an altitudinal preference of between 150–2,000
m.
HABITAT: In dense deciduous and semi-evergreen forest fringes and crop
lands, except the high Himalayas.

In 2006, researchers from the Wildlife Institute of India, the Forest

Research Institute and the Uttarakhand Forest Department
discovered a population of Assamese Macaques in and around the
Askot WLS in the Gori Valley of Uttarakhand. The animal closely
resembles M.a. pelops, but further DNA studies are required to
confirm whether it is indeed the western subspecies or another
undescribed one. It is clear that the distribution of the Assamese
Macaque continues from Assam into western and central Nepal and,
therefore, this could just be a range extension. The tail length which
is an important feature for subspecies identification is three-fourths
of its head and body length. Researchers have also noticed that males
have a darker face with lighter skin around the eyes and some black
hair on the forehead while females have red skin around the eyes and
white hair above it.58
 M.a. pelops, Askot WLS, Uttarakhand

Macaca assamensis assamensis male, Turkeshwari Temple, Assam

M.a. pelops male, Darjeeling, West Bengal
 M.a. assamensis female and infant, Turkeshwari Temple, Assam

M.a. assamensis family, extralimital

COMMON NAME: ARUNACHAL MACAQUE

Family: Cercopithecidae Subfamily: Cercopithecinae Latin Name: Macaca munzala or Macaca
assamensis ssp Local Name: Mun zala (Dirang monpa) Best Seen At: Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Unlisted/ Unlisted/ Uncommon Social Unit: 20–25 Size: HBL: 56 cm
(male), TL: 26.4 cm, Wt: 15 kg (male)

DESCRIPTION: A dark large macaque that could be a new species as

described recently59 or a subspecies or a pelage variation of Macaca
assamensis.60 The dark brown face has a heavy jaw and is not bearded like
the Assamese Macaque. It has a shorter tail than both M.a. assamensis and
M.a. pelops. A dark patch or whorl of hair on the central crown, sometimes
surrounded by pale hairs, is distinctive.61 Many individuals are seen to have
dark patches from eye to ear, and a pale collar. Juveniles have a tapering
and hairless tail.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: Western Arunachal Pradesh (Tawang and West Kameng
districts) up to 2,000–3,000 m.62
HABITAT: Subtropical and temperate forests and human-inhabited
landscapes.

COMMON NAME: LONG-TAILED MACAQUE

Family: Cercopithecidae Subfamily: Cercopithecinae Latin Name: Macaca fascicularis Miller
1902 Subspecies: Nicobar Long-tailed Macaque M.f. umbrosa Miller, 1902 Local Names:
Makphoum (Nicobarese) Best Seen At: Great Nicobar Island IUCN/WPA/Indian Status:
Vulnerable/ I/ Locally Common Social Unit: 25–56 animals with a mean size of 3663 Size: HBL:
35–45 cm, Wt: 1.5–5 kg

DESCRIPTION: Also called the Crab-eating Macaque, this is the common

macaque of South–East Asia. The subspecies M.f. umbrosa that is found on
the Nicobar Islands is a medium-sized monkey that is grizzled olive-brown
in colour (darker than the bonnets). It has a long tail (like the Bonnet),
short, stout legs and a heavy bottom. Its cheek whiskers are long and
prominent. Males have a prominent blotched scrotum.
BEHAVIOUR: An adept swimmer, it is more arboreal in inland forests and
more terrestrial on coasts.64.
DISTRIBUTION: Great Nicobar, Little Nicobar and Katchal islands of the
Nicobar chain. The Nicobar Islands are at the tip of its range that has a core
in South–East Asia.
HABITAT: Coastal forests, mangroves and coconut plantations at sea level.
Macaca fascicularis umbrosa female and juvenile, Great Nicobar Island,
Andaman & Nicobar Islands

Macaca munzala male, Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh

M. munzala family, Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh
 M. munzala female, Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh

M.f. umbrosa male, Great Nicobar Island, Andaman & Nicobar Islands
 M. munzala male, Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh

COMMON NAME: NORTHERN PIG-TAILED MACAQUE

Family: Cercopithecidae Subfamily: Cercopithecinae Latin Name: Macaca leonina Blyth, 186365
Local Names: Bara haleji bandar (Bengali), Ghowari nejiya bandor (Assamese), Kangh (Naga),
Peko (Garo), Suar poonch bandar (Hindi), Thero (Karbi), Zawong muat (Mizo) Best Seen At:
Garampani WLS, Assam IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ II/ Rare Social Unit: Solitary;
small troops Size: HBL: 43–60 cm, Wt: 4–16 kg

DESCRIPTION: A large forest monkey, the Pig-tailed Macaque can be

distinguished from the Assamese and Rhesus Macaques by its deeply
parted, dark cap of short hair and a short, naked, erect tail, slightly curled at
the tip, which gives it the name of ‘pig-tailed monkey’. It has olive–brown
to golden grizzled fur and a white venter. Red streaks of fur are sometimes
present between the eye and the ear.66 They are sexually dimorphic with
males being larger than females. Infants are dark, almost black, for the first
two or three months before taking on the adult colouration.
BEHAVIOUR: It is the most arboreal and frugivorous of the north–eastern
macaques.
DISTRIBUTION: All of the North–East (south of the River Brahmaputra).
HABITAT: Lowland and montane forests, sometimes in swamp and
secondary forests as well. Altitude-wise, inhabits forests up to and above
2,000 m.67
COMMON NAME: STUMP-TAILED MACAQUE
Family: Cercopithecidae Subfamily: Cercopithecinae Latin Name: Macaca arctoides E. Geoffroy
Saint-Hillaire, 1830 Local Names: Chantee (Naga), Makre khimidonza (Garo), Senduri bandor
(Assamese), Sinduri bandar (Hindi), Thero (Karbi), Zowng hmalsen (Mizo) Best Seen At: Gibbon
WLS, Assam IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ II/ Rare Social Unit: 12–65, although a troop
of 120 has been reported from Hollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary, Assam Size: HBL: 50–70 cm, TL:
0.3–6.9 cm, Wt: 9.9–10 kg (male); 7.5–9.1 kg (female)

DESCRIPTION: Also known as the Bear Macaque, this stocky monkey is

the largest and heaviest macaque species in India. It has a unique crown of
hair that radiates from a central whorl and falls sleekly to the back of the
head. It also has long cheek hair that covers the ears and extends to its
throat to form a ruff-like beard. Prominent macaque cheek pouches are
characteristic. The face is a reddish pink that turns darker with age. The
infants are whitish golden and change colour to brown in two to three
months. It has the shortest tail among macaques and is extremely terrestrial
by nature. Males can be distinguished from females by their large size, large
genitalia and large canines.
BEHAVIOUR: This macaque is a fearless monkey – it emits a fetid odour
that protects it from predators. It almost always sits on its tail. Like humans,
the Stump-tailed Macaque grows bald with age from forehead backwards.
Unlike humans, both males and females are prone to balding.68
DISTRIBUTION: All of the North–East, south of the River Brahmaputra.
HABITAT: In dense evergreen hills and lowland semievergreen forests but
avoids dry forests.69 Altitudewise inhabits forests between 1,500–2,500 m.

Macaca arctoides male, Gibbon WLS, Assam

Macaca leonina male, Gibbon WLS, Assam
M. leonina female and infant, Borajan WLS, Assam

M. leonina female, Gibbon WLS, Assam

 M. arctoides males, captive

M. arctoides female with infant, Gibbon WLS, Assam

COMMON NAME: LION-TAILED MACAQUE

Family: Cercopithecidae Subfamily: Cercopithecinae Latin Name: Macaca silenus Linnaeus, 1758
Local Names: Simhavalan korangan/Nella manthi/Chingala/Neelan (Malayalam), Singalika
(Kannada), Singa-vaal kurangu (Tamil) Best Seen At: Puthuthottam Estate and Silent Valley NP,
Tamil Nadu IUCN/WPA/Indian Status Endangered/ I/ Rare Social Unit: Groups of 7–40 (mean of
18 animals) in undisturbed forest, can go up to 65 animals or more in disturbed patches Size: HBL:
46–60 cm, Wt: 9.9–10 kg (male); 7.5–9.1 kg (female)

DESCRIPTION: The Lion-tailed Macaque is a medium- to large-sized

forest macaque of southern India, with a dark glossy coat. It is recognizable
from the other black monkey of southern India, the Nilgiri Langur, by its
long, grey facial mane and a medium-sized tail with a prominent tuft of
longer hair. Females are slightly smaller and have a pink swelling in the
perineal area and at the base of the tail when they are in oestrus.
BEHAVIOUR: The call of this monkey is uncannily human and sounds
like a ‘coyeh’ or a ‘coo’.
DISTRIBUTION: In 8–10 discrete populations along the Western Ghats.
In Karnataka, found in Siddapur forest range, north of the Sharavati,
Mookambika, Someshwara, Kudremukh and associated forests south of the
Sharavati, Charmadi Hills and Kodagu. In Kerala and Tamil Nadu found in
Kotiyur–Periyar–Manjeri-Kovilakam, Silent Valley, New Amarambalam,
Siruvani–Attapadi, the Anamalais, Munnar, Cardamom Hills, Periyar and
south of Achenkoil–Ashambu.70
HABITAT: Dense evergreen and semi-evergreen forest (100–1,700 m).71
Inhabits a higher substratum than the Nilgiri Langur when sympatric.72

COMMON NAME: NILGIRI LANGUR

Family: Cercopithecidae Subfamily: Colobinae Latin Name: Semnopithecus73 johnii Fischer, 1829
Local Name: Karu-manthi (Tamil), Karin korangan (Malayalam), Kurri korunga (Badaga/
Kurumba), Toorrunny (Toda) Best Seen At: Anamalai WLS, Tamil Nadu IUCN/WPA/Indian
Status: Vulnerable/ I/ Locally common Social Unit: Small troops of 4–25 animals with an average
size of 1174 Size: HBL: 70–75 cm (male); 55–60 cm (female), TL: 68.5–96.5 cm, Wt: 11–14 kg
(male); 9–10 kg (female)75

DESCRIPTION: Slim and black, this langur is the common rainforest

monkey of the Western Ghats. It has a yellow-tinted coiffure (the Lion-
tailed Macaque has an ashy grey mane) and a long, glossy black coat.
Langurs north of the Palghat (Palakkad) Gap in the Western Ghats are
reported to have more grizzled white hair on their hindquarters than those
found south of it. Females have a white patch on the inside of their thighs.
Newborns are pinkish white with reddish hair that turns black in two to
three months. Recent genetic studies show its close relationship with the
grey langurs of southern India.
BEHAVIOUR: The most vocal of southern forest monkeys, its
characteristic ‘hoo-hoo’ call can be heard mostly at dawn and sometimes at
dusk.
DISTRIBUTION In the Western Ghats from Kodagu in the north to the
Kanyakumari hills in the south. Periyar Tiger Reserve and the hills ranges
of Cardamom, Ashambu, Palni, Anamalais, Nilgiris and Kodagu have
significant populations.76
HABITAT Primarily a resident of rainforests at an altitude of more than
500 m, it is also found in deciduous patches, plantations and edges of
plantations. In Mundanthurai, it is found in riparian patches as low as 180 m
elevation.

Macaca silenus male, Puthuthottam Estate, Tamil Nadu

M. silenus female and infant, Valparai, Tamil Nadu
M. silenus female and juvenile, Valparai, Tamil Nadu
 Semnopithecus johnii male, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu

S. johnii female and infant, Thalakunda, Tamil Nadu

COMMON NAME: NORTHERN PLAINS LANGUR

Family: Cercopithecidae Subfamily: Colobinae Latin Name: Semnopithecus entellus Dufresne,
1797 Local Names: Hanuman (Bengali), Langur (Hindi and Odia), Wanar/Makad
(Marathi/Marwari), Wandro (Gujarati) Best Seen At: Sariska NP and Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan;
Kanha NP, Madhya Pradesh IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/II/ Abundant77 Social Unit:
Large troops of up to 118 members with one or few resident males and a large number of females and
young; mostly uni–male troops; all male troops also common78 Size: HBL: 70–75 cm (male); 55–60
cm (female), TL: 68.5–96.5 cm, Wt: 10–11 kg (male); 9–11 kg (female)

DESCRIPTION: The most widely spread langur in India, S. entellus is a

crestless, average-sized langur, overall yellowish brown or pale orange,
ventrally suffused with buff on the chest. It is black-pawed up to the wrist
and has a forward-looped tail. It differs in this manner from the langurs
south of the River Tapti, which have a backward-looped tail.79 It differs
from the Himalayan Langur in being smaller, not having a mane or
moustachial stripe and in the colour of the back, which is greyish black in
the Himalayan Langur.
BEHAVIOUR: Male langurs possess a harem and do not tolerate subadults
or even very young males in the troop. The absence of subadult males in
troops makes the langur society more peaceful compared with that of
macaques.
DISTRIBUTION: Found across northern India, south of the River Ganges,
west of Bikaner in Rajasthan (absent in large parts of Saurashtra and Kutch
in Gujarat) and eastern Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, southern Bihar,
Jharkhand, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, north–eastern Maharashtra and
Odisha. In the south–west, up to River Narmada. In central India, it is found
up to River Godavari and in the south–east, it goes up to River Krishna.80
HABITAT: All habitats except desert (it prefers dry deciduous and scrub),
and also found near human settlements.

Semnopithecus entellus males, Sariska WLS, Rajasthan

S. entellus females and juvenile, Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan

S. entellus male, Ahmedabad, Gujarat

 Identification of Peninsular Grey Langurs (Adapted from Nag et al., 2011)

S. entellus female and infant, Ahmedabad, Gujarat

S.entellus female and infant, Udanti WLS, Chhattisgarh

COMMON NAME: SOUTH–WESTERN LANGUR

Family: Cercopithecidae Subfamily: Colobinae Latin Name: Semnopithecus hypoleucos Blyth,
1841 Subspecies: Southern Plains Langur S.h. achates; Konkan Langur S.h. iulus; S.h. hypoleucos;
probable Malabar Langur81 S.h aenas Local Names: Kode (Kodava), Manthi (Malayalam),
Moosoo/Mushya (Kannada), Wanar/Makad (Marathi) Best Seen At: S.h. achates: Nagarhole NP,
Karnataka; S.h. hypoleucos: Aralam WLS, Kerala; S.h. iulus: Goa IUCN/WPA/Indian Status
Vulnerable/ II/ Locally Common Social Unit: Primarily uni-male langur troops; relatively smaller
troop sizes with mean sex ratio of male and female 1:3 Size: HBL: 70–75 cm (male); 55–60 cm
(female), TL: 68.5–96.5 cm, Wt: 10–11 kg (male); 9–10 kg (female)

DESCRIPTION: An average-sized crestless langur (and therefore

distinguishable from S. priam, its south–eastern neighbour) and with a
backward-looped tail (thus distinguishing it from S. entellus, its northern
neighbour). It has a brownish streak between the eye and ear. The three or
four subspecies can be told apart by the varying amount of black on the
hands and arms as well as the general coat colouration.
In the northern subspecies S.h. achates, the coat colouration is brownish
orange tending to more bright orange or buff on the chest. This colouration
is similar for S.h. iulus as well, which it overlaps with in general
distribution (except the specific habitat type). Both subspecies have dark
paws only up to the wrist. S.h. iulus in the field can only be distinguished by
its darker orange pelage and by the habitat that it occupies. S.h. hypoluecos
can be easily told apart from both the above subspecies as the dark hands
and legs extend up to the elbow and thigh. Both the back and the ventral
parts are greyish and there is no trace of orange in the pelage. There is still
some debate about the validity of S.h. aeneas as a subspecies, but in the
field, this type of form can be told apart from the fact that the darkness
extends up to the shoulders as well. The pelage colour has some traces of
orange as well, which is missing in S.h. hypoleucos.
BEHAVIOUR: None recorded.
DISTRIBUTION: S.h. achates, from south of River Narmada or Baruch in
Gujarat to Nagarhole in Karnataka in the south. S.h. iulus, from
Bhimashankar in Maharashtra through the Konkan up to Coorg, and S.h.
hypoleucos, south of Shimoga to the Brahmagiris and Wayanad in Kerala.
The Brahmagiris and Nilgiris is where these forms intergrade.82
HABITAT: All habitats (prefers dry deciduous and scrub), including
plantations; also found near human settlements. S.h. achates, in drier areas,
S.h. hypoleucos in moist deciduous to evergreen forests, and S.h. iulus in
more moist forests.
 Semnopithecus hypoleucos aeneas, captive

Semnopithecus hypoleucos achates male, Nagarhole NP, Karnataka

 S.h. achates female and infant, Wayanad WLS, Kerala

Semnopithecus hypoleucos hypoleucos, Agumbe, Karnataka

 Semnopithecus hypoleucos iulus, Ratnagiri, Maharashtra

S.h. iulus, Jog falls, Karnataka

COMMON NAME: SOUTH–EASTERN LANGUR

Family: Cercopithecidae Latin Name: Semnopithecus priam Blyth, 1844 Subspecies: Deccan
Langur S.p. anchises; Pale-pawed Crested Langur S.p. priam; probable S.p. priamellus83 Local
Names: Anumaan kurangu (Tamil), Gandangi/Kondamuchu/Kondenga (Telugu), Manthi
(Malayalam) Best Seen At: S.p. priam: Mudumalai WLS, Tamil Nadu; S.p. anchises: Kurnool
district, Andhra Pradesh; S.p. priamellus: Walayar, Tamil Nadu IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Near
Threatened/ II/ Locally Common Social Unit: Largest troop size among langur species; both uni-
male and multi-male troops exist Size: HBL: 70–75 cm (male); 55–60 cm (female), TL: 68.5–96.5
cm, Wt: 10–11 kg (male); 9–10 kg (female)
DESCRIPTION: The similarity between the Greek headgear of Priam,
King of Troy in the Greek epics, and the crest of some of the subspecies of
south–eastern langurs gives this species its scientific name. The northern
subspecies, S.p. anchises, is an average-sized pale grey langur with a
backward-looped tail. In some populations, it has a crest and in others it is
almost crestless, but all populations have black fingers and knuckles with
the rest of the paw being pale. It has no streak between the eyes and ear, and
has a darker grey on the chest. S.p. priam is similarly a pale grey langur, if
at all even whiter than its northern subspecies. It has a clear crest and the
entire paw looks pale as the black is only on the tips of the fingers. S.p.
priamellus needs confirmation as a valid subspecies. It looks almost like
S.p. anchises without a crest, black up to the knuckles and with a buff
colour spread through the grey on the back, chest and mane.84
A larger crested langur with dark grey arms and paws (near Chinnar
WLS, Kerala) needs further confirmation as to whether it is S.p. thersites
(that is recorded from Sri Lanka) or a different colour variation of S. priam.
BEHAVIOUR: It is known to hybridize with the Nilgiri Langur (T.
johnii).85
DISTRIBUTION: S.p. anchises, Kurnool and Anantapur districts of
Andhra Pradesh and Tumkur district of Karnataka. S.p. priam, south of
Cudappah (Kadapa) in Andhra Pradesh and almost all of Tamil Nadu and
Kerala (except the southernmost part). S.p. priamellus may be known in the
forest of Kerala, just north of the (Palghat) Palakkad Gap.86
HABITAT: All habitats (prefers dry deciduous and scrub), including
plantation; also found near human settlements.
Semnopithecus priam priam female and infant, Bandipur NP, Karnataka

Semnopithecus priam anchises, Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh

S.p. priam female and juvenile, Chinnar WLS, Kerala

S.p. priam male, Chinnar WLS, Kerala

 S. p. priam male, Bandipur NP, Karnataka

COMMON NAME: TERAI LANGUR

Family: Cercopithecidae Subfamily: Colobinae Latin Name: Semnopithecus hector Pocock, 1928
Local Names: Hanuman, Gooni (Pahari), Langur (Hindi) Best Seen At: Rajaji NP and Corbett NP,
Uttarakhand IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Near Threatened/ II/ Locally Common Social Unit:
Probably same as in all grey langurs Size: HBL: 70–75 cm (male); 55–60 cm (female), TL: 68.5–
96.5 cm, Wt: 10–11 kg (male); 9–10 kg (female)

DESCRIPTION: Medium-sized, crestless race, greyish brown on the back

(greyer in Uttarakhand, browner in Bihar), buff–white/pale grey venter.
Like all Himalayan langurs, it has a forward looped tail. Distinctive grey
moustache on a black face and uniformly pale grey hands.
BEHAVIOUR: This and other grey langurs are known for their unique
association in the forest with the Chital or Spotted Deer, each warning the
other of the approach of predators and the Chital eating food dropped by
langurs from trees.
DISTRIBUTION: Terai of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West
Bengal.
HABITAT: Sal-dominated deciduous forests of the Terai (300–1,600 m,
rarely up to 2,000 m).

COMMON NAME: HIMALAYAN LANGUR

Family: Cercopithecidae Subfamily: Colobinae Latin Name: Semnopithecus schistaceus Hodgson,
1840 Local Names: Hanuman langur (Hindi), Kamba suhu/Sahu kaboo (Lepcha), Kubup (Bhotia)
Best Seen At: Shimla, Himachal Pradesh; Nainital, Uttarakhand IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least
concern/ II/ Locally Common Social Unit: Probably same as in all grey langurs Size: HBL: 70–75
cm (male); 55–60 cm (female), TL: 68.5–96.5 cm, Wt: 10–11 kg (male); 9–10 kg (female)87

DESCRIPTION: The Himalayan Langur is a maned, pale‑pawed race

similar in most respects to the Terai Langur. It can be distinguished by body
size and is heavier than both S. hector and S. ajax, and has a darker,
mauvish brown back than S. hector, whose back is greyish. The ventral
colour is whiter and the ruff around the head can be heavy in higher
altitudes.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: Himachal Pradesh, south–western Jammu & Kashmir,
Sikkim and Uttarakhand at higher altitudes than S.e. hector.
HABITAT: Subtropical to temperate broadleaved, coniferous and montane
forest, and scrub (1,500–3,000 m).

COMMON NAME: KASHMIR OR CHAMBA LANGUR

Family: Cercopithecidae Subfamily: Colobinae Latin Name: Semnopithecus ajax Pocock, 1928
Local Names: Wandar (Kashmiri) Best Seen At: Chamba Valley, Himachal Pradesh
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered/ II/ Rare Social Unit: Probably same as in all grey langurs
Size: HBL: 76.2 cm (male); 63.5 cm (female), Wt: 20.9 kg (male); 12.7 kg (female)

DESCRIPTION: A large hill langur, similar to S. schistaceus in being

blunt headed, maned, and mauve–brown backed with a whitish venter and a
forward-looping tail, but with dark hands and forearms. Dark silvery dorsal
fur.88
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: Northern Himachal Pradesh (Chamba) and southern
Jammu & Kashmir (Kishtwar). Presence in other parts of Kashmir not
determined. 89
HABITAT: Moist temperate mixed deciduous and coniferous forests (2,150
–3,050 m, to treeline). 90

Semnopithecus hector male, Rajaji NP, Uttarakhand

S. hector female and juvenile, Rajaji NP, Uttarakhand

Semnopithecus schistaceus male, Nainital Dist., Uttarakhand

Semnopithecus ajax, Dalhousie, Himachal Pradesh

 S. schistaceus/S. ajax, Dachigam NP, Jammu & Kashmir

S.ajax, Chamba Distt., Himachal Pradesh

COMMON NAME: CAPPED LANGUR

Family: Cercopithecidae Subfamily: Colobinae Latin Name: Trachypithecus pileatus Blyth, 1843
Subspecies: Blond-bellied Langur T.p. pileatus Blyth 1843; Buff-bellied Langur T.p. brahma
Wroughton, 1916; Orange-bellied Langur T.p. durga Wroughton, 1916; Tenebrous Langur T.p.
tenebricus Wroughton, 1915 Local Names: Bilaspuri (Manipuri), Golija makhre (Bodo), Ngau
(Mizo), Rangol (Garo), Tongo (Khasi), Meksang (Karbi), Tupimuria (Assamese) Best Seen At T.p.
pileatus: Kaziranga NP, Assam; T.p. brahma: Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh; T.p. durga: Cachar,
Assam; T.p. tenebricus: Manas NP, Assam IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered/ I/ Locally
Common Social Unit: Troops of 5–16; uni-male, multi-female groups and bachelor groups are both
known91 Size: HBL: 60–70 cm (male); 45–60 cm (female), Wt: 12 kg (male); 10 kg (female)92
DESCRIPTION: The common forest langur of North-East India, the
Capped Langur is currently believed to have four subspecies. This is based
on varying belly colouration although this requires confirmation.93 A
conspicuous cap of different coloured hair is a good identification for the
species as a whole as is a greyish dorsal side and a long tail, darker in its
distal end. The orange-bellied subspecies, T.p. durga, has a uniform slaty
grey dorsal side with a deep orange underside. T.p. tenebricus, the
Tenubrous Langur, has a cream belly in males and a cream tinged with
orangish red in females and the nearly black, darkest forehead of all four
races. T.p. brahma, or the Buff-bellied Langur, on the other hand, has a pale
creamy tending to white belly and the lightest grey forehead. The fourth
subspecies, T.p. pileatus, or the Blond-bellied Langur has a pale creamy
golden belly in both sexes with a uniform dark dorsal coat.94 The insides of
their thighs have a light cobalt blue colour that is deeper in males95 and all
four have newborn that are creamy orange at birth.96
BEHAVIOUR: They live exclusively on trees and seldom come down to
the ground. The Capped Langur squeals and has a guttural bark.
DISTRIBUTION: T.p. durga has the widest distribution in highlands south
and east of River Brahmaputra including Meghalaya (Garo, Khasi and
Jaintia Hills), Assam (Karbi Anglong, Dima Hasao and Cachar), Nagaland,
Tripura and parts of Arunachal Pradesh. T.p. pileatus is found in central and
upper Assam and Nagaland lowlands almost along with T.p. durga from
which it is separated by altitude. T.p. brahma is restricted to the highlands
of Arunachal Pradesh, north of River Brahmaputra and T.p. tenebricus to
Assam, north of River Brahmaputra and Bhutan from Manas in the west to
Nameri in the east. (100–2,000 m).97
HABITAT: Dense deciduous, bamboo and evergreen forest.98
 Trachypithecus pileatus tenebricus, Manas NP, Assam

Trachypithecus pileatus durga male (left) and female (right), non-breeding,

Trishna WLS, Tripura
Trachypithecus pileatus pileatus, Kaziranga NP, Assam
T.p. durga female, summer breeding, Kaziranga NP, Assam

T.p. durga female and infant, Berajan, Assam

 Trachypithecus pileatus. brahma, Zimithang, Arunachal Pradesh

COMMON NAME: GOLDEN LANGUR

Family: Cercopithecidae Subfamily: Colobinae Latin Name: Trachypithecus geei Khajuria 1956
Subspecies T. g. geei99 Local Names: Hanu (Adibashi), Kawai bulang (Rabha),100 Makhre guphur
(Bodo), Sonali bandar (Assamese), Sugreb (Bhutia) Best Seen At: Manas NP, Assam; Chakrashila
WLS, Assam IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered/ I/ Locally Common Social Unit: Small
troops of 5-10; uni-male, multi-female groups that are territorial and occasionally all male and all
female groups that are not101 Size: HBL: 64–72 cm (male); 49–50 cm (female), TL: 70–94 cm,
Wt:10.9 kg (male); 9.5 kg (female)

DESCRIPTION: Arguably the most beautiful Indian monkey, the Golden

Langur has deep cream to off-white fur in the non-breeding season (April–
September) and golden orange or deep golden fur in the breeding season
(October–March).102 Its face, palms and soles are black and it sports long,
golden cheek whiskers and a golden cap to match. This langur has a
distinctive long, tasselled tail. Females are more golden and have more
orange on their hindquarters. Infants are orange–brown with pink faces,
palms and soles, which turn into adult colouration in three months.103
Discovered in 1956, it has been the flag bearer of langurs in India ever
since. It can easily be told apart from all four subspecies of the Capped
Langur by the fact that its cap and body are both golden whereas in the
Capped Langur the cap colour differs from the body colour.
BEHAVIOUR: It is diurnal and selects specific tall trees near food sources
to sleep at night.104
DISTRIBUTION: Between the rivers Manas and Sankosh, in Kokrajhar,
Bongaigaon and Dhubri districts of Assam.
HABITAT: Subtropical moist deciduous and moist, riverine evergreen
forest (up to 2,400 m).105

COMMON NAME: PHAYRE’S LEAF MONKEY OR

LANGUR
Family: Cercopithecidae Subfamily: Colobinae Latin Name: Trachypithecus phayrei Blyth, 1847
Subspecies: T.p. phayrei Blyth, 1847 Local Names: Chasma chakwa bandor (Assamese), Chasma
bandor/Dodhi bandor (Bengali), Dodhi bandor/Kaala bandor (Tripuri), Dawr (Mizo) Best Seen At:
Sepahijala WLS, Tripura IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered/ I/ Uncommon Social Unit:
Troops of 8–30 Size: HBL: 55–65 cm,106 Wt: 6–8 kg

DESCRIPTION: The Phayre’s Leaf Monkey is also called the Spectacled

Monkey because of the white eye patches that stand out in its black face. A
white lip-guard gives it the look of a modern cricketer playing in the sun
with sunblock on. Its body is slate–grey, tending to black towards the limbs,
with a lighter underside. The tail is longer than the body and lightly
tasselled. Both sexes have a peaked crest. The crest, the fully formed eye
rings, and the stark contrast between a grey back and pale cream venter
differentiates T.p. phayrei from its two extralimital subspecies. The infant is
golden coloured and changes to adult colouration by eight months of age.
Sexes are similar, except that the female has yellowish pubic callosities
while those of the male are flesh coloured. The male also has circular white
eye rings compared with the females whose eye rings are roughly
triangular.107
BEHAVIOUR: It leaps onto branches in a spreadeagled fashion rather than
jumping on to a single chosen branch.
DISTRIBUTION: India is at the extremity of its range and it is found in
Cachar, Hailakandi and Karimganj districts of southern Assam, and in
Tripura and Mizoram (up to 800 m).
HABITAT: Mixed moist deciduous, semi-evergreen secondary forests,
bamboo patches and forest fringes including tea gardens.
Trachypithecus geei geei, breeding pelage, Manas NP, Assam
T.g. geei non-breeding pelage, Umanando Temple, Assam
Trachypithecus phayrei phayrei male, Sepahijala WLS, Tripura

T.p. phayrei female with infant, Sepahijala WLS, Tripura

 T.p. phayrei juvenile, Cachar, Assam

Field Notes: Monkey Business

When you look out for Slow Lorises in the dark, look for the fact
that their shining eyes are closer set than those of Flying Squirrels. If
you have one in the hand, watch out for its razorsharp teeth, it can
puncture your hand in seconds. I found this when I released one in
Kaziranga.
My first scientific paper was on captive Rhesus Monkeys in the
Delhi zoo in the 1980s and soon thereafter I co-authored a
management plan for the Rhesus in Delhi with Dr Iqbal Malik.
The southernmost mammal I have seen in India is the Long-tailed or
Crab- eating Macaque on Great Nicobar before the tsunami.

The adults were peaceably feeding on coconuts and the youngsters

were playing on the main road, pulling each other’s tails.

The Golden Langurs that have been brought to Umanando Temple in

Assam by a priest are the easiest to view the species. They lie around
in floppy postures reminding you of youngsters lolling in college
corridors. The only primate I have seen even more comfortable is a
Western Hoolock Gibbon male in upper Assam who looked like he
was slung in an imaginary hammock.

The Terai Langurs are the only ones that have a very noticeable
moustache.
Elephants
INDIAN ELEPHANTS AT A GLANCE
NUMBER OF SPECIES 1
Activity

Niche Occupancy
 An Asian Elephant bull wades through a swamp next to Hog Deer,
Kaziranga NP, Assam

Proboscidean Skull

Asian Elephant skull

Elephant Foot
Showing tiptoe gait

Elephant Trunks

African two-fingered (top) and Asian one-fingered (bottom) trunk

Elephant Teeth

Asian Elephant (left) and African Elephant (right)

WHAT IS A PROBOSCIDEAN?
The elephant is the largest land animal. Although for at least 50 million
years between 150 and 300 forms of primitive elephants were tried out by
evolution, currently three species of elephant persist in Africa and Asia.1
Proboscideans or ‘trunked creatures’ are large land mammals with naked,
wrinkled grey skin, enlarged incisors that form tusks, an elongated snout
that forms a trunk, extra-large ears that aid cooling of the body, columnar
legs that support their massive weight, and a medium-sized tail with stiff
bristles forming a tuft at the end. They are intelligent animals with a
complex social structure, and have a long lifespan averaging 60 years or
more.

THE LARGEST MAMMALS ON TWO CONTINENTS

The Asian Elephant, Elephas maximus, literally means ‘the largest elephant’
although its biggest bulls weigh only up to 5,400 kg, standing 3.2 m high at
the shoulder, a clear second best. The African Elephant (the Loxodonta
africana) bull grows up to 3.9 m and weighs up to 6,000 kg. The Asian cow
elephants, which weigh up to 3,300 kg and measure 2.6 m tall, hold their
own against their African counterparts that weigh up to 4,150 kg and stand
up to 2.5 m. The round-eared Forest Elephant or Loxodonta cyclotis is much
smaller in size and has smaller, browner, downward-pointing tusks.
Besides size, Elephas and Loxodonta can be differentiated by five
morphological characteristics: One, the Asian Elephant has a convex back,
sloping precipitously towards its hindquarters while the African Elephant
has a saddle-shaped back that looks fit for a human to ride on! Two, the
Asian has a smooth trunk with one finger; the African Elephant’s trunk is
heavily ridged with transverse skinfolds, with two fingers at its tip. Three,
both African males and females normally have tusks; only the male Asian
has tusks and not all males do. Four, Loxodonta has massive ears the rough
shape of the African continent while Elephas has smaller wedge-shaped
ears. Five, Loxodonta has four toes on its forefeet and three on the hind,
making fourteen. Elephas can have four on all feet, or five on the front and
four on the back, or even five on all limbs, making 16–20 toes. The two are
genetically very different, more than the African Lion is from the Asian
Tiger.
Evolutionary tree of elephants (Adapted from Shoshani J., 1992)

Male Asian Elephant, Corbett NP, Uttarakhand

 Male African Savannah Elephant, extralimital

Map of ancestral elephant lineage (Adapted from Sukumar R., 2011)

Stages of Disintegration of Elephant Dung

Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4
Stage 5

Stage 6

DIET AND FORAGING

Elephants are large and thus require a large amount of food for
nourishment. A full-grown cow elephant may eat up to 240 kg of fresh plant
material over an 18-hour day.2 Their large, grinding molars ensure that they
can eat almost any kind of plant matter including twigs, bark, pith, grass,
whole plants, fruit and roots of up to 59 species of woody plants and 23
grass species.3 Their flexible trunk ensures that vegetation out of reach of
most ungulates (except perhaps the giraffe in Africa) can be utilized. They
are not partial to new grass, as deer are, and can eat coarse vegetation just
as well.
Browse and grass in their diets vary depending on the habitat and the
season. Two studies in southern India show that browse varies from 70 per
cent in the dry season to 45 per cent in the wet4 while in a dry deciduous
versus dry thorn forests, it varies from 15 per cent to 45 per cent.5
Elephants move continuously as they feed allowing the vegetation that
they leave behind to regenerate in a natural cycle. They also defecate
continuously as they feed (about 16–18 times a day) producing about 100
kg of dung in a day.

VOCALIZATION AND COMMUNICATION

Asian Elephants use a range of vocalizations to communicate, from tummy
rumbles to low chirps, roars and loud trumpets. The latter two are largely
used in aggression or when disturbed, and by juveniles in play. Rumbles are
contact communication and chirps have been recorded when the elephants
were confused or alarmed.6 Elephants are also the first land mammals to be
known to communicate infrasonically, especially when separated by thick
vegetation or great distance. These infrasonic calls cannot be perceived by
the human ear and are in the frequency range of 14–24 Hz.7 Apart from
acoustic communication, the elephants use the foot stomp to seismically
communicate long-distance.8 Research on African Elephants has shown that
they can hear each other and respond to calls from at least four km away. As
these calls are useful for intra-species communication but may be
disadvantageous vis-à-vis predators, elephants may time calls (e.g., in late
afternoon) when predators may be asleep but sound transmission
possibilities are good.

Elephant charge, Mudumalai WLS, Tamil Nadu

 Elephant with browse, Kaziranga NP, Assam

Elephant cleaning grass before eating, Kabini, Nagarhole NP, Karnataka

Elephants drinking, Bandipur NP, Karnataka

Elephants greeting, Corbett NP, Uttarakhand

 Female elephant and calf feeding in swamp, Kaziranga NP, Assam

Social Organization of Elephants

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
Elephants are intelligent, social animals that live in closely knit family
groups led by a matriarch. The family groups coalesce to form larger herds
that can have females of varying ages and young immature males. Adult
males are typically solitary and associate with family groups only for
mating. Occasionally, two adult males are known to bond together and stay
together for a while, and even less frequently, all-male groups are also seen.
Being matriarchal, elephant societies are usually centred around an older
female called the matriarch. This animal leads a family of adult and
subadult females and calves as well as young males. Elephants have a
fission–fusion form of society where as resources become scarce, they
become nuclear (one mother and her calves), and when food resources are
plentiful, they rejoin their kith and kin and form larger herds. When
together, the matriarch takes the lead in decision making and the rest of the
herd follows her in direction of movement, in rest, in feeding and in
avoidance of threats. When the matriarch is not around, the split groups
keep in touch with the main herd, using infrasonic communication.
Elephants are also known to exhibit larger familial ties and often two
families that are not known to be related may show complex greetings when
they meet, indicating a relatedness or friendliness at a distant level. A raised
trunk, rumblings, touch and companionship are used by elephants to bond
with each other within and outside the herd. An elephant also has an
evolutionarily advanced system of chemical communication sensed by the
mucous membranes in the mouth. The temporal gland in males is one such
area of secretion, but the genital area and that between the toes and the
trunk are also used in this mode of communication.9

ELEPHANT INTELLIGENCE
Both conventional wisdom and modern science have shown that
elephants are among the most intelligent of living beings. With a
brain mass of five kg and as many neurons in the cortex as humans
have,10 elephants come close to cetaceans and apes and even human
beings in intelligence, so close, in fact, that some scientists refer to
them as ‘near-persons’. Elephant intelligence has been scientifically
tested on several parameters including social, ecological and
individual memory, tool use, empathy, discrimination, self-
recognition and recognition of death.11 They are known to exhibit
grief, compassion, humour and altruism,12 and according to some
scientists have a language.13 Even a die-hard scientist like Charles
Darwin was known to have said: ‘. . .the Indian elephant is said
sometimes to weep.’14
Elephant family group, Corbett NP, Uttarakhand

Solitary tusker, Mudumalai WLS, Tamil Nadu

 Maljhuria pair (two bachelor males), Wayanad WLS, Kerala

Elephants play, splashing water, Periyar NP, Kerala

Elephant Trunk
Chemosensory and tactile sensory structure in the head and trunk of the
Asian Elephant

REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES
Elephants live as long as human beings and have a potential average life
span of 60 to 70 years. Males are sexually mature by 15 years of age15 and
females can give birth by 12 years.16 Gestation takes 20–22 months and one
calf is born that suckles for more than a year. The female can thus give birth
to only one calf every 4–5 years.
The elephant is polygynous, i.e., more females than males breed, and is
also one of the most sexually dimorphic animals.17 Further, anatomically,
the female vulva is placed high into its body through a long and convoluted
birth canal and the male has to be large enough (normally double the size of
the female) to reach up to the vulva and deposit the sperm. This means that
though mounting may take place at younger ages, fertilization is normally
possible only for older and larger bulls. Females in oestrus signal their
reproductive readiness both chemically and behaviourally. Studies have
described increased wariness among African Elephant females, oestrous
walk with high head posture, the chase and the consortship period as
behavioural phases that precede mating.18 The condition of musth or
heightened testosterone levels increases the chances of breeding. Musth is a
condition known in male elephants, of increased aggressiveness to other
males and increased access to females in oestrus. While in musth the
elephant secretes a pungent-smelling fluid from its temporal gland and also
dribbles urine continuously for certain periods.
While data on Asian Elephants is not conclusive, studies on African
Savannah Elephants have shown that the presence of older matriarchs in the
family means that the entire family reproduces faster and better. This is
because the matriarchs are better placed to ward off threats like predators,
or calves getting stuck in ditches or water bodies and, as a result, percentage
success in calf rearing goes up. A larger family means more females in a
non-breeding age who then play aunts to the offspring of their siblings, thus
giving mothers a respite to feed and forage, increasing their milk
production. This leads to healthier calves.

Elephant age vs height chart (Adapted from Sukumar R., 1994)

Young males fight, Mudumalai WLS, Tamil Nadu

Elephant tests oestrus, Corbett NP, Uttarakhand

Elephants mating, Kabini, Nagarhole NP, Karnataka

Elephant with newborn calf, Kaziranga NP, Assam

Elephant-headed bird, Sri Lanka*

Elephant fish, first century CE, India*

Elephant-tiger mixed beast, Udaipur, India*

ELEPHANTS IN INDIAN CULTURE

The most recognizable and arguably the most loved figure in Indian religion
and folklore is that of Ganesha, the elephant-headed god. Although classic
Ganesha figures appeared only in the fifth century CE, the elephant itself has
a divine ancestry according to Hindu mythology, which attributes its
creation to the Lord of Creation, Brahma. Out of a broken eggshell that he
held in his right hand came eight bull elephants, the first of which was the
holy white elephant Airavata (the elephant that later appears in Buddhist
folklore as the dream merchant for the mother of Lord Buddha, tusking her
womb as she lies expecting her baby). Out of the other half that he held in
his left hand came eight cow elephants, and these two sets were the
ancestors of all elephants. The sheer improbability of the entire elephant
race having originated from eggshells notwithstanding, the story goes to
strengthen beliefs of the divine provenance of the elephant race.19 The
Vedas (1500–600 BCE), and the epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata
(1100–700 BCE), are perhaps the earliest texts dealing with the elephant in
India.20 Ancient Indian texts, such as the Gajasastram and the
Hastiayurveda,21 dealt with the protection and welfare of the elephant while
treatises on statecraft such as the Arthashastra mentioned the setting up of
gajavanas or elephant preserves, the first ever protected-area systems in the
country or perhaps even the world.

ELEPHANTS IN CAPTIVITY
Elephants have been captive in India at least for 4,000 years and today one
in three Asian Elephants lives in captivity.22 In war, Indians used the
elephant very early on, perhaps as early as the Mahabharata. The earliest
authentic records of captive elephants are as early as 2500 BCE as Mohenjo-
daro seals depict elephants with a cloth on their back, a sure sign of a
captive beast. The Gajasastram in the fifth or sixth century BCE records the
keeping of elephants and instructs people in the art of doing so. Its role as a
mighty war machine made famous in the heroic battles fought by Porus and
Alexander in northern India in 326 BCE, and its use in Mughal times, have
ensured the elephant a place in folklore and everyday life in equal measure.
Today, between 3,400 and 3,600 elephants are held captive in India.23
They range from the southern ones used in religious ceremonies to the
private elephants still used for illegal logging in the North–East, to the ones
held in forest camps for patrolling or tourism, and the few that live in cities
such as Delhi and Jaipur.
While recognizing that India has a long tradition of keeping elephants
and that they are integral to cultures, religions and livelihoods, a Central
Government Elephant Task Force, considering the cruelty to the sentient
being in being held captive, has recommended, in the long term, to phase
out elephants in commercial use.24
Ganesha, the elephant-headed god, is propitiated as the remover of
obstacles, Delhi

Elephants are used for tourism in certain cities, Delhi

Elephants are used in nature reserves to access areas not connected by
roads, Kaziranga, Assam

Elephants are used in religious processions in southern India, Mysore,

Karnataka
Useful Contacts for Elephant Conservation

AJAY DESAI
IUCN Asian Elephant Specialist Group ajayadesai.1@gmail.com

DR A.J.T. JOHNSINGH
Nature Conservation Foundation ajt.johnsingh@gmail.com www.ncf-
india.org

DR CHRISTIE WILLIAMS
Worldwide Fund for Nature acwill69@yahoo.com www.wwfindia.org

DIRECTOR, PROJECT ELEPHANT

gajendra@nic.in

DR R. SUKUMAR
Indian Institute of Sciences rsuku@ces.iisc.ernet.in www.iisc.ernet.in/

DR SANDEEP KUMAR TIWARI

Wildlife Trust of India sandeep@wti.org.in www.wti.org.in

SURENDRA VARMA
Asian Nature Conservation Foundation varma@ces.iisc.ernet.in
www.asiannature.org

VIVEK MENON
Wildlife Trust of India vivek@wti.org.in www.wti.org.in

THREATS AND CONSERVATION

Four words that define an elephant are big, social, intelligent and nomadic.
Because they are big (mega-herbivores) they need to eat a large amount of
forage and eat almost continuously. Because they do this, they have to
move, for if they do not, they eat themselves out of a habitat. It is part of a
natural cycle for elephants to move locally across traditional tracks and
return to the same forests once natural regeneration has brought back their
food source. Asian Elephants may range over 300–1,000 sq. km annually.
To do so, they have to often go out of protected forests and through narrow
tracts of land or corridors to access habitat within their home range. As they
do this, they may come into conflict with humans on the peripheries of
protected forests. Worse still, in some parts of India, the habitat itself is so
pockmarked by human pressures, including habitation, linear developments
such as roads and railways, mining, and extraction of forest resources, that
elephants come into daily conflict with their neighbours.
Once again, their intelligence dictates that they avoid conflict till no
option remains. Human deaths due to elephants have crossed the 500 per
year mark in India, leading to the famed tolerance of the Indian running
ragged. Crop raiding is another perennial management issue. Elephants
seem to favour a high-risk, high-gain strategy of taking tasty and nutrient-
rich crops that they like, e.g., millets, sugar cane and bananas, completely
devastating local agriculture.
While man–elephant conflict is the biggest threat to the elephant today in
India, poaching for the tusks of male elephants for the illegal ivory trade
continues to be a threat. India used to lose well over a hundred elephants a
year to poaching for tusks. Peaking in the 1990s, this has come down
drastically, but an ever-present demand for ivory from the Far East for use
as hankos or ‘name seals’ continues the pressure.
The Government of India conserves the elephant – the National Heritage
Animal of India – mainly through the centrally sponsored Project Elephant
in the Ministry of Environment and Forests. States with elephants have a
state-level project coordinator from the forest departments. Gajah, a report
of the Elephant Task Force in 2010, outlines the main policy thrusts of the
government. Leading conservation organizations in India working on
elephants include the Wildlife Trust of India (WTI), the Asian Nature
Conservation Foundation (ANCF), Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology
and the Environment (ATREE), Aaranyak, Nature Conservation Foundation
(NCF), WWF-India and a number of local NGOs. Pioneering themes such
as putting elephants back into the wild, grain-for-grain as a conflict
mitigation technique, and securing corridors have been tried by WTI. Long-
term research in the Nilgiris has been the forte of ANCF and in the
Anamalais, of the NCF.
 Elephants enter habitations commonly, Bandipur NP, Karnataka

Conflict often exacerbates with young men and boys pelting stones at an
elephant in a crop field, Assam
 After removing ivory, elephant carcasses are left to rot, Sathyamangalam
TR, Tamil Nadu

What elephants are killed for: hankos or name seals of the Far East,
extralimital

COMMON NAME: ASIAN ELEPHANT

Family: Elephantidae Latin Name: Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1756 Subspecies: Elephas maximus
indicus Local Names: Aana (Malayalam), Aane (Kannada/Kodava), Haathi
(Bengali/Hindi/Assamese/Odia), Ingnar (Karbi), Mongma (Garo), Mwider (Bodo), Shathe (Nishi),
Yaanai (Tamil), Yanai (Toda), Yenugu (Telugu) Best Seen At: Nagarahole NP, Karnataka; Kaziranga
NP, Assam IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered/ I/ Common Social Unit: Family; herd; solitary
(adult male) Size: HAS: 245–275 cm, Wt: 3,200–5,400 kg (male); 3,000–3,300 kg (female)

DESCRIPTION: The largest land mammal in India, the Asian Elephant’s

grey wrinkled skin, long trunk and sail-like ears make it one of the most
easily recognized animals. It has a convex or humped back with a ridge
along the spine, a double-domed forehead (sometimes highly pronounced),
wedge-shaped ears and a smooth trunk ending in one tip or ‘finger’. Only
male Asian Elephants have large tusks, while females have very small
dental protuberances called tushes. Some males, called makhnas, are tusk-
less and can be distinguished in the field from adult females by the penis
bulge below the tail. Young calves can be aged by their relative height
compared to their mothers while older elephants can be aged by the amount
of ear fold (ears start folding inwards only from 20 years of age and
progressively increase in depth), sinking of the temple (older elephants have
more sunken cheeks and foreheads) and depigmentation.
BEHAVIOUR: Elephants move over long distances in search of food and
water, or for security, and use the same forest corridors for many hundreds
of years. This is because the elephant is a mega-herbivore and, due to its
size, requires a huge amount of forage every day. If it were to feed in one
forest all year round, the forest would be destroyed. Elephants, therefore,
move in search of food, allowing the forest to regenerate in their absence,
and return cyclically. If these corridors are blocked, they enter human
settlements. Elephants are also attracted to human settlements by crop or by
crude-alcohol distilleries that they can smell from miles away.
DISTRIBUTION: In the plains of north, south, east–central and north–east
India in four clusters. In the south, they are found in the Western Ghats and
some adjoining hill ranges of the Eastern Ghats in the states of Karnataka,
Kerala, Tamil Nadu and (more recently) Andhra Pradesh. In east–central or
south–east India, elephants are found primarily in the states of Odisha and
Jharkhand, with seasonal movement into southern West Bengal and
Chhattisgarh. The elephants in northern India are found in a wide belt along
the Himalayan foothills (the Terai–Bhabar region) in the states of Uttar
Pradesh and Uttarakhand. The elephants in north–east India are
discontinuously distributed in 15 discrete subpopulations from western
Assam (near the Indo–Nepal border), along the Himalayan foothills up to
the Mishmi Hills, and the eastern floodplains of Assam and Arunachal
Pradesh. The distribution then takes a ‘U’ turn and covers eastern
Arunachal Pradesh, the plains of eastern Assam and the foothills of
Nagaland. Further west, it extends up to the Garo Hills of Meghalaya
through the Khasi Hills, parts of the Brahmaputra plains and the Karbi hills.
HABITAT: A generalist, it uses mixed deciduous and evergreen forests,
scrub, floodplains and grassland.
Asian Elephant swimming and charging the boat, Periyar NP, Kerala

Elephas maximus male and female, Kaziranga NP, Assam

Young tusker, E. maximus, Rajaji NP, Uttarakhand
 Makhna E. maximus in musth, Kaziranga NP, Assam

Younger (front) and older (back) female E. maximus, Anamalai WLS, Tamil
Nadu
Field Notes: Trunk Calls
In 1997, I toured the forests of Kollegal and Sathyamangalam in
Tamil Nadu, the haunt of the legendary forest brigand Veerappan, for
two weeks in a coracle, with a local fisherman and a friend. My task:
to count the number of elephants poached in an area that even forest
officials could not enter. My tally in 15 days: 15 carcasses!

In the mid-90s, I was actively tracking the poaching of elephants and

the illegal smuggling of their ivory to the Far East. In Japan my main
contact was a trader who had nine tonnes of ivory in his garage!
Tolerance is India’s biggest wildlife conservation asset, but it is
running thin. In Assam, where even elephants killed accidentally by
a train are worshipped traditionally with bananas and incense, 11
beasts were poisoned in 2003 in a crop field.
On one carcass was written in chalk: ‘Paddy Thief, Bin Laden’!
Putting orphan elephants back into the wild has been the most
satisfying experience for me in many ways. As the first herd took
tentative steps into Manas National Park in Assam, I knew WTI-
IFAW and the Assam Forest Department had reversed a centuries old
dogma that elephants never go back to the wild.
Odd-toed Ungulates
INDIAN ODD-TOED UNGULATES AT A GLANCE
NUMBER OF SPECIES 3
LARGEST Rhino
SMALLEST Khur
MOST COMMON Kiang
MOST ENDANGERED Rhino
Activity
Rhinos

Equids

Niche Occupancy
A Greater One-horned Rhinoceros calf follows on the heels of the mother in
burnt grass, Kaziranga NP, Assam

Perissodactyl Toe Forms

Rhino (left), equid (right)

Rhinoceros Species
Black Rhinoceros

White Rhinoceros

Sumatran Rhinoceros

Javan Rhinoceros

Greater One-horned Rhinoceros

VASUNDHARA KANDPAL (ADAPTED FROM MACDONALD D.,

2001)

WHAT IS AN UNGULATE?
In common parlance, an ungulate is a hoofed mammal. The hoof is a
modified nail. Ungulates are grouped into Artiodactyl and Perissodactyl
orders, based on whether they are even-toed or odd-toed. Recent studies
group elephants, hyraxes and sea cows as Paenungulates,1 close relatives of
the hoofed mammals. However, this relationship is genetic and not based on
morphology. Wild Artiodactyls in India comprise mountain goats and
sheep, wild cattle, deer and chevrotains, antelopes and wild pigs.

WHAT IS A PERISSODACTYL?
Eighteen species of ungulates (equids, rhinos and tapirs), all of which have
an odd number of toes and most of which are endangered, are known as
Perissodactyls. Of those found in India, equids have a single toe and rhinos
have three. Rhinoceroses are mega-herbivores, with one or two sharp
conical horns at the tip of the nose. There are five species of rhinoceros in
the world, of which two are African and three Asian.

WHAT IS AN EQUID?
Equids are specialized grazers, and comprise horses, zebras and asses. They
originated in North America 55 million years ago and colonized Asia
around 1.8 million years ago.2 They are odd-toed ungulates with a single
toe enclosed in a hoof. They put their entire weight on the central toe, which
gives them a springy gait and, therefore, speed in flight. They are non-
ruminants with long incisors and specialized molars.3 All equids are social
animals that live in large herds, and gallop over open stretches with a grace
and power that is unique to the family. India has both the Tibetan Wild Ass
or Kiang, and the Indian Wild Ass or Khur as wild equids.
Despite the fact that they are closely related, the domestic horse (Equus
feral caballus), the wild horse (E.f. przewalski), the domestic donkey (E.
asinus asinus), the wild asses (E. hemionus, E. africanus and E. kiang) and
the zebras (E. zebra, E. quagga and E. grevyii) are all marginally different
from one another. Wild asses are larger than the domestic donkey but
smaller than horses. Their ears are longer than those of donkeys and horses.
Both wild and domestic asses have an erect mane of short hair and a
paintbrush tip to the tail, while horses have a flowing, silky mane and tail.
Horses have a horny pad on each leg, known as a ‘chestnut’, but asses have
them only on the forelegs. Wild asses are plain coloured except for their
caudal stripe, while domestic asses have horizontal stripes on the shoulder
and sometimes on the legs. Other than their characteristic black and white
stripes, zebras can be told apart from donkeys in being slightly larger,
always having a black tip to their noses and having more rounded ears.
They share with donkeys the hair on the tail (only on the tip) and mane
(short and bristly), characteristics that set them apart from horses.

An even-toed Wild Buffalo and an odd-toed rhinoceros at a waterhole,

Kaziranga, Assam

Przewalski’s Horse, extralimital

Evolutionary tree of Indian odd-toed ungulates (Adapted from Macdonald
D., 2001)

Burchell’s Zebra, extralimital

 Domestic pony and donkey, extralimital

Tibetan Wild Ass (Kiang), Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

Perissodactyl Hooves and Tracks

Khur track
Rhinoceros hoof

Hind-gut fermenters

Perissodactyl Skulls

Equid

Rhino
VASUNDHARA KANDPAL (ADAPTED FROM MACDONALD D.,
2001)

LOCOMOTION
Both equids are exceptionally swift runners and have been clocked at
touching 60 km an hour and maintaining 45–50 km an hour for over 5 km.4
A horny cushion covering the heel acts as a shock absorber in the hoof.5
The legs are long and slender and the body streamlined for speed. The rhino
normally ambles but is no sloucher either if it comes to aggression or threat;
it can clock up to 55 km an hour for shorter distances. Perissodactyls do not
migrate in the traditional sense of the term, but the Kiang seasonally use
hills, valleys and flat pastures with different intensities across seasons. At
times, there is an altitudinal movement daily, with the animals going up
during the warm part of the day and coming down into the valleys in the
evenings.6

DIET AND FORAGING

Equids are predominantly grazers and hind-gut fermenters adapted to
survive on coarse food. They feed on a wide variety of grasses and forbes.
The Kiang feeds on grasses and sedges.7 Stipa forms between 65 per cent of
its food in summers and 90 per cent in winters.8 Kobresia, Carex, Poa and
Elymus species are also eaten by Kiang in significant quantities. Khur are
also predominantly grazers when grass is available and prefer Cyperus
capillaries, Andropogon ssp, Dichanthium annulatum, Aristida alscansiosis
and Iseilema prostratum.9 They turn browsers in drier times and are known
to eat seed pods of Prosopis juliflora and fruits of Salvadora persica, using
their hooves to break root systems to get at forbes. More recently, they have
turned to raiding crops,10 especially sorghum (Pennisetum typhoides),
wheat and green cotton pods.
Rhinos both graze and browse, though they are preferentially grazers in
grasslands with ample grass. They can browse on land and on aquatic
vegetation, using their prehensile lip.

VOCALIZATION AND COMMUNICATION

Rhinos have up to 10 different forms of vocalizations, but the snort
preceding a charge is what most people hear. They are known to snort
(approach warning), honk (in face-to-face encounters between rhinos,
normally the subordinate honks), bleat (submission), roar (intense
aggression), squeak-pant (courtship chases) and moo-grunt (maternal
contact call).11 They also communicate with scents from foot glands and
dung toilets, which are regularly inspected by other rhinos. Rhinos often
walk with their nose to the ground, thus scent tracking other individuals.
Wild asses, on the other hand, are by and large silent animals, although a
loud bray at times of breeding or territorial fighting is known. Dominant
stallions have more guttural vocalizations than subordinates, who squeal.12
Both wild asses drag their feet over stretches of mud to leave characteristic
zigzag territorial markings.13

Khur galloping at high speed: an equid characteristic, Rann of Kutch,

Gujarat
Khur eats what little xerophytic and saline vegetation the Rann has to offer,
Kutch, Gujarat

Rhinos are good swimmers, even breasting the Brahmaputra River, Assam
 A rhino grazes in the alluvial grasslands, Kaziranga NP, Assam

Kiang graze in high-altitude trans-Himalayan pastures, Ladakh, Jammu &

Kashmir

Social Organization of Equids

Wild Ass social grouping

Rhino social grouping

VASUNDHARA KANDPAL (ADAPTED FROM MACDONALD D.,
2001)

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
Equids are more social than rhinos, which are naturally solitary. The former
exhibit two different forms of social living. Horses and zebras form
permanent herds, but wild asses live in fission–fusion societies.
The Kiang, for example, form groups with an average of six or seven
animals but rarely herd permanently. Large herd sizes of up to 48 animals
have been seen in India, while on the Tibetan Plateau, up to 500 animals
have been recorded in one herd.14 Their temporary groupings are largely
mother-and-foal based, or of young bachelor males. Stallions are largely
solitary and extremely territorial. The Khur have a well-structured harem,
family band and bachelors.15
The rhino on the other hand is a loner except occasionally, when young
males join up together, or when the female is with her calf for nearly four
years.

REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES
The Kiang breeds from June to September, although July and August are
possibly the peak. During this time, the females form larger herds, and
females of the same age or same reproductive stage may form associated
herds to attract the solitary and territorial males. Both asses are sexually
mature by two years of age and can breed for at least 15 years in the wild.16
The females have a gestation of nearly one year (355 days), so autumn is
also the time for foaling, and foals are seen by July. The foals can run at top
speeds almost upon birth, and suckle up to a year, at which time they
become independent and sexually mature.
The Khur also breed around June to August, which is monsoon in the
Rann. Stallions maintain territory all year round, and during breeding
season, females move into male territories.
Some females stick to one male’s territory while others move between
males. When a group of females sticks to one male territory, it appears to be
like a ‘harem’, but unlike langurs, for example, the Khur male rarely
defends his females and defends only his land, allowing the females to go
between his and his rival’s territory.17
Female gestation in the Khur is marginally shorter than that of the Kiang
(320–330 days).18 A single foal is born thereafter, which is suckled for eight
to 10 months,19 although the foals can eat grass from a month onwards.20
Rhinos are hesitant breeders with the male coming into puberty at five
years of age (the time when calves leave their mother) and the female
comes into puberty a little later at six. They associate only for mating and
the female has a gestation period of over 15 months, producing one young
that suckles for four years.

Khur stallions rear up on their hind legs and bite each other, Rann of Kutch,
Gujarat
 Khur mating, Rann of Kutch, Gujarat

A rhino mounts his mate, Kaziranga NP, Assam

Courtship of Khur: biting the neck, Rann of Kutch, Gujarat

A hybrid of a Khur and a donkey, Rann of Kutch, Gujarat

 A rhino female with twins, a very rare occurrence, Jaldapara WLS, West
Bengal

Useful Contacts for Rhinoceros Conservation

DR BIBHAB TALUKDAR
Aaranyak bibhab@aaranyak.org www.aaranyak.org

DR RATHIN BARMAN
Wildlife Trust of India rathin@wti.org.in www.wti.org.in

VIVEK MENON
Wildlife Trust of India vivek@wti.org.in www.wti.org.in

Useful Contacts for Equid Conservation

DR NITA SHAH
nitashah.india@gmail.com

QAMAR QURESHI
Wildlife Institute of India qnq@wii.gov.in www.wii.gov.in

THREATS AND CONSERVATION

Rhinos are poached primarily for their horn, which in the case of the Indian
rhino finds its way into the markets of the Far East for use in Traditional
Oriental Medicine. The pharmacopeia of these countries list rhino horn as
an anti-pyretic or fever reducer, but it is believed worldwide that it is used
as an aphrodisiac. Either way, the rhino is a soft target, with its horn
fetching the poacher several years of his impoverished livelihood. The rhino
is very predictable in its habits: it moves through the same paths or dandis
and also visits the same toilets, making it easy for poachers to track.
Most rhinoceros populations in Assam are easily accessible, being
surrounded by human population, and having a fairly high density of rhinos.
Therefore, rhino protection has become a full-time priority for the forest
department of the state, and a large human security system and intelligence
is what saves the rhinoceros on the ground.
Domestic livestock are the most serious threat facing wild equids in
India. More than 200,000 livestock share the Kiang pastures in Ladakh, 21
Jammu & Kashmir, and 2,500 yaks and sheep compete for drinking water in
the small habitat in Sikkim.22 Apart from this, livestock are a key carrier of
diseases that can devastate wild equid populations.
Disease is a key threat to both equids. The Khur population actually
crashed from between 3,000–5,000 animals in the 1950s to around 400 in
1970 due to an outbreak of Sura, a parasitic trypanosome disease. This
parasite is spread through a midge (Culicoides spp).23 Land-use patterns
catering to cash crops and water availability have also increased conflict
with local farmers.
Assam and West Bengal conserve rhinos in the wild, especially through
protection and habitat modification (burning mature grass so that fresh
shoots come up, or dredging water bodies as rhino wallows). In 1984, the
Union and the state governments of Uttar Pradesh and Assam reintroduced
five rhinos from Assam to Dudhwa NP in Uttar Pradesh.24 This project has
had limited success, although the number of rhinos had gone up to 34 by
2013.
In 2006, the WTI and Assam Forest Department restocked Manas NP by
translocating three hand-raised orphaned calves back to the World Heritage
Site that had lost most or all of its rhinos in the early 1990s. Four more
rhinos have since been moved. Three of the seven rhinos have now given
birth in the wild as well, proving this to be a conservation success story.
Following this, the Rhino Vision 2020 of the Assam Government, aided by
Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) and the International Rhino Foundation
(IRF), has moved 10 more rhinos to Manas NP from Pabitora WLS, in a
wild-to-wild move. Local groups in Assam, such as Aaranyak, have also
been active in protecting rhinos. In Manas, several community-based
organizations, including Manas Maozigendri, have pioneered community
protection of rhinos.

Kiang carcass, Changthang WLS, Ladakh

Electric high-tension lines, a threat to the rhinoceros, Pabitora WLS, Assam

Rhino with horn cut off, outside Kaziranga NP, Assam

Khur in a cotton field on the edge of the Rann of Kutch, Gujarat; conflict is
a serious threat to the species

Orphaned rhino calf being bottle-fed at CWRC, Kaziranga NP, Assam

COMMON NAME: ASIATIC WILD ASS

Family: Equidae Latin Name: Equus hemionus Pallas, 1775 Subspecies: Indian Wild Ass E.h. khur
Lesson, 1827 Local Names: Ghor khar (Kutchi), Jangli gadhedo (Gujarati), Kaccher (in Saurashtra),
Kadu katte (Kannada), Khar (Persian/Hindi), Valvanti gadhav (Marathi) Best Seen At: Wild Ass
WLS, Gujarat IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered/ I/ Locally Common Social Unit: Five
distinct groupings: dominant stallion leads breeding band of adult females; females and young (foals,
yearlings and subadult males); territorial solitary stallions; all male groups of young males; and
groups of old or ostracized males25 Size: HBL: 200–250 cm; HAS: 110–127 cm;26 Wt: 240 kg
(male); 200 kg (female)27

DESCRIPTION: The Indian Wild Ass is a medium-sized fawn or chestnut

equid with a dark chocolate ‘hog-bristle’ fringe of hair on its neck. Where
the hair ends, a broad chocolate stripe edged with white takes over,
extending to the base of the tail.
The tail is short and naked with a tuft of black hairs at the tip.28 The coat
length is uniform year-round and its colour varies from reddish grey to
greyish fawn in summer to pale chestnut, almost isabelline, in winter.
The ears are long and have dark brown tips, the hooves are black and
there are dark chestnuts or thickened callouses on the hind legs.29 Stallions
are slightly larger and darker than mares30 and dominant breeding males
have the darkest colours of them all.
Subadult males and females can only be differentiated when they
micturate. The Khur has shorter and more slender limbs as well as rounder
rumps than the Kiang, though the difference is not easily distinguishable in
the field.
BEHAVIOUR: The Khur fight viciously during the breeding season, and
males rear up and kick at each other with their hooves and bite with their
large incisors. The often bloody and victorious stallion then gains breeding
and territorial rights. The Khur also has a propensity to be a nocturnal
feeder and is known to raid wheat, millet and cotton fields at night.
DISTRIBUTION: Confined to the Little Rann of Kutch in Gujarat
originally. However, with decreasing aridity and spread of crops, the Wild
Ass has spread along the southern and eastern fringes of the Greater Rann
and eastern Rajasthan. A small population exists in Nal Sarovar Bird
Sanctuary. This population is cut off from the one in Kutch by the man-
made Narmada Canal and, therefore, lives there year-round.
HABITAT: Open salt mudflats, scrublands, grasslands, bets or small
clumps of vegetated grasslands in the Rann,31 and the fringes of the Rann
intermixed with cropland.32

FERAL EQUIDS
Feral horses are free-ranging domestic horses (Equus feral caballus).
In India, two distinct populations are known from protected areas:
one in Dibru–Saikhowa WLS in Assam (80 animals) and the other in
Point Calimere WLS in Tamil Nadu (150 animals). Although they do
not have many wild genes, they are wild in behaviour and do not
allow close access. These are descendants of domestic breeds that
escaped into the wild many years ago.

Equus hemionus khur old stallion (front), and female or subadult male,
Rann of Kutch, Gujarat
E.h. khur adult stallion running, Rann of Kutch, Gujarat

E.h. khur drinking water, Rann of Kutch, Gujarat

 E.h. khur adult jenny and foal, Rann of Kutch, Gujarat

E.h. khur adults running in a tight formation herd, Rann of Kutch, Gujarat

COMMON NAME: TIBETAN WILD ASS

Family: Equidae Latin Name: Equus kiang Moorcroft, 1841 Subspecies: Western Kiang (Ladakh)
E.k. kiang Moorcroft, 1841; Southern Kiang (Sikkim) E.k. polyodon Hodgson, 1847 Local Names:
Kiang/Kyang (Bhutia/Ladakhi/in Sikkim) Best Seen At: Chang Chenmo Valley and Hanle Basin,
Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ I/ Locally Common; Social
Unit: In herds; mean group size of 6–7 animals;33 female–foal groups more common; stallions
largely solitary, although young male bachelor herds also known34 Size: HBL: 182–214 cm; HAS:
132–142 cm, Wt: 250–400 kg

DESCRIPTION: The Kiang is bigger and more ruddy than the Khur. It has
a longer and thicker muzzle, and the head is proportionately larger. The
body is darker chestnut–brown (paler in winters) with white venters. The
mane is dark as in the Khur but longer, and the dorsal stripe is dark but
narrow, extending all the way from neck to tail. The tail is longer with the
tuft of hairs not being restricted only to the tip as in the Khur. The hooves
are rounded and broad like those of horses, black in colour, and circled
around the fetlock by a thin black band. The tips of the ears are black
(versus dark brown in the Khur). The Western Kiang (E.k. kiang) is slightly
darker and larger than the Southern Kiang (E.k. polyodon).35
BEHAVIOUR: It is known to scrape on soft mud as a territorial marking. It
coexists with other ungulates and is even tolerant of wolves, but it flees
rapidly if a Snow Leopard or humans come into view.36
DISTRIBUTION: The trans-Himalayan eastern plateaus of Ladakh district
of Jammu & Kashmir, and Sikkim37 (known in India from 2,700–5,300 m
but in Nepal from 4,650–6,000 m).38 Recently reported from the trans-
Himalayan region of Uttarakhand.
HABITAT: High open plateau, hill, and valley (especially south-facing
slopes)39 in trans-Himalayan cold deserts.40 Found from valley bottoms to
higher altitude pastures during the summer and only in valley bottoms in the
winters.

Equus kiang kiang mares and six- to seven-month-old foals, Ladakh,

Jammu & Kashmir
 E.k. kiang bachelor herd, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

E.k. kiang female and four-month-old foal, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir
E.k. kiang solitary stallion vocalizing: breeding season, Ladakh, Jammu &
Kashmir

Adult Equus kiang polyodon, Tso Lhamo, Sikkim

 E.k. polyodon, Tso Lhamo, Sikkim

COMMON NAME: GREATER ONE-HORNED

RHINOCEROS
Family: Rhinocerotidae Latin Name: Rhinoceros unicornis Linnaeus, 175841 Local Names:
Gaanda (Bodo), Gainda (Hindi), Gaur (Assamese), Gondar (Bengali) Best Seen At: Kaziranga NP,
Assam IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ I/ Locally Common Social Unit: Solitary, in pairs
during breeding, and loosely associated feeding groups of females and subadult males at good
grazing grounds Size: HBL: 335–346 cm; HAS: 175–200 cm; Wt: 2,000 kg (male);42 1,500 kg
(female)

DESCRIPTION: The second largest mammal in India after the elephant,

the Greater One-horned Rhinoceros is best recognized by its large bulk and
a single horn (a compacted mass of hair-like substance called keratin)
seemingly balanced on its nose. Two large folds of skin across its flanks and
tubercles on its rear, which look like rivets on the skin, give it an armour-
plated look and distinguish it from all the other four species of rhino.43
The actual colour of the Greater One-horned Rhinoceros’s skin is a deep
slate-grey, but it looks ashy when encrusted with alluvial mud, or ink-black
when wet. The skin is almost hairless. The hair is restricted to the tip of its
small, naked tail, its large and tubular ears tips, and eyelashes over small
and beady eyes. The hooves are large and three-toed.
Males are slightly larger and have thicker neck musculature, marginally
longer horns and lower mandibular incisors as compared to females. Horns
average 25 cm in males and 24 cm in females while incisors average 5–9
cm in males and 4–5 cm in females.44 The horn weighs an average of 750
g.45 The male genitalia are also visible at times.
Newborns are pinkish-grey at birth and turn into adult colouration in a
few months. The horn starts to grow by a year and a half.
BEHAVIOUR: A creature of habit, the rhino regularly follows the same
walking paths or dandis when foraging. It also uses the same spot to
defecate, forming large ‘toilets’. This behaviour makes it vulnerable to
poachers who wait for it at pre-determined locations. Indian Rhinoceroses
do not use their horn to gore victims, but use their sharp teeth to bite off
chunks of flesh instead. The teeth are also used when fighting among
themselves.
DISTRIBUTION: Distributed as nine distinct populations spread in the
Terai and Bhabhar tracts of northern India, and the Brahmaputra River basin
in the North–East. It occurs in Assam (Kaziranga, Orang, Pabitora, Manas
and Laokhawa-Burachapori), West Bengal (Jaldapara and Gorumara), Bihar
(Valmiki) and Uttar Pradesh (Dudhwa). The last is a reintroduced
population and the one in Bihar is a recent crossover from the Chitwan–
Parsa ecosystem of Nepal. The population in Manas is a restocked
population.
HABITAT: Tall alluvial grasslands and riverine forest–grassland mosaics
(which are dominated by Saccharum spontaneum, Narenga porphyracorma
and Themeda arundinacea) with swampy patches in the Gangetic and
Brahmaputra river systems in the foothills of the Himalayas.
 Rhino facing away, Jaldapara WLS, West Bengal

Adult rhinoceros unicornis in a swamp near a grassland, Kaziranga NP,

Assam
A rhino defecates in a dung pile, Kaziranga NP, Assam
 Newborn rhino, a few days old, CWRC, Kaziranga NP, Assam

Horn emerging in calf more than a year and a half old, CWRC, Kaziranga
NP, Assam

Field Notes: Tip-toeing around the World

Having been a part of capture and translocation operations of both
the Black Rhinoceros in Kenya and the Greater One-horned
Rhinoceros in India, I have learnt one important behavioural
difference between the two. The African rhinos butt with their horn,
and ours bite with their powerful incisors!

Rhinos are one of the most dangerous animals in India to come

across on foot. Beware, especially if a mother that you have been
careful to avoid is separated from its calf, which you have not seen,
in the tall elephant grass of rhino habitat. Rhinos can clock 55 km an
hour when they chase you.

The Changthang, Tibet’s northern and western plateau, extending

into south-eastern Ladakh, is the Indian Serengeti and the Kiang is
our equivalent of the zebra. Grazing in large herds amidst mountain
goat and sheep, watching this high-altitude equid run through grass
is an unparalleled delight.
I have had the good luck of seeing 60 per cent of Perissodactyls in
the wild: Three of the world’s five rhinoceros species, all three
zebras, two of the three wild asses and one of four tapirs. The most
memorable was the Brazilian Tapir that I helped radio-collar in the
Pantanal Conservation Complex in South America. For my humble
part in the operations, the team named the individual after me, a
most confused ‘Tapirus vivek’!
The horn of the rhinoceros is a densely packed bunch of hair loosely
attached to its nasal bone. Keeping it on the rhinoceros and outside
the illegal rhino-horn trade has taken up as many as two decades of
my anti-poaching and anti-smuggling work.
Even-toed Ungulates
INDIAN EVEN-TOED UNGULATES AT A GLANCE
NUMBER OF SPECIES 35–381
LARGEST Bull Gaur/Bull Yak
SMALLEST Pygmy Hog/Mouse
Deer
MOST COMMON Chital/Wild Boar
MOST ENDANGERED Pygmy Hog
Activity
All Even-toed Ungulates (except pigs)

Pigs

Niche Occupancy
 A Nilgiri Tahr stands on a rocky outpost amidst Strobilanthes (blue) and
other flowers, Eravikulam NP, Kerala

Artiodactyl Skulls

Musk deer
Muntjac

Deer

Pig
WHAT IS AN ARTIODACTYL?
Artiodactyls are even-toed hoofed mammals that include chevrotains, musk
deer, deer, antelope, cattle, sheep, goats, camels, pigs, peccaries,
hippopotamus, pronghorns and giraffe.

WHAT ARE DEER, ANTELOPE, CATTLE, SHEEP, GOATS

AND PIGS?
The Cervidae or deer family are ruminant ungulates that have a moist,
naked nose and prominent facial glands. The male deer have solid,
branched appendages on their heads, called antlers. They do not possess a
gall bladder and have no incisors in the upper jaw although canines are
sometimes present.
Musk deer are primitive ruminants that do not have antlers or facial
glands. They have only a single pair of teats, a gall bladder and a musk
gland in the abdomen (no other deer has this) and tusk-like teeth in males.
Chevrotains are small ruminants, having long slender limbs ending in a
two-toed hoof. Like non-ruminants though, their cannon bone (modified
metatarsal) is only partially fused, their gut is not a truly four-chambered
one, they bear no antlers or horns and many of them are digitigrade.
Ninety-one species of ungulates of the family Bovidae, which are either
sheep, cattle, goat or antelope, are called bovids although they differ highly
amongst themselves. Their most obvious difference from deer is their bony,
unbranched horns that are perennial, unlike the deer’s branched antlers that
are shed annually.
Goat–antelopes differ from true goats in four distinct ways: small facial
glands (like antelopes), similar-sized sexes, non-bearded males, and females
with four mammae. True goats have beards, flat tails that are naked beneath,
callouses on their knees, a goaty odour, anal glands, and pedal glands only
on their forefeet. Sheep, on the other hand, do not have beards, have facial
and groin glands, pedal glands on all four feet, and round, hairy tails.
Cattle are large-sized ungulates with a low, wide skull, a pad in the upper
jaw instead of incisors or canines, and fused incisors and canines in the
lower jaw. Both sexes have big horns (male horns are bigger) that are not
shed. They have a four-chambered complex stomach. Antelope that are
closest to cattle are the Nilgai and Chousingha, which are the only Bovinae
with facial glands. The males have keeled horns placed close to the orbits.
The Antilopinae have transverse rings on their horns, are more lightly built
overall than the Bovinae, and usually have a darker upper body.
Pigs are Artiodactyls with a well-developed outer toe. They are non-
ruminants with capped molars and incisors in their upper jaws. Bodily, they
are barrel-shaped with a small neck, large head, spindly legs and a snout
that ends in a cartilaginous disc. Their stomach is single-chambered unlike a
typical ruminant and cannon bones are not developed in their feet.

Bull Gaur drinks from a pool, Chinnar WLS, Kerala

A Chital doe suckling a fawn, Bandipur NP, Karnataka

 Chinkara male, tail up and alert, Gajner, Rajasthan

Wild Boar resting in a scrape, Kalakaad–Mundanthurai TR, Tamil Nadu

 An Ibex walks across a mountainscape, Pin Valley NP, Himachal Pradesh

Evolutionary tree of Indian Artiodactyles (Adapted from Macdonald D.,

2001)

Artiodactyl Skulls
Sheep

Goat

Cattle
Four-horned Antelope

Foregut fermenters

DIET AND FORAGING

All ungulates, except pigs, are herbivores and are either grazers or browsers
or both. All bovids and cervids are ruminants and have four-chambered
stomachs comprising a reticulum, rumen, omassum and the true stomach.
They tend to swallow their food half-chewed and the gut is programmed to
break it down into smaller bits as it passes through the complex system.
Most ungulates can be divided based on their type of herbivory into
concentrate selectors, grass and roughage eaters, and intermediate feeders.2
Smaller Indian ungulates, e.g., the musk deer, chevrotains and muntjacs are
concentrate feeders, the larger ones, e.g., deer, antelope and cattle are
roughage and grass eaters, and sheep and goat are intermediate feeders.
Pigs are not truly herbivorous but are omnivores, with fruits, seeds, roots
and tubers forming about 90 per cent of their diet.3 They also eat snakes,
insects, offal and carrion.4
Chevrotains forage on the forest floor for fruit, roots, leaves and herbs.
Fruit of Terminalia bellerica, Gmelina arborea, and Garuga pinnata have
been recorded as being part of the diet.5 They have a three-chambered
stomach, not a four-chambered one like other ruminants. They are not bulk
foragers and search for nutritious forage.
 Musk deer of different species are known to graze on grass, moss and
lichen and browse on shrubs for leaves, shoots and twigs.6 They eat
different food in different seasons and have simplified ruminant stomachs to
deal with their concentrate feeding.
Muntjacs are browsers that nibble on shoots and leaves, and have a
tendency to be frugivorous. They eat fruit, young leaves, shoots, seeds, and
occasionally graze as well.
Most deer are browsers but the genus Rucervus (Swamp Deer) have been
adapted to be primarily grazers with low-crowned molars. On the other end
of the spectrum, Sambar are mostly browsers and are rarely seen to graze.
Most other deer do a bit of both.
Antelope such as the Blackbuck are primarily grazers,7 but desert or arid
zone antelopes such as the Chinkara are selective browsers. The cold desert
species, the Tibetan Antelope and the Gazelle, do a bit of both. Apart from
grazing and browsing, common peninsular antelope such as the Blackbuck
and Nilgai are also known to raid crops.8
Goats and goat–antelopes are primarily browsers who graze as well.
They can reach up onto trees and even climb them (e.g., Markhor) to feed.
Bharal and sheep like the Argali are primarily grazers but browse if
necessary.
Cattle such as the Gaur, Yak and Buffalo are classic roughage eaters.
 Sambar wade in a lake to browse on aquatic vegetation, Ranthambore NP,
Rajasthan

A Red Muntjac forages the forest floor at night, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu

An adult male Gaur browses on tea leaves in a tea garden, Anamalais, Tamil
Nadu
 A Nilgiri Tahr browses, Eravikulam NP, Kerala

Bharal graze on the little forage that is available on mountain slopes,

Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

Artiodactyl Foot Forms

Chevrotain foot

Deer foot
Bovine foot

Pig foot

LOCOMOTION
Bovids are generally fast movers and some of them are among the fastest of
all ungulates in the world. Elongated limbs and heavy musculature develop
in those large, horned bovids that live in open country and are adapted to
run fast without impediments in their paths. Those that live in dense cover
tend to develop shorter limbs and scurry, rather than run. Bovids that live in
swampy environs, like the Water Buffalo, develop splayed hooves, and
those that live on hard ground, like the Gaur, have compact hooves. Bovids
that are small tend to cross walk, but those that are large and have higher
withers tend to amble or walk with both legs on a side moving together. All
mountain ungulates are adapted to balancing on precarious habitat and
nimbly leaping between crags, assisted by hooves with a soft pad
surrounded by a horny rim.
 Cervids are similar to bovids in most locomotive morphologies. The
smaller, forest-living ‘saltatorial’ species such as the muntjacs move
differently than the open ground-living ‘cursorial’ species like the Chital or
Sambar. Muntjacs have trails that they use regularly and these are used to
scurry through dense vegetation. Cervids on the whole, especially the large
deer that live on open grounds are generally fast runners, can leap easily,
and stand on their hind legs to browse. Most bovids and cervids are also
strong swimmers.
Musk deer have extremely long hind legs compared to the forelegs and,
therefore, leap long distances. They have very pointed hooves, almost
pencil-pointing their landings. The lateral hooves almost touch the ground
and are splayed; this adaptation gives them a surer footing on uneven
ground. They have an ungainly, slouching appearance when at rest, but in
forested areas are extremely agile and can move at great speeds.
Chevrotains cannot stand up on two legs and tend to freeze or scurry
away, rather than run, when threatened.
Pigs move at a trot or cross walk, but they can gallop or leap when
alarmed.

UNGULATE TRACKS
All ungulates have cloven hooves and, on soil that is conducive, two
clear impressions should be seen. Cattle have the largest tracks and
chevrotains the smallest. Waterholes and salt licks are the best place
to check for ungulate tracks. Many deer and bovids have similar
hooves and can be confused with one another. Size and shape in
combination are often a good clue to differentiate between two wild
species that occur sympatrically, or wild and domestic cousins.
Tracks in combination with pellets make identification easier.
Remember that front tracks are normally larger than hind ones; on
hard ground sometimes only the horny rim is seen, and in soft
ground sometimes dewclaw marks are also seen. Domestic ungulate
tracks are normally elliptical while wild ones are oval with a pointed
front.
Swamp Deer running across a burnt grassland, Kaziranga NP, Assam

Blackbuck herd course through a grassland, Velavadar NP, Gujarat

Musk deer leaping, captive

 Wild Boar leaps across a ditch, Nagarhole NP, Karnataka

A sure-footed Bharal launches itself over a fissure in a mountain crag,

Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

Social Organization in Standard Artiodactyl Units

Tragulidae and Moschidae

Cervidae

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
Very broadly speaking, forest-dwelling ungulates are solitary, and those that
are resident in open grasslands, plains and montane landscapes have
evolved more complex social groupings.9 The Indian Chevrotain and four
species of musk deer that are found in India are largely solitary except in
the breeding season or when the mother is with the offspring. Both these
primitive ruminants are not known to migrate. Musk deer live within home
ranges that are defended. In Moschus leucogaster, e.g., females are known
to have home ranges of 125 acres and males defend a territory of one or
more females.10 Musk deer, like chevrotains, use their canines to fight rival
males, but unlike the chevrotain, also to defend territory.
The social organization of deer varies greatly, with the Barking Deer
being largely solitary while larger deer are found in ephemeral aggregations
of up to 100 individuals at times. Closely related deer can have different
social strategies, e.g., Chital congregate in the hundreds while Hog Deer
rarely congregate in such large numbers.
Bovids have at least four very clear types of social organization, given
the wide variety of taxa in the family, i.e., solitary territorial, solitary non-
territorial, gregarious territorial, and gregarious non-territorial.11 Most
caprids and cattle are examples of the last type while many antelope are
gregarious and territorial. Solitary bovids are rare; in India only the Gorals,
Serows and the Chousingha may qualify for being non-territorial.
Other than the Goral and Serow, most caprids are social animals that herd
up to 50–100 animals. Even these two rupicarprids (goat–antelopes) are
known at times to come together in small groups of 4–5, sometimes
involving male, female and young. All other goat and sheep have all-male
and all-female groups for most of the year and form mixed herds during the
breeding season. Yearlings and young may form their own separate herds in
the Nilgiri Tahr and Bharal whereas in the Urial, feeding associations could
lead to mixed herd situations any time of the year. Sheep generally separate
into all-male herds faster than goats after the rut, but in some caprids like
the Himalayan Tahr, Argali and the Tibetan Antelope, this separation is
almost complete while in others, such as Urial and Ibex, adult males do
sometimes hang on with female herds all year.12
Pigs are non-territorial social animals that live in groups called sounders,
comprising the female or sow and her offspring, subadults, related females,
and sometimes an adult male or two. Within two years of birth, in both the
Eurasian Wild Pig and the Pygmy Hog, subadults are evicted from their
natal group. Males form bachelor herds, joining female-led sounders only
for breeding. Female subadults may rejoin natal groups, or form their own
mixed-sex groups of subadults.13 Large groupings are known for the Wild
Pig during the breeding season.14
 Chital stags in velvet gather in the chaurs, Corbett NP, Uttarakhand

Adult male Blackbucks circle around an immature buck (centre) in winter,

Velavadar NP, Gujarat
 Sambar are normally solitary but herd near water on the edges of a man-
made dam, Periyar NP, Kerala

Gaur amass in the evenings, Periyar NP, Kerala

Nilgiri Tahr dot a hill slope, Eravikulam NP, Kerala

Social Groupings in Standard Artiodactyl Units

Bovidae

Suidae

VOCALIZATION AND COMMUNICATION

Chevrotains communicate more by scent than vocalization although the
male is known to cry out, especially in the breeding season. Soft bleats and
squeals are reported in mother and young interactions while high-pitched
chatters and screams are known in male-male interactions. They also mark
their territory with scents from glandular secretions, urine and faeces.
In musk deer, generally a silent species, a loud hiss or peep is the normal
call in both the sexes, with a shorter chirp or a double peep indicating
alarm. The major communication is done, however, through chemical
means. The musk deer have latrines, which are regularly used and invested
with special smells that are investigated by other deer. Musk deer are
known to cover these latrines with leaf litter to preserve the smell. Other
than this technique, they have pasting posts (a branch or rock in the middle
of their territory) that they regularly anoint with scents from their caudal
glands. Their unique musk glands secrete musk in the urine and seem to
cause sexual excitement in the females. The muntjac, on the other hand, is
an extremely vocal animal although it is more likely to be heard in the late
mornings and evenings. A sharp bark indicates alarm while a slightly
longer, shriller version is a more commonly heard call. Its repetitive calling
is an evocative sound of the peninsular Indian forests.
Deer are vocal as well and different species have different calls: in the
Sangai, a sharp grunt indicates alarm, while rutting calls are longer and
louder. The Sambar alarm call is a loud ‘dhonk’. Chital have a sharp ‘ack
ack’ call and a loud ‘wow’ alarm call. Deer communicate through glandular
secretions as well and they have 3–5 well-developed glands ranging from
the orbital glands close to their eye, the metatarsal and interdigital glands on
the legs, and the enigmatic sore spots in Sambars. This ‘bleeding’ sore spot
oozes a white secretion while the Brow-antlered Deer secretes a brown
secretion from the caudal gland, both used in communication.
All mountain ungulates have a sharp single, or two or three notes,
normally exhaled through the nose combined with the stamping of forefeet
in some species and all four feet in others that signifies alarm.15 Takin have
a ‘hoarse cough’,16 Serow have a ‘piercing shriek’,17 Goral hiss and cough
and the Tahrs have a piercing whistle. Markhor grunt loud and long, and
cough, Ibex have an avian chirp and snort, and Bharal have a squirrel-like
‘chirrt’.
Pigs have acute hearing and smell, and poor eyesight. As a result, they
are strong vocalizers: grunting, growling, squealing, and gnashing tusks and
molars. Eurasian Pigs have as many as 10 scent glands that exude specific
odours, and they scent mark by rubbing vegetation and even the soil. They
are partially colour-blind but make up with exaggerated gestures like
bristling the crest, strutting, pawing the air and charging in aggression.
 Adult male Gaur bellows during the rut, Tadoba NP, Maharashtra

A Hangul stag bellows in the rut, a characteristic vocalization of some large

deer, Dachigam NP, Jammu & Kashmir
An Ibex communicates its breeding interest with a low-neck stretch and
flehmen, Pin Valley NP, Himachal Pradesh

A Sambar doe is ready to foot-stomp her alarm, Ranthambore NP,

Rajasthan

A Barking Deer barks its alarm, a familiar sound of the Indian forests,
Anamalai WLS, Tamil Nadu
Antler

Cross-section of Horn

TERRITORIALITY AND DISPLAY

Chevrotains do not really defend territory although they seem to have
defined home ranges. Males do fight over females, with their long canines
inflicting wounds on each other, although the very thick skin around their
neck prevents serious wounds.
A characteristic behaviour of the deer family, rutting denotes the period
when male deer display and battle each other for breeding access to
females. The males of large forest and grassland species have spectacular
ruts as stags fight one another for mates. Loud vocalizations and sparring at
each other are typical of the rut. Other behavioural traits, such as decorating
the headgear with vegetation and wallowing in mud, are also part of the
display. Barking Deer are monogamous while many large cervids such as
the Hangul have multiple females in the herd.
Goats live on crags and cliffs, and during breeding season, males
compete by rearing up on their hind legs and battering their opponents with
their horns. Male goats associate with herds and mate with the oestrus
females in the herd.
Wild sheep prefer plateaux or rolling slopes and plains. Unlike goats,
rams wander from herd to herd looking for ewes to mate with. When
challenged, rival males run at each other and spar with a loud thud of the
horns. They have a specialized skull structure for such batterings. Sheep
huddle in flocks, and subordinates often appease dominant males by
rubbing against them cheek to cheek.
Goat–antelopes have sharp horns and do not contest by ramming and
instead, wrestle–spar, horn-butting in the abdomen and flanks of their rivals.
As in deer, rutting in antelopes can be spectacular. Male Blackbuck, for
instance, prance around with a mincing gait, their corkscrew horns laid flat
against their backs, as they impress females. They use posture and the
positioning of the horns to indicate moods and threats. Most antelopes are
completely oblivious of their surrounding when they compete for sexual
favours.18 During rut, almost all antelope indulge in scent marking and pile
up their faeces at spots marked as latrine sites. Gaur male also bellow
loudly during the rut but rarely indulge in as dramatic a fight amongst males
as antelopes.
Adult boars join the sounders only during the breeding season when they
fight for sows by slashing laterally at the flanks and shoulders of rivals.
Once it gains access to a sounder, the boar may froth at the mouth or
produce lip pheromones to attract the sow to mate.
 Sambar displaying flehmen, Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan

Chinkara adult male (left) chasing a yearling (right) out of his territory,
Naliya grasslands, Kutch, Gujarat
 Nilgiri Tahr young males spar, Eravikulam NP, Kerala

Hog Deer females stand up to spar (a phenomenon also known among other
deer), Corbett NP, Uttarakhand
 Blackbuck stags lock horns in a territorial battle, Velavadar NP, Gujarat

Crèching in Sus scrofa

Crèche or nursery formation in Wild Pigs as other females (right, grey)

forage for food with males. One female (Left, black) looks after and suckles
newborns of other females

Lekking in Antilope cervicapra

Lekking behaviour in Blackbuck: Individual males defend small patches of
grasslands (circles), as females move through the lek and choose the best
males for mating

REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES
Chevrotains are unique in that the female is able to breed almost through
her life after attaining maturity. The young are born after six to nine months
of gestation19 and twins are very common, if not the norm. The young are
weaned and independent in another six months, and in a year, the
chevrotain female is ready to breed once again.
Musk deer females are mature when they are a year old while males take
up to two years to start secreting musk. The breeding season is during the
winters and the females have a gestation period of 5–6 months. A single
young is normal but twins are known. The young are dependent on the
mother for nine months to a year during which time they have a cryptic
colouration and lie concealed for most of their time.
Muntjacs females reach breeding age between 8–10 months and can
breed year-round. Gestation is for 210 days and the one young that is born
is weaned in as few as 70 days.20.
Most large deer are polyoestrous except the Swamp Deer. They normally
have one young after about eight months of gestation and the young are
weaned at around six months, leaving the female ready to breed again in
just over a year. Puberty is achieved at different times for males and females
(Sambar and Swamp Deer: 48 months in males, 18–24 months in females;
Brow-antlered Deer: 12 months in males, 18 months in females; Chital:10–
14 months in males, 14–16 in females; Hog Deer: 14–16 months in males,
8–12 months in females).
Sambar breed for more than half the year with a peak in the winter.
Swamp Deer attain puberty similar to the Sambar, but females are
monoestrous and this varies between the subspecies, with the north–eastern
one breeding during the monsoon (April–August), the northern one in early
winter October–January while the central Indian one is the last (December–
February). Brow-antlered Deer breed between February and May, with a
peak in March and April. Chital have a peak of breeding in March–July but
can breed through the year. Hog Deer also breed all year around with a peak
in September–October.
While most ungulates give birth to one or two offspring, pigs bear a litter
of up to a dozen. The litter size of the Pygmy Hog is only four to six; the
female gestates for 120 days, and for 115 days in the case of the Wild Pig.

Nilgai female and calf, Velavadar NP, Gujarat

 Chital mating, Nagarhole NP, Karnataka

Blackbuck male attempts to mount a female, Velavadar NP, Gujarat

 Wild Boar pasting secretions on a branch to woo the sow, Pench NP,
Madhya Pradesh

Eastern Swamp Deer giving birth, Kaziranga NP, Assam

Useful contacts for Conservation of Even-toed Ungulates

DR AJITH KUMAR
National Centre of Biological Sciences ajith@ncbs.res.in www.ncbs.res.in
DR CHARUDUTT MISHRA
Nature Conservation Foundation charu@ncf-india.org www.ncf-india.org

DR GOUTAM NARAYAN
EcoSystems-India gn@ecosystemsindia.org

MOHAN ALEMBATH
Nilgiri Tahr Trust alembath@gmail.com www.nilgiritahrinfo.info

DR RAJENDRA MISHRA
Wildlife Trust of India rajendra@wti.org.in www.wti.org.in

DR S. SATHYAKUMAR
Wildlife Institute of India ssk@wii.gov.in wii.gov.in

DR YASH VEER BHATNAGAR

Nature Conservation Foundation yash@ncf-india.org www.ncf-india.org

THREATS AND CONSERVATION

Ungulates face a variety of threats. Hunting (for the pot and for trade),
habitat loss and fragmentation, disease, hybridization and competition from
domestic livestock are the five major issues threatening wild ungulates in
India.
The smaller ruminants in the forest face hunting as a primary threat. In
the Ghats of southern India, recent work shows chevrotains to be the most
frequently targeted prey for subsistence hunting, especially by tribes such as
the Kuruba.21 Muntjacs across most of forested India and the Gorals and
Tahr in the mountains face exactly the same sort of pressure from
subsistence hunting. In winters with little to do, youth in mountain villages
arm themselves with small arms and hunt musk deer. Musk pods are highly
sought after in the illegal trade, and all four species of the musk deer are
threatened by hunting. The musk pod is smuggled across the Indo–Nepal
borders and supplies the international pharmaceutical and cosmetics trade.
Musk deer are also very sensitive to disturbance. They are denizens of
dense, shrubby habitat and any disturbance due to shifting cultivation,
settlement, logging or excessive grazing means that they do not use the
land.22
 Larger deer and antelope are threatened both by hunting and competition
for grazing by cattle that frequent the forests. The browsers, such as the
Sambar, are not as threatened by livestock. All wild cattle, goat and sheep,
however, face competition from livestock. Disease risks such as foot-and-
mouth, rinderpest, pneumatic septicaemia and other infectious diseases are
known in India. Poaching of deer is largely for the pot, but antlers are also
traded illegally. They go into Traditional Oriental Medicine for velvet, the
Unani and Ayurvedic schools as antler ash, and into Europe for cutlery
handles and pistol butts.
The Eurasian Pig is one of the least threatened ungulates globally even
though it is hunted across the country for subsistence, revenge killing for
crop raiding and illegal hunting for the pot by ‘gentlemen shikaris’. It is
greatly adaptable and, therefore, habitat degradation is not a great threat to
it in India.23 The Pygmy Hog, on the other hand, is the most endangered
suid in the world. It is threatened by the loss of its habitat. Burning of
grasslands in the wrong season (i.e., breeding season of the hog) is a key
factor threatening it.
Major recent conservation efforts for artiodactyles include translocation
of Gaur to Bandhavgarh in Madhya Pradesh, the collaring and proposed
translocation of Eastern Swamp Deer to Manas in Assam, the recovery
project of the central Indian Wild Buffalo in Udanti WLS in Chhattisgarh,
and the recovery plan for the Hangul deer in Dachigam NP, Jammu &
Kashmir. The group has been fairly well researched although many large
ungulates like the Takin, the Markhor and the Wild Yak have been surveyed
only fairly recently. The status of others such as the Four-horned Antelope,
the Serow and the Urial still needs verification.
Wild Boar jaws and Mithun skulls adorn an Idu Mishmi dwelling, Roing,
Arunachal Pradesh

A Hog Deer released after treatment by WTI–IFAW, Kaziranga NP, Assam

 A Goral feeds on garbage near a holy shrine, Vaishno Devi, Jammu &
Kashmir

Pygmy Hog release enclosure, Sonai Rupai WLS, Assam

COMMON NAME: INDIAN CHEVROTAIN

Family: Tragulidae Latin Name: Moschiola indica Gray, 184324 Local Names: Jarini pandi
(Telugu), Koora (Kannada), Koora maan (Malayalam), Pisura (Hindi), Pisori/Mushak haran
(Marathi), Sarugu maan (Tamil) Best Seen At: Mudumalai WLS, Tamil Nadu; Bandipur NP,
Karnataka IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ I/ Uncommon Social Unit: Solitary except
when females are with one or two offspring Size: HBL: 55–59 cm,25 HAS: 25–30 cm, Wt: 2–4 kg

DESCRIPTION: India’s smallest deer, the Mouse Deer or the Indian

Chevrotain, is a unique ruminant with a three-chambered stomach instead
of a four-chambered one. It has a speckled olive–brown coat with clear
white stripes and spots; the stripes are formed by the merging of spots
across the shoulder and parts of the rump. The venters are creamish beige,
and the head and face are dark brown. The legs are dark grey, and it has
large hooves and a wedge-shaped body that allows it to scurry through
bushes. Neither sex has antlers, but both have long canines. Only adult
males have canines protruding below the lip line; females are small and
stud-like. There is no clear difference in other morphometrics of both
sexes.26 This primitive deer has relatives in South–East Asia and West
Africa.
BEHAVIOUR: The Mouse Deer usually makes its den in a tree hollow. As
it is shy, small, well camouflaged and does not vocalize often, it is usually
overlooked. In hot weather, it pants with its mouth open.
DISTRIBUTION: Peninsular India, all through southern India, northwards
at least up to a line drawn between Palamau in Jharkhand in the east
through Mandla and Hoshangabad to Udaipur (Rajasthan) at approximately
24°04’N.27 There have been past records in Nepal and recent sightings also
may show a larger distribution, but this may be discontinuous. More records
are required to clearly indicate a pan-India occurrence.28
HABITAT: Deciduous, semi-evergreen and evergreen forests, and
plantation forests up to 1,850 m. Seems to prefer moist forests, and
frequents riverine patches and waterways but can also be found in tall
grassland.

ANTLERS
Most male deer (except the chevrotain (right) and musk deer, can be
distinguished by their antlers, which differ from the horns of goats,
sheep, antelope, and cattle in three unique ways. They are solid; they
are usually branched (perhaps to allow non-lethal combat among
males); and they are deciduous or shed annually. Antlers are among
the most rapidly growing tissues in the animal world and within a
month or two of the deer shedding its full-grown bony antlers, new
ones spring up in ‘velvet’, which is a finely furred skin that covers
the antler and has a network of capillaries. Gradually, a hard burr or
ring develops at the base of the antler, choking off the blood supply,
and the velvet ‘dries up’. Deer then rub this skin off on branches and
on the ground to expose their new, solid headgear. Evolutionary
biologists theorize that this device is used for sexual display and
male–male fights. The months when deer can be seen in hard antlers
and velvet vary considerably according to locale and the season.

Moschiola indica, Craigmore, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu

M. indica, Craigmore, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu

A pair of M. indica, Bandipur NP, Karnataka

 M. indica, Parambikulam WLS, Kerala

M. indica, Eravikulam NP, Kerala

COMMON NAME: HIMALAYAN MUSK DEER

FamIy: Moschidae Latin Name: Moschus leucogaster Hodgson, 183929 Local Names: Kastura
(Hindi/Kumaoni), Rons (Chamba dialect) Best Seen At: Kedarnath WLS, Uttarakhand
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered/ I/ Locally Common Social Unit: Solitary, except when
female is with young Size: HBL: 86–100 cm, HAS: 50 cm, Wt: 13–18 kg
DESCRIPTION: A shy, brownish yellow, dog-sized,30 mountain ruminant,
the Himalayan Musk Deer can be differentiated from the Alpine Musk Deer
in having dark legs and chest with no chest stripe. The underparts are paler,
giving it the alternate name of White-bellied Musk Deer. The rump and
buttocks are dark. The face is greyish brown and the eye may or may not
have an eye ring, which when present is faint and greyish. The ears are
brown on the back, but have grey rims and insides. Individual dorsal hairs
have pure white bases, making the thick, bristly coat appear speckled with
white. These speckles are more visible in summer and in the young. An
enigmatic taxon from the Western Himalayas (known from Kedarnath),
known as the pepper-and-salt form, is red–brown in colour, and unlike the
usual form, has a pale throat (two white stripes), buttocks and tail. The head
is grey with white spots or flecks, and the eye has orange patches above and
below it. The ears are brown with a pale border and white insides. The hair
bases are yellow and there is a whitish orange band separating this from the
darker tip.31
BEHAVIOUR: Communication is chiefly by olfaction. The deer scent
marks by defecation and secretions of the caudal, musk and interdigital
glands.
DISTRIBUTION: The Himalayas from central Kashmir through Himachal
Pradesh up to Sikkim.32
HABITAT: Subalpine oak and rhododendron forests (3,000–4,300 m);
medium- to high-elevation coniferous forest in the Western Himalayas,33
below the treeline (2,500–4,400 m); in Sikkim, thick bamboo forests below
alpine zone (2,600–3,000 m).

COMMON NAME: KASHMIR MUSK DEER

Family: Moschidae Latin Name: Moschus cupreus Grubb, 198234 Local Names: Roos (male),
Roos-kutt (female) (Kashmiri) Best Seen At: Kazinag National Park, Jammu & Kashmir
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered/ I/ Locally Common Social Unit: Solitary except when
with offspring Size: HBL: 85–100 cm, HAS: 40–50 cm Wt: 12–17 kg

DESCRIPTION: A medium-sized to large grey–brown35 musk deer,

distinct from other musk deer by the spots on the back being more
prominent, a pale grey instead of creamy throat, underside and legs, and a
conspicuous copper–red saddle on the grey-brown back. The rump is dark
grey and buttocks are paler (the opposite of the Alpine Musk Deer). The
face is grey with the eyes having only a faint eye ring and ears being dark
brown with white edges and base, giving it a frosted look. Individual dorsal
hairs are shorter36 than other musk deer and with white bases.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: Western Jammu & Kashmir.
HABITAT: Oak and conifer and subalpine scrub (1,500–4,000 m); more
commonly found between 2,500 m (in the Pir Panjal)–3,100 m (in
Dachigam).

Moschus cupreus male, captive

Moschus leucogaster male, Khangchendzonga NP, Sikkim

Moschus leucogaster enigmatic form (top left and right) male, Kedarnath
WLS, Uttarakhand
Moschus cupreus female (top), summer coat and (right) winter coat, captive

COMMON NAME: ALPINE MUSK DEER

Family: Moschidae Latin Name: Moschus chrysogaster37 Hodgson, 1839 Subspecies: M.c.
chrysogaster Hodgson, 183938 Local Names: Kastura (Hindi) Best Seen At: Kedarnath WLS,
Uttarakhand IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered/ I/ Uncommon Social Unit: Solitary except
when with young39 Size: HBL: 85–90 cm, HAS: 50–60 cm, Wt: 11–18 kg

DESCRIPTION: A very large, reddish grey musk deer,40 the Alpine can
be distinguished from the Himalayan Musk Deer in having white
stockinged legs, and a broad ill-defined creamy throat and chest extending
to a reddish cream underside. The rump is paler than the back, but the
buttock is darker. It has a long grey face and the eyes have a pale eye ring,
faintly orangish in colour. The ears are brown, with a yellowish tip and grey
inside. Individual hairs of the back are long and brown41 with a red–yellow
subterminal band.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: Alpine zones across the Central and Eastern Himalayas,
mainly in the states of Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim, and west to
Uttarakhand (2,000–5,000 m).42
HABITAT: Alpine scrub and meadows and the ‘dwarf bush zone’ of the
trans-Himalayas.

COMMON NAME: BLACK MUSK DEER

Family: Moschidae Latin Name: Moschus fuscus Li, 198143 Local Names: Unknown Best Seen
At: Khangchendzonga NP, Sikkim IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered/ I/ Uncommon Social
Unit: Solitary except when with young Size: HBL: 73–80 cm, HAS: Unknown, Wt: 10–15 kg44

DESCRIPTION: The Black Musk Deer can be distinguished from all other
musk deer in being a uniform dark brown or blackish brown animal with no
throat stripe (slightly paler around neck, with occasionally two incomplete
yellow collars on the chest, and dark legs and underparts. The fur is overall
blackish brown, marked with faint yellow spots and the rump has some
ochre yellow in it as well, but the buttocks are dark black. The face is very
short as compared to other musk deer and the eye ring is indistinct. The ears
are equally dark outside with a paler grey inside. The individual hairs are
longer than other musk deer45 and solid black with a very small white base.
The young are known to be agouti-banded. The hooves are more elongated
than other species.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: North–eastern Himalayas; Sikkim eastwards through
Arunachal Pradesh.
HABITAT: Takes over from the Himalayan Musk Deer in north–eastern
India in being a resident of rhododendron and oak and coniferous forests
(2,200–4,600 m), extending to the edge of the alpine area.

DROPPINGS
Even when an ungulate is not sighted in the forest, its hoof marks
and droppings point to its presence. Droppings of deer, caprids and
antelope are in pellet form, may be round, slightly tapered, spindle-
shaped, or flat, and can be found scattered, or heaped together in
clumps. Many antelope species such as the Nilgai and Blackbuck are
known to mark their territory by using regular open-air or communal
latrines where a single animal or a whole herd accumulates dung.
Cattle, on the other hand, drop large pats of dung that are
characteristic. As many bovids have domestic and feral forms that
closely approximate wild species, identifying droppings can be
tricky at the best of times.

Moschus chrysogaster male, captive

M. leucogaster, juvenile, 1.5 years old (above left) and fawn (above right),
Kedarnath WLS, Uttarakhand
 Moschus fuscus, Khangchendzonga NP, Sikkim

COMMON NAME: INDIAN OR RED MUNTJAC

Family: Cervidae Latin Name: Muntiacus muntjak Zimmermann, 178046 Subspecies: M.m. aureus
Smith, 1826; M.m. vaginalis Boddaert, 1785; M.m. malabaricus Lydekkar, 1915 Local Names:
Bhekar (Marathi/Gujarati), Che (Lisu), Chize (Naga), Jgasua (Monpa), Katra (Bengali),
Kaakar/Kakkar (Hindi/Kumaoni/Chamba), Kadu koorie (Kannada), Kaihhg (Toda), Kakad
(Marathi), Kezhaiyaadu (Tamil), Khatia pohu/Hugori pohu (Assamese), Kheza-maan (Malayalam),
Para (Gojri), Sakhi (Mizo), Shaji (Manipuri) Best Seen At: Corbett NP, Uttarakhand
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ III/ Locally Common Social Unit: Solitary or in pairs
during breeding season and in the case of mother and young; occasionally at water or food source, up
to 4–5 animals47 Size: HBL: 90–120 cm, HAS: 50–70 cm, AS: 20–23 cm,48 Wt: 20–28 kg (male)

DESCRIPTION: The more common of the two small Indian forest

ruminants (the Mouse Deer being the other), the Barking Deer or Indian
Muntjac has a glossy, reddish brown coat and greyish or white underparts.
Its forelimbs are longer than the hind limbs. Males have long upper canines
that are not always visible. Frontal ridges on the face are well developed as
are two slits indicating a frontal gland. Males have well developed but small
antlers that are mounted on long pedicles, and two black lines mark these
down the face. Antlers have a short brow tine and at the tips, curve inwards.
Females have bony frontal ridges but no antlers. The animal itself is unique
in being the mammal with the lowest recorded chromosome number; the
male has a diploid number of seven and the female has six chromosomes.49
BEHAVIOUR: Although not territorial, males do have home ranges of 6–7
sq. km that they scent mark regularly.50
DISTRIBUTION: Through most of peninsular India and the Terai, north–
eastern India and the low Himalayas. Not present in Kutch, Saurashtra and
arid parts of north–western India. M.m. aureus in north and central India,
M.m. vaginalis in north–eastern India and M.m. malabaricus in southern
India.
HABITAT: Prefers hilly and moist areas, in thick deciduous and evergreen
forests but is adaptable enough to be on forest fringe near crops, plantations
and secondary forests (1,000–3,500 m).

NORTH–EASTERN MUNTJACS
Recently, two muntjac species have been found in Arunachal
Pradesh for the first time. Both have not been sighted or
photographed in the wild, but skulls and jaws were recovered.
Second-hand information from old hunters and subsequent genetic
testing of the material collected indicate that the Leaf Muntjac
(Muntiacus putaoenis) and the Gongshan/Black Muntjac (Muntiacus
gongshanensis crinifrons) may have distribution in eastern
Arunachal Pradesh. The Lisu tribe reports a black muntjac in
Namdapha (Che me). A recent study51 found skins that were dark
brown with rufous mid-portions, grey flanks and a dark dorsal line.
Genetic study of the samples indicated a ‘dark muntjac’ closer to the
Gongshan Muntjac.52 In another survey by the same team in the
same region, the Leaf Muntjac, a small reddish brown muntjac half
the size of the Indian Muntjac, which has tiny antlers and whose
sexes are of the same size, was also found to be present. Both
species have a Myanmar distribution as well and the north– eastern
distribution could be a range extension.53
M.m. aureus adult male, Kanha NP, Madhya Pradesh
Muntiacus muntjak malabaricus adult male, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu

Muntiacus muntjak malabaricus, male, Udanti WLS, Chhattisgarh

 Muntiacus muntjak aureus, female, captive

Muntiacus muntjak vaginalis female, Kaziranga NP, Assam

COMMON NAME: SAMBAR

Family: Cervidae Latin Name: Rusa unicolor54 Kerr, 1792 Subspecies: R.u. unicolor55 Kerr, 1792
Local Names: Dadathi mof (male); poof (female) (Toda), Jadau (Kumaoni), Hiran (Chamba),
Kadama (Kodava), Kada maan (Tamil), Kala maan/Mlavu (Malayalam), Kaduve (Kannada), Xar
pohu (Assamese), Sabar (Gujarati), Sambar (Hindi/Marathi/Bengali), Sasuk (Mizo), Tekha (Naga)
Best Seen At: Sariska and Ranthambore NPs, Rajasthan; Satpura and Melghat NP, Maharashtra;
aggregations at Periyar NP, Kerala IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ III/ Common Social
Unit: Normally a non-gregarious species;56 solitary males, small subadult male bands, and female
and young (largely fawns and female yearlings) commonly seen; in wet areas (e.g., Periyar NP,
Kerala and Pench NP, Madhya Pradesh) large congregations of even a hundred animals known Size:
HBL: 160–210 cm, HAS: 110–160 cm, AS: 70–100 cm, record: 128 cm, Wt: 180–270 kg57
(male);130–230 kg (female)

DESCRIPTION: A typical forest deer with a shaggy, dark brown coat, and
large spreading antlers, the Sambar is India’s largest deer.58 The Rusa genus
is distinguished from Axis and Rucervus deer in having deep lachrymal pits,
robust three-tined antlers, a long tail and a dark coat.59 The antlers in the
Sambar are three-tined with a long, acutely angled brow tine and a main
beam that forks into a terminal fork. Yearlings have a single spiked antler,
subadults that are over two years of age grow a main beam and a brow tine,
thus having a two-tined antler, and adults who have reached four years of
age grow a three-tined antler. Ears and tail are relatively large, the former
being pinkish with dark markings inside, and the latter being bushy and
black. The ears do not have any white hair inside, unlike in the Swamp
Deer. The coats are redder in summer, and darker and dingier brown in
winter. The belly is darker than the back. Females are lighter and less
shaggy. Both sexes have a well-developed throat mane which is responsible
partly for their looking more ruffian-like than the dappled Chital. Both
sexes also have an enigmatic sore spot on the throat, which is possibly a
gland associated with communication during the rut.60 The adult males are
largest in the Terai, but the antlers are largest in central India.
BEHAVIOUR: They often feed in shallow water61 and when chased by
predators such as Dholes, take to water, splashing loudly with their hooves
to confuse their attacker. Stamping of feet or raising of hoof as if to stamp is
a sign of alarm. They move through forests very silently for their
exceptionally large size.
DISTRIBUTION: Found throughout India except the high Himalayas
(over 3,800 m), desert Kutch and the coasts. This is the only widespread
large forest deer;62 the other three species are endangered and restricted in
their range.
HABITAT: It has wide-ranging habitat types from mixed deciduous forest,
arid and dry forests, shola grasslands, pine and oak and evergreen forests.
Prefers moist habitat with undulating terrain. River and stream banks are
chosen for daytime rests.
Rusa unicolor third-year stag in hard antlers and winter coat, Manas NP,
Assam
R. unicolor adult stag, winter coat, Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan
Rusa unicolor female and young, winter coat, Bandipur NP, Karnataka

Rusa unicolor young stag and doe, Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple WLS,
Karnataka
 Rusa unicolor adult male (Note darker evergreen forest coat) and female,
Periyar NP, Kerala

COMMON NAME: KASHMIR RED DEER

Family: Cervidae Latin Name: Cervus elaphus Linnaeus, 175863 Subspecies: Kashmir Red Deer
C.e. hanglu64 Wagner, 1844 Local Names: Hangul (male), Minemer (female) (Kashmiri) Best Seen
At: Dachigam National Park, Jammu & Kashmir IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/65 I/
Rare Social Unit: Large family groups Size: HBL: 190–205 cm (male);180–195 cm (female), HAS:
125–145 cm (male); 110–120 cm (female), AS: 96.8 cm, maximum of 112 cm,66 Wt: 150–240 kg
(male); 110–170 kg (female)67

DESCRIPTION: The Kashmir Red Deer or Hangul68 is a large, dingy

brown animal with a small orange–white rump patch that is bordered by a
broad black band, and a black tail. In the rump patch formation, it is closer
to Asian deer than the European Red Deer. The tail is short and the rump
patch excludes the tail. In winter, the coat is dark brown (liver coloured)69
with the side flanks and limbs being lighter. The belly, lips, chin and inner
ears are white. In summer, the coat lightens and may show spotting. The
five-tined antlers are large, with the brow starting quite a distance above the
bur, and the fourth and fifth tine forming a terminal transverse fork. The
antlers also have a well-developed bez tine.70
BEHAVIOUR: Stags migrate above the snow line (2,700–3,600 m) in
summer, and come down to join the hinds in October. Stags are known to
roar during rutting.
DISTRIBUTION: Restricted to Dachigam NP, Gurez, Waragat–Naranag
and Chandaji Nullah in Jammu & Kashmir.71
HABITAT: Moist, broadleaved and coniferous forest, and meadows
(1,500–3,600 m).

COMMON NAME: BROW-ANTLERED DEER

Family: Cervidae Latin Name: Rucervus72 eldii73 McClelland, 1842; Subspecies: Sangai R.e. eldii
McClelland, 184274 Local Names: Sangai (Manipuri) Best Seen At: Keibul Lamjao NP, Manipur
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered/ I/ Rare Social Unit: Solitary males and females with fawns
year round except in the rut when multi-male–multi-female groups (of average six, going up to 70
animals) are known Size: HBL: 160–170 cm (male); 140–150 cm (female), HAS: 115–130 (males);
90–100 (females), AS: 90–100 cm, record: 112 cm,75 Wt: 90–125 kg (male); 60–80 kg (female)
DESCRIPTION: A large deer with a spectacular circular antler formation
in stags, the Sangai has a dark reddish-brown winter coat, which turns paler
in summer; the female is fawn all year round. Antlers have a very long
brow tine that is continuous with the main beam. The young are spotted.
The Sangai have splayed hooves, long dewclaws and pasterns that are
hardened and not hairy, all adaptations for swamp dwelling.
BEHAVIOUR: This deer walks on the hind surface of its pasterns with
mincing hops over floating foliage, and is hence called the Dancing Deer.
DISTRIBUTION: A single population in Keibul Lamjao NP on Loktak
Lake of Manipur.
HABITAT: Open flat grasslands and phumdis or floating vegetation in
marshes; avoids forests.

Rucervus eldi adult stag wet in the swamp, Keibul Lamjao NP, Manipur
Cervus elephus hanglu stag, Dachigam NP, Jammu & Kashmir
C.e. hanglu hind and young, Dachigam NP, Jammu & Kashmir

C.e. hanglu stag, Dachigam NP, Jammu & Kashmir

 R. eldii young stag (Note reddish coat), Keibul Lamjao NP, Manipur F

R. eldii female, Keibul Lamjao NP, Manipur

COMMON NAME: SWAMP DEER OR BARASINGHA

Family: Cervidae Latin Name: Rucervus duvaucelii G. Cuvier, 182376 Subspecies: Wetland
Barasingha R.d. duvaucelii G. Cuvier, 1823; Hard-ground Barasingha R.d. branderi Pocock, 1943;
Eastern Barasingha R.d. ranjitsinhii Groves, 1982 Local Names: Baradali horin (Bengali),
Barasingha (Hindi), Dal horina (Assamese), Goinjak/Gaoni/Salsamar/Newari (central India) Best
Seen At: C.d. branderi: Kanha NP, Madhya Pradesh; C.d. duvaucelii: Kishanpur WLS, Uttar
Pradesh; C.d. ranjitsinhii: Kaziranga NP, Assam IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ I/ Locally
Common Social Unit: Males and females form separate uni-sex, multi-member groups except during
the rut when there are multi-male, multi-female groups that aggregate up to 250 individuals Size:
HBL: 180–190 cm, HAS:120–135 cm (male); 115 cm (female), AS: 60–80 cm, record: 104 cm,77
Wt:170–200 kg (male); 140–145 kg (female)

DESCRIPTION: A large deer with a spectacular 5–6-tined antler78 in

males, the Barasingha is reddish brown in winter and greyish brown in
summer, with whitish underparts. A dark brown dorsal stripe is present, and
the animals have a relatively short tail and rounded ears. Neck mane is not
prominent. The antlers are branched dichotomously in the upper third of the
beam and this branching continues in every tine till they achieve 10–12
tines. Juveniles start developing a pedicle by seven months and a spike
within a year. The full antler development takes up to three years. Females
are only a third of the male size but are still considerably larger than
Spotted Deer does. They can be told apart from Sambar does in the field by
the white instead of pink hair inside their ears.79
The three subspecies differ in cranial and dental features, and also in the
field. The Wetland Barasingha is the largest (5 cm taller and slightly heavier
in the stag) and its hind much taller, and with a thicker neck and build than
the eastern race. Its tail is longer with a whitish fringe to it. The Hard-
ground Barasingha is slightly smaller than the wetland one, but has longer
antlers, darker pelage and a more prominent neck ruff. Its hooves are not
splayed like the wetland and eastern races. The Eastern Barasingha is the
smallest, with the smallest antlers and tail. The antlers show distinct
branching lower down the beam, and are flatter and more palmate than
others. The face is slender; the ears are smaller and pointed, instead of
rounded and have little white hair in them. Large white or cream hair on the
insides of ears is the easiest way to distinguish hard-ground and wetland
does from Sambar.80
BEHAVIOUR: Swamp Deer are creatures of habit and tend to use the same
tracks to and from meadows. They don’t have vigilant sentries in their
herds, often grazing with their heads down simultaneously. If disturbed,
they seek tall grass and not woodland.81
DISTRIBUTION: In five discrete populations in three regions of central,
north–east and northern India.
HABITAT: Flooded tall grasslands (northern India), tall alluvial grasslands
interspersed with swamps (north–east India), and dry grassland bordered by
sal forests (central India).

Rucervus duvaucelii branderi adult male coming out of velvet in monsoon,

Kanha NP, Madhya Pradesh

Rucervus duvaucelii duvaucelii young stag in velvet, Dudhwa NP, Uttar

Pradesh
Rucervus duvaucelii ranjitsinhii adult female and male in hard antlers,
Kaziranga NP, Assam
 R.d. branderi in hard antler in the rut, Kanha NP, Madhya Pradesh

Young Axis axis doe (foreground) dwarfed by R.d. branderi does, Kanha
NP, Madhya Pradesh

COMMON NAME: SPOTTED DEER

Family: Cervidae Latin Name: Axis axis Erxleben, 177782 Local Names: Cheetal (Hindi/Marathi),
Cheetal horin (Bengali), Chukala jinka (Telugu), Phutuki horin (Assamese), Pulli maan
(Tamil/Malayalam), Saraga jinke (Kannada) Best Seen At: Corbett NP, Uttarankhand; Bandipur NP,
Karnataka; Kanha NP, Madhya Pradesh IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ III/ Abundant
Social Unit: Females, fawns and yearlings usually associate in a basic family unit; stags come
together with female groups during rutting; small herds are known through temporary feeding
associations; herds of a few hundreds are also common83 in large grasslands with plenty of water
Size: HBL: 150–155 cm (male); 140–145 cm (female),84 HAS: 85–95 cm (male); 70–80 cm
(female), AS: 65–75 cm; record: 105.5 cm,85 Wt: 70–85 kg (male); 45–60 kg (female),86

DESCRIPTION: Popularly known as Chital, this is India’s most common,

most visible and arguably most beautiful deer. It is also the only
predominantly spotted deer in the country, with spots present in both sexes,
in all seasons and through life. The reddish brown coat varies
geographically, becoming redder in southern India while the deer of
northern Terai and central India are the largest in size and antlers. Older
males are darker and the fawns are lighter. Its white throat patch and
undersides are complemented by a dark dorsal stripe, and in the case of old
males, with a dark muzzle band and a dark pattern on the face. During the
rut, the male necks become darker and more swollen.87 There is no neck
ruff and the facial glands are less developed. Male antlers are lyre-shaped
with three tines: a long brow tine (set at right angles to the beam) and two
branch tines (inwardly oriented trez tine). Older males may have one or
more false points where the brow joins the beam.88 The sexes are almost
identical except for size (males are about 50 per cent heavier than females)
and the presence of antlers in the male. The antlers are largest proportional
to body size and the body is longer proportional to height among all other
deer in the world. 89 The tail is relatively long, and the ears are medium-
sized and narrow compared with the Sambar. This, and the general dappled
colouration, may be adaptations to its diurnal and forest-edge existence
unlike the nocturnal forest habitat of the Sambar.
BEHAVIOUR: Has a fairly unique association with langurs; it acts as a
look-out for the monkeys, as well as feeds on leaves and fruit dropped by
langurs from trees. It is also one of the few deer that does not wallow.
DISTRIBUTION: Through peninsular India till Gujarat (absent in northern
Saurashtra and Kutch) and the Gangetic Plain eastwards till Manas in the
North–East. Present in the Sunderbans and Bhitarkanika. Introduced into
the Andamans.
HABITAT: Grassland–deciduous forest ecotones, especially around
fringes. Also present in swampy meadows, plantations, riparian forests,
mangroves and scrublands.
Axis axis adult stag (hard antlers) and young doe, Mudumalai WLS, Tamil
Nadu
Axis axis adult stag (hard antlers), darker coat, Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple
WLS, Karnataka
 Axis axis adult stag in velvet, Pench NP, Madhya Pradesh

Axis axis female wades through a forest stream, Sonanadi WLS,

Uttarakhand
 Axis axis adult stag with does, Bandhavgarh NP, Madhya Pradesh

Axis axis young stag (second year) in front and adult stag at back, Chinnar
WLS, Kerala

COMMON NAME: HOG DEER

Family: Cervidae Latin Name: Axis porcinus Zimmermann, 1780 Subspecies: A.p. porcinus
Zimmermann, 178090 Local Names: Chagolipohu (Assamese), Kaala khatia (Bengali), Kharsa
(Manipuri), Para (Hindi/Punjabi) Best Seen At: Kaziranga NP, Assam; Dudhwa NP, Uttar Pradesh
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern91/ III/ Locally Common Social Unit: Variable; can be
solitary; small family groups of female, fawn and yearling; temporary feeding aggregations of up to a
100 animals Size: HBL: 140–150 cm (male); 130 cm (female), HAS: 65–75 cm (male); 55–65 cm
(female), AS: 30–45 cm, record: 61 cm,92 Wt: 40–55 kg (male); 30–40 kg (female)
DESCRIPTION: A medium-sized grassland deer, the Hog Deer is stouter
and has shorter legs than the Chital, and is larger and more rounded in form
than the Barking Deer. Its stout rump and lowered forequarters give it a pig-
like appearance. The young are sandy and spotted indistinctly on the flanks
while the adults have a speckled appearance due to the white-tipped hairs
on their olive–brown coat. The coat is darker and glossier in winter and has
a yellow overtone with pale brown or white spots appearing indistinctly in
summers. In some individuals, these spots appear along the median dorsal
line, but in others they appear all over the body. The north–eastern males
appear darker than in the western parts of its range. There is no neck ruff
and the facial glands are less developed. The underside of the body is white
and the large, rounded ears are fringed white. Stags have prominent pedicles
(that sometimes confuse it with the Barking Deer) with antlers bearing three
tines. After a short brow tine, the beam is straight and then divides into a
longer fore tine and a shorter hind tine.93 The antlers are shorter than the
other large deer but considerably longer than its own head and fairly
thickset. It has a brown tail with a white flashing underside like the Chital
and the Barking Deer.
BEHAVIOUR: When alarmed, it erects its tail, calls in a low bark like the
Chital and scurries into the grass with its neck lowered and stretched out. It
is also known to make a whistling sound and a bleating call.
DISTRIBUTION: Through the plains of the rivers Indus, the Ganga and
the Brahmaputra and some of its tributaries, from Punjab in the west to
Assam and Arunachal Pradesh in the North–East but found mostly in
protected areas in this belt.
HABITAT: Lowland, wet, tall grasslands interspersed with forest, swamp
or riverine areas. Avoids closed canopy forests.
Axis porcinus adult male in velvet, Kaziranga NP, Assam
 A. porcinus, adult male, hard antler, Kaziranga NP, Assam

A. porcinus adult male, hard antler, Corbett NP, Uttarakhand

 A. porcinus young female, Kaziranga NP, Assam

A. porcinus young female, Dudhwa NP, Uttar Pradesh

COMMON NAME: GAUR

Family: Bovidae Subfamily: Bovinae Latin Name: Bos gaurus C.H. Smith, 182794 Local Names:
Emmofehr (Toda), Gaur (Hindi), Gawa (Marathi), Kadu kona (male); Kadu emmai (female)
(Kannada), Kaatterumai/Aamaa (Tamil), Kattu pothu/Kattee (Malayalam), Methun (Assamese) Best
Seen At: Nagarhole NP, Karnataka; Mudumalai WLS, Tamil Nadu; Wayanad WLS, Kerala
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ I/ Locally Common Social Unit: Old bulls can be solitary
or in company of a younger bull; otherwise gregarious; groups of 5–12 (20–100 also known); basic
natal group of female and young; other associations are temporary95 Size: HBL: 250–330 cm, HAS:
165–225 cm, HL: 76–88 cm (male); females smaller, Wt: 650–1,000 kg96

DESCRIPTION: The largest bovine in peninsular India,97 the Gaur is

often mistakenly called the Indian Bison although it is not related to the
North American Bison. It is a large, dark bovine with white stockings from
hoof to hock. Both sexes have a massive head, deep chest and a muscular
shoulder ridge that forms a step midway along the back. The latter is well
developed in males. They both bear short horns that rise from a hairy and
pale temporal boss, and curve outwards, and then inwards and slightly
backwards. The horns are brownish yellow at the base with a bluish green
tinge in the middle, darkening to dark brown or even black at the tip. Adult
males have short, glossy, black fur, while the young and females are coffee–
brown. Bulls inhabiting dry sal forests are less dark than those inhabiting
teak forests or moist deciduous patches.98 The muzzle is large, naked and
moist, and the lips are white. The female has four teats. The male has a
pronounced dewlap that hangs low and heavy from neck to chest. The tail is
long and tufted, the tuft reaching the hocks. The newborn calf changes
colour from golden yellow to fawn, light brown, and then red–brown. The
juvenile develops white stockings at around three or four months.
BEHAVIOUR: Very calm for a creature of its size, the Gaur rarely attacks
unless tormented, and in most parts of south India will allow humans to
approach very close. Shows a lateral display of dewlap and ridge to rival
males but lowers its head and raises its tail if a threat is indicated. It has an
acute sense of smell. If a herd is taken by surprise, it might start a stampede
with calves getting run over in the process.99
DISTRIBUTION: In three discrete populations in southern India (Western
Ghats and the Nilgiri plateau), central India (Vidarbha, southern Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and down to the Eastern Ghats in Odisha) and in
north–east India.100 Limited in the north by River Narmada (found only in
two or three populations north of it).
HABITAT: Moist deciduous bamboo and teak habitats101 with open
grasslands most favoured, along with semi-evergreen and evergreen forests.
Also found in dry deciduous, scrub and plantations (sea level to 3,000
m).102
 Bos gaurus bull, Bandipur NP, Karnataka

Adult female and juvenile Bos gaurus, Jaldapara WLS, West Bengal
Young Bos gaurus male showing black coat (sal forest form), Kanha NP,
Madhya Pradesh
Young Bos gaurus male showing dark brown coat (teak forest form),
Achanakmar TR, Chhattisgarh

Bos gaurus showing all age classes, Tadoba TR, Maharashtra

 Adult Bos gaurus female and calf, Bandipur NP, Karnataka

COMMON NAME: WILD BUFFALO

Family: Bovidae Subfamily: Bovinae Latin Name Bubalus arnee Kerr, 1792103 Subspecies:
Central Indian Wild Buffalo B.a. arnee; North-eastern Wild Buffalo B.a. fulvus104 Local Names
Arna/Van bhainsa (Hindi), Bonoria moh (Assamese), Jongli monsh (Bengali) Best Seen At: B.a.
fulvus: Kaziranga NP, Assam; B.a. arnee: Udanti WLS, Chhattisgarh IUCN/WPA/Indian Status:
Endangered/ I/ Locally Common (Assam), Rare (Central India) Social Unit: Herds led by adult
females and a mature bull (average 10 individuals); occasionally more are also known to congregate;
young males have bachelor herds of up to 10 animals; old adult bulls are solitary Size: HBL: 240–
300 cm, HAS:150–190 cm, Wt: 800–1,200 kg (male); 250–800 kg (female)105

DESCRIPTION: Large, black and robust with flat sweeping horns, the
Wild Buffalo is considered to be one of the most dangerous animals to
encounter in India. It is a sleeker, heavier version of the domestic buffalo
and has the largest horns of any animal in the world. There are two horn
types: in one, the horns curve upwards in a semicircle and almost meet at
the tips; in the other, they grow in a parallel fashion upwards and then
inwards. It does not have the dewlap of the Gaur, nor the ridge of the yak or
the Gaur, and the back is flat, almost parallel to the ground. The body is
dark grey, tending to be wet and black (because of their frequent mud
wallows) and largely hairless. The tail is long and with a long, slender,
bushy tip almost reaching the ankle. Wild Buffaloes have dirty white
stockings that are not as white as that of the Gaur.
The female is smaller in size with thinner, less crescentic horns and lacks
the white supraorbital flecks found in large males.106
Calves are hairy and fawn in colour, and at six months, horns appear with
the coat reddening. B.a. fulvus is slightly smaller, with whitish marks
around the muzzle and a whitish necklace especially visible in females. B.a.
arnee does not exhibit much white on the body, the legs are more uniform
in colour, the body is larger and so are the horns (more than 110 cm in
span), and the tail is shorter than that of B.a. fulvus.
The Wild Buffalo can be differentiated from domestic buffaloes and their
hybrids by a number of characteristics including a straight back, larger and
more spread-out horns, pinkish instead of white hairs in the insides of the
ears, and large hooves leaving big telltale footprints.107
BEHAVIOUR: The buffalo snorts, stomps its feet and shakes its head as it
prepares to charge. It forms a tight herd around the young calves when
threatened by predators.
DISTRIBUTION: Found in small isolated pockets in north–east India
(Kaziranga, Dibru–Saikhowa, Laokhawa–Bura Chapori, and Manas NP),
central India (Indravati, Bhairamgarh and Udanti WLSs of Chhattisgarh,
and Gadchiroli district of Maharashtra).
HABITAT: Low-lying alluvial grasslands, riparian forests and
woodlands.108 In central India in well-watered, dry deciduous forests.
 Bubalus arnee arnee male, Udanti WLS, Chhattisgarh

Bubalus arnee fulvus male caked in alluvial mud, Kaziranga NP, Assam
B.a. fulvus male in grassland, Kaziranga NP, Assam
 B.a. fulvus male and female, Kaziranga NP, Assam

B.a. fulvus male (right), female (left) and calf (centre), Kaziranga NP,
Assam

COMMON NAME: WILD YAK

Family: Bovidae Subfamily: Bovinae Latin Name: Bos mutus109 Przewalski, 1883 Local Names:
Ban chour (Hindi), Brong dong (Tibetan) Best Seen At: Chang Chen Mo Valley,110 Ladakh, Jammu
& Kashmir IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ I/ Rare Social Unit: Variable with solitary
males; bachelor males of up to a dozen animals; herds of females, young, yearlings and a few adult
males; and mixed herds of 200 and even 400 animals known111 Size: HBL: 306–380 cm, HAS:170–
230 cm (male); 137–156 cm (female), HL: 47–95 cm (male); 37–64 cm (female),112 Wt: 535–1,000
kg (male); 300–350 kg (female)113

DESCRIPTION: Thickset and shaggy cattle of the mountains, yaks have

been domesticated across most of their range. In comparison to its domestic
cousins, the Dzo (Bos grunniens), the Wild Yak is a massive animal with
dark blackish brown fur that in males falls from the chest and flanks like a
woollen skirt over its legs.114 A silvery grey dorsal line behind the withers
is also reported in the Wild Yak.115 The Wild Yak has no dewlap like the
Gaur, but has a dorsal ridge from neck to back. The ears are small, the
muzzle is naked and grey, and the tail is thick, long and as shaggy as the
coat. Both sexes have grey–black horns, but those of the males are thicker
and sweep outwards and forwards while those of the female are narrower
and straighter. The female is only slightly greyer than males but is one-third
the size of an adult male and, therefore, can be easily told apart. Its young
are dark brown, with calves being a third of the adult female body size and
a yearling half the body size.116
BEHAVIOUR: Although a type of cattle, the Wild Yak is behaviourally
akin to the Wild Bison of America. During the rut, the male yak behaves
differently from its close relatives, the Gaur and Banteng. It often wallows
in mud during the rut – a bison or buffalo characteristic. It also grunts
hoarsely and grinds its teeth – a habit unique to the yak. It has few sweat
glands and thus needs to constantly cool off. It is often seen standing in icy
rivers even in winter!117
DISTRIBUTION: Only in Ladakh in a few small populations. Not
recorded from Sikkim and other trans-Himalayan areas of India.
HABITAT: Mountain pastures in cold deserts, alpine tundras (4,000–5,200
m).118

FERAL UNGULATES
A hybrid of Gaur and domestic cattle, the Mithun (Bos frontalis) is
the state animal of Arunachal Pradesh. It is characterized by pinkish
patches on its dark or piebald body. The number of Mithun a man
owns signifies his wealth. Pure-bred domestic yaks (Bos grunniens)
are as large as their wild cousins, but these are rare, and male yaks
are also interbred with domestic cows to produce the Dzos, used as a
beast of burden at lower heights. Feral Two-humped Camels
(Camelus bactrianus) are also known in Ladakh.

Two-humped Bactrian Camel, feral on the Tibetan Plateau

 Bos mutus male, Tibetan Plateau

Bos mutus female and young (hidden behind), Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir
 Bos grunniens or domestic yak, Sikkim

Bos frontalis or Mithun, Mehao WLS, Arunachal Pradesh

Dzo or hybrid yak, Tibetan Plateau

COMMON NAME: BLUE BULL OR NILGAI

Family: Bovidae Subfamily: Bovinae Latin Name: Boselaphus tragocamelus Pallas, 1766119
Local Names: Manapothu (Telugu), Maravi (Kannada), Morai-aa (Tamil), Nilogai (Odia), Raz/Nil
(male); Nilgai (female) (Hindi/Haryanvi), Rohu (Marathi), Rojh/Neel (male); Rojhdi/Neelgai (female)
(Gujarati) Best Seen At: Sariska NP, Rajasthan; Gir NP, Gujarat IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least
Concern/ III/ Abundant Social Unit: Adult males in non–breeding season in bachelor groups of two
to a dozen animals; old males may be solitary. Female and offspring, and mixed female herds of 3–6
common in non-breeding season. In breeding season 1–3 males join the female herds; occasionally,
especially in crops, the herd can reach 30 individuals120 Size: HBL: 180–210 cm (male); 170 cm
(female), HAS: 120–140 cm, HL: 15–24 cm,121 Wt: 200–288 kg (male); 120–220 kg (female)
DESCRIPTION: India’s largest antelope, the Nilgai resembles a horse
more than a bull because of its height (full-grown males are the same height
as a horse at shoulder) and its laterally compressed neck. There the
resemblance ends and the shoulder slopes downwards to a low rump
(forelegs are considerably longer than the hind legs) giving it an ungainly
stance. Adult males are iron–blue to lighter grey, while females and calves
are sandy brown. White and black markings on the body give relief to the
otherwise uniform tones. Both sexes have two white spots on each cheek,
white near the lips, a white gular patch, and white on the inside of the tails
and belly. Males and females have pretty white bands above and below a
black fetlock, giving the animals a ‘low-socked’ appearance. The ears are
white inside, marked with two black patches. Both sexes grow a scraggly,
low mane on the neck and a long tail, tufted and reaching the hocks. The
male has a long, wispy beard (rudimentary in females) and short,122
smooth, conical (triangular at base) black horns. The horns are ringed in
adult males, with one or two rings at the base.
BEHAVIOUR: Defecates at regular ‘latrine sites’, forming large clumps of
saucer-shaped droppings. The male stalks the female during the mating
season with its tail up in a characteristic ‘cobra-like’ posture. It is a very
swift runner in open country, despite its large size.
DISTRIBUTION: Roughly sympatric with its closest relative, the
Chousingha, from the Himalayan foothills and Punjab plains through
western and central India to the Odisha coast and south to Nilgiris. Does not
occur in eastern West Bengal, the North–East or Kerala.123
HABITAT: Dry deciduous savannah country, open scrub and agricultural
land.124 Avoids dense forest. Prefers well-watered habitat, much like the
Chousingha, even if it can go for long periods without water.
Boselaphus tragocamelus subadult male, Tal Chhapar WLS, Rajasthan
B. tragocamelus adult, Udanti WLS, Chhattisgarh
B. tragocamelus adult male, female and young, Ranthambore, Rajasthan

B.tragocamelus subadult male, Gajner, Rajasthan

COMMON NAME: FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE
Family: Bovidae Subfamily: Bovinae Latin Name: Tetracerus quadricornis125 de Blainville, 1816
Subspecies: T.q. quadricornis; T.q. iodes; T.q. subquadricornis126 Local Names: Chousingha
(Hindi/Marathi), Ghuntdu (Gujarati), Koondu koori poki (Kannada), Naal kombu maan (Tamil) Best
Seen At: Mudumalai NP, Tamil Nadu; Gir NP, Gujarat IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ I/
Uncommon Social Unit: Unlike other antelopes, it is found singly, in pairs, or small groups (5–6)
Size: HBL: 90–110 cm, HAS: 55–65 cm, HL: 8–10 cm (posterior); 1–2.5 cm (anterior),127 Wt: 15–
25 kg128

DESCRIPTION: A small, light brown antelope, the Chousingha is only

slightly darker than the Indian Gazelle, the female of which it resembles
superficially. However, it is much smaller (the smallest bovid in Asia), and
can be told apart instantly by the horns in case of the male and the face-
markings of the Chinkara doe.129 Two of the subspecies of Chousingha are
characterized by the male having four horns (the only mammal in the world
bearing four horns) with the front pair being shorter and sometimes reduced
to knobs. The horns are mere spikes, keeled and not ringed as in most
antelopes.130 The southern subspecies, T.q. subquadricornis, develops only
the posterior horns.131
The fur is uniformly light tan, sometimes washed with red (especially in
young and immature animals), fawn or grey. Older males are yellowish.132
The only dark marks are ‘burn marks’ along its shanks. Despite its
resemblance to the Chinkara, it is most closely related to the Nilgai. Like
the Nilgai, some individuals develop white flecks on the cheek.133 Horns
develop only around a year of age (10–14 months) and separating sexes in
subadult animals in the field is very difficult.134
Body size and length of anterior horn in the two northern subspecies is
used to age males. Class I males are 66 per cent of the body mass of the
adult and hornless, Class II males are the body size of the adult and with no
anterior horns, Class III males have anterior horns one-third the size of the
adult’s, and Class IV males have anterior horns equal to or more than one-
third the size of the adult’s horns.135 The hind hooves have a scent mark
gland.
BEHAVIOUR: It often lives near water, on which it is very dependent. It
uses the same ‘latrine sites’ regularly for defecation and lays droppings in
piles like the Nilgai; this probably serves as a means of communication.
DISTRIBUTION: Distributed roughly sympatric with the Nilgai but in
smaller number of forest fragments; from the sub-Himalayan Terai through
central and peninsular India, north of the Nilgiris. Also present in Gir NP,
Gujarat. Absent in Kerala.
HABITAT: Dry deciduous forest and scrub, particularly in transition zones;
prefers undulating terrain.136 Tall grass is also rarely frequented.

Tetracerus quadricornis quadricornis male, Gir NP, Gujarat

T.q. quadricornis male (moist sal forest form), Kanha NP, Madhya Pradesh

T.q. quadricornis male (teak or dry forest form), Panna NP, Madhya
Pradesh
 T.q. quadricornis adult female, Sariska WLS, Rajasthan

T.q. quadricornis young male with only two horns, Achanakmar WLS,
Chhattisgarh

COMMON NAME: INDIAN GAZELLE

Family: Bovidae Subfamily: Antilopinae Latin Name: Gazella bennettii Sykes, 1831137
Subspecies: Deccan Chinkara G.b. bennettii; Gujarat or Desert Chinkara G.b. christii; Salt Range
Chinkara G.b. salinarum Local Names: Chinkara (Hindi), Chinkaro (male); Chinkari (female)
(Gujarati) Best Seen At: Village peripheries all over Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat, especially close
to Bishnoi communities IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ I/ Common Social Unit: In
small groups of five six to a dozen animals, although up to 200 animals have been recorded in the
extreme north–west138 Size: HBL: 90–110 cm, HAS: 58–61 cm, HL: 24–32 cm,139 Wt:15–23 kg

DESCRIPTION: Arguably the most elegant ungulate in India, the

Chinkara is a sandy or tawny brown, medium-sized antelope with long
neck, ears and legs. The underparts are white and the tail is dark brown set
in the middle of two white streaks. White and dark rufous streaks down the
face, a dark nose-bridge and a white fleck on the forehead are characteristic.
Both sexes have thin lyrate horns. The male horns are annulated with 10–20
well-formed rings. The female horn is smaller (half the size of the male),
straighter and thinner. The horns are relatively straight and curve slightly
outward only at the tip. In the nominate race the animal is sandy brown, the
line separating the upper parts from the underparts and the rump is
indistinct and the horns are average-sized.
The desert subspecies G.b. christii is the smallest, very light, with no
dark markings at all, the horns are of the same size as the nominate race,
and the female is much smaller than the male. The salt-range subspecies
G.b. salinarum is the largest, with the longest horns, the most tawny
(tobacco/coffee-coloured), the lateral line is distinct and the female is
almost as large as the male.
BEHAVIOUR: Uniquely adapted to go for long periods without drinking
water and to obtain moisture from its forage. Ingests soil along with its
forage.140
DISTRIBUTION: The arid and semi-arid parts of western and central
India from Punjab and Rajasthan, eastward through the Gangetic valley and
southward to the Deccan Plateau. G.b. salinarum in Punjab and Haryana
east to Gwalior; G.b. christii in Gujarat and western Rajasthan; G.b.
bennettii, south of the Gangetic basin to the Deccan Plateau.
HABITAT: Open scrub, thorn forest, marginal dry deciduous forest, arid
and semi-arid habitats, sand dunes (sea level to 1,500 m).141 In Rajasthan,
known to be partial to Zizyphus–Capparis–Prosopis dominated arid
lands.142
Gazella bennettii christii adult male winter coat, Gajner, Rajasthan

G.b. christii female and young, Naliya grasslands, Gujarat

G.b. christii male (centre), monsoon breeding plumage, flanked by female
and young, Naliya grasslands, Gujarat
G.b. bennettii male, Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan
 G.b. bennettii female, Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan

COMMON NAME: BLACKBUCK

Family: Bovidae Subfamily: Antilopinae Latin Name: Antilope cervicapra Linnaeus, 1758143
Subspecies: North-western Blackbuck A.c. rajputanae Zukowsky, 1927; South-eastern Blackbuck
A.c. cervicapra Linnaeus, 1758144 Local Names: Mrig (male); Harna (female) (Hindi),
Kaliyar/Ragdo (male); Redi (female) (Gujarati), Kalweet (Marathi), Krishna mraga/Chigare
(Kannada), Kalai man/Veli maan/Pulvaai (Tamil), Krishna jinka (Telugu) Best Seen At: A.c.
rajputanae: Velavadar NP, Gujarat; A.c. cervicapra: Pt. Calimere Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Near Threatened/ I/ Locally Common Social Unit: Solitary and
bachelor herds of males; males with multiple females and young in a harem; females and offspring
and solitary females145 Size: HBL: 120–150 cm, HAS: 68–85 cm, HL: Up to 80.5 cm although
normally 45–65 cm,146 Wt: 34–45 kg (male); 31–39 kg (female)

DESCRIPTION: An endemic antelope exclusive to the Indian

subcontinent, the beauty of the Blackbuck is glorified in many cultures.
Adult males are dark brown to velvet black with white undersides, buttocks,
legs, eye rings, nose and lower muzzle. Females and young are fawn or tan
above and white below, with white eye rings. First- and second-year males
attain a darker reddish colour. By the end of the third year, males attain a
dark colouration and the trademark spiralled horns that can vary from
having one to four spirals. The dark colouration is connected to testosterone
levels and so immature males and some mature males may not achieve the
jet-black pelage. In A.c. cervicapra, the body size is smaller, the pelage
finer, a rufous leg stripe is conspicuous through the length of the leg, the
white eye ring is narrow, the horns are shorter, more open spiralled and less
divergent, the male more dark brown than black, and the females ruddy. In
A.c. rajputanae the body size is bigger, the pelage coarser, the dark leg
stripe is absent or badly marked on the shanks (leaving them spotless
white), the eye ring is broad, the horns are longer, more tightly coiled and
divergent,147 and the female is fawn coloured.148
BEHAVIOUR: During rut the male walks in a mincing gait, with its tail
curled upward, its ears drooping and horns held parallel to its back. When
alarmed, the Blackbuck leaps up as if on a spring (a movement known as
‘pronking’).
DISTRIBUTION: Found in 80–100 fragmented populations in northern
India, from Rajasthan in the west to Punjab in the north down to Tamil
Nadu in the south and Odisha in the east. A.c. rajputanae can be found in
Rajasthan and Gujarat (roughly east of Delhi), and A.c. cervicapra occurs
west and south of Delhi, up to Pt. Calimere, Tamil Nadu, in the south. Does
not occur in Kerala and the North–East.149
HABITAT: Short grassland, open salt pans and open scrub. Found also in
deciduous forest fringes, tall grass chaurs, riverbanks and in arid areas, but
avoids hills.
 Antilope cervicapra rajputanae doe and fawn in tall grass, Velavadar NP,
Gujarat

Antilope cervicapra rajputanae adult male driving off rival amidst females,
Velavadar NP, Gujarat
A. c. rajputanae adult male, Jodhpur, Rajasthan
 A.c. cervicapra adult male, Maidanhalli Blackbuck CR, Karnataka

A.c. rajputanae young ‘black’ male watching two subadult ‘brown’ males
joust, Gajner, Rajasthan

COMMON NAME: TIBETAN ANTELOPE

Family: Bovidae Subfamily: Caprinae Latin Name: Panthalops hodgsoni Abel, 1826150 Local
Names: Chiru/Chuku/Tsus (male); Chus (female) (Tibetan) Best Seen At: Chang Chenmo Valley,
Ladakh,151 Jammu & Kashmir IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered/ I/ Rare Social Unit:
Solitary males; all male herds; female and young; mixed herds152 Size: HBL: 100–140 cm, HAS:
80–85 cm (male); 72–76 cm (female), HL: 19.2–41.2 cm,153 Wt: 36–42 kg (male); 22–28 kg
(female)

DESCRIPTION: The Chiru is a large-bodied, antelope-like animal that is

instantly characterized by the long, slender horns that the males possess.
These are black in colour, flattened slightly and rise almost vertically all the
way except for a slight curve back in the middle of the horn. About 15–20
ridges mark two-thirds of the horn. It has a concave muzzle with two
prominent bulges on either side of the nostrils,154 giving it a slightly large-
nosed appearance. It has a luxuriant, woolly, tan and grey winter coat (white
undercoat)155 and a reddish fawn summer coat. Females do not have horns
and are uniformly rust–fawn. Their bellies, the tip of their muzzle and a ring
around their eyes are white, and the rest of the muzzle and the front of their
legs are grey. Young males, which are coloured like the females, start
growing horns when they are a year old.156
BEHAVIOUR: A migratory animal, the Chiru segregate almost completely
during migration, with the females migrating for calving,157 and the males
and subadult males migrating separately.158
DISTRIBUTION: Found in two discrete populations in the Daulat Beg
Oldie and the Chang Chenmo Valley, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir,
contiguous with Tibet.159
HABITAT: Trans-Himalayan alpine steppe and semi-arid cold desert lands
(3,250–5,500 m160).

COMMON NAME: TIBETAN GAZELLE

Family: Bovidae Subfamily: Antilopinae Latin Name: Procapra picticaudata Hodgson, 1846161
Local Names: Gowa (Ladakhi) Best Seen At: Kalak Tatar, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir; Tso Lhamo
plateau, Sikkim IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Near Threatened/ I/ Rare Social Unit: Females and
offspring (of that year and yearlings) seem to be only permanent groups; temporary associations of
1–46 individuals known162 Size: HBL: 90–105 cm, HAS: 60–65 cm, HL: 26–32 cm,163 Wt: 14.1–
14.5 kg (male); 13.2–15 kg (female)
DESCRIPTION: A small antelope, the Tibetan Gazelle has short, greyish
fawn fur in summer and luxuriant, pale fawn fur in winter. It is easily
recognized by its large, heart-shaped rump patch that flashes white in both
sexes. The undersides are white, the legs paler than body and the tail is
black-tipped. In the middle of the white rump, the tail tip often looks like a
black dot. The females are hornless, and the male horns are slender and rise
up, curve sharply backwards and then rise up again. They are black and
ridged almost all the way through.
BEHAVIOUR: Young hide for at least two weeks after birth in the grass.
DISTRIBUTION: Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir; northern Sikkim.164
HABITAT: Alpine meadows and steppes, avoiding cold deserts. Found
both on hillsides and valleys.

P. hodgsoni female and young, Tibetan plateau

Panthalops hodgsoni male winter coat, Tibetan plateau
 P. picticaudata male, Tso Lhamo plateau, Sikkim

Procapra picticaudata male, Tso Lhamo plateau, Sikkim

 P. picticaudata females, early winter coat, Kalak Tatar, Ladakh, Jammu &
Kashmir

COMMON NAME: ASIATIC IBEX

Family: Bovidae Subfamily: Caprinae Latin Name: Capra sibirica Pallas, 1776165 Subspecies:
Himalayan Ibex C.s. sakeen Blyth, 1842166 Local Names: Kail (Kashmiri), Kali bakri (Gojri), Sakin
(male); Dabmo (female) (Ladakhi), Tangrol (Chamba) Best Seen At: Pin Valley NP, Himachal
Pradesh; Kanji WLS, Jammu & Kashmir IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ I/ Uncommon
Social Unit: Large feeding aggregations of up to 100 animals can be seen in spring; average herd
size 10-15167 Size: HBL: 103–132 cm (male); 85–101 cm (female), HAS: 65–105 cm, HL: 90–148
cm (male); 19–39 cm, (female),168 Wt: 60–130 kg (male); 30–56 kg (female)

DESCRIPTION: A large mountain goat with close relatives in Central

Asia and Europe, the Himalayan Ibex male is easily told apart from other
caprids by his characteristic horn and beard. Females are grey–brown in
colour with less distinct white underparts, have thin parallel horns and dark
markings on their legs. Both sexes have a dark dorsal stripe down the length
of their back, and short, dark, furry tails. The dense coat of the male is
brownish in summer. From autumn to spring, males are dark brown or black
with a dull white saddle on the back that is divided by the dorsal stripe.
Another whitish patch can develop at the base of the neck.
The male has distinctive thick, scimitar-shaped horns (this shape is used
to identify various subspecies) that diverge and curve backwards. The front
face of the horn is flattened and has thick horizontal ridges much like the
crown of teeth; yearlings are like females, with a small beard and short,
spike-like horns. Class I males are larger, with longer beard, and horns
bearing five ridges on average. Class II males are larger still and have 6–7
ridges on the horn. Class III males have full adult pelage, long beard and 8–
9 ridges on the horn. Class IV males have huge horns of over 64 cm,
bearing more than 10 ridges.169
BEHAVIOUR: The Ibex does not always migrate to lower heights in
winter and mostly stays at fairly high altitudes using windblown ridges.
Unlike most other caprids, the Ibex is known to dig craters through snow to
access forage in winter.170
DISTRIBUTION: Trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh and the Greater
Himalayas and Pir Panjals of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.
The eastern limit seems to be the Bara-lacha La Pass on the north and the
Sutlej Gorge south of the Great Himalayan Range in Himachal Pradesh.171
In the trans-Himalayas, occurs from the rugged tracts of Hindu Kush,
Karakoram, Zanskar, through Lahaul and Spiti, up to the Sutlej gorge in
Himachal Pradesh. The southernmost populations may occur south of the
Pir Panjal Range in Manali WLS in Himachal Pradesh.
HABITAT: Steep crags above the treeline in the Himalayas up to 5,500 m.
In the Himalayas, frequents 3,400–4,400 m while in the trans-Himalayas
frequents 4,000–4,725 m.172 Grazes on alpine pastures and wet meadows
but always close to rocky precipitous terrain. Occasionally enters forests. In
the trans-Himalayas frequents dry grassland steppe.173
Capra sibirica adult female in spring, Pin Valley NP, Himachal Pradesh

C. sibirica adult Class IV males, Pin Valley NP, Himachal Pradesh

C. sibirica Class II male, winter coat, Pin Valley NP, Himachal Pradesh

C. sibirica Class II male summer coat, Pin Valley NP, Himachal Pradesh
 C. sibirica yearling, Pin Valley NP, Himachal Pradesh

COMMON NAME: MARKHOR

Family: Bovidae Subfamily: Caprinae Latin Name: Capra falconeri Wagner, 1839;174
Subspecies: Flare-horned Markhor C.f. falconeri Wagner, 1839175 Local Names: Markhor (male);
Chawuj (female) (Kashmiri), Rapoche (male); Rawache (female) (Ladakhi) Best Seen At: Limber
and Lachipora nullahs of Kazinag NP, Jammu & Kashmir IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered/
I/ Rare Social Unit: Gregarious; females, yearlings and juvenile males associate in herds of 8-9;
larger herds also known;176 adult males, solitary or in small bachelor bands during the non-breeding
season, join up with the female herds during the rut in early winter177 Size: HBL: 155–170 cm
(male), HAS: 65–105 cm, HL: 80–165 cm (male); 35 cm (female),178 AS: Up to 160 cm (male); 25
cm (female); Wt: 80–108 kg (male); 30–50 kg (female)

DESCRIPTION: The largest mountain goat in the world, the Markhor179

has long fur like the Himalayan Tahr, a flowing beard, and corkscrew horns.
Males vary from iron-grey to off-white in winter with hints of red-brown in
summer. Females are fawn and are only about half the size of an adult male.
Both sexes have dark brown muzzles, brown upper legs and a brown flank
stripe. The belly, small rump patch and lower legs are white with a dark
patch below the knees. Tail is short and less bushy than that of the Ibex.
Yearlings resemble females but are smaller in size with slightly larger
and broader horns. Females are also slightly lighter than yearlings. Class I
males are the size of females with a darker grey-brown pelage, horns up to
45 cm, and no ruff. However, they have a thicker neck and darker pelage
than females. Class II males have the beginnings of the ruff (white hair on
chest and forelegs) and have horns over 50 cm. Class III males have a big
black beard, and light ruff on the neck and chest up to forelegs. A light
patch on the thigh and a black fur streak on the shoulder and haunch starts
upwards. Horns are big, with one-and-a-half or two turns of the corkscrew.
Class IV males have massive horns with two-and-a-half turns of the
corkscrew, voluminous ruffs and black faces.180
Subspecies have been separated morphologically on the basis of their
horn shape although there is much variation in this. Typically, the Flare-
horned Markhor has a more loosely spiralled, open type of corkscrew that
diverges towards the tips.181
BEHAVIOUR: Can climb trees like goats do and the most precipitous of
terrain.
DISTRIBUTION: In three discrete populations in the Kazinag (Limber,
Lachipora and Naganari), Pir Panjal (Hirpora, Poonch and Boniyar-
Nilkanth),182 Jammu & Kashmir.
HABITAT: Dense pine and fir forests, open barren slopes, and grassy
glades, all near precipitous rocky cliffs with often more than 60° slope. In
alpine habitat, frequents areas with birch and juniper.
 Capra falconeri adult female, Kazinag NP, Jammu & Kashmir

C. falconeri, adult male Class IV, Limber WLS, Jammu & Kashmir
C. falconeri adult female (background), yearling male (foreground) and kid
(right), Kazinag NP, Jammu & Kashmir
 C. falconeri, adult male Class III, extralimital

COMMON NAME: GREATER BLUE SHEEP

Family: Bovidae Subfamily: Caprinae Latin Name: Pseudois nayaur Hodgson, 1833183 Local
Names: Bharal (Hindi), Bharar/Bharut (Kumaoni), Na/Sna (Ladakhi), Nao (Bhutia), Naur
(Nepalese), Nervati/ Noh (Monpa) Best Seen At Kibber WLS, Himachal Pradesh; Hemis NP, Jammu
& Kashmir; Gangotri NP, Uttarakhand IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ I/ Locally
Common Social Unit: Solitary animals are common and herds mostly occur in medium-sized groups
of 10-15; sexes usually segregate in summer when males mostly occur in all-male groups, and
females and young separate into more secure areas Size: HBL:120–140 cm, HAS: 80–91.4 cm
(male), HL: 38–76 cm (male);10–20 cm (female),184 Wt: 60–75 kg (male); 35–55 kg (female)

DESCRIPTION: Adult male Bharal have a slate-blue coat. In winter, this

colouration becomes more pronounced, while in summer the coat becomes
red-brown especially in females and young, serving as better camouflage.
The trans-Himalayan rams tend to achieve a light, almost cream,
colouration while in the Himalayas, the colour is much darker.185 Adult
rams in both areas have dark brown to black markings on the neck, chest
and legs, and a flank stripe that merges with the colour of the legs. The tail
is short and dark. The insides of the limbs and the rump patch are distinctly
white. Male horns are very characteristic and curve outward, backward and
then downward in a crescent formation. The tips of the horn once again
point upwards at the very end in prime males over eight years of age.
Females are one-third the size of the males, have much shorter and thinner
horns that diverge out, are dull shale in colour and have dark grey instead of
black markings on their body. This species displays both goat- and sheep-
like characteristics but on current genetic differences is placed closer to
Capra than Ovis.186 The ram lacks a beard and has feet glands, like others
in the sheep family. However, it also shares goat-like traits such as smooth
horns and the absence of facial glands. Yearlings are two–third the size of
females while Class I males are as big as females. Horn size increases from
15 cm in yearlings to 25 cm in Class I, 35 cm in Class II and over 40 cm in
Class III and IV. During breeding rut, the neck swells and a penis skin bulge
is also seen.187
BEHAVIOUR: During rut, males rear up and strike each other like goats.
However, they court females by raising their forelegs and stretching out
their head in sheep-like fashion. They may mouth their own red penis as a
threat display (like goats), but they may rub their face on the rival’s
backside in appeasement (like sheep).
DISTRIBUTION: The Greater Himalayan meadows and trans-Himalayan
regions in India from Jammu & Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh. Along with
the Serow, has the largest distribution of a Himalayan mountain ungulate in
India.
HABITAT: Mountainous regions above the treeline, open grassy or
boulder-strewn ground and high cliffs. They use areas with crags and cliffs
but largely as retreats from danger. When foraging they are found in alpine
meadows.
Pseudois nayaur Class III male, Spiti, Himachal Pradesh
Pseudois nayaur Class III adult male, Gangotri NP, Uttarakhand

P. nayaur lamb, Nakki La, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

 P. nayaur adult female, Kibber, Spiti, Himachal Pradesh

P. nayaur herd of all age-classes, winter, Tso Lhamo, Sikkim

COMMON NAME: HIMALAYAN TAHR

Family: Bovidae Subfamily: Caprinae Latin Name: Hemitragus jemlahicus C.H. Smith, 1826188
Local Names: Jharal/Yang/Reiwo (Nepalese), Jharal/Jharal thar (Pahari), Jungli bakri (Hindi),
Karth (in Chamba and Jammu), Kras/Jegla (Kashmiri), Thar tharyo (Kumaoni) Best Seen At:
Kedarnath WLS, Uttarakhand IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Near Threatened/ I/ Uncommon Social
Unit: Mixed herds of up to 75 animals;189 group size in spring 5–6 comprising female and offspring,
including yearlings and one or two subadults Size: HBL: 130–170 cm (male); 90 cm (female),
HAS:100 cm (male); 65 cm (female), HL: 28–38 cm (male), <25 cm (female),190 AS: Up to 46 cm;
female horns smaller, Wt: 90–124 kg (male); 55–72 kg (female)

DESCRIPTION: The Himalayan Tahr male is a deep copper-brown

mountain goat while ewes and younger males are light brown. The male
Tahr has a coarse, tangled mane (straw-coloured in summer) over its neck
and chest, and a mantle that covers the flanks down to its thighs. The rump,
the abdomen and the back of the lower legs are rusty. The horns on both
sexes are close-set, short, laterally compressed, wrinkled and having a sharp
keel on the anterior edge. They both curve backwards, but female horns are
marginally shorter and do not curve as much downwards as male ones do.
The skull shape is such that the foramen magnum is set beneath the horn
bases, much like the Argalis and Bharal (species that do a lot of
headbutting) despite the horns being small and the Tahr rarely headbutting
like the sheep.191
Yearling males resemble adult females but are smaller and have the
beginnings of a ruff. Class I males achieve adult female size, but their
colour is still pale, the mantle on the back is not developed and the horns
are smooth, not wrinkled. Class II males have a decent ruff, a short mantle,
a deeper brown colour and the horns have turned from yellow to brown.
Class III males develop the full ruff and mantle, have black faces, and the
horns are fully developed.192
BEHAVIOUR: Adult males segregate into all-male herds in spring and
rejoin females in the autumn.
DISTRIBUTION: Fragmented distribution in western and central
Himalayas from Jammu & Kashmir (rare: west of Doda) to Sikkim.
HABITAT: Temperate and subalpine forested precipitous terrain with grass
cover and slopes with oak and bamboo forests. In the Greater Himalayas,
found on southern forested slopes. (1,550–5,300 m, although they prefer
higher altitudes between 2,000–4400 m).
Hemitragus jemlahicus Class III, male, extralimital
H. jemlahicus female and kid, captive

H. jemlahicus Class I male, captive

 H. jemlahicus Class II male, Khangchendzonga NP, Sikkim

H. jemlahicus Class II male, extralimital

COMMON NAME: NILGIRI TAHR

Family: Bovidae, Subfamily Caprinae Latin Name: Nilgiritragus hylocrius Ogilby, 1838193 Local
Names: Varai aadu (Malayalam/Tamil), Varudai (Tamil), Parr awdd (Toda) Best Seen At:
Eravikulam NP, Kerala IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered/ I/ Locally Common Social Unit:
Large mixed groups of 2–140 and all-male groups (non-breeding season) of 2–20 animals; old
saddlebacks are solitary; sexes segregate outside the rutting season Size: HBL: 150 cm (male); 110
cm (female), HAS: 80–100 cm, HL: 28–44 cm (male); <30 cm (female),194 Wt: 50–100 kg

DESCRIPTION: A handsome goat, the male Nilgiri Tahr looks like a

shorn version of the male Himalayan Tahr, without the flowing mane and
hair. The females have a short, greyish brown coat, whitish underparts and a
buff patch around the eyes and the muzzle. The legs are darker than the
body and there is a conspicuous dark spot (carpal patch) above the knees.
The female has a single pair of teats unlike the Himalayan Tahr. Adult
males assume a blue-black colour grizzled with white hair, a short bristly
mane from nape to mid-back and just posterior to that a distinctive whitish
or pale saddle-shaped patch, giving it the popular regional nomenclature of
‘saddleback’. The male has two clear, dark patches on the bridge of the nose
and on the face below the eyes, separated by a streak of pale fur. The legs
are darker in the front as in females, but exactly where the females have
dark spots above the knees, the males have a pair of white spots.
Both sexes share characteristics such as a pale abdomen and rump, short,
black wispy tail, and a dark dorsal band through the length of their back.
They have medium-sized horns that are parallel, heavily ridged and curved
backwards. The keel is short and exists along the front inner angle.195
Yearlings are grey and have horns between 7–14 cm; any animal with
shorter horns is a kid. Class I or light brown males are very similar to adult
females, including the black carpal patch, but the scrotum or penis sheath is
visible. Class II or large light brown males are larger, stockier, with heavier
horns and the carpal patch starts turning white. Class III or dark brown
males have white carpal patches, dark brown bodies but no saddle. Class IV
or saddleback have a clear saddle on their backs. In younger saddlebacks,
the saddle is off-white and the shoulders turn black, older ones have a
silver-grey saddle and the shoulders and neck turn black, and the oldest of
males have a silver saddle and the shoulders, neck and withers are black.196
BEHAVIOUR: While the herd rests in the hot afternoon hours, a very
conspicuous sentinel stands guard. This sentinel can be an adult female just
as much as a subadult male, unlike many other caprids.
DISTRIBUTION: In several fragmented populations in Kerala and Tamil
Nadu along the Western Ghats. Current fragments are in the Nilgiri Hills,
Silent Valley, Siruveni Hills, Elival Mala, Nelliyampathy Hills, Top Slip
and Parambikulam, Eastern Slopes and Grass Hills of Anamalai,
Swamimalai, Eravikulam NP, High Range, Palani Hills, Highwavy
mountains, Mudaliar Oothu, Vellakaltheri, Ashambu Hills and
Thiruvannamalai peak.197
HABITAT: Montane grassland and rocky crags, interspersed with shola or
stunted montane wet-evergreen forests of the Nilgiris. Uses grassland
dominated by Eulalia phyothrix and Andropogon polyptichus (1,200–2,600
m).198

N. hylocrius Class II light brown male, Eravikulam NP, Kerala

Nilgiritragus hylocrius saddleback and adult female, Eravikulam NP, Kerala

 N. hylocrius female and yearling, Eravikulam NP, Kerala

N. hylocrius Class III young saddleback, Eravikulam NP, Kerala

 N. hylocrius kid, Nelliyampathy Hills, Kerala

COMMON NAME: URIAL

Family: Bovidae Subfamily: Caprinae Latin Name: Ovis orientalis Gmelin, 1774199 Subspecies:
Ladakh Urial O.o. vignei Blyth, 1841 Local Names: Shapu (male); Shamo (female) (Ladakhi), Urial
(Punjabi) Best Seen At: Nimdum WLS and Rong Nallah, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ I/ Uncommon Social Unit: All male herds; female with
young; mixed herds during breeding season Size: HBL: 109–116 cm (male), HAS: 91 cm (male); 68
cm (female), HL: 63–73 cm (male),200 Wt: 35–90 kg

DESCRIPTION: Previously also called the Red Sheep, the Urial

resembles the Argali, but is smaller with shorter, thinner horns. Adult males
in winter are reddish grey (some being clearly chestnut) with a piebald ruff
and saddle. The saddle patch is black in front and white at the back. The
long black throat ruff merges with a white chest ruff, both of which are lost
in the spring. Unlike the Argali, the ruff is only around the centre of the
neck and does not spread all around. A dark flank stripe separating the
upper parts and the underparts, and dark hair above and below the knee are
present in both sexes. The face, bib, undersides and lower legs are white.
The rump is a much smaller white patch than in the Argali but looks
conspicuous because of light-coloured hair around it as well as the white
scrotum. Ewes do not have the saddle patch or bib and are lighter, while the
young are greyer and smaller. Ewes have short horns and the lateral stripe is
restricted to a black spot under the forelegs.
Urial rams have large, semicircular horns that in large males ascribe
three-fourths of a circle. Most Ladakh Urial have heteronym horns, i.e.,
they point inwards towards the back of their necks. However, some males
may develop homonym or sickle-shaped horns, which are deeply
corrugated.
Yearlings are slightly smaller and greyer than adult females and a thin
black line initiates the ruff on the neck. The horns are marginally bigger
than the ewes. Class I males have a broad, dark line on the neck, dark lateral
stripe, and horns are around 40 cm. Class II rams have redder pelage,
initiation of a saddle, longer horns (up to 60 cm) and white scrotum; grey
forelegs have turned white. Class III males have a clear saddle and ruff, and
the horns are semicircular. Class IV males have large horns with a three-
quarter circle ascribed by them.201
BEHAVIOUR: Rams in rut visit several herds, unlike wild goats that keep
to a single herd.
DISTRIBUTION: Restricted to the Indus, Shyok and Nubra river valleys
in Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir.
HABITAT: Alpine steppe; usually avoids steep slopes. Gently rolling hills
and open, arid land (up to 4200 m). Dense forest can be a barrier to
movement.
 Ovis orientalis vignei adult male Class III spring pelage, Hemis–
Shukpachen, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

O.o. vignei herd: adult female, yearlings and kid, Ladakh, Jammu &
Kashmir
O.o. vignei Class II male, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir
 O.o. vignei adult female, captive

O.o. vignei adult female, female yearling and kid, Ladakh, Jammu &
Kashmir

COMMON NAME: ARGALI

Family: Bovidae Subfamily: Caprinae Latin Name: Ovis ammon Linnaeus, 1758 Subspecies: O.a.
hodgsoni Blyth, 1841202 Local Names: Nayan (male); Nayanmo (female) (Ladakhi), Kuchan
(male); Mesh (female) (Wakhan) Best Seen At: Gya Miru and Tsokar Basin, Ladakh, Jammu &
Kashmir IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Near Threatened/203 I/ Rare Social Unit: Mixed herds; all-
male herds; all-female and young herds204 Size: HBL: 167 cm (male); 148 cm (female),205
HAS:115–118 cm (male); 99–112 cm (female), Wt: 98–105 kg (male); 68 kg (female)

DESCRIPTION: The Argali is largest among India’s wild sheep. Both

sexes sport a light grey-brown pelage in summer, darker along the back,
with white face, undersides and a white rump. The dark upper sides are
separated from the light undersides by a dark lateral line. In winter, the red
in the coat gives way to darker grey. Males (rams) are about three times the
size of the female (ewes) and in winter develop a long creamy white ruff
that ends on a grey–brown shoulder. Unlike the Urial, the Argali ram has a
ruff that extends over most of its neck. The rams have massive curled horns
with their tips pointing outwards from the spiral and sometimes upwards as
well. The Argali has heavier horns and a larger white rump than many other
subspecies of O.ammon. The horns are so massive that often they show
brooming and in older males are broken off near the tip. The tail is short
and black-tipped. As both ends of the male are white and the back dark, it
looks very much like a light sheep wearing a dark dinner-jacket.206 Ewes
are smaller than males as in most sheep, have smaller horns that are less
ribbed than males and their rump patches are not as distinct as those of the
rams. Argali young are dark grey and, as yearlings, start assuming adult
pelage.
BEHAVIOUR: Does not seek cover even when running from predators
such as wolf, tending to outrun them. It is common for females to give birth
to twins.
DISTRIBUTION: Eastern Ladakh including the trans-Himalayan regions
of Gya Miru, Chang Chen Mo and Tso Kar in Ladakh,207 Jammu &
Kashmir. It was thought to be found very rarely in Sikkim208 but may be
found more commonly on the border with Tibet. Still extremely rare in
Lahaul and Spiti in Himachal Pradesh.209
HABITAT: High rolling hillsides, rarely in valleys or rugged areas (4,200–
5,500 m).210 Avoids cliffs and areas with more than 20 cm of snow.211
Separated ecologically from the Urial by occupying higher alpine meadows
than the Urial and avoiding broken ground lower down.
 Ovis ammon adult Class IV male, summer coat, Tso Lhamo, Sikkim

O. ammon Class IV older males, winter pelage, Gya Miru proposed WLS,
Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir
O. ammon yearling female, Gya Miru proposed WLS, Ladakh, Jammu &
Kashmir

O. ammon female (front) and male Class III (back), Tso Lhamo, Sikkim
 O. ammon females and kids herd in the summer, Tso Lhamo, Sikkim

COMMON NAME: TAKIN

Family; Bovidae Subfamily: Caprinae Latin Name: Budorcas taxicolor Hodgson, 1850
Subspecies: Mishmi Takin B.t. taxicolor Hodgson, 1850; Bhutan Takin B.t. whitei212 Lydekker,
1907 Local Names: Takin (Adi), Takang (Idu Mishmi), Sebing (Nyshi), Kemya (Monpa) Best Seen
At: Mehao WLS, Arunachal Pradesh IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ I/ Rare Social Unit:
Mixed herds with males, females and young; adult males outside the breeding season can be solitary;
usually herds comprise 4–5 individuals, an average of 20–30 animals and occasionally even 100213
Size: HBL: 170–220 cm,214 HAS: 107–140 cm, HL: 58–91 cm (male larger than females), Wt: 150–
350 kg

DESCRIPTION: The Mishmi Takin is a bulky rupicaprid, clothed in

brownish grey shaggy fur with dark facial markings and a dark dorsal stripe
that runs from head to tail. The animals are taller at the shoulder than the
rear and, therefore, have an ungainly slope. The legs are bulky, supporting
the massive bovine body. The tail is dark and short, but bushy. All feet have
a prominent dewclaw above the twin hoof, making its tracks one of the
easiest to recognize in the wild. The horns are short cones with a knob at the
base, curving up, out and then back.215 The tips of the horn always point
out. Males have a darker face and limbs (almost blue–grey) and a very short
beard. The fur is long and hangs under the chin and neck in a fringe. In an
adult male, the rest of the body is pale brown with a lighter saddle on the
back. The females are significantly smaller, with smaller horns, and are
more uniformly grey with less black on the face. In the Bhutanese
subspecies, B.t. whitei,216 the male is yellowish brown on the chest and
shoulders, and dark brown on the back and rear with a dark dorsal stripe.
The Bhutanese believe it mythologically to be a mixture of a sheep, a yak
and a cow! Overall, the Mishmi Takin is a darker animal with more grey in
it with the browns forming only on the back and shoulders parted by the
dark dorsal stripe. The Bhutanese Takin is a lighter animal with more brown
in it, having black only on the legs and the face.
BEHAVIOUR: The Takin is attracted to hot sulphur springs and salt licks,
where it gathers in large numbers. It is more crepuscular than most
ungulates, preferring early mornings and late evenings but it does venture
out in broad daylight as well.
DISTRIBUTION: Northern and north–eastern Arunachal Pradesh (B.t.
taxicolor) and possibly rarely in northern Sikkim (B.t. whitei).217
HABITAT: Dense bamboo and rhododendron thickets, moist deciduous
and evergreen forests, coniferous forests; steep slopes with dense vegetation
(1,000–4,000 m; prefers 2,500–3,500 m).218
Budorcas taxicolor taxicolor young male, Mehao WLS, Arunachal Pradesh
 Budorcas taxicolor whitei, adult male, captive

B.t. taxicolor female protects young from Wild Dog attack, Mehao WLS,
Arunachal Pradesh
 B.t. whitei female and juvenile, captive

B.t. taxicolor young male, Mehao WLS, Arunachal Pradesh

COMMON NAME: HIMALAYAN BROWN GORAL

Family: Bovidae Latin Name: Nemorhaedus goral Hardwicke, 1825219 Local Names: Ghoral
(Hindi, Kumaoni), Ra giyu (Bhotia), Deo sagoli (Assamese), Ram chhagol (Bengali), Pij/Pijur/ Ran
(male); Raan (female) (Kashmiri) Best Seen At: Majhatal WLS, Himachal Pradesh
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Near Threatened/ III/ Locally Common Social Unit: Adult males are
solitary but can associate with female groups especially for feeding; females form small groups of 2–
3, very rarely 5–6 Size: HBL: 82–120 cm, HAS: 60–70 cm, HL: 15–23 cm220 (male), Wt: 35–42 kg
(male)

DESCRIPTION: The Brown Goral is a small, brown goat–antelope;

shaggy, brownish grey in winter to a sleeker greyish brown in summer. It
has a white upper throat patch and white spots on its muzzle. Its horns are
short, ridged and backward pointing, and thinner in the females. A dark
dorsal band extends to the tail. The underparts are pale brown and the legs
are bright brown with white flecking on the forelegs just above its black
hooves.
BEHAVIOUR: If alarmed, it stands its ground, sneezing and hissing, and
then bounds away in a zigzag course into scrub cover.
DISTRIBUTION: Northern India, east of River Sutlej; along the
Himalayas to Arunachal Pradesh, north of River Brahmaputra.
HABITAT: Steep but grassy mountain slopes (more than 30°) with low tree
cover and moderate shrubs interspersed with cliffs. Avoids shrub growth
above its shoulder height. Uses forest cover, open gullies, cliffs and rocky
areas for escape221 (400–4,000 m).

COMMON NAME: HIMALAYAN GREY GORAL

Family: Bovidae Latin Name: Nemorhaedus bedfordi Lydekker, 1905222 Local Names:
Pij/Pijur/Rai/Ran (male); Raan (female) (Kashmiri) Best Seen At: Jammu, Jammu & Kashmir
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Near Threatened/ Unlisted/ Rare Social Unit: Female and one or two
offspring; adult and subadult males; solitary Size: Unknown

DESCRIPTION: This is a predominantly grey-furred animal with a

creamy white lower lip, chin, throat and belly. It has an indistinct black
spinal band till its withers.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: West of Sutlej River in Punjab, Himachal Pradesh,
Jammu & Kashmir.
HABITAT: Dense tall vegetation on steep, south-facing slopes.

COMMON NAME: RED GORAL

Family: Bovidae Latin Name: Nemorhaedus baileyi223 Pocock, 1914 Local Names: Sathar (Mizo)
Best Seen At: Mehao WLS and Namdapha NP, Arunachal Pradesh IUCN/WPA/Indian Status:
Vulnerable/ Unlisted/ Rare Social Unit: Solitary males; females with offspring, sometimes of the
previous year, too Size: HBL: 90–110 cm, HAS: 55–60 cm, HL: 9–15 cm (male); 7.5–13 cm
(female), Wt: 20–30 kg (male)

DESCRIPTION: A small fox-red goral, it has a dark back, paler

undersides and a bright chestnut front. The muzzle has white around the
lips, and a white spot on the forehead indicates a young animal. The
scrotum is white, as are the insides of the small ears.
BEHAVIOUR: Prefers sunny slopes when feeding.224
DISTRIBUTION: Eastern Arunachal Pradesh.
HABITAT: Steep, rocky woodland and scrub, higher and in moister forests
than other goral species (2,000–4,500 m).

Nemorhaedus goral young male, Khangchendzonga NP, Sikkim

 Nemorhaedus bedfordi male, captive

Nemorhaedus baileyi, Mehao WLS, Arunachal Pradesh

 N. goral female, Rishikesh, Uttarakhand

N. bedfordi female, Vaishno Devi, Jammu & Kashmir

 Nemorhaedus caudatus (Note: The Long-tailed Goral has been
recently reported from Arunachal Pradesh)

COMMON NAME: HIMALAYAN SEROW

Family: Bovidae Latin Name: Capricornis thar225 Hodgson, 1831 Local Names: Deo sagoli
(Assamese), Jongli chhagol (Bengali), Gya (Bhotia), Halj (Kashmiri), Jingal (Chamba), Kya
(Monpa), Saza (Mizo), Sarao (Hindi), Tellu (Naga), Thar (Kumaoni) Best Seen At: Himalayan form:
Kedarnath WLS, Uttarakhand; Red form: Mehao WLS, Arunachal Pradesh IUCN/WPA/Indian
Status: Near Threatened/ I/ Occasional Social Unit: Seen solitary or in small groups of less than 10
animals;226 commonly in ones and twos Size: HBL: 140–170 cm, HAS: 90–100 cm, HL: 16–34 cm
(male), HG: 10–15 cm (male),227 Wt: 85–140 kg

DESCRIPTION: An appearance of a goat with long, donkey-like ears, and

a habit of standing with forelegs astraddle, make the Serow an ungainly
goat–antelope. Its coarse coat (longer hair length than the Goral) varies
from black to red.. Earlier it was believed that there were two subspecies of
the Serow in India: the Himalayan race (C. thar) that is greyish black (north
of the River Brahmaputra), and the Burmese race (C. rubidus) that is
chestnut-brown (south of the river). However, it is now believed that the red
Serow of the Garo, Naga and Mishmi Hills is more closely related to the
Himalayan one than the Burmese species (C. rubidus). In the typical form,
both sexes have a coarse dark, sometimes salt-and-pepper mane and a dark
dorsal stripe that is more evident in some individuals than others. The ears
are ovate and long like a donkey, with creamy white hairs inside, fringed
black. The tail is dark. The rump, forearm and gaskin are rufous and the
shanks are creamy white below the hocks (giving it a stockinged look). The
hooves are black. Relatively short, conical, wrinkled horns are thicker in the
male and thicker at the base in older animals.228 It has a prominent
preorbital gland on the face, another difference from the Goral.
In contrast, the red form has a lighter cream chin, throat and belly, but the
rest of the body, including the legs, the mane and the rump, is a uniform
rufous colour. While the red form is well documented in the lower north–
eastern states, the Serow of eastern Arunachal Pradesh requires more
taxonomic work. In Namdapha two forms have been photographed, one the
clearly red form of the southern states and the other an intermediate brown
with dirty white stockings.
BEHAVIOUR: When alarmed, the Serow bounds away with what has been
variously described as a hissing snort or a whistling scream.
DISTRIBUTION: The dark form in the southern slope of the Himalayas229
from Jammu & Kashmir in the west to Arunachal Pradesh in the east; the
enigmatic red form in the hills of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur,
Mizoram, Tripura and Nagaland.230
HABITAT: Thickly forested gorges, broadleaved valleys, and subalpine
scrub with dense cover and boulder-strewn hills (300–3,000 m).231
Capricornis thar, Sattal, Uttarakhand
C. thar male, Khangchendzonga WLS, Sikkim
C. thar male splashing through a stream (left) and caught in the dark (right),
Namdapha NP, Arunachal Pradesh

C. thar female, Mehao WLS, Arunachal Pradesh

 C. thar juvenile, Parbung, Surachandpur, Manipur

COMMON NAME: INDIAN WILD PIG

Family: Suidae Latin Name: Sus scrofa Linnaeus, 1758232 (Eurasian Wild Pig) Subspecies: S.s.
cristatus Wagner, 1839; S.s. affinis, Gray, 1847; S.s. davidi Groves, 1981 Local Names: Bonoria
gahori (Assamese), Hagra ni omaa (Bodo), Jongli suor (Bengali), Jungli suar (Hindi), Kadu handi
(Kannada), Kadu panri (Tamil), Kattu panni (Malayalam), Poddy (Toda), Ran dukkar (Marathi),
Shaera (Nishi), Sira (Adi), Sungar (Kumaoni), Jungli suvar bhund (Gujarati), Vawk (Mizo), Wak
burung (Garo) Best Seen At: Almost all Indian forests IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least concern/
III/233 Abundant Social Unit: Sounders of 6–20 animals, sow and piglets; solitary old adult males;
subadult groups; male and female during breeding season Size: HBL: 90–200 cm, HAS: 55–110 cm,
Tush length: 20–30 cm,234 Wt: 45–320 kg

DESCRIPTION: A large forest pig, the Indian Wild Pig is one of the most
widely distributed of all ungulates in the world.235 It has a short muzzle,
with the snout disc being perpendicular to the axis of the head. It has no
facial warts and has large ears. The fur is brown, tinged with black and grey
hairs. There is a stiff mane of ‘hog bristles’ along the back. The face, cheeks
and throat have whitish markings. The legs are long and narrow and the
medial false hooves are long. It grows relatively large, visible upper
tushes236 in males. The sow is distinctly smaller than the male, has shorter
tushes, a shorter mane, and has four to six pairs of mammae. The piglets
have longitudinal stripes for the first six months or so.237 It is believed that
the three subspecies of Indian Wild Pig form a common taxonomic group
called the Indian group. Of these, S. s. cristatus, the northern Wild Pig, has
a long mane till the rump and dark or black brindling in the fur. S.s. affinis,
the southern Wild Pig, is browner and larger than the northern race while
S.s. davidi, the western Wild Pig, is smaller and the lightest in colour, with a
long mane but no dark markings on the legs.238 Two indeterminate feral
forms, which are much smaller than the mainland forms, exist in the
Andaman & Nicobar Islands. The Little Andaman pigs have developed over
the years into a ‘long-snouted’ and a ‘short-snouted form’. The Nicobarese
pig has not been studied to any great extent.239
BEHAVIOUR: Extremely pugnacious, an angry Wild Pig can cause more
damage than larger beasts, as it rarely abandons a charge. The dorsal crest is
erected during fierce fights. Wallows in shallow mud pools and scrapes that
indicate resting or feeding spots are indirect signs of the pig.
DISTRIBUTION: Present throughout India except the arid areas of
Rajasthan and Gujarat and the high Himalayas. S.s. cristatus extends from
the Himalayan foothills east through to north–east India and south through
to River Godavari, south of which S.s. affinis is distributed. S.s. davidi is
found in the arid region of the north–west, including Gujarat, Rajasthan and
western Punjab and Haryana. Little Andaman Island are probably the last
haunt of the Andaman feral pig. 240
HABITAT: All habitats including scrub, grassland, mixed deciduous and
evergreen forests. Found in agricultural fields along forest fringes
throughout its range.
 Sus scrofa affinis boar, Wayanad WLS, Kerala

Sus scrofa cristatus adult boar, Achanakmar TR, Chhattisgarh

 Sus scrofa davidii adult boar, Bhavnagar, Gujarat

Sus scrofa (long-snouted form) in the Andamans, feral

 S.s. affinis adult sow and piglets, Bandipur NP, Karnataka

COMMON NAME: PYGMY HOG

Family: Suidae Latin Name: Porcula salvania Hodgson, 18472241 Local Names: Nal gahori
(Assamese), Omaa Thakori (Bodo) Best Seen At: Manas NP, Assam IUCN/WPA/Indian Status:
Critically Endangered/ I/ Rare Social Unit: Males are normally solitary, but they do join females
during the breeding season; females and a few young (4–5) form a basic natal unit and the social
breeding group consists of 4–8 animals Size: HBL: 55–70 cm, HAS: 25 cm, Wt: 6.6–9.7 kg (male); 8
kg (female)242

DESCRIPTION: The rarest and most endangered of all wild pigs globally,
the Pygmy Hog was feared to be extinct until it was rediscovered in
1971.243 It was assigned a monotypic genus status due to its extremely
reduced, streamlined, ‘bullet-shaped’ body that tapers from higher
hindquarters to lower forequarters and equally reduced ears and tail. At first
sight, it is a miniaturized wild pig with a much shorter snout and tail. Like
the Eurasian Wild Pig, the snout disc is perpendicular to the axis of the head
and there are no facial warts. The extremely short tail is not visible in the
field and the animal appears tailless. Adults are grey–brown to black in
colour, and the male is slightly darker than the female. The male develops a
white ‘moustachial’ stripe or patch on either cheek when adult and also
bears small tushes, which are not really visible in the field, and not even
very well on close quarters but that can inflict gashes as deep as those of the
Wild Boar. The female is slightly smaller and has only three pairs of
mammae. The young are lighter with very faint stripes that are visible for a
few weeks. The dentition is exactly the same as that of S. scrofa.244
BEHAVIOUR: Pygmy Hogs are known to groom each other often and
make soft grunting sounds as they forage, both of which help form and keep
sounders together. They are unique in building grass nests for resting and
sleeping.
DISTRIBUTION: North–western Assam, largely restricted to the
Bodoland Territorial Council areas north of River Brahmaputra. Manas NP
has a naturally occurring population. Reintroductions are on in Sonai Rupai
and Orang, and potentially in Nameri and Barnadi WLS.
HABITAT: Tall Terai grassland (2–3 m in height) comprising mainly of
Saccharum spontaneum, Narenga porphyrocoma, Imperata cylindrica,
Sacharum bengalensis and Themeda villosa. The species prefers habitat that
is moist but not inundated for several months of the year and critically
undisturbed by human activity.245
THE PYGMY IN THE GRASS:

THE PYGMY IN THE GRASS: A CONSERVATION

SUCCESS
The most endangered of all pigs, the Pygmy Hog, is making a
comeback to the Indian grasslands due to the combined efforts of a
pioneering and persevering biologist, William Oliver, the Durrell
Wildlife Conservation Trust, the Assam Forest Department and the
Pygmy Hog Conservation Programme set up in 1995 and led by
Goutam Narayan of EcoSystems-India. From a parental stock of six
from Manas NP, Assam, the captive-bred population reached around
70 in 2008 when reintroductions were begun. Sixty Pygmy Hogs
have since been released, bringing back to the tall grasslands its most
endangered pygmy resident.246
Porcula salvania sow in nest, captive, Assam

P. salvania adult male, captive, Assam

P. salvania sow, captive, Assam

P. salvania male, captive, Assam

 P. salvania piglet, one month old, captive, Assam

Artiodactyl Antlers and Horns

Red Muntjac
Hog Deer

Spotted Deer

Sambar

DEER
Brow-antlered Deer

Kashmir Red Deer

Swamp Deer

ANTELOPE
Blackbuck

Blue Bull

Tibetan Antelope
Tibetan Gazelle

Four-horned Antelope

Indian Gazelle male

Indian Gazelle female

VASUNDHARA KANDPAL AND MAYUKH CHATTERJEE

GOAT–SHEEP AND GOAT–ANTELOPE

Argali male

Argali female
Nilgiri Tahr male

Nilgiri Tahr female

Serow male

Serow female
Asiatic Ibex male

Asiatic Ibex female

Goral male
Goral female

Urial male

Urial female

Blue Sheep male

Blue Sheep female

Markhor male

Markhor female

CATTLE

Gaur male
Gaur female

Wild Buffalo female

Wild Buffalo male

Wild Yak male

Wild Yak female

Artiodactyl Hoof Marks

Musk deer

Red Muntjac

Sambar
Hog Deer

Spotted Deer

Takin

Himalayan Serow
Blue Sheep

Gaur

Wild Buffalo

Goral
Indian Wild Pig

Blue Bull
Blackbuck

Indian Gazelle

VASUNDHARA KANDPAL

Age Classes of Gaur

Field Notes: From Tip to Toe
The first ever wildlife photographs that I took were those of a Wild
Boar. I used to walk the Pandanus fringed beaches of Point Calimere
WLS in Tamil Nadu where I researched the Brahminy Kite every
evening. Nearly every day I used to go past an adult Wild Boar
coming the other way. The photos were black and white, and not
world beaters in class, but they still remain my favourite in terms of
memory.

The state animal of Chhattisgarh is the ‘Van’ Bhainsa or wild

buffalo. However, it is fast becoming the ‘one’ bhainsa! There is
only one female left amongst seven males in Udanti WLS. WTI
along with the Chhattisgarh forest department is trying an ex-situ
conservation project to bring the central Indian population back from
the brink. The one female is called Asha or ‘hope’!
The only place you can see an endangered mountain goat without
getting out of your car is at Rajamalai in Eravikulam National Park.
Drive on the road to Munnar and amidst tea gardens, a short
diversion takes you to the abode of the Nilgiri Tahr. Deep blue male
goats, short green grass, a mist that swirls and red wild dogs that
hunt them make for a rare visual treat.

In the Changtang in Ladakh, with a WTI team surveying the Tibetan

antelope, the jeep ahead of us came face to face with a magnificent
Argali ram. Just then a wolf came from another cliff-face and, on a
mountain road with nowhere to go, decided on a bold lunge to grab
the sheep by its scruff. The impressive ram stood its ground and with
a toss of its muscled neck threw the wolf clean off the cliff-side! So
much for the feared predator.

The strangest looking ungulate in India is the Takin, which the

Bhutanese believe is the handiwork of a playful monk who joined a
goat’s head to a cow’s body. I saw my wild Mishmi Takin on cliffs
that promised to drop you down a thousand feet if you took a wrong
step in Mehao WLS in Arunachal Pradesh.
Carnivores
INDIAN CARNIVORES AT A GLANCE
NUMBER OF SPECIES 57
BIGGEST Himalayan Brown Bear
SMALLEST Small Indian Mongoose
MOST COMMON Jackal, Jungle Cat and Grey Mongoose
MOST ENDANGERED Malabar Civet
Activity

Niche Occupancy
A tiger sees you a hundred times for each time you see it; a young male in
Corbett NP, Uttarakhand

Carnivore Skulls

Clouded Leopard
Wild Cat

Dhole

Wolf

Binturong

Striped Hyaena

RADHIKA BHAGAT (ADAPTED FROM MACDONALD D., 2001)

WHAT IS A CARNIVORE?
Carnivores are animals that are adapted to eating flesh. Some 286 species
are put in the order Carnivora, which includes a few non-carnivores.1 There
are also many carnivorous species that are not mammals.2 However,
carnivorous mammals share common features of well-developed canines,
premolars and molars with cutting (carnassial) edges, and well-developed
incisors. They also have well-developed feet with four or more sharp and
strong claws.

WHAT ARE FELIDS, CANIDS AND HYAENIDS?

Cats evolved some 40 million years ago. The 40 species found globally
vary considerably in size and colour, but all have slender, graceful bodies,
round heads, shortened muzzles and erect ears. They vary greatly in size,
but anatomically they are very alike. Unlike canids, many of which hunt by
running flat out at their prey, most cats hunt by stealth, aided by pads on
their soles. They bring down prey by swiping at them with their forepaws
and have thus developed powerful forearms and sharp claws, which unlike
in canids, are retractable into sheaths. While traditionally the tiger, lion,
leopard, Snow Leopard, and Clouded Leopard are called Big Cats
(subfamily Pantherinae), there are 10 other species of wild felids called
smaller cats (subfamily Felinae). Of these, in India, the ears of the eastern-
range species3 are rounded and the tail is longer than half the body while
the ears of the northern-range species4 are pointed with tufts and the tail is
short.5 All cats have strongly patterned coats, with the exception of four or
five in which the adult loses the coat markings that appear in the juveniles.
All cats have reduced dentition of 8–9 teeth in each jaw quadrant, allowing
the skull to be shorter and increasing the efficiency of the muscles that
control the bite. In this, they resemble mustelids, and these two families
have the most powerful bites of carnivores.
The 35 species of canids in the world represent a successful family of
predators, many of which hunt on the run.6 This has endowed them with
slender, elongated bodies and limbs, and digitigrade feet with non-retractile
claws. The tail is normally long and bushy, and the ears long and pointed.
Living canids are broadly divided into five groups. India has two of these:
the wolf-like canids include jackals, wolves and wild dogs;7 the other group
are the foxes, three species of which inhabit India. Compared to canids,
foxes are smaller, with shorter legs, a bushier tail and longer ears. They also
have a flatter head with a more slender muzzle. In India, canids are not
dense-forest species, preferring open or lightly wooded country.
Hyaenas are doglike carnivores with large heads, strong jaws and
muscular forequarters. Like canids, they are efficient scavengers and
hunters, with complex social lives that include meeting and mating
ceremonies, ritualized dominance, and appeasement behaviour. Hyaenas
differ from canids8 in their dentition, which resembles that of felids, and in
having an anal gland like mustelids.

Panthera tigris female and cub, Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan

Two endangered species stand together, Canis lupus pallipes (Indian Grey
Wolf) and Otus tardus (Great Indian Bustard), Nannaj WLS, Maharashtra
Evolutionary tree of Indian carnivores (Adapted from Macdonald D., 2001)

Desert Cat, Kutch, Gujarat

Indian Fox with a small prey, Kutch, Gujarat

 A hyaena crosses a forest track, Velavadar NP, Gujarat

Carnivore Skulls

Otter

Mongoose
Brown Bear

Sloth Bear

RADHIKA BHAGAT (ADAPTED FROM MACDONALD D., 2001)

VIVERRIDS, HERPESTIDS, PRIONODONTIDS,

MUSTELIDS, URSINES AND AILURIDS
Viverrids or civets can be distinguished from mustelids by their unique
civet gland, a modified skin gland, functional in true civets and vestigial in
Palm Civets. Civets differ from cats (although many of them are called civet
cats) in having five toes on the hind feet and an elongated face. Many
viverrids have ringed tails; others are plain in colour. Civets can be
distinguished from mongooses (belonging to the Herpestidae family) in
three ways: civet ears are large with a well-developed bursa, they are
omnivorous and they are nocturnal while mongoose ears are short and
without a bursa, they are carnivorous and insectivorous, and most of them
are diurnal.
Prionodontids or linsangs were for long thought to be a rather different
type of civet, but recently they have been placed in their own family and are
considered a primitive sister clade of cats. They are slender ‘genet’-like
animals, spotted in the coat, long in the neck and tail, and with dentition
that shows hypercarnivory.
Mustelids are one of the most diverse carnivorous families9 of which six
subfamilies are found in India, comprising Hog Badgers (Melinae), Honey
Badgers (Mellivorinae), Ferret Badgers (Helictinidae), otters (Lutrinae),
weasels (Mustelinae) and martens (Martinae). They have unique dentition
(invariable loss of fourth upper molar, and no carnassial notch on the upper
premolar) and an enlarged anal sac. They differ from wild cats in having
non-retractile claws, while the presence of anal glands and a well-developed
first digit on each forefoot distinguishes them from canids.
Mustelinae are characterized by long cylindrical bodies and short limbs,
and round ears that do not protrude above the head. Martinae or martens are
relatively large with a thick, bushy tail, and pointed ears set wide apart.
Otters, on the other hand, are adapted to an aquatic or semiaquatic existence
and to a piscivorous diet. Their thick cylindrical bodies have waterproof fur,
the tail is broad and paddle-shaped, and the feet are partially webbed to aid
swimming. While most other mustelids are solitary or live in pairs, otters
live in close-knit families.
Members of the Ursinae or bear subfamily number eight in all, common
in appearance and form. Though classified as carnivores, they are
omnivorous. They have grinding molars usual in herbivores, as well as the
sharp canines of carnivores. Except the Polar Bear, all other bears are dark
coloured and predominantly vegetarian. Bears are adept at bipedal walking.
When faced with intruders, they stand up, peer short-sightedly and sniff the
air for unfamiliar scents, before deciding whether to run or charge. The
strong white or yellow chest markings present on three of the Indian bear
species probably serve as threat symbols when they rear up on their hind
limbs.
The Red Panda is a taxonomic conundrum, once classified with primitive
carnivores called procyonids. Many place it in the family Ailuridae, others
in the subfamily Ailurinae, family Ursidae.
Red Panda at Pagchen Valley, Zemithang, Arunachal Pradesh

Stripe-necked Mongoose, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu

Small Indian Civet, Someshwara WLS, Karnataka

 Siberian Weasel, Poonch, Jammu & Kashmir

Yellow-throated Marten pair, Khangchendzonga NP, Sikkim

 A Sloth Bear ambles, using a characteristic ‘cross walk’, Masinagudi,
Mudumalai WLS. Tamil Nadu

Paw Bones

Carnivore (right) vs primate (left) paw bones

Otter paws

Teeth

Carnivore teeth

Primate teeth

DIET AND FORAGING

While most carnivores are obligatory meat-eaters, a few are specialists.
Otters are specialized piscivores, as is the Fishing Cat. Most Palm Civets
eat large amounts of fruit and are omnivorous only to the extent of eating
small prey. Mongooses eat insects as well as other small prey. However, the
Red Panda is almost completely a vegetarian with half to all of its diet
coming from bamboo leaves and culms with a small amount of fruit and
mushrooms.10
 At the other end, cats are nearly completely hypercarnivores requiring a
large amount of protein. Big cats such as the tiger and lion target large prey.
Tigers eat Sambar, Wild Pigs and other prey mostly more than 30 kg in
size.11 Lions eat a lot of Chital in the Gir and a fair amount of livestock.
Leopards may kill prey larger than themselves but prefer those of 10–50 kg,
avoiding larger prey.12 Deer, langur, porcupines, lagomorphs and small
birds form a large part of their diet. Small cats mostly eat rodents and small
birds, along with insects and other invertebrates. Jungle Cats and Caracals
were studied to reveal that between 50–70 per cent of their diet was
rodents.13 For Snow Leopards, rodents, hares, pikas, marmots and birds
supplemented their diet of antelope, sheep, goat and livestock.14
Bears are truly omnivorous, spending long hours foraging for berries,
fruits and nuts, supplementing them with insects. The Black Bear is mainly
a frugivore, eating vast amounts of fruit in the summer15 and oak acorns,
walnuts and Celtis fruits16 just before hibernating. In the spring, they eat
insects, and fresh grass and forbes that are protein-rich.17 Brown Bears, too,
are largely plant-eaters, though marmots provide meat protein.18 Rhizomes
and bulbs of sedges, grasses, lilies and rushes constituted 90 per cent of the
diet of the bear in a study.19 Sloth Bears have a largely insectivorous diet,
with termites and ants along with honey and fallen fruits.20
Though seen as scavengers, hyaenas are specialized omnivores. They eat
plant and vegetable matter, efficiently predate on large and small animals,
eat insects, and also scavenge opportunistically.
Weasels and martens are powerful predators that kill with a bite to the
neck and head of small prey, such as rodents and lagomorphs. Martens also
eat fruit and in carnivorous pursuits can be equally arboreal and terrestrial.
All three badger subfamilies are good diggers and the Honey Badger, in
particular, digs deep to get at invertebrates, annelids, burrowing rodents and
even roots of plants. Linsangs are carnivorous, known to take rodents, birds,
reptiles and insects.21
Large canids are more carnivorous; Dholes and wolves are cursorial and
catch medium-to large-sized prey, largely as a social hunting unit. Medium-
sized canids like jackals hunt in packs or solitarily, and scavenge and
predate just as efficiently. Small-sized canids or foxes are the most
adaptable and opportunistic. A study showed that a third of the fox’s diet
was insectivorous with 20 per cent small animals and nearly 18 per cent
Zizyphus fruits.22 They hunt solitarily, by stealth and a leaping-and-
grabbing form of hunting.

A Jungle Cat pounces on an unseen prey, Velavadar NP, Gujarat

A Mountain Weasel leaps with a dead pika in its jaws, Ladakh, Jammu &
Kashmir
Sloth Bear paws elephant dung to find edible bits, Anamalai WLS, Tamil
Nadu

A Dhole couple gorges on a young Sambar, Periyar NP, Kerala

 A Brown Palm Civet eats figs, Anamalai WLS, Tamil Nadu

Otters eat fish, Nagarhole NP, Karnataka

Social Organization in Standard Carnivore Unit

LOCOMOTION
Carnivores employ a variety of locomotion methods for achieving optimum
ability to forage or hunt for food, to escape from predators and for other
daily needs. Most cats and dogs are cursorial and have lean, long limbs,
well-developed muscles and a digitigrade mode of motion, meaning that
they walk or run on their toes. These adaptations give them greater speed
and flexibility. All cats and some viverrids can sheath their claws; this
allows stealth combined with speed. Many carnivores are arboreal, some
primarily so, like fruit-eating civets, and others occasionally, such as cats.
Many of them cannot climb, such as most canids and hyaenids. Many
carnivores are strong swimmers, but the Lutrinae are obligatory swimmers
and have developed paddle-like tails and different amounts of webbing on
their feet for good swimming. Some carnivores such as bears walk with a
bow-legged shuffle, which combined with their poor sight, often makes
them rear up on their hind legs to peer at oncoming objects. Mustelids have
a body shape that allows them to ‘weasel’ into crevices and burrows, swim
well and bound with great speed on land, except for large badgers that
shuffle more than run.

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
Most felids are solitary except when breeding or when the mother is with
her cubs. An exception to this is the lion, which lives in large groups or
prides. However, in Asiatic Lions, unlike the African subspecies, males join
females and cubs in the pride only in the event of a large kill or when the
female is ready for breeding. Otherwise, all-male coalitions are common. It
has also been researched that female–female bonds are stronger than male–
female bonds; the latter are strong only during the breeding period.23
All bears are generally solitary, coming together to mate, or when the
mother is with her offspring (up to three individuals, therefore, can be seen
for up to three years) and during temporary feeding associations. The Black
Bear in Dachigam, Jammu & Kashmir, for example, comes down to the
feeding grounds in autumn and up to 12 animals can be seen in close
proximity at that time. Sloth Bears are solitary but not territorial. Home
ranges of both sexes overlap seasonally and interactions are frequent and
noisy.24
Mustelids, prionodontids and viverrids are usually solitary animals,
except otters, which are social and live in groups called pods.
Generally, small canids such as foxes are monogamous and live in small
groups with a female-biased sex ratio. Females tend to stay in the grouping
and males tend to disperse. In medium-sized canids like jackals, both sexes
disperse and social packs are usually equal in the number of males and
females. The Dhole and wolves live in packs. Dholes live in packs of 4–15
adults and up to 10 pups, but these numbers fluctuate, and sometimes the
packs go down to 2–3 individuals. In wolves and Dholes, the pack ratio is
normally skewed towards males, as females emigrate.25
 A pride of lions feeds on a Chital; lions are the only social wild cats, Gir
NP, Gujarat

A tiger is usually a solitary carnivore and hunts with short charges of great
speed, Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan
 Otters are the only truly aquatic carnivores among mammals, Kabini,
Karnataka

Leopards are adept at climbing trees, Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple WLS,

Karnataka
 Dhole packs vary from two dozen at times to just a pair; a large pack,
Nagarhole NP, Karnataka

Otters are mostly social and live in large pods, Kaziranga NP, Assam

Social Groupings in Standard Carnivore Unit

Multi-male–multi-female, with alpha male (larger symbol), e.g., wolf

Harem prides with one breeding adult male and several adult females with
offspring, e.g., lion

MAYUKH CHATTERJEE (ADAPTED FROM MACDONALD D., 2001)

Multi-male–multi-female groups, sometimes with two to three related adult

females, e.g., Dhole

Multi-male–multi-female groups with young adults of both sexes from

previous litter, e.g., Otter

(Adapted from Macdonald D., 2001)

VOCALIZATION AND COMMUNICATION

Felids are the most vocal of all carnivores and calls are used in combination
with facial gestures, tail carriage and fur posture to communicate when at
close distance to the subject. For medium-to long-range communication,
calls are used in conjunction with spraying of chemical scents. The roar of
tigers and lions are well known even to children, but less known is that
lions end every roar with a short burst of grunts that is unique. Leopards
have a shorter vocalization that is called ‘sawing’ as it approximates the
sound of sawing logs. Clouded Leopards, Caracals and Desert Cats mew
like domestic cats. Fishing Cats utter short, two-toned ‘barks’. Other than
the normally heard call that is territorial or a mating call, leopards and lions
also employ a short sneeze (called puffing), tigers, Clouded Leopards and
Snow Leopards have a snort (called a prusten) and all others have a gurgle-
purr used at different times. Snow Leopards are known to cough, snarl, hiss,
spit, growl and yeowl.26 Contact calls of mothers and offspring are
characteristic; for example, the loud ‘aaahoonh’ of the tigress calling her
cubs.
Hyaenas and canids are vocal creatures, and their calls are characteristic.
While Striped Hyaenas in Africa are thought to be more silent than Spotted
Hyaenas, in India their wailing cackle is often heard at night in their habitat.
Several calls including growls during play and agonistic interactions,
lowing during submissive periods, a short, sharp yelp when chased and
whining by cubs have been noted.27 The jackal has a well-known howl that
is heard more frequently during the winters when pair bonding is being
established. The howl of the jackal is far more common an Indian forest
sound than that of the wolf in more northern climes. The jackal also yelps,
barks, and uses shorter calls. Dholes are the only canids that whistle during
the hunt: the low-pitched whistle serves as a contact call when members of
the pack attack in cohesion.
Pandas deposit chemical signals in urine and faeces, and also produce
them from anal glands. Males mark more than females, especially in the
breeding season. Seven calls have been recorded, most of them involving a
‘whee’, ‘wheet’, ‘whuff’ and ‘uuh’.28
Mustelids, viverrids and prionodontids are mostly solitary animals; sight
and sound are rarely used except during courtship, mating and parenting. At
most other times, olfactory communication is the key. They mark their
territory and leave olfactory stories about their presence, reproductive
readiness and territory from their anal and subcaudal glands. They may mix
the scent with their urine or faeces, or mark it by ‘pasting’ objects such as
prominent vegetation in their area. These scents, lasting several days, are
also produced during interspecific fights, or if handled by a predator or
humans. Badgers and Ferret Badgers also have prominent facial markings
that may serve as warnings to predators. Otters are social and use a variety
of calls, tactile communication and scents left in their ‘spraints’, clumped
together normally at nose height near the river.

Tigress snarls, Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan

Lion roars, Gir NP, Gujarat

A Stripe-necked Mongoose vents its feelings to its partner, Anamalai WLS,
Tamil Nadu

Otters are highly social animals, constantly grooming and having contact
with members of a pod, Parambikulam WLS, Kerala
 A jackal howls at the moon, a canid characteristic vocalization, Kolkata,
West Bengal

Carnivore Claws

Canine claw

Feline claw
Feline claw retraction

MAYUKH CHATTERJEE (ADAPTED FROM MACDONALD D., 2001)

Carnivore Penises

Tiger penis

Wolf penis

REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES
Most cats, being solitary, come together when the female in oestrus
produces a scent marker in her urine, which along with vocalizations,
attracts passing males. Male tigers court for about a week, with frequent
matings. Tigers are very vocal and aggressive when courting, indulging in
play-fighting bouts. Clouded Leopards are even more aggressive and in
captivity have been known to kill their mates frequently during courtship.29
Lions court for nearly a week if the female is in oestrus; then she can mate
for up to 100 times. Matings are short, frequent and very vocal; they differ
from those of tigers in the male not biting the nape of the neck, and
mounting the female by crossing over her supine back and not by
approaching from the rear.30
All cats are territorial; they mark and defend territories vigorously. Snow
Leopards, for example, scrape and leave scents, faeces and urine to mark
territory. Most scrapes are religiously scraped again and again, especially
during mating season.31 Most tropical cats are polyoestrous and come into
season many times a year, but snow-bound cats like the Snow Leopard or
Lynx are monoestrous.32 Cats mostly seem to be induced ovulators; mating
seems to be the trigger. It has been hypothesized that the penile barbules on
a tiger’s penis are meant to induce ovulation in the female though they may
also be used to stimulate her. Canids are mostly territorial; they also mark
and defend territory vigorously. They mark with urine and faeces. In wolf-
like canids, normally one female in a family breeds every year; in foxes,
more than one breed annually. The females are monoestrous, as is the case
with social animals, with seasonal ovulation. Males approach females for
mating upon smelling chemical readiness (progesterone levels rise and are
detected in scent). While mating, canids have a peculiar ‘lock’ during
copulation due to the erectile tissue on a dog’s penis.
Mongooses are generally polygamous (males mating with a number of
females during oestrus and, in some species, females mating with several
males). Females are polyoestrous and are receptive for a number of days,
and possibly mating induces ovulation. All these are probably evolutionary
strategies that are linked to solitary living and large home ranges among
primitive mongooses.33 Mongooses court by biting, leaping around each
other (like mustelids) and play-fighting.
Civets are generally polyoestrous and induced ovulators like cats. Like
felids, females attract males by leaving scent trails. Males are known to
exhibit ‘flehmen’ when sniffing these scents. Mating is rapid, a few
seconds, in which they produce catlike ‘meows’.
Mustelids are solitary and seem hostile to each other outside their mating
season. During the season, they generate interest by chemical messaging
(signposted onto vegetation or excreta) and by specific calls indicating
mating readiness. They are sexually mature between a few months and two
years, depending on the species.
All bears have delayed implantation: mating takes place several months
before pregnancy. Brown Bears mate in June or July, Black Bears in June–
August while Sloth Bears mate in May–July.
Male tigers fight over territory, Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan
Male lion marking and sniffing a tree for territorial scent markings, Gir NP,
Gujarat

Two Sloth Bears rear up aggressively at each other, Bandipur NP, Karnataka

A Ruddy Mongoose scent marks a post, Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan

Jackals fight over territory, Bharatpur, Rajasthan

 Female Desert Fox scent marks, Kutch, Gujarat

Flehmen response by a lioness

Otter carrying pup

Lioness carrying pup

Teat Positions of Carnivores

Canids

Felids

Ursids

In lions, mating occurs mostly in September and October, and the young
are born after a gestation of 100–114 days in the beginning of the new year.
Litter sizes range from 1–6, but the average is three. Although infanticide is
commonly reported in Africa, this does not seem to occur in Gir, Gujarat.
Snow Leopards mate January to March, gestation is 90–103 days and 2–3
cubs are born between April and July. The cubs remain with their mother
from one and a half to two years.34
Tigers have a gestation period of 102–108 days and a litter of 2–5 cubs
(three, on average) is born and nursed on milk for 2–3 months by the
mother. Cubs start hunting with their mother within the year and by 18
months, male tigers start dispersal while females may stick around for 20–
28 months.35 Leopards gestate for 98–105 days36 and their average litter
size is 1–3 (two is common).37 They are weaned after 100 days and become
independent in the first year. They may disperse in 15–24 months.38
Generally, mustelids give birth to a single litter every year in secluded
burrows or dens. The young are tended to as they are born early in their
development. They remain with the mother for a few months and then
wean. Males disperse further than female young.
Larger canids seem to have larger litters and the parents expend a lot of
time and energy in bringing them up. Generally, smaller canids have smaller
litters that are more precocial.39,40 Gestation is normally around two months
and birth takes place in a den in which they live for 2–3 weeks. Packs or
mothers provide food and guard the dens for several months. Large canids
regurgitate food to the young. 41 In Indian Foxes for example, the gestation
period is 50–53 days, the young are born in the first four months of the year
and average litter size is 2–4.42 In Grey Wolves, gestation is 61–63 days, the
young are born March–June and the mean litter size is six.
In hyaenas, gestation is 90–91 days43 and litter size varies from 1–4
cubs.44
In mongooses, several litters are born annually and gestation varies from
42–80 days. Litter size is up to six young, although solitary mongooses tend
to have smaller litters than social ones. Young are born in a den or burrow.
Parenting is the norm. Unlike canids, they do not bring prey to the den and
for the 3–6 months that the young are dependent, the mother probably
suckles them.45
In bears, young are born six months or so after mating, but the gestation
period is around two months in most species. In Himalayan Brown Bears,
generally two young are born in January or February, gestation being 120
days. Brown Bears hibernate till May and the cubs remain with the mother
for 2–3 years.46 Sloth Bear gestation is about two months; the young
(average litter size is two) are born in winter.47 The female stays in the den
for up to 10 weeks, suckling the cubs and living off fat reserves.48 In Black
Bears, two cubs are born mid-January to February, and weaned at 3.5
months.49
 Tigers mating, Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan

Palm Civets mating, Craigmore, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu

Lioness snarls as her cubs feed, Gir NP, Gujarat

Lions mating, Gir NP, Gujarat

 Hyaenas mating, Keoladeo Ghana NP, Rajasthan

Sloth Bear cubs on mother’s back even as she feeds on termites, Daroji
WLS, Karnataka

Useful Contacts for Carnivore Conservation

DR A.J.T. JOHNSINGH
Nature Conservation Foundation ajt.johnsingh@gmail.com

DR K. ULLAS KARANTH
Centre for Wildlife Studies ukaranth@gmail.com

DR RAJESH GOPAL
National Tiger Conservation Authority rajeshgopal8155@gmail.com
DR S.A. HUSSAIN
Wildlife Institute of India hussain@wii.gov.in www.wii.gov.in

DR S. SATHYAKUMAR
Wildlife Institute of India ssk@wii.gov.in www.wii.giv.in

VALMIK THAPAR
Ranthambhore Foundation valmikt@gmail.com
www.ranthambhorefoundation.in

YASH VEER BHATNAGAR

Nature Conservation Foundation yash@ncf-india.org www.ncf-india.org

THREATS AND CONSERVATION

Tiger conservation is the cornerstone of Indian wildlife conservation efforts.
Although initially it was conceptualized as a flagship to protect key
ecosystems, today a tiger’s share of the resources, public attention, political
will and policy thrust is aimed at protecting the tiger and its habitat. In that
sense, carnivore conservation is the most advanced of conservation sciences
and activities being undertaken in the country today. The same attention has
also, to a lesser extent, been endowed on the other charismatic carnivores in
India: the lion, the bears, the Snow Leopard, the wolf, the leopard and the
Dhole. Some others such as lesser cats, certain civets and mongooses,
foxes, pandas and otters have also had some research and certain key
conservation measures aimed at them. But the only large centrally
sponsored carnivore conservation project remains the National Tiger
Conservation Authority (the successor of Project Tiger) and the only major
state-sponsored conservation activity is that for the lion in Gujarat.
Meanwhile, lesser known carnivores such as the linsang or weasels, or even
large carnivores such as the Honey Badger or Clouded Leopard have had
very little research and targeted conservation action. Most carnivores,
meanwhile, suffer from similar threats. The conversion of large tracts of
forest land and their degradation affect large carnivores as do poaching for
their parts and derivatives. Tiger skin and bones, bear bile, leopard pelt,
otter skin and mongoose hair are well-known parts that carnivores are killed
for. Another key threat for large carnivores is the loss of prey base by
specific poaching or habitat loss, leading to low densities in many potential
habitats or even local extirpations. The other major threat to large
carnivores is the ever increasing man–animal conflict, especially with
leopards, bears and tigers that causes retaliatory killings and public ill-will.
Large carnivores turn livestock lifters and man-attackers or man-eaters
under a specific set of conditions that vary from place to place.
In contrast small carnivores suffer from forest fragmentation, loss of
suitable aquatic habitat (in case of otters, for instance), effect of insecticides
and pesticides, and a general apathy to their existence.

Yellow-throated Marten poached for the pot, Garo Hills, Meghalaya

 Tiger killed in a snare, Bandipur NP, Karnataka

Black Bear being stoned by mob, Manas NP, Assam

 Radio-collared tigress, Bandipur NP, Karnataka

Red Fox outside human habitation, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

Walking the bear during rehabilitation in the wild, Manas NP, Assam
COMMON NAME: TIGER
Family: Felidae Subfamily: Pantherinae Latin Name: Panthera tigris Linnaeus, 175850
Subspecies: Bengal Tiger P.t. tigris51 Local Names: Bagh/Sher (Hindi), Bagh (Bengali/Assamese),
Bagha (Odia), Hoolee (Kannada), Kaduwa/Naree (Malayalam), Patery/Dhanya wagh (Marathi),
Pedda puli (Telugu), Puli (Tamil) Best Seen At: Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan; Kanha, Pench and
Bandhavgarh NPs, Madhya Pradesh IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered/ I/ Uncommon Social
Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 270–310 cm (male); 240–265 cm (female), HAS: 90–110 cm, TL: 85–110
cm, Wt: 175–260 kg (male);100–160 kg (female)52

DESCRIPTION: Undoubtedly the most charismatic animal of India, the

majestic tiger has a tawny orange coat patterned with broad black stripes.
The stripe patterns on the body are unique and each individual can be
identified by this pattern.53 The underparts of the tiger are pure white as are
patches around its eyes and on its cheeks. The back of each ear is black with
a winking white spot on it as well. The eyes are large, round and forward-
facing, a characteristic that helps the animal in the forest catch its prey but
captivates the world instantly, giving it a charismatic mega-fauna status that
rivals none. The ears are rounded, small and placed apart on the top of the
head. The whiskers are long and are important for sensing. The nose pad is
flesh coloured. The whole head is set almost onto the body with a short
muscled neck that combines with its long canines54 to bite long and deep
into the prey. Its dentition55 is well suited to its position as the top carnivore
of the Indian forests.
The tiger’s hind limbs are much longer than the forelimbs, but the latter
are thick and powerful with a large paw that is built to strike down large
prey.
It tail is long, slim and banded with black rings almost to the tip. It
possesses scent glands in the anal region, toes, tail region and cheeks, as in
most cats.56
Tigers have high variability in coat colour, and across the globe57 and
even in India some variation is seen in the intensity of the orange colour or
the darkness of the coat. The same is true of body size, with some regions
reporting larger animals on the whole than others. Melanistic and white
tigers are the best-known coat variations in the tiger in India, but this is not
due to albinism as is popularly believed. The White Tiger which originated
around Rewa in Madhya Pradesh was caused by a recessive gene that
inhibits yellow and red pigments while allowing black pigments to be
exhibited.58 In nature, this freak does not survive but its immense popularity
in captivity has led people to think at times, erroneously, that this is a
separate species. Similarly, tigers around Odisha tend to have a rare colour
variation known as pseudo-melanism. The black stripes appear very thick
and the tawny colour is not seen as much through the black pattern.
BEHAVIOUR: The tiger prefers to hunt large deer, which in Indian
conditions means the Sambar, where available. Quite adaptable, it can
survive on smaller prey such as Wild Pig, Spotted Deer or even fish in the
mangroves. However, it is presumed that tigers evolved because of their
unique nature of taking large prey more than 30 kg in weight.59 Large
animals such as rhinos, elephant calves and even bull Gaur are taken
opportunistically. Tigers hunt nocturnally as a habit, but in certain
sanctuaries have turned diurnal due to being used to tourist presence. They
stalk their prey through high grass cover or undergrowth and, with one
sudden onrush, take them down with a swipe at the neck, followed by a
swift bite to the jugular. Tigers tend to eat the prey from the backside up as
opposed to leopards, which eat belly up; this can be a useful clue to
identifying the predator responsible for killing prey. Tigers may attack
humans if prey is unavailable, or if the tiger is old or injured. Tigers with
worn-out teeth (due to old age) or injury to the forepaws such as a
porcupine-quill-caused wound are known to kill and eat humans. This
behaviour has earned it the fearsome title of man-eater, although other
mammals such as the leopard, the bear or the elephant take far more human
lives in India.
DISTRIBUTION: Today, shrinking tiger numbers and habitat are major
conservation issues globally and occupy most of the conservation space in
India. It is estimated that there are only 1,600-odd tigers left in India,
comprising about 65 per cent of the world’s population. In India, the tiger is
distributed along the Terai foothills of the Himalayas, in north-east India, in
central India (especially around the central highlands and Satpura–Maikal
landscape including Vidarbha), the Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats
including the Nilgiri plateau. The states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Odisha, Bihar, West Bengal Arunachal Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh have
large tiger habitats left while those in Assam, Karnataka, Uttarakhand and
Rajasthan support large numbers in protected areas.60
HABITAT: Tigers are widely distributed within their range in tropical dry
and moist deciduous forests (a key habitat for the species), evergreen forests
and riverine forests. In the Sunderbans, it is adapted to a mangrove habitat,
in the Terai it frequents a moist deciduous–grassland–riverine habitat
complex,61 and in higher altitudes such as Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh, it
inhabits coniferous, oak and rhododendron forests. Tigers can exist in dry
scrub and semi-arid areas of Rajasthan just as well as above the treeline in
Arunachal Pradesh, but these constitute suboptimal habitats.

Panthera tigris male and female showing clear size differentiation,

Bandhavgarh NP, Madhya Pradesh

Panthera tigris male, Kanha NP, Madhya Pradesh

P. tigris female, Bandhavgarh NP, Madhya Pradesh
 P. tigris male snarls as he crosses the track, Corbett NP, Uttarakhand

P. tigris pair stalk on a dry stream bed, Parambikulam WLS, Kerala

Panthera tigris male and female 10-month-old cubs, Bandhavgarh NP,

Madhya Pradesh
 P. tigris cub, captive, Kaziranga NP, Assam

P. tigris young tiger, Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan

 P. tigris psuedo-melanistic form, Simlipal NP, Odisha F

P. tigris, white form, marks a tree with its claws, captive F

COMMON NAME: ASIATIC LION

Family: Felidae Subfamily: Pantherinae Latin Name: Panthera leo Linnaeus, 175862 Subspecies:
P.l. persica63 Meyer, 1826 Local Names: Sawach (Kathiawari), Sher/Babbar sher/Singh (Hindi),
Sinh (male); Sinhan (female) (Gujarati) Best Seen At: Gir NP, Gujarat IUCN/WPA/Indian Status:
Endangered/ I/ Uncommon Social Unit: Prides of 2–15 Size: HBL: 170–250 cm (males); 158–192
cm (females), HAS: 107–123 cm, TL: 60–100 cm, Wt:160–190 kg (male); 110–120 kg (female)64

DESCRIPTION: A large, tawny cat with an un-patterned body and a long

naked tail with a tuft at the tip, the lion is an unmistakable feline. It is also
the only cat in which the male possesses a mane65 and it is this mane that is
one of the easiest distinctions between the African and Asian subspecies.
Panthera leo leo in Africa grows a full mane around its head and neck
while the male Asiatic Lion is known by its distinctive mane, which is
sparser than in the African Lion (the ears are more clearly visible). The
mane also tends to be around the cheek and chin, leaving the head slightly
bald. Manes can vary in colour from pale blonde to jet black, both as an
indicator of age and sometimes as an individual variation. Lionesses are
coloured similar to males, are slightly smaller and do not have a mane while
cubs have a faint spotted pattern that fades as they mature. Both sexes have
a distinct fold of skin along the belly,66 another characteristic that separates
it from the African Lion. Anatomically, Asiatic Lion skulls have a large
percentage of bifurcated infra-orbital foramina while African Lions have
only one foramen on either side of the skull.
BEHAVIOUR: The Asiatic Lion is less social than the African Lion
although both are the only cats that live in groups called prides. They live in
small prides comprising 2–5 females and their young. Males join in only to
eat and mate. Cattle contribute significantly to the lion’s diet in Gir in
Gujarat, although this has changed somewhat from being mostly livestock
in the early 1970s67 to mostly wild ungulates in the late 1980s.68
DISTRIBUTION: The Asiatic Lion separated as a subspecies as recently
as 100,000 years ago and had a close brush with extinction as its numbers
plummeted to approximately 20 about 100 years ago.69 Like the One-
horned Rhinoceros, the lion has staged an amazing recovery. In the past the
subspecies range extended from Iraq to Central India, but they have been
extirpated across their range.70 Today, there are around 400 lions found only
in a single, tiny pocket in Gujarat and their number is increasing. The
current distribution spans the Greater Gir landscape that includes Gir NP
and Sanctuary, Mithiyala WLS, Hepavadli, Kodinar, Girnar NP and a few
other pockets in Junagadh and Amroli district of Gujarat.
HABITAT: Dry deciduous teak, scrub jungle, and dry savannah forests.

Panthera leo cub up a tree, Gir NP, Gujarat

Panthera leo persica male, Gir NP, Gujarat

P.l. persica female looks up, Gir NP, Gujarat
 P. leo cub, Gir NP, Gujarat

P.l. persica adult male and female, Gir NP, Gujarat

COMMON NAME: COMMON LEOPARD

Family: Felidae Subfamily Pantherinae Latin Name: Panthera pardus Linnaeus, 1758 Subspecies:
P.p. fusca Meyer, 179471 Local Names: Cheeta bagh (Bengali), Chirathe (Kannada), Chirutai puli
(Tamil/Telugu), Diblya wagh (Marathi), Dipdo (Gujarati), Kelral (Mizo), Khare-suh (Kashmiri), Teku
(Naga), Tendua/Chita/Chita/Chita bagh/Guldar (Hindi), Pendra (Odia), Pulli puli (Malayalam) Best
Seen At: Gir NP, Gujarat; Sanjay Gandhi NP, Borivili (Mumbai), Maharashtra IUCN/WPA/Indian
Status: Near Threatened/ I/ Occasional Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 203–243 cm (male); 180–
208 cm (females), HAS: 50–75 cm, TL: 76–106 cm, Wt: 45–77 kg (male); 30–45 kg (female)72

DESCRIPTION: The most adaptable big cat of the Indian subcontinent,

the leopard has a clear yellow coat marked with black rosettes. It has a
small, spotted head, powerful jaws and a long tail, and its underside is
white. The normal colour of the coat varies considerably in intensity from
gold to tawny. The rosettes are unique in individual leopards, like the stripes
of a tiger. They are more like large spots (solid) on the limbs and the face,
and on the body they turn into rosettes with a darker tawny centre as
compared to the background. The eyes, like the tiger’s, are forward-facing
and large, but eyesight may not be the most powerful sense of the leopard.
It uses its hearing and smell more in survival. Like the tiger, the leopard has
a black back to each ear with a white spot in the centre. The limbs, like the
tiger’s, are longer in the hindquarter, but the forelimbs are more powerful.
The limbs and the entire build of the leopard, however, is more gracile than
that of the tiger.
As in tigers, melanistic leopards are also known; they have dark rosettes
against a dark brown or black background. Various versions of this are seen
with some being darker than the others, but even in the completely black
ones, a background pattern of rosettes can still be viewed from a close
distance. These animals are popularly called ‘black panthers’, leading to the
belief that panthers are somehow different from leopards. This is, of course,
not the case. However, unlike tigers, a white phase or form of the leopard is
still not reported.
BEHAVIOUR: The rasping call of the leopard (called sawing because it
resembles the sound of wood being sawed) is a familiar nocturnal call of the
Indian jungle and of the Himalayan foothills. Leopards manage to coexist
with tigers by hunting smaller prey (they tend to go for prey that weigh
between 10–50 kg) and hauling carcasses up trees. They are good at hunting
langurs up in the trees, while at the same time equally good at surviving on
hares, rodents and even birds like the peafowl and junglefowl if larger prey
is not available. They hunt equally well diurnally and in the night, the
former probably being an adaptation in tiger habitat. They also prey upon
cattle, dogs and even children at times, thus earning notoriety as man-eaters.
As they are often sighted near habitations in rural India, the leopard is
mistakenly considered to be not under threat; this may not be correct.
DISTRIBUTION: Throughout India except the arid parts of Kutch and
Rajasthan and the high Himalayas (up to 3,000 m).
HABITAT: Deciduous and evergreen forests, scrub jungle, open country,
and fringes of human habitation. There are recent studies that have shown
that leopards have colonized erstwhile human habitation (such as sugar-
cane fields) and are using them as habitat to breed and feed.73 Such
leopards are, therefore, no longer to be considered as strays from the jungle.

Panthera pardus, Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple WLS, Karnataka

Panthera pardus male with Chital kill, Gir NP, Gujarat

P. pardus, captive
 P. pardus male walks through a stony riverbed, Rajaji NP, Uttarakhand

P. pardus pair (male on left showing its larger size compared to the female
on right), Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan

CHEETAH
One of the fastest predators of the Indian plains, the Cheetah became
extinct in India in the twentieth century. Despite many ill-informed
claims of the Cheetah not being of Indian origin, there is enough
documentation that shows that the Cheetah, whose name itself is of
Indian origin, (that which bears ‘chith’ or spots) used to once inhabit
the country. The Cheetah is taller than a leopard, has longer limbs
and a longer tail but a smaller head and ears. This gives it a more
‘streamlined’ look compared to the leopard. Its yellow body is
stippled with black spots (not rosettes) and a black ‘tearline’ runs
from the eye to the upper lip giving it either a perpetually crying or a
menacing look. It is also the only cat that has a semi-retractible claw
as a result of evolutionary modification to its feet. The big cat resorts
to a short, fast burst of speed to capture prey (and not stealth like the
leopard), thus making it the fastest mammal in the world. There are
many theories on the taxonomy and genetics of Cheetahs, but many
studies have shown that variability in the Cheetah is very low due to
a genetic bottleneck during the last Ice Age and, therefore, there is
very little difference in all extant forms of the animal. There is an
ongoing project to reintroduce Cheetahs to India.

Acionyx jubatus running and turning at the same time, extralimital

Panthera pardus eating an adult Gaur, Anamalai WLS, Tamil Nadu

P. pardus, melanistic, Achanakmar NP, Chhattisgarh

 A pregnant P. pardus, Bandhavgarh NP, Madhya Pradesh

P. pardus, Kanha NP, Madhya Pradesh

COMMON NAME: SNOW LEOPARD

Family: Felidae Subfamily Pantherinae Latin Name: Panthera uncia Schreber, 177574 Subspecies:
P.u. uncioides Horsfield 185575 Local Names: Barhal he (Pahari), Barfani cheetah (Urdu), Shan
(Ladakhi), Burhel haye (Bhotia), Sheen-e-suh (Kashmiri) Best Seen At: Hemis NP, Ladakh, Jammu
& Kashmir IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered/ I/ Uncommon Social Unit: Solitary, although
overlap of home ranges of males with other males and with females have both been recorded76 Size:
HBL: 86–125 cm, TL: 80–105 cm,77 Wt: 45–55 kg (males); 35–40 kg (females)78
DESCRIPTION: One of the most aptly named animals, the Snow Leopard
is adapted completely to live in snow-covered areas. It is marginally smaller
than the Common Leopard, with a more luxuriant coat. It has black spots on
its limbs and face, and its pale smoky grey coat, with ghostly, dark grey
rosettes, allows for excellent camouflage. The centres of the rosettes are
darker and the pattern of rosettes of each individual is different. The ears
are short and round, and the back of the ears have black edges and are pale.
The Snow Leopard’s limbs are long and muscular, the chest is deep and the
paws are massive in comparison to its body, all of which help to fell the
larger prey that it often needs to hunt. The hind limbs are longer than the
forelimbs. An enlarged nasal cavity, which warms the air that it breathes,
and dense, long fur especially on its undersides (can be up to 12 cm on the
belly) and under the tail enable this cat to live in places where the
temperatures can dip to -40º C. The tail is long (75–90 per cent of head and
body),79 well furred and thick and is often used as a muffler by the animal
to keep itself warm. The skull is broad and domed to accommodate the
larger nasal cavities. It has an imperfectly ossified hyoid bone,80 so it
cannot roar, although it can growl, cough, snarl and yeowl.
BEHAVIOUR: Despite being a large carnivore, the harsh terrain and
climate that it lives in forces the Snow Leopard to have a wide dietary
range, including rodents, birds and wild goats. It kills every 10–15 days and
it has been estimated to have a large prey consumption of approximately
20–30 adult Bharal annually.81 During the lean season, small alpine
mammals such as marmots, pikas and hare comprise a fair share of its diet.
In February and March, during its peak breeding months, it is known to
feed on a shrub, Myricaria germanica.82
DISTRIBUTION: Through the high Himalayas from Jammu & Kashmir to
Arunachal Pradesh and the trans-Himalayas of Ladakh, Lahaul–Spiti,
Gangotri and Tso Lhamo. Its range closely approximates the geographical
range of its large prey, the Bharal and the Ibex.83
HABITAT: Alpine as well as subalpine steppe, grassland, and scrub above
the treeline. It favours lightly forested and steep terrain with rocky, broken
country84 (1,800–5,800 m).85 Prefers areas with proximity to cliffs.86
 Panthera uncia, Spiti, Himachal Pradesh

Panthera uncia trans-Himalayan form, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

P. uncia Himalayan form, Kugti WLS, Himachal Pradesh

P. uncia in snow, Spiti, Himachal Pradesh

 P. uncia in snow, Khangchendzonga NP, Sikkim

COMMON NAME: INDO-CHINESE CLOUDED LEOPARD

Family: Felidae Subfamily: Pantherinae Latin Name: Neofelis nebulosa Griffith, 182187
Subspecies: N.n. macrosceloides Hodgson, 185388 Local Names: Amchita/Dhwanse chituwa
(Nepali), Ghodaphutuki bagh (Assamese), Lamchita (Bengali), Moosa phula (Bodo), Pungmar
(Lepcha), Kelral (Mizo), Kung (Bhotia) Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ I/ Rare Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 68.5–106.5 cm
(adult males larger than adult females), TL: 61–84 cm, Wt:11–23 kg89

DESCRIPTION: The Clouded Leopard is the smallest of the big cats in

India and can reach the size of a small Common Leopard. It has a warm
ochre coat with grey elliptical clouds, edged with black, floating on it.
These cloud marks turn into black oval spots on its legs and into blurred
rings on its very long tail.90 The tail is also marked with spots. Its head is
spotted, with two broad bars on its neck and stripes on its cheek. The back
of each ear is black with a grey spot in the middle. The Clouded Leopard’s
short legs give it a heavy appearance, but it is one of the most lithe of the
big cats. It can hang from tree branches by its hind legs and tail, and
clamber down tree trunks head first. It has broad feet that are pale and
largely unmarked. Among felids, it has the longest canine teeth in
proportion to its skull size, reaching up to 4 cm in the upper jaw.91 The first
premolar is not present. The skull is long and slim and has well-developed
occipital and sagittal crests.
BEHAVIOUR: A very secretive cat, it is rarely seen in the wild. Unlike
other leopards, it does not leave telltale scats and scrapes along its trails.
Very arboreal, it ambushes prey from trees and then drags the kill up to eat.
Monkeys seem to form an important part of their diet. It also shelters its
young in tree hollows.
DISTRIBUTION: North–eastern India (patchy, and exact distribution still
to be determined).
HABITAT: For long considered an evergreen forest species, it is now seen
to occupy a much broader habitat niche in tropical forests including dry
deciduous and moist deciduous, along with evergreen and semi-evergreen
forests.

Neofelis nebulosa, Ripu-Chirang, Greater Manas, Assam

N. nebulosa subadults meet on top of a forest canopy, Ripu–Chirang,
Greater Manas, Assam
 N. nebulosa, Namdapha NP, Arunachal Pradesh

N. nebulosa cubs, Ripu–Chirang, Greater Manas, Assam

 N. nebulosa subadults drinking at a forest pool, Ripu–Chirang, Greater
Manas, Assam

COMMON NAME: ASIAN GOLDEN CAT

Family: Felidae Subfamily: Felinae Latin Name: Catopuma temmincki Vigors and Horsfield,
182792 Subspecies: C.t. temmincki Vigors and Horsfield, 182793 Local Names: Tokpa (Manipuri),
Shonali biral (Bengali), Xonali mekoori (Assamese) Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ I/ Rare Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 66–105 cm, TL:
42.5–57.5 cm, Wt:12–15.7 kg (male); 8.5 kg (females)94

DESCRIPTION: A medium-sized cat mostly with an un-patterned golden

coat, the Golden Cat resembles a miniature North American Puma in its
general appearance. The golden colour is broken only by a broad white
moustache-like stripe, two white stripes lining the inner rims of the eyes,
and a white line on the terminal one-third of the bottom of the tail. The tail
tip is black on the top. The ears are short, wide set and black on their back
like the Caracals, but with a slightly paler grey centre. Recently, forms of
the Golden Cat that are melanistic, those that show rosettes and those
bearing spots have been camera-trapped in Bhutan, showing their
polymorphic tendencies. Even the background coat colour of ‘normal’-
coloured cats can vary from cinnamon to greyish brown to dark brown.
BEHAVIOUR: Terrestrial species by habit but can climb well. Takes down
large prey including domestic sheep, goats and buffalo calves.
DISTRIBUTION: Sub-Himalayan north–east India.
HABITAT: Tropical and subtropical, moist deciduous and evergreen forests
(up to 3,000 m).95

COMMON NAME: MARBLED CAT

Family: Felidae Subfamily: Felinae Latin Name: Pardofelis marmorata Martin, 183796
Subspecies: P.m. charltoni Gray, 184697 Local Names: Unknown Best Seen At: Nowhere
commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ I/ Rare Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL:
45–60 cm, TL: 35–55 cm, Wt: 2–5 kg98

DESCRIPTION: A miniature version of the Clouded Leopard, the

Marbled Cat is one-third the size of the former. It has similar long canines
but a shorter, rounder skull and a long tail equal to the length of its own
body (the Clouded Leopard has a tail longer than its own body).The fur
colour is variable in its grey overtones or reddish overtones but is broadly a
brownish yellow background. On this, various sizes of blotches or patches
are found all along the body. These patches have pale borders unlike the
black-edged pattern of the Clouded Leopard. There are numerous black
spots on its legs and tail. The ears are short, wide set and have a white spot
on their back.
BEHAVIOUR: Has a typical arched back stance when it freezes or is
resting. It is thought that the Marbled Cat has birds as an important part of
its diet due to their arboreal nature, although rodents and smaller mammals
are also part of it.
DISTRIBUTION: North-east India.
HABITAT: Found in tropical, deciduous and evergreen forests.
Pardeofelis marmorata, Namdapha NP, Arunachal Pradesh

Catopuma temmincki, Pakke TR, Arunachal Pradesh

C. temmincki, melanistic pelage, Khangchendzonga NP, Sikkim F

C. temmincki, grey pelage, extralimital F

 C. temmincki, normal pelage, Pakke TR, Arunachal Pradesh F

P. marmorata, Namdapha NP, Arunachal Pradesh

COMMON NAME: CARACAL

Family: Felidae Subfamily: Felinae Latin Name: Caracal caracal Schreber, 177699 Subspecies:
C.c. schmitzii Matschie, 1912100 Local Names: Hinotro (Kutchhi), Siyah ghosh (Persian/Hindi)
Best Seen At: Ranthambore and Sariska NPs, Rajasthan IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Lower Risk/ I/
Rare Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 60–105 cm, TL: 19.5–34 cm,101 Wt: Average 6 kg; males
heavier102

DESCRIPTION: Tall and slender, the brick-coloured Caracal is one of two

cats with a plain coat, the other being the Golden Cat. Its short fur is pinkish
fawn on the back, and buff on the undersides and limbs. It has two black
bars above its eyes and at the corners of its mouth. There is some white
around the eyes and nose. Its most striking feature is its long, narrow, black-
tufted ears. This resembles the Lynx as does the fact that its hind limbs are
longer than its forelimbs, but it differs in being un-patterned, having a
longer tail and not having the ruff of the Lynx. Faint spotting is present on
the coat. As it overlaps in range, it can be confused at a distance with a
large Jungle Cat, but the Caracal is taller, with longer legs and the ears are
black on the back with the ear tufts up to 5 cm long. It also does not have
the black lines on the forelegs that the Jungle and Desert Cats have.
BEHAVIOUR: This open-country cat relies largely on speed and agility,
rather than stealth, to capture its prey.
DISTRIBUTION: Arid parts of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat and
Madhya Pradesh.103
HABITAT: Semi-arid, scrub and broken, rocky areas.104

COMMON NAME: ASIATIC WILDCAT

Family: Felidae Subfamily: Felinae Latin Name: Felis sylvestris Schreber, 1777 Subspecies:
Desert Cat F.s. ornata Gray, 1830105 Local Names: Jhengmeno (Kutchhi), Ran biladi (Gujarati)
Best Seen At: Desert NP, Rajasthan IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Lower Risk/ I/ Uncommon Social
Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 47–60 cm, TL: 30 cm, Wt: 3–4 kg106

DESCRIPTION: The closest relative of the domestic tabby, the Asiatic

Wildcat is small and spotted, unlike its striped European counterpart. It has
a pale sandy or isabelline pelage with black spots all over its body. The
underparts are unspotted and whitish. The ears are medium-sized and the
same colour as the body with very few, small hairs at the tip. Two clear,
black markings are present on its cheeks and the inner side of its forelimbs.
The tail is long and thin, and tipped black. It has spots near the base and
rings near its tips. On the whole, the cat is long-legged, long-tailed and
long-bodied compared with domestic cats.107
BEHAVIOUR: It often interbreeds with domestic cats and in areas where
both are found, cats may be seen with a dark greyish coat that is spotted or
striped like the Desert Cat’s. It is the only cat that inhabits a burrow system
like foxes.
DISTRIBUTION: Arid parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat, perhaps extending
up to Pune in Maharashtra and parts of Madhya Pradesh.108
HABITAT: Low-lying scrub forest, semi-arid and desert areas, and
cultivated tracts.

Desert Cat hybrid with domestic cat, Kutch, Gujarat (Note spots are not
black)

Caracal caracal, Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan

C. caracal, Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan
 F. sylvestris, Kutch, Gujarat

Felis sylvestris, Kutch, Gujarat

 F. sylvestris, Banni grassland, Kutch, Gujarat

COMMON NAME: EURASIAN LYNX

Family: Felidae Subfamily: Felinae Latin Name: Lynx lynx Linnaeus, 1758109 Subspecies: L.l.
isabellinus Blyth, 1847110 Local Names: Eeh (Ladakhi), Patsalam (Kashmiri) Best Seen At: Nubra
River Valley, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/111 I/ Rare
Social Unit: Solitary Size: 80–110 cm, TL: 16–23 cm, Wt:15–29 kg; males are 25 per cent
heavier112

DESCRIPTION: India forms the southern edge of the range of the

Eurasian Lynx. It has a buff or sandy grey coat that is spotted profusely. Un-
patterned, larger spotted and rosette forms are known, although they are not
common in India. The Lynx can be distinguished from other mountain cats
by its long, black ear tufts (up to 6 cm). The roundish face has sideburns.
The dentition is a reduced one from cats of the Felis genus. The body is
heavyset with long hind legs and slightly shorter forelegs. The tail is short
and only reaches its hocks. L.l. isabellinus is a paler sandy grey in colour
than other subspecies.113
BEHAVIOUR: It breeds once a year for two or three years and then skips a
year.
DISTRIBUTION: Limited to Ladakh, Pakistan-occupied Kashmir, parts of
the upper Indus in Jammu & Kashmir, and Sikkim.
HABITAT: Cold desert, scrub woodland and barren outcrops of rock above
the treeline (2,745–3,355 m). Rarely found on southern slopes. Shelters in
willow and reed patches.

COMMON NAME: PALLAS’S CAT

Family: Felidae Subfamily: Felinae Latin Name: Octolobus manul, Pallas, 1776114 Subspecies:
O.m. nigripectus Hodgson, 1842115 Local Names: Ribilik (Ladakhi) Best Seen At: Nowhere
commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Lower Risk/ I/ Rare Social Unit: Solitary Size: TBL:
45–65 cm, TL: 20.5–31 cm, Wt: 2.5–4.5 kg116

DESCRIPTION: Also known by its German and Russian name of Manul,

Pallas’s Cat is a greyish cat with white tips to its hair, giving it a frosted
appearance. Like the Snow Leopard, it has very long fur on its undersides
and tail to keep it warm in its frozen habitat. The Pallas’s Cat’s flat head
with small, rounded ears that are set wide apart (almost at its cheeks), gives
it a low profile that helps it hunt stealthily in open mountainous regions. It
has two stripes on its cheeks up to the eyes, and spots on the head and
forehead. The thick tail is broadly ringed and has a large black tip. The legs
are short and stout.
BEHAVIOUR: Known to occupy dens of foxes or marmots, it also uses
rock crevices or caves for shelter.
DISTRIBUTION: Like the Eurasian Lynx, it is found mostly in Ladakh;
also known from the trans-Himalayan Tsa Lhamo region of Sikkim.
HABITAT: Open rock-strewn mountain steppe; rare in snowbound areas
inhabited by Lynxes; prefers south-facing mountain slopes.
 Octolobus manul, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

Lynx lynx, extralimital

L. lynx with marmot kill (Note coat colour variation), Ladakh, Jammu &
Kashmir
 L. lynx, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

O. manul, Tso Lhamo, Sikkim

COMMON NAME: JUNGLE CAT

Family: Felidae Subfamily: Felinae Latin Name: Felis chaus Schreber 1777 Subspecies: F.c.
affinis Gray, 1830; F.c. kelaarti Pocock, 1939; F.c. prateri Pocock, 1939; F.c. kutas Pearson, 1832117
Local Names: Bana bhua (Odia), Bano biral (Bengali), Jangli billi (Hindi), Jongli mekuri
(Assamese), Jungam pilli (Telugu), Jungli biladi (Gujarati), Kaadu bekku (Kannada), Kaattu poonai
(Tamil), Lam houdong (Manipuri), Lesh (Kashmiri), Pokkan (Malayalam), Ran manjar (Marathi)
Best Seen At: Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan; Kaziranga NP, Assam IUCN/WPA/Indian Status:
Lower Risk/ II/ Locally Common Social Unit: Solitary and pairs Size: HBL: 60–85 cm, TL: 20–30
cm, Wt:5–12 kg (male); 2.5–9 kg (female);118 average weight in India is 4 kg119

DESCRIPTION: The most common wild cat in India, the Jungle Cat is
buff or grey–brown and unmarked except for faint red stripes running
across the forehead and on the outer surface of the legs. The fur has black
tips, giving the cat a grizzled look. The face is slim and the muzzle has
some white on it. Its eyes are ringed with white, with a dark tear stripe
running down each cheek. The medium-sized, perked-up ears have a
reddish back and have short black tufts of hair on the tip. The long ears and
the ear tufts are clearly visible but are shorter than that of the Caracal. It has
two black stripes on its lanky forelegs, and its tail, which is shorter than that
of a domestic cat, has black rings towards the posterior end and is black-
tipped. Kittens are marked all over the body for the first few months and
their ears are dark rufous in colour. F.c. kelaarti are greyer and lightly
speckled on the back. F.c. prateri are larger in colour and more tawny.120
Melanistic individuals have been reported from India.121 It can be told apart
from F. sylvestris by its larger size, black ear tufts, un-patterned coat and the
black marks on its legs. Iris is yellow.122
BEHAVIOUR: The Jungle Cat can hunt animals much larger than itself,
such as porcupines or Chital fawn. However, it can also subsist on very
small prey such as lizards, small snakes, mice, rats and frogs. This
catholicism in their diet has probably to do with their wide distribution.
DISTRIBUTION: F.c. affinis through the Himalayas and north–east India;
F.c. kelaarti in south India, south of the River Krishna; F.c. prateri in
western India and F.c. kutas in peninsular India, north of the River Krishna
up to the Terai.123
HABITAT: A habitat generalist but prefers grassland, scrub, dry deciduous
and evergreen forests. Also found close to semi-urban areas and villages.
Not as dependent on burrows as F. sylvestris.124
Felis chaus, Kaziranga NP, Assam
Felis chaus is a great adapter: in deciduous forests, Kanha NP, Madhya
Pradesh (top); in arid scrub Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan (left) in snow,
Khangchendzonga NP, Sikkim (below); and in tall grass, Corbett NP,
Uttarakhand (bottom left)
 F. chaus kittens, Velavadar NP, Gujarat

COMMON NAME: LEOPARD CAT

Family: Felidae Subfamily: Felinae Latin Name: Prionailurus bengalensis Kerr, 1792125
Subspecies: P.b. bengalensis Kerr, 1792;126 P.b. horsfieldii Gray, 1842; P.b. trevelyani Pocock, 1939
Local Names: Bon biral (Bengali), Cheeta billi (Hindi), Chitin bror (Kashmiri), Huli bekku
(Kannada), Keipiri (Mizo), Lotamekuri bagh (Assamese), Waghati (Marathi) Best Seen At: Corbett
NP, Uttarakhand IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ I/ Uncommon Social Unit: Solitary
Size: HBL: 45–75 cm, TL: 19.5–31.5 cm,127 Wt: 3–4 kg128

DESCRIPTION: In India, the Leopard Cat is the most common small cat
after the Jungle Cat from which it can be instantly told apart by its longer,
leaner appearance and long legs. The coat is brownish buff to ochre and the
muzzle has some white in it. Two black streaks are present between the eyes
and ears, and two white ones between the nose and eyes. At one glance, it
looks like a miniature leopard.129 Unlike leopards, however, this cat does
not have rosettes on its buff coat. Instead, it has solid black spots or patches
throughout the body, which merge into two broad streaks at the shoulders.
Its limbs, longer than those of other cats, give it a graceful appearance. The
tail is ringed and has a black tip. The feet are lean and show webbing.130
There is much variation in the species in terms of colour and spotting. P.b.
bengalensis is considered the normal form, as described above; P.b.
horsfieldii being more densely furred and P.b. trevelyani having longer and
paler fur than the Himalayan form,131 being larger in size and more grey in
colour.132 The Prionailurus cats, which includes the Fishing Cat, the Rusty
Spotted Cat and the Leopard Cat in India have a more elongated skull and
palate compared with the Felis cats, the hair on their throats grows in a
reverse fashion and they have white spots on the back of their black ears.133
They are all spotted with the spots forming long lines on the back and
shoulders.134
BEHAVIOUR: An extremely versatile cat, it is arboreal by nature and is
also comfortable in water.
DISTRIBUTION: Distributed through the Himalayas and Terai, eastwards
to the north–east and southwards to the Western Ghats. Absent in the arid
parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat, large parts of the Deccan and the very south of
India. P.b. bengalensis is the peninsular Indian form. P.b. horsfieldii is the
Himalayan and north–eastern forest race, and P.b. trevelyani is present in
Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, west of the River Sutlej.135
HABITAT: Found in grassland, scrub, and moist deciduous forests. It lives
with ease in a variety of forests and even close to human habitation. P.b.
trevelyani inhabits rocky and less forested habitat136 (up to 3,000 m).137
Prionailurus bengalensis cub, Corbett NP, captive

Prionailurus bengalensis horsfieldii cub, captive

P.b. horsfieldii, Namdapha NP, Arunachal Pradesh

Prionailurus bengalensis trevelyani, Jammu & Kashmir
 P.b. bengalensis stalking through mangroves, Sunderbans, West Bengal

P.b. bengalensis, Craigmore, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu

COMMON NAME: FISHING CAT

Family: Felidae Subfamily: Felinae Latin Name: Prionailurus viverrinus138 Bennett, 1833
Subspecies: P.v. viverrinus139 Bennett, 1833 Local Names: Kaattanpuli/Meen pidiyan poocha
(Malayalam), Khupya bagh (Hindi), Meccho biral (Bengali), Mesheka (Assamese), Minugara bekku
(Kannada) Best Seen At: Keoladeo Ghana NP, Rajasthan IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Lower Risk/
I/ Rare Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 57–115 cm, TL: 24–40 cm, Wt: 5–16 kg140

DESCRIPTION: This is one of the most easily recognized cats in its

range, with an olive–grey coat, unlike other spotted cats, which are tawny. It
has short legs set on a stocky body. Black elongated spots run in parallel
lines over its back, merging into longitudinal stripes on its neck. Its pale
cheeks have two darker stripes, and there are two stripes on the inside of its
forearm as in many small cats. The ears are short and have a white spot on
its back. This cat is larger than the Leopard Cat and Desert Cat (with which
it could be confused by the uninitiated) by at least a foot and it has a shorter,
more muscular tail. The tail is ringed with black and has a black tip. The
feet are webbed but the webs do not cover the claws fully.
BEHAVIOUR: The most adept Indian cat in water, it preys on fish and
waterfowl. It is also a skilful hunter of small prey on land.
DISTRIBUTION: Recorded discontinuously from the Terai, Bharatpur in
Rajasthan,141 southern Western Ghats, West Bengal (Sunderbans) and the
North–East. Also recorded in Odisha (Chilika Lake).142
HABITAT: Found in wetlands, marshes, tidal creeks, mangroves, dense
jungle and scrub but dependent on water. It dens in tree trunks and ground
near water.

COMMON NAME: RUSTY SPOTTED CAT

Family: Felidae Subfamily: Felinae Latin Name: Prionailurus rubiginosus I. Geoffroy Saint-
Hilaire, 1831143 Subspecies: P.r. rubiginosus I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831144 Local Names:
Bitari billi (Gujarati), Chiruta pilli (Telugu), Kaadu bekku (Kannada), Namali pelli (Tamil),
Thurumban poocha (Malayalam) Best Seen At: Mundanthurai NP, Tamil Nadu; Gir NP, Gujarat
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ I/ Uncommon; Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 35–48 cm;
TL: 15–30 cm, Wt:1.5–1.6 kg (male); 1.1–1.5 kg (female)145

DESCRIPTION: The smallest cat in the world (half to three-quarters the

size of a domestic cat), the Rusty Spotted Cat has a fawn coat with rusty
brown spots arranged in neat lines on its back, head and flanks. Its forehead
has two longitudinal, black-edged, white stripes. Its eyes are ringed with
white, and its lips, chin and undersides are white, too, but may be marked
with spots. Tail is faintly ringed with rusty bands.
BEHAVIOUR: It is visible after a shower when it emerges from its tree
hideouts to feed. Very tolerant of human habitation, there are multiple
records of it giving birth to kittens on rooftops.
DISTRIBUTION: Throughout southern and central India, west to
Saurashtra and parts of Rajasthan. The northern boundary is unknown.
Sariska is the northernmost confirmed record of the cat146 although
literature records it as having an isolated population in Jammu &
Kashmir.147
HABITAT: Rocky areas, scrub, dry and open forests, and human
habitation. This cat is not a dense forest creature, yet it is overlooked.
Prionailurus viverrinus, Keoladeo Ghana NP, Rajasthan
 P. viverrinus young, Keoladeo Ghana NP, Rajasthan

P. rubiginosus, Bandhavgarh NP, Madhya Pradesh

P. viverrinus, Sunderbans NP, West Bengal

Prionailurus rubiginosus cub, Bandipur NP, Karnataka

 P. rubiginosus, Jambughoda, Gujarat

COMMON NAME: SPOTTED LINSANG

Family: Prionodontidae148 Latin Name: Prionodon pardicolor Hodgson, 1852 Subspecies: P.p.
pardicolor Hodgson, 1852149 Local Names: Suilyu/Silu (Lepcha), Zhik chum (Bhotia) Best Seen
At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ II/ Rare Social Unit:
Solitary Size: HBL: 31–45 cm, TL 30–40 cm,150 Wt:0.6–1.2 kg

DESCRIPTION: The Spotted Linsang is the smallest viverrid in India. Its

low-slung, civet-like body and long tail are adaptations for a life in the
trees. This species is richer in colouration than the other spotted civets. Its
soft coat ranges from ochre–brown to deep buff, the spinal area is darker
than the flanks and the ventral part is greyish yellow. The black spots on its
coat are set in two lines on the spine, while the spots on the flanks vary
from small ones to larger patches. A dark nuchal stripe is present on the
head, merging with the second line of spots. The thighs are spotted though
the rest of the limbs are not spotted. The tail is as long as the body and has
7–9 broad, dark rings with a pale tip. The front paws are plantigrade, the
hind ones digitigrade, but both have five digits with fully retractile, catlike
claws. Males are much larger, even twice as big as females.151
BEHAVIOUR: The Spotted Linsang inhabits tree hollows. It is known to
build nests with leaves and branches.
DISTRIBUTION: North–east India.
HABITAT: Dense lowland riverine sal forests, temperate forests and
tropical rainforests (up to 2,700 m). Found in both primary and secondary
forests.

COMMON NAME: MASKED OR HIMALAYAN PALM

CIVET
Family: Viverridae Subfamily: Paradoxurinae Latin Name: Paguma larvata C.E.H. Smith,
1827152 Subspecies: P.l. grayi Bennett, 1835; P.l. tytleri Tytler, 1864153 Local Names: Bichu/Bijju
(Garhwali) Best Seen At: Himalayan forests IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ II/Locally
Common Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 41–76 cm, TL: 50–63 cm,154 Wt: 3.6–5 kg

DESCRIPTION: The Himalayan or Masked Palm Civet is a dark brown to

black, large hill civet with greyish buff underparts. It has a thick, black, un-
patterned tail, and a black chin and throat. The latter characteristic
distinguishes it from the Yellow-throated Marten with which it shares a
distribution range. Adults do not have spots on their body, though flank
spots may be present in juveniles. The face has a dark mask that is split by a
greyish white line down the forehead, white splotches around the eye, nose
and markings from the ear to the cheek. The line on the forehead can in
some individuals extend to the neck and shoulders, and in some be absent or
yellowish (P.l. tytleri). The tail is long and thick and unmarked except for
the tip, which could be a dirty grey. The limbs are dark and the feet have
five digits.
BEHAVIOUR: Skunk-like, it ejects a foul-smelling liquid when disturbed.
DISTRIBUTION: Himalayas from Jammu & Kashmir to Arunachal
Pradesh (up to 2,500 m), north–eastern hills and the Andaman Islands. P.l.
grayi distributed on the mainland and P.l. tytleri in the Andamans.
HABITAT: Evergreen and deciduous montane forests and near human
habitation (up to 2,500 m).155
 Paguma larvata grayi, Manas NP, Assam

Prionodon pardicolor, Pakke TR, Arunachal Pradesh

 P.l. grayi, Munsiari, Uttarakhand

P. pardicolor, Aalo, Arunachal Pradesh

 P.l. grayi, Khangchendzonga NP, Sikkim

P.l. grayi, Namdapha NP, Arunachal Pradesh

COMMON NAME: COMMON PALM CIVET

Family: Viverridae Subfamily: Paradoxurinae Latin Name: Paradoxurus hemaphroditus Pallas,
1777156 Subspecies: P.h. hemaphroditus Pallas, 1777; P.h. laneus Pocock, 1934; P.h. nictitans
Taylor, 1831; P.h. pallasi Gray 1832; P.h. scindiae Pocock 1934; P.h. vellerosus Pocock 1934157
Local Names: Bham (Bengali), Dali odha (Odia), Kehe (Naga), Khatas (Hindi), Ud manjar
(Marathi), Punugu pilli (Telugu), Marabekku (Kannada), Maranai (Tamil), Marappatti (Malayalam),
Moirang sathibi (Manipuri) Best Seen At: All over India, but never commonly seen
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Lower Risk/ II/ Uncommon Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 42–71
cm, TL: 40–66 cm,158 Wt:1.5–4.5 kg
DESCRIPTION: Probably the most common civet in India, the Palm
Civet’s un-patterned throat and tail distinguish it from the Small Indian
Civet. Its body colour varies from a rich cream to brownish black or even
jet-black. Dark brown or black spots coalesce into stripes on the sides and
the base of the tail also shows these markings. It has three longitudinal
stripes on its back running up to the tail, which are visible on close
inspection. These markings on the body distinguish it clearly from the
Himalayan Palm Civet and the Brown Palm Civet, both of which it shares
parts of its range with. The face is greyish with a dark mask with varying
white on the face. The most common variation is a pale or white patch
below the eyes, on the forehead and near the ears. It lacks the white band on
the forehead and nose (that gives the Himalayan Palm Civet the name of the
Masked Civet), thus making it easy to distinguish it from this species.
Overall, the face is dark while that of the Himalayan Palm Civet is pale.
The feet are dark and have five digits.
BEHAVIOUR: A nocturnal omnivore, it is very fond of the fruit of palms
and honey, thus earning its reputation for having a ‘sweet tooth’. It is
mainly arboreal and found often on palm trees, thus reinforcing its
nomenclature of Palm Civet and is also additionally referred to as the
‘toddy cat’.
DISTRIBUTION: Through most of non-Himalayan India except the arid
west. It is not found in the high Himalayas, being replaced there by Paguma
larvata, nor deep in the Western Ghats, being replaced there by
Paradaxorus jerdoni. The subspecific distribution needs more work, but
based on literature, P.h. hemaphroditus is reported from southern India, P.h.
laneus from north–west India and Punjab, P.h. nictitans from West Bengal
and parts of the North–East, P.h. pallasi from north–east India, P.h. scindiae
from central India and P.h. vellerosus from Jammu & Kashmir.
HABITAT: A very wide range of habitats that includes deciduous,
evergreen and scrub forests, well-wooded countryside and plantations. Can
be found around human inhabitations and is known to stay in attics and
rooftops, and climb trees near human dwellings. Not present in the desert or
high Himalayas (up to 2,400 m).
Paradoxurus hemaphroditus pallasi in a tree log, Kaziranga, Assam

Paradoxurus hemaphroditus scindiae, Nagzira WLS, Maharashtra

Paradoxurus hemaphroditus hermaphroditus, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu

P.h. hemaphroditus
 P.h. pallasi, Namdapha NP, Arunachal Pradesh

COMMON NAME: BINTURONG

Family: Viverridae Subfamily: Paradoxurinae Latin Name: Arctictis binturong Raffles, 1822159
Subspecies: A.b. albifrons, F.G. Cuvier, 1822160 Local Names: Young (Assamese) Best Seen At:
Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ I/ Rare Social Unit: Solitary
Size: HBL: 61–96 cm, TL: 56–89 cm,161 Wt: 9–14 kg

DESCRIPTION: The largest of the civets in India. All black, its grizzled
coat is set off by long white whiskers and a white edge to its ears. The
muscular tail, almost as long as the head and body, is prehensile.162 It was
thought to be a small bear, earning it the name Bearcat. The head is
speckled with grey, more so in juveniles. Females are larger than males.163
BEHAVIOUR: Primarily arboreal, it uses its prehensile tail to climb trees.
DISTRIBUTION: North–east India, from Sikkim to Arunachal Pradesh
HABITAT: Strictly a dense-forest (deciduous and evergreen) resident. Not
montane.

COMMON NAME: SMALL-TOOTHED PALM CIVET

Family: Viverridae Subfamily: Paradoxurinae Latin Name: Arctogalidia trivirgata Gray, 1832164
Subspecies: A.t. leucotis Horsfield, 1851165 Local Names: Not known Best Seen At: Nowhere
commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ I/ Rare Social Unit: Solitary Size:
HBL: 61–96 cm, TL: 56–89 cm,166 Wt: 9–14 kg

DESCRIPTION: A rare animal of the North–East, it is a buff–brown forest

civet with a grey head, dark feet and a long tail. It can be identified by the
three dark lines on the back from neck to rump and a white line on the face
from forehead to the tip of its nose. A.t. leucotis differs from other
subspecies in having white hairs and a small patch of white on its ears.
BEHAVIOUR: A nocturnal frugivore, strongly inclined to be arboreal (a
niche taken by the Brown Palm Civet in the Western Ghats).
DISTRIBUTION: North–east India, south of the River Brahmaputra.
HABITAT: Evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (up to 1,200 m).167

COMMON NAME: BROWN PALM CIVET

Family: Viverridae Subfamily: Paradoxurinae Latin Name: Paradoxurus jerdoni Blandford, 1885
Subspecies: P.j. jerdoni Blandford, 1885; P.j. caniscus Pocock, 1933 Local Names: Hoobala
(Kannada) Best Seen At: Kalakaad–Mundanthurai NP, Tamil Nadu IUCN/WPA/Indian Status:
Vulnerable/ II/ Unknown Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 43–62 cm, TL: 38–53 cm,168 Wt:1.2–4.3
kg

DESCRIPTION: Superficially, it looks like the Palm Civet without the

markings on the face and body, but is more uniformly chocolate–brown: its
head, tail and limbs are darker, the shoulders more buff, and the flanks
greyer. The tail is longer with a pale tip in many. Its neck hair grows in the
opposite direction to the rest of its fur – an adaptation to deter predators.
BEHAVIOUR: Omnivorous, but mostly frugivorous, depending on
rainforest fruits.
DISTRIBUTION: Western Ghats south of Goa. P.j. jerdoni in Coorg and
northern Western Ghats, and P.j. caniscus reported from the Nilgiris, and
the Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.169 Recent records only from
Coorg, Nilgiris, Anamalais, Kalakaad–Mundanthurai and Silent Valley.170
HABITAT: Wet evergreen forests and coffee plantations (500–1,300 m).
Arctitis binturong, Pakke TR, Arunachal Pradesh

Arctogalidia trivirgata, extralimital

 P.j. jerdoni, Someshwar WLS, Karnataka

Paradoxurus jerdoni, Anamalai WLS, Tamil Nadu

 Paradoxurus jerdoni canisus, Craigmore, Tamil Nadu

COMMON NAME: SMALL INDIAN CIVET

Family: Viverridae Subfamily: Viverrinae Latin Name: Viverricula indica E. Geoffroy Saint-
Hilaire, 1803171 Subspecies: V.i. indica E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1803; V.i. baptistae Pocock,
1933; V.i. deserti Bonhote, 1898; V.i. wellsi Pocock, 1933172 Local Names: Gandho gokul
(Bengali), Jawadi/Ud manjar (Marathi), Johamaal (Assamese), Kasturi (Hindi), Meru/Poo veruke
(Malayalam), Punagina bekku (Kannada), Punugu poonai (Tamil), Salia patini (Odia) Best Seen At:
Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ II/ Uncommon Social Unit:
Solitary Size: HBL: 45–63 cm, TL: 25–43 cm,173 Wt: 2–4 kg

DESCRIPTION: The common ring-tailed civet, the Small Indian Civet is

buff to grey with dark spots all over its flanks that converge to form three to
five lines on its back. The black-and-white ringed tail has 6–10 dark bands
and a pale tip. This civet lacks a spinal crest (this and its small size sets it
apart from the Large Indian or Malabar Civet) and has a cream throat with
two thin, dark bands across it. Its ears are small, rounded and set close to
each other on top of the head, more like a cat’s, while its legs are dark and
long. The general body proportions, however, are not that of a cat and it has
the low-slung, elongated body of a civet. It has a short muzzle with white
patches on its cheeks and white spots between the eyes that are not very
prominent in many individuals.
BEHAVIOUR: Small Indian Civets seem to breed all year round, with 4–5
young. The young are entirely looked after by the female civet and are
housed in a small burrow at the bottom of trees or a drainpipe near human
habitation.174 The civet is easily tamed and, historically, was kept in many
southern Indian homes as a pet and for yielding ‘civet’. When kept in
captivity in this fashion, a stake is put next to the animal on a string. The
civet rubs its anal glands on to the stake and the resulting waxy secretion is
collected by scraping it off the stake by the houseowners in the morning, for
use in medicines and perfumes.
DISTRIBUTION: Throughout India, from the Himalayan foothills to
Kanyakumari in the south. V.i. indica in southern India, V.i. baptistae in
north–east India, V.i. deserti in northern and central India, and V.i. wellsi in
western India.
HABITAT: Inhabits a variety of habitats, including semi-evergreen,
deciduous, bamboo and scrub forests, open land, plantations and riverine
habitat except wet evergreen forests and mountains. It prefers scrub and dry
forests to undisturbed evergreen patches175 (up to 1,200 m). Can live close
to habitation and often finds refuge in attics or drainpipes of houses.176

Viverricula indica indica, Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple WLS, Karnataka

Viverricula indica indica, Craigmore, Tamil Nadu

V.i. indica, Munnar, Kerala

 Viverricula indica baptistae, Pepsu RF, Assam

Viverricula indica deserti carrying its young in its mouth, Keoladeo Ghana
NP, Rajasthan

COMMON NAME: LARGE INDIAN CIVET

Family: Viverridae Subfamily: Viverrinae Latin Name: Viverra zibetha Linnaeus, 1758
Subspecies: Viverra zibetha zibetha Linnaeus, 1758177 Local Names: Bado gokul (Bengali), Bhran
(Nepalese), Khattas (Hindi), Kung (Bhotia), Moirang sathibi (Manipuri) Best Seen At: Nowhere
commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ II/ Locally Common Social Unit: Solitary
Size: HBL: 58–95 cm, TL: 30–53 cm,178 Wt: 5–11 kg

DESCRIPTION: A large doglike civet with a low-slung body accentuated

by short legs, the Large Indian Civet is a greyish beast with buff overtones
(but less buff than the Small Indian Civet). The coat can be longer in the
winters in the northern part of its range. It can be recognized by its
distinctive black and white bands on the sides of the neck. The grey face
has white patches on the muzzle. It has distinct black spotting on the flanks,
dark limbs and a black-and-white banded tail. It has a dark dorsal crest of
varying height running from shoulder to tail, the throat and fore chest are
black, and the slightly large ears are widely set on the forehead. The dark
and white bands on the tail are broader and fewer in number (5–6) than in
the Small Indian Civet (6–10). The forefeet are darker brown than the hind
feet.179 Newborn are black with white markings on the lip, tail, ear and
throat.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: Dooars in northern West Bengal and north–east India.
HABITAT: Low hills, moist deciduous and evergreen forests, and near
human habitation (up to 1,600 m).

Viverra zibetha (with a cut tail) walks across a camera trap placed in a
forest, West Bengal

COMMON NAME: MALABAR CIVET

Family: Viverridae Subfamily: Viverrinae Latin Name: Viverra civettina Local Names:
Jawad/Malabar veruke (Malayalam), Mangala kutri/Jawadiya (Kannada) Best Seen At: Not sighted
since 1990 IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Critically Endangered/ I/ Extremely Rare Social Unit:
Solitary Size: HBL: approx. 76 cm, TL: approx. 33 cm,180 Wt: approx. 8 kg

DESCRIPTION: The most endangered civet and possibly the most

endangered mammal in India, the Malabar Civet was last reported from
Kerala in 1990. It can be told apart from the Small Indian Civet by its much
larger size and the dark, erectile crest of hair that runs down its spine, much
like that of the Large Indian Civet. Unlike the Large Indian Civet, the dark
band runs through to the tip of the tail. The underside of the tail has five
black and white bands. The black spots on the grey coat do not form lines or
patterns, but are splotched randomly. The Malabar Civet is most closely
related to the Large Spotted Civet (V. megaspila) of South–East Asia.
BEHAVIOUR: Though not confirmed, it probably uses fixed places for
latrines.
DISTRIBUTION: In the past, lowland coastal forests of Kerala and
Karnataka.181
HABITAT: Highly degraded lowland forests. Also reported from cashew
plantations.

Viverra zibetha, Namdapha NP, Arunachal Pradesh

Viverra civettina
 Viverra zibetha, Khangchendzonga NP, Sikkim

COMMON NAME: GREY MONGOOSE

Family: Herpestidae Latin Name: Herpestes edwardsii E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire 1818182
Subspecies:183 H.e. edwardsii E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire 1818; H.e. carnaticus Wroughton, 1921;
H.e. moerens Wroughton, 1915; H.e. pallens Ryley 1914; H.e. montanus Bechthold, 1936 Local
Names: Beji (Bengali), Keeree (Tamil/Kannada/Malayalam), Newala (Hindi), Mungoos (Marathi),
Neula (Odia), Nool (Kashmiri), Norio (Gujarati), Yentawa mangisa (Telugu) Best Seen At:
Throughout India in villages and edges of towns IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ II/
Locally Common Social Unit: Solitary, pairs, or female with young Size: HBL: 36–45 cm, TL: 32–
45 cm,184 Wt: 1.4 kg

DESCRIPTION: The common Indian Grey Mongoose is the famed animal

traditionally used in snake and mongoose shows and has been immortalized
as Rikki-Tikki-Tavi in Rudyard Kipling’s story. Its tawny grey fur is much
more grizzled and coarser than that of other mongooses and individual hairs
have 10 alternate dark and light bands. Its small legs are darker than its
body, and its tail is as long as its head and body put together. The tip of the
tail is never black but pale yellow or white. The amount of ruddiness in the
coat varies in different subspecies, but all animals are more grey than other
mongooses. Males are larger than female.
BEHAVIOUR: Known for tackling venomous snakes adeptly; however,
the animal is a generalist omnivore. All mongooses have excellent colour
vision.
DISTRIBUTION: Throughout India except the high Himalayas. Found up
to 2,100 m in the Himalayas. Subspecific distribution needs confirmation,
but in literature is as follows: H.e. edwardsii in south–east India, H.e.
carnaticus in south–west India (particularly Karnataka), H.e. moerens in
eastern, central and north–east India, H.e. pallens in western India
(especially Gujarat), and H.e. montanus in north–west India.185
HABITAT: Open scrub, cultivated land, rocky patches, dry forests and
forest edges all over India (up to 2,100 m).

COMMON NAME: RUDDY MONGOOSE

Family: Herpestidae Latin Name: Herpestes smithii Gray, 1837 Subspecies: H.s. smithii Gray,
1837186 Local Names: Newala (Hindi), Norio (Gujarati), Keera (Kannada), Keeree (Tamil),
Mungoos (Marathi/Odia), Neula (Odia), Nunayan keeree (Malayalam), Yentawa mangisa (Telugu)
Best Seen At: Daroji WLS, Karnataka IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ IV/Uncommon
Social Unit: Solitary, occasionally in pairs and very rarely in small numbers (3–4) Size: HBL: 39–45
cm, TL: 35–47 cm,187 Wt: 2–3 kg

DESCRIPTION: A large, forest mongoose of peninsular India, the Ruddy

Mongoose resembles the Grey Mongoose, but has varying reddish brown
infusions on its underparts. The base colour can vary from yellowish brown
to ruddy to grey, but it can be easily told apart from the Grey Mongoose by
the fact that its tail, which is equal to or slightly larger than the head and
body length188 has a black tip that is carried pointed upwards. Its legs are
dark rufous tending to black, especially the hind ones. The feet are partially
webbed and the hind feet soles are naked.
BEHAVIOUR: Mostly terrestrial but can climb trees.
DISTRIBUTION: Forests of central, western and peninsular India, up to
28°N189 or just south of Delhi in the north and Bihar in the east.
HABITAT: Dry deciduous and thorn forests (up to 2,200 m) but mostly in
undisturbed and secluded areas.190
Herpestes edwardsii, Gir NP, Gujarat

H. edwardsii, Kutch, Gujarat

 Herpestes smithii, Gir NP, Gujarat

H. smithii, Daroji WLS, Karnataka

COMMON NAME: SMALL INDIAN MONGOOSE

Family: Herpestidae Latin Name: Herpestes auropunctatus Illiger, 1811191 Subspecies: H.a.
auropunctatus Illiger, 1811192 Local Names: Beji (Bengali), Mungoos (Marathi), Newala (Hindi),
Norio (Gujarati), Neula (Odia) Best Seen At: H.a. auropunctatus, Keoladeo Ghana NP, Rajasthan;
H.a. palustris, Kolkata, West Bengal IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ IV/ Locally
Common Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 22–44 cm (male);193 21–38.5 cm (female), TL: 15–33
cm, Wt: 0.5–1 kg

DESCRIPTION: This is a small, olive–brown or dark brown mongoose

with golden speckles. It is slender with short legs, and its fur is short and
silken. An individual hair, if examined, shows three dark rings and two pale
ones. Northern and wetter habitat forms are dark brown with paler paws,
while desert forms can have a pale, or even whitish, underside. The ears are
small and rounded, the muzzle elongated with a dark nose pad, and the
small eyes have a brown iris.194 Males are larger than females and have a
broader head.195 The taxonomy of the Marsh Mongoose of West Bengal is
debated and it may be a subspecies or be accorded full specific status as H.
palustris.196 Either way, it is a smaller creature with black colouring on the
muzzle that extends up to the orbital zone unlike in the Small Indian
Mongoose.197
BEHAVIOUR: Marks actively with their anal pad and has varied
vocalizations including a weep, squawk, honk, pant, spit, bark, chuck,
scream and growl.198
DISTRIBUTION: Northern plains, extending to Kolkata, West Bengal, in
the east (sea level to 2,100 m).
HABITAT: Open scrub, hedges, farms, human habitation and even deserts.
Marsh Mongoose in swampy marshlands.

COMMON NAME: CRAB-EATING MONGOOSE

Family: Herpestidae Latin Name: Herpestes urva Hodgson, 1836199 Subspecies: H.u. urva
Hodgson, 1836200 Local Names: Newala (Hindi), Beji (Bengali) Best Seen At: Manas NP, Assam
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ IV/ Uncommon Social Unit: Solitary (but sometimes
seen in small groups of up to 4 animals) Size: HBL: 45–50 cm, TL: 25–30 cm201 Wt:1.8–2.3 kg

DESCRIPTION: A large mongoose, only slightly smaller than the Stripe-

necked Mongoose, the Crab-eating Mongoose has a coat that varies from
grey to dark brown with individual hairs being ringed black and white,
giving it a grizzled appearance. It has a broad white stripe on its neck,
starting from its cheeks and progressing past its chest. The throat is
conspicuously paler. The yellowish brown muzzle has a flesh-coloured nose
pad with a deep groove on it. The ears are short and rounded, and the eyes
have a yellowish brown iris. The limbs are dark, the soles of its hind feet
are hairy, and all feet have clawed digits that have a shallow webbing. The
tail is two-thirds the length of its head and body, and has a paler or more
rufous tip.
BEHAVIOUR: Very aquatic, the Crab-eating Mongoose hunts for fish,
crabs, snails and frogs adeptly.
DISTRIBUTION: From the Dooars of northern West Bengal up to north–
east India.
HABITAT: Stream banks, swamps, paddy fields and moist deciduous
forests. Not commonly found near human habitation. Not a species of the
hills, but found rarely (up to 2,000 m).202
Herpestes auropunctatus golden brown, wetter region form, Bharatpur,
Rajasthan F
 Herpestes auropunctatus, Jodhpur, Rajasthan

H. auropunctatus, paler arid region form, Kutch, Gujarat F

 Herpestes palustris or Herpestes auropunctatus palustris, Kolkata, West
Bengal

Herpestes urva, light pelage, Namdapha NP, Arunachal Pradesh

H. urva, dark pelage, Manas NP, Assam

COMMON NAME: STRIPE-NECKED MONGOOSE

Family: Herpestidae Latin Name: Herpestes vitticollis Bennett, 1835 Subspecies: H.v. vitticollis
Bennett, 1835; H.v. inornatus Pocock, 1941203 Local Names: Keeree (Tamil/Kannada/Malayalam)
Best Seen At: Nagarhole NP, Karnataka; Anamalai WLS, Tamil Nadu IUCN/WPA/Indian Status:
Least Concern/ IV/ Locally Common Social Unit: Solitary or pairs Size: HBL: 25–41 cm, TL: 22–36
cm204 Wt: 3.2 kg
DESCRIPTION: A stocky mongoose with an iron–grey head and varying
reddish tints to its body, the Stripe-necked is the largest mongoose in Asia.
The tip of the nose, the bare skin around the eye and ears are rufous, and it
always has a black stripe, thinly bordered with white, from ear to shoulder
on both sides of the neck. The base pelage of the rest of the body is dark
grizzled grey. The specimens of northern Karnataka do not have any red on
the body (H.v. inornatus) while those in the southern parts of its range have
an orangish red tint on the rear part of the body (H.v. vitticollis). This
reddish colouration increases southwards and, for e.g., in the Anamalais, it
is almost a reddish creature with a grey head, and dark legs, tip of tail and
neck stripe. The legs are short and brownish black with five digits, and the
tail is three-fifths of the head and body length, with a black tip that, like the
Ruddy Mongoose, it carries with the tip pointing upwards.
BEHAVIOUR: It is a largely diurnal mongoose that feeds on animals as
small as a crab and as large as a mouse deer.
DISTRIBUTION: Through the Western Ghats, H.v. inornatus from
northern Kanara up to Coorg; H.v. vitticollis from southern western Ghats,
including Coorg, Anamalais and Kerala.
HABITAT: Deciduous forests (both dry and moist) and evergreen forests,
plantations and scrub, favouring swampy areas or those close to
watercourses. Prefers hilly country and has been recorded up to 2,200 m.205

COMMON NAME: BROWN MONGOOSE

Family: Herpestidae Latin Name: Herpestes fuscus Waterhouse, 1838206 Subspecies: H.f. fuscus
Waterhouse, 1838207 Local Names: Keera (Kannada), Keeree (Tamil), Thavidan keeree
(Malayalam) Best Seen At: Anamalais, Tamil Nadu IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ IV/
Rare Social Unit: Probably solitary Size: HBL: 33–48 cm, TL: 20–33 cm,208 Wt: 2.5 kg

DESCRIPTION: A large, stocky forest mongoose of the southern Indian

hills, this dark brown creature has fur that is less coarse than that of the
Grey Mongoose and is speckled yellowish brown. The feet are black and
the soles of the hind feet are partially covered with hair. The tail is around
two-thirds of the head and body length, like the Small Indian Mongoose’s,
but is very bushy and tapers to a conical point – a characteristic of this
species. The subspecies of the Western Ghats is darker than the Sri Lankan
subspecies.209
BEHAVIOUR: Not much is known about this secretive animal. It breeds in
burrows and below tree roots.
DISTRIBUTION: Western Ghats, south of Kodagu (12°N, 800–1,850 m)
including Nilgiris, Palni, High Wavy hills, Kalakaad–Mundanthurai,
Anamalais and Peermedu in Kerala.210
HABITAT: Moist deciduous and evergreen forests, and adjoining areas,
including coffee plantations.

H.f. fuscus scavenging on a Gaur carcass, Anamalai WLS, Tamil Nadu

Herpestes vitticollis inornatus, Nagarhole NP, Karnataka

Herpestes vitticollis vitticollis, Periyar NP, Kerala

H.v. vitticollis, Anamalai WLS, Tamil Nadu

 Herpestes fuscus fuscus, Valparai, Anamalai WLS, Tamil Nadu

H.f. fuscus, Kalakaad–Mundanthurai TR, Tamil Nadu

COMMON NAME: STRIPED HYAENA

Family: Hyaenidae Latin Name: Hyaena hyaena Linnaeus, 1758211 Subspecies: H.h. hyaena212
Local Names: Atariyal (Kumaoni), Domulagundu (Telugu), Heta bagha (Odia), Jharak (Gujarati),
Kadu keeruba (Kannada), Kazhutha puli (Malayalam), Kazhuthai puli (Tamil), Lakkad bagga
(Hindi), Taras (Marathi) Best Seen At: Kumbalgarh WLS, Rajasthan; Velavadar NP, Gujarat
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Near Threatened/ III/ Uncommon Social Unit: Solitary, pairs and
colonies of 5–15213 Size: HBL: 100–115 cm, HAS: 66–75 cm, Wt: 26–41 kg (male); 26–34 kg
(female)214

DESCRIPTION: The Striped Hyaena is a large, shaggy, buff-coloured

animal that looks like a canid at first appearance. Like all hyaenas, it has a
heavyset body balanced on spindly legs of which the forelegs are longer
than the hind ones, giving it an ungainly slouched appearance. Similar to
the other three bone-cracking hyaenas globally, it has a thick neck, large
head, massive jaws and unique premolar teeth. The buff body has 5–9 black
stripes on the flanks, two cheek stripes, and horizontal stripes on the legs. It
has coarse, long fur from the shoulder to the hindquarters and the back has a
dark crest that can be erected as a threat to make the animal look a third
larger than normal.215 The pelage can vary geographically from a very light
buff to grey and sometimes even pale cream.216
The muzzle and the throat are black. The patch around the throat has
dense fur and thick skin.217 The tail is long and shaggy. There are four toes
on each feet bearing non-retractable canid-like claws.218 Two characteristic
hyaenid features are their anal pouches and their juvenile genital
convergences. They have a well-developed anal pouch that can be inverted
and this can be visible at times. Juvenile males have smooth and hairless
pre-scrotal folds above the scrotum that superficially resemble the labial
folds above the vagina of the females. However, this characteristic does not
persist in adults.219 Sexual dimorphism does not exist other than the visible
teats in case of pregnant females and the genitalia. The young are pale
white, maneless, but with stripes.220
BEHAVIOUR: The hyaena is known to paste two different coloured
secretions from its anal gland, a white and a black one, on vegetation, which
are its primary means of communication. What it is known for, however, is
the long, laughing call that ends in a cackle, which is heard at nights in its
habitat and has given rise to many superstitions about its quasi-magical
prowess.
DISTRIBUTION: Through peninsular India, south of the Himalayas, in
arid and semi-arid tracts with the exception of dense forests, true deserts
and coasts. Not present in the Western Ghats, or most of Tamil Nadu and
Kerala, the North–East and most of West Bengal.
HABITAT: Open scrub and dry thorn forests, often found near human
habitation. Avoids true deserts; frequents arid and semi-arid country.
Habitat preference is linked to availability of denning sites,221 which could
be caves in rocky terrain, burrows dug by them, or even those by
porcupines.222 Found normally up to 2,500 m in hilly terrain, but in
Pakistan has been reported at more than 3,000 m.223
Hyaena hyaena hyaena pair crosses a forest track, Velavadar NP, Gujarat

H.h. hyaena adult female, Velavadar NP, Gujarat

H.h. hyaena with scavenged kill, Achanakmar NP, Chhattisgarh

H.h. hyaena young, Velavadar NP, Gujarat

 H.h. hyaena adult female and pup at den site, Velavadar NP, Gujarat

COMMON NAME: GREY WOLF

Family: Canidae Latin Name: Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758 Subspecies: Tibetan Grey Wolf C.l.
chanco Gray, 1863;224 Indian Grey Wolf C.l. pallipes Sykes, 1831 Local Names:
Bheriya/Nekra/Hundar (Hindi), Changu (Tibetan), Hendol (Bengali), Landga (Marathi), Onaai
(Tamil), Thodelu (Telugu), Tholla (Kannada), Rame hoon (Kashmiri), Nar/Naar (Gujarati), Bhagad
(Kutchhi) Best Seen At: Velavadar NP, Gujarat IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/225 I/
Uncommon Social Unit: Packs, usually of 5–12226 individuals Size: HBL:100–130 cm (male); 87–
117 cm (female), TL: 40–52 cm,227 HAS: 66–81 cm,228 Wt: 16–60 kg; males heavier than
females229

DESCRIPTION: A large canid, the Grey Wolf superficially looks like a

slim Alsatian230 with a big head, long limbs, large feet, a slightly curved tail
and shorter ears. It has a long muzzle. Its pelage varies greatly with tones of
red and grey fur intermingled with black, especially on the dorsal crest,
forehead and tip of the tail. The undersides are buff or creamish in colour.
Despite being one of the largest canids of the Indian Subcontinent, the
Indian Grey Wolf is smaller than the subspecies found in Europe and
America. The peninsular subspecies has lesser underfur and has whiter
lower limbs than other subspecies. The ‘V’ on the back is of a darker
colour. In summer pelage, the coat is much redder and shorter as the longer
black and grey fur is shed. Winter pelage is thicker. In contrast, the Tibetan
Wolf has much more underfur and is heavier set. It has a longer muzzle, a
longer crest of black hair on its back, and in certain cases is completely
black in colour.
BEHAVIOUR: Wolf packs communicate by howling and using gestures
involving the ears, tail, and facial muscles. These indicate hierarchical
disputes and play.
DISTRIBUTION: C.l. chanco is distributed from the eastern parts of the
Kashmir Valley to the Changthang in Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir; a small
population is known from Spiti in Himachal Pradesh. C.l. pallipes is
distributed in a patchy fashion through peninsular India in appropriate
habitat. It is mainly found in the states of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh and West Bengal. The species is absent in the Western Ghats231 as
well as the Himalayan foothills and Terai232 and probably in north–east
India.
HABITAT: C.l. chanco inhabits cold deserts of the trans-Himalayas while
C.l. pallipes frequents dry open country, scrubland and semi-arid grasslands
in the peninsula.233 It has a wide tolerance level of habitat with different
precipitation as is evidenced by its presence in habitats with 300 mm
precipitation in the Rann and in parts of Rajasthan, to those with 1,500 mm
precipitation in Odisha.234

Canis lupus chanco winter coat, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

Canis lupus pallipes lopes in dry grassland, Rollapadu, Andhra Pradesh
 C.l. pallipes running across the Rann (left) and giving a frontal pose in
Surendranagar (right), Gujarat

C.l. chanco, summer coat, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

COMMON NAME: GOLDEN JACKAL

Family: Canidae Latin Name: Canis aureus Linnaeus, 1758 Subspecies: Common Jackal C.a.
aureus Linnaeus, 1758; Indian Jackal C.a. indicus Hodgson, 1833; Sri Lankan Jackal C.a. naria
Wroughton, 1916; Siamese Jackal C.a. cruesemanni Matschie, 1900 Local Names: Bilua (Odia),
Gidar (Hindi), Gulle naree (Kannada), Kolha (Marathi), Kurukkan (Malayalam), Nari (Tamil),
Nakka (Telugu), Shaal (Kashmiri), Shiyal (Bengali/Gujarati) Best Seen At: Throughout most of
India IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ II/ Locally Common Social Unit:
Solitary/pairs/small groups of 3–5 comprising females and their offspring or previous litter Size:
HBL: 76–84 cm (male); 74–80 cm (female), Wt: 7.6–9.8 kg (male); 6.5–7.8 kg (female)

DESCRIPTION: A medium-sized canid, the Golden Jackal’s scraggy,

buff-grey coat is not as smooth as the fox’s, nor as dense as that of the wolf.
The buff coat is interspersed with black hair especially on the back as if it
has donned a grizzled coat while the head and sides of the legs are tawny
red in colour. The underside, throat and the area around the eyes and lips are
white. Pelage colour can vary seasonally from pale cream to tawny. The tail
is bushy and medium-sized and has a black tip like that of the wolf and the
Indian Fox. In comparison though, the jackal is one and a half times the size
of the Indian Fox and only little more than half the size of the wolf. The
jackal also has a shorter muzzle and overall smaller head than that of a
wolf, with shorter legs, giving it a more compact look than the lean, long-
limbed look of a wolf. Male jackals are nearly 15 per cent larger than
females. Female have four pair of mammae.
The four subspecies are not well studied in India. The Common Jackal, in
the north–west, C.a. aureus is thought to be larger and paler with more
sandy admixtures in its pelage. The Indian Jackal, C.a. indicus, in northern
India is equally large but has more buff on the body and the grey is
pronounced across the saddle, with black hairs predominating the tail and
the back. The southern Indian subspecies, C.a. naria, is smaller, with a
shorter coat. The back is almost black, speckled with white, and the limbs
are more rusty in colour. The north–eastern subspecies is smaller but not
much is known about its description.
BEHAVIOUR: A successful hunter, especially of rodents, the jackal has an
undeserved reputation as a scavenger. Its eerie howls are characteristic of
the Indian countryside and jungle.
DISTRIBUTION: Found throughout India except the high Himalayas.235
HABITAT: Forests, grasslands, mangrove, urban and semi-urban areas.
Tolerates human presence more readily than the wolf and is thus often seen
around human settlements.

Facial proportions and pelage differences among (left to right) Grey Wolf,
Golden Jackal, Dhole, Red Fox, Tibetan Sand Fox and Indian Fox
Canis aureus aureus, Great Rann of Kutch, Gujarat
Canis aureus naria, lower altitude, Munnar, Kerala

Canis aureus crusemanni pup, Kaziranga, Assam

Canis aureus indicus, Corbett NP, Uttarakhand

 C.a. naria, high altitude, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu

COMMON NAME: WILD DOG

Family: Canidae Latin Name: Cuon alpinus Pallas, 1811236 Subspecies: C.a. primaevus; C.a.
dukhunensis; C.a. adjustus: all Iyengar et al., 2005237 Local Names: Balia kukura (Odia), Dhole
(Hindi), Chen nai (Malayalam/Tamil), Farra (Ladakhi), Huithou (Manipuri), Jungli kutro (Gujarati),
Jongli kutta (Bengali), Kadu nai (Kannada), Kolsun/Ran kutra/Dhole (Marathi), Rang kukur
(Assamese), Ramhun/Rame hoon (Kashmiri), Resu kukka (Telugu) Best Seen At: Bandipur and
Nagarhole NPs, Karnataka IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered/ II/ Locally Common Social
Unit: Packs Size: HBL: 88–135 cm, TL: 32–50 cm, Wt: 15–20 kg (male); 10–13 kg (female)238

DESCRIPTION: A uniquely Asian reddish brown forest dog, the Dhole

has shorter legs, a more bushy tail, and a shorter, thicker muzzle than both
the wolf and the jackal. Also known as the Asiatic Wild Dog, its general
dorsal pelage colour is rusty red although, in India, it varies from having
light sandstone tones in the west to brownish yellow in the north and rust–
red in the south, the pelt turning deeper further south. The undersides, chest,
inner legs and lips have varying amounts of white or cream fur on it. The
white hairs on the body increase with age in peninsular India and can be
used to age the animals.239 The ears are triangular, relatively large and lined
with white fur inside. The tail is only russet at its base and is almost fully
black, the black colour found otherwise only on the nose. It is anatomically
unique from domestic dogs and other canids in having a fused toe pad next
to the main pad on the forefeet, in having one lower molar less,240 the upper
molars with a single cusp, and in having six or seven pairs of mammae. The
legs are thin and long, giving rise to it being called one of the most ‘catlike
canids’.241 Pups are sooty brown when born, turning russet in about three
months.242
BEHAVIOUR: Dholes hunt in packs whose numbers fluctuate in a given
area over time and are efficient predators surrounding their prey,
disembowelling it within minutes of the first catch and eating it almost on
the hoof, cleaning it to the bones within a few hours. Their contact call
during hunting is an infrasonic whistle, which can be heard very faintly.
DISTRIBUTION: Dholes are distributed patchily in the central Indian
highlands, in the Himalayas and trans-Himalayas, in north–east India and
the southern highlands. In the North–East they are reported from Sikkim,
Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and Assam. In the Western Himalayas they
are reported from Ladakh. They are absent from the Terai.
HABITAT: Open woodland interspersed with grassy meadows. Dry
deciduous, moist deciduous and tropical dry forest may hold the best Dhole
populations in India, but they are also found in dry thorn, evergreen, semi-
evergreen and alpine steppe forests. They are not found in deserts, coasts,
hilly terrain and mangroves.

Cuon alpinus alpinus pack, Kanha NP, Madhya Pradesh

C.a. primaevus, high-altitude winter pelage, Khangchendzonga, Sikkim
 C.a. dukhunensis, Bandipur NP, Karnataka

C.a. adjustus, high-altitude summer pelage, Mehao WLS, Arunachal

Pradesh
C.a. dukhunensis, Bandipur NP, Karnataka (Note varying amounts of white
on body)

COMMON NAME: INDIAN FOX

Family: Canidae Latin Name: Vulpes bengalensis Shaw, 1800243 Local Names: Gunta nakka
(Telugu), Khek-shiyal (Bengali), Kodisilai (Odia), Kulla nari (Tamil), Kuru naree (Malayalam),
Kokhad (Marathi), Lomri (Hindi), Lokeria (Central India), Sanna nari (Kannada), Shiyal (Assamese),
Lamhui (Manipuri) Best Seen At: Rollapadu WLS, Andhra Pradesh IUCN/WPA/Indian Status:
Least Concern/ II/ Occasional Social Unit: Solitary or pairs Size: HBL: 39–57 cm (male); 46–48 cm
(females), TL: 24-32, Wt: 2.7–3.2 kg (male); more than 1.8 kg (female)244

DESCRIPTION: The common peninsular fox, the Indian or Bengal Fox is

more daintily built than the Red Fox and can be easily distinguished by its
bushy, black-tipped tail, which is 50–60 per cent of the body length. The red
hair of Vulpes vulpes is missing in its pelt, giving it an overall greyish
appearance (more like a small jackal). Its legs always look slightly darker
brown than the body. The ears are long and brown, and its backsides are
slightly darker than the nape but never black. There are small black patches
of hair, that look like dark smudges, on the muzzle in front of the eyes. The
muzzle is elongated. Females have three pairs of mammae.245
BEHAVIOUR: The tail, which normally trails, is held parallel to the
ground when the animal is in flight and raised upwards when the fox makes
a sudden turn. Foxes, like some other canids such as the Wild Dog, can
fluctuate tremendously in an area over the years.246
DISTRIBUTION: From the Himalayan foothills throughout India247
except the coasts and the Western Ghats. Expanding even into the
Sunderbans.248
HABITAT: Open rocky country, desert, and near human habitation and
agricultural fields.249 (up to 1,350 m). They seem to avoid tall grasslands,
dense forests, high hills and mountains.250 In these habitats three dens are
used: simple dens with two openings, dens under rock ledges or crevices,
and complex dens with several openings. The third is most used.251

COMMON NAME: TIBETAN SAND FOX

Family: Canidae Latin Name: Vulpes ferrilata Hodgson, 1842252 Local Names: Unknown Best
Seen At: Sikkim trans-Himalayas IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Rare Social
Unit: Mostly solitary or pairs; rarely female and pups Size: HBL: 51–65 cm (male); 49–61 cm
(female), TL: 26–29 cm (male); 22–26 cm (female), Wt: 3.2–4.6 kg (male); 3–4.1 kg (female)253

DESCRIPTION: The Iron-Grey Sided Fox is an alternate name of this

high-altitude fox that in summer has a tricoloured appearance with the tan
head and upper parts set off by grey sides, and a white front and underparts.
It is a short, squat fox with a characteristic round-faced appearance because
of its pronounced cheek ruffs, a flattened head and very short ears. The tail
is bushy and largely grey in colour with parts of the upper tail having the
tan colour of the body and a white tip. There are vertical grey markings on
the body between the forelegs and the chest. In winter, the pelage is lighter
and furrier with the greys fading considerably and the tan turning almost
cream.254 A clear line separating the tan from the grey on the sides is a clear
distinction between this and the Red Fox.255
BEHAVIOUR: Largely feeds on pikas and rodents although other small
animals are also taken. Solitary hunter of pika colonies.
DISTRIBUTION: Widespread in the Tibetan Plateau, but in India occurs
only in Ladakh in Jammu & Kashmir, and Sikkim trans-Himalayas.
HABITAT: Alpine steppes, cold desert steppes, and arid to semi-arid
uplands above the treeline (2,500–5,200 m).256
 Vulpes bengalensis, Rollapadu, Andhra Pradesh

V. bengalensis pups at burrow, Banni, Kutch, Gujarat

Vulpes ferrilata winter plumage, Tso Lhamo, Sikkim

V. bengalensis, Great Rann of Kutch, Gujarat

 V. ferrilata summer plumage, Tso Lhamo, Sikkim

COMMON NAME: RED FOX

Family: Canidae Latin Name: Vulpes vulpes Linnaeus, 1758257 Subspecies: Kashmir Fox V.v.
griffithi Blyth, 1854; Himalayan Fox V.v. montana Pearson, 1836; Desert Fox V.v. pusilla Blyth,
1854258 Local Names: Loh (Kashmiri), Lomri (Hindi), Lonkdi (Gujarati) Best Seen At: V.v.
montana: Himalayan hill stations; V.v. griffithi: Kargil, Jammu & Kashmir; V.v. pusilla: Kutch,
Gujarat IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ II/ Occasional Social Unit: Pairs; sometimes
solitary; occasionally in groups of up to six; Size: HBL: 59–90 cm (male); 45–68 cm (female), TL:
36–44 cm (male); 28–49 cm (female), Wt: 4–14 kg (male); 3–7 kg (female)

DESCRIPTION: The most widely distributed carnivore in the world, the

Red Fox is extremely variable in body colour and size. The three subspecies
of the fox found in India can be readily distinguished from the Indian Fox
and the Golden Jackal by their characteristic long and bushy (70 per cent of
head and body length) white-tipped tail and dark patches behind the ears.
They have five toes on their forefeet and four on the hind feet, and have
long, non-rectractile claws. They differ from dogs in their skulls being
concave and not convex, in having a shorter and more slender muzzle, and
in having slender canines.259 Indian Red Foxes have a representative of
both the northern Red Fox clade in the Himalayan Fox and also the
southern Grey Fox clade in the Kashmir Fox and the Desert Fox – both
greyer, smaller and more primitive foxes with longer legs and ears.260 The
Himalayan or Hill Fox (V.v. montana) is the common fox of the Himalayas,
east of Ladakh. It is fox-like-red in colour overall and the chest, belly,
muzzle and cheek have white fur mixed with the red. It develops thick,
luxuriant underfur during the winters. The ears are large and fringed with
white hair. The Kashmir or Afghan Fox (V.v. griffithi) is slightly smaller and
has a rust–orange coat with dark grey fur on the throat, chest and outer part
of the legs. The Desert or White-footed Fox (V.v. pusilla) is the smallest and
lightest of the three, with short, greyish fur mixed with rust–brown hairs.
The feet often have white patches on them (unlike the dark feet of the other
subspecies) and the back of each ear is dark brown (instead of black). Its
tail is less bushy than in the other two subspecies but still has the white or
cream tip that distinguishes it from the Indian Fox.
BEHAVIOUR: Foxes have a subcaudal gland on the upper parts of the tail
that gives off a characteristic odour often referred to as ‘foxy’.
DISTRIBUTION: The Himalayas and trans-Himalayas, from Jammu &
Kashmir to Sikkim, and in the arid and semi-arid areas of Rajasthan and
Kutch, Gujarat.
HABITAT: A very wide variety of habitats, including arid and semi-arid
areas, montane forests and areas close to human habitation, within their
distribution is used. Availability of food seems to be the major limiting
factor in habitat suitability.

Tail differences among Indian canids (left to right) Grey Wolf, Golden
Jackal, Dhole, Red Fox, Tibetan Sand Fox and Indian Fox
Vulpes vulpes montana, Khangchendzonga NP, Sikkim
 V.v. montana summer coat, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

Vulpes vulpes pusilla adult with a bird in the mouth, Little Rann of Kutch,
Gujarat
 Vulpes vulpes griffithi, Kargil, Jammu & Kashmir

V.v. pusilla cubs at play, Little Rann of Kutch, Gujarat

COMMON NAME: ASIATIC BLACK BEAR

Family: Ursidae Subfamily: Ursinae Latin Name: Ursus thibetanus Cuvier, 1823261 Subspecies:
U.t. laniger Pocock, 1932; U.t. thibetanus Cuvier, 1823262 Local Names: Reechh (Hindi),
Sanar/Himali kalo bhalu (Nepali), Bhaluk (Bengali/Assamese), Dom (Bhutia), Mapo (Garo),
Savawm/Vawmpui (Mizo), Sawom (Manipuri), Siyah haput (male); Hapich (female) (Kashmiri),
Hughum/Thagua/Thega/Chup/Sevam/Sapa (Naga) Best Seen At: Dachigam NP, Jammu & Kashmir
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ I/ Uncommon Social Unit: Solitary, or up to four bears
when mother is with cubs Size: HBL:110–190 cm, TL: 7.5–10 cm,263 Wt: 60–250 kg264 (male);
35–170 kg (female)

DESCRIPTION: A large forest-dwelling bear of the Himalayas, the

Asiatic Black Bear is also called the Moon Bear due to the crescent-shaped
creamy or white mark on its glossy black chest. Its black fur is much shorter
than that of the other black bear of India, the Sloth Bear, its muzzle is
shorter and tan–brown, the brown colour stopping short below the eyes and
its chest marking is crescent shaped instead of ‘V’ shaped and extends all
the way to its armpits. The chin is white. Longer hairs are present in the
neck region,265 probably an evolutionary adaptation to escape the bites of
predators such as tigers. It has powder-puff ears that are very noticeable and
a very short tail. The feet are large with black pads and form the largest
tracks among Indian bears. The claws on its digits are pronouncedly curved
and dark black in colour,266 longer on the forefoot than the hind foot but
shorter than those of the Brown and Sloth Bears. U.t. laniger has denser
under-wool, an overall longer and more luxuriant coat, and a smaller white
crescent mark267 while in U.t. thibetanus, the coat is shorter with little or no
under-wool and a larger crescent on the chest.268
BEHAVIOUR: U.t. laniger hibernates in the upper Himalayas, although
for not as long and not as continuously as the Brown Bear but U.t.
thibetanus does not hibernate at all. It is much more arboreal than the
Brown or Sloth Bears, ascending trees to feed on fruit or honey or escape
intrusion though it does not sleep on trees like the Sun Bear.
DISTRIBUTION: Throughout the Himalayas from Jammu & Kashmir to
Arunachal Pradesh and in hilly regions of other north–eastern states
(Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura).269
HABITAT: The species prefers heavily forested broadleaved and
coniferous forests as habitat. It uses orchards, agricultural fields and human
habitation to move between forest patches. In the North–East, it is also
found in deciduous and semi-evergreen forests (sea level to 4,300 m but in
the Himalayas more commonly from 1,500-3,500 m).270
Ursinae thibetanus thibetanus cubs, Pakke WLS, Arunachal Pradesh

Ursinae thibetanus laniger female and cub, Dachigam NP, Jammu &
Kashmir
U.t. laniger adult male, Dachigam NP, Jammu & Kashshmir
 U.t. thibetanus cub, Manas NP, Assam

U.t. thibetanus, Khangchendzonga NP, Sikkim

COMMON NAME: SLOTH BEAR

Family: Ursidae Subfamily: Ursinae Latin Name: Melursus ursinus Shaw, 1791271 Subspecies:
M.u. ursinus Shaw, 1791272 Local Names: Asval (Marathi), Bhalu (Hindi), Bhalluk (Bengali), Bir
mend (Oraoni), Elugu banti (Telugu), Karadi (Tamil/Kannada), Karadi/Panni-karadi (Malayalam),
Reench (Gujarati), Yerid/Yedja (Gond) Best Seen At: Mudumalai WLS, Tamil Nadu; Daroji WLS,
Karnataka IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ I/ Locally common; Social Unit: Solitary Size:
HBL: 140–190 cm, TL: 8–17 cm, Wt: 70–45 kg (male); 50–95 kg (female)273

DESCRIPTION: This widespread peninsular bear is unfortunately familiar

to most Indians as the performing bear in the streets.274 A forest bear with a
long snout and long, shaggy hair, the Sloth Bear is so named because of its
lumbering gait. The hair is black, long and matted, and the all-black
appearance is broken only at four places; its cream to dirty yellow long
muzzle (the colour stopping at the eyes, often encircling the eyes as well),
its white, V-shaped chest marking, off-white patches at the ends of the
limbs, and the ivory-coloured claws. The hair is particularly long over the
head and shoulders, giving it a maned appearance, and is most sparse on the
legs and undersides, at places being almost hairless. The snout is long and
the lips are so protrusible that they can be stretched over the nostrils as a
cover. The front two incisors are absent. Both these features assist it in its
insectivorous diet, especially in sucking up termites from termite mounds.
Aiding it in this specialized diet are also its well-developed, broad paws,
armed with sickle-shaped, long claws. The front legs are bowed and the foot
pads are black but hairless unlike in the Himalayan Black Bear. The tail is
slightly longer than other Indian bears.
BEHAVIOUR: This bear uses its long claws to tear up termite mounds,
and sucks up termites and ants through the gap in its dentition due to its
missing front incisors. It can be lethal if confronted as it is dim-sighted and
rears up on its hind legs and bites or claws when alarmed.275
DISTRIBUTION: Throughout peninsular India, south of the Himalayas up
to Assam in the North–East in a patchy fashion. Absent in the high
Himalayas although present up to the Terai and low foothills. In the
peninsula, absent in the western desert, semi-arid and non-forested areas of
southern and central India.276
HABITAT: It inhabits a wide variety of habitat including moist and dry
deciduous forest, scrubland and grassland. In central India, it can be found
near inhabited areas and it comes into agricultural fields especially if the
mahua (Madhuca indica) is in flower. Generally found below 1,500 m
although can go up to 2,000 m in the Western Ghats.277

Melursus ursinus, Daroji WLS, Karnataka

Melursus ursinus ursinus female with young on back, Mudumalai, Tamil

Nadu
M. ursinus young adult, Bandipur NP, Karnataka
 M. ursinus, Daroji WLS, Karnataka

M.u. ursinus, captive

COMMON NAME: HIMALAYAN BROWN BEAR

Family: Ursidae Subfamily: Ursinae Latin Name: Ursus arctos Linnaeus, 1758 Subspecies: U.a.
isabellinus Horsfield, 1826 Local Names: Barf ka reech/Lal bhalu/Siala reechh (Hindi), Denmo
(Ladakhi), Dub/Himali bhairo bhalu (Nepali), Ko haput (male); Ko hapich (female) (Kashmiri) Best
Seen At: Great Himalayan NP, Himachal Pradesh IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ II/
Rare Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL:150–280 cm Wt: 130–550 kg (male); 80–250 kg (female)278

DESCRIPTION: The Himalayan Brown Bear is the world’s largest

terrestrial carnivore. It is considerably smaller than its more famed relatives
– the Grizzly and the Kodiak Bears. However, it is still a very large bear
with a thick, reddish brown coat with no clear chest markings that are
present in most other bears. In young cubs, however, an indistinct chest
marking is seen, and this can be visible even in some adults in a new
summer coat.279 The coat is shorter in summer and longer in winter,
individual hair reaching up to eight inches in length.280 The darker brown of
new pelage can turn reddish brown in an older coat.281 Its claws are white
in colour unlike the black of the Himalayan Black Bear.
BEHAVIOUR: This is the least arboreal bear and is largely terrestrial as an
adaptation to life in the rolling uplands, above the treeline. It hibernates in
winter.
DISTRIBUTION: Through the Western Himalayan states of Jammu &
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand (3,000–5,000 m).282
HABITAT: It is not primarily a forest animal and inhabits alpine scrub and
meadows above the treeline, although it is occasionally found in subalpine
forests.

COMMON NAME: SUN BEAR

Family: Ursidae Subfamily: Ursinae Latin: Helarctos malayanus Raffles, 1822283 Subspecies:
Helarctos malayanus malayanus Raffles, 1822284 Local Names: Gos bhaluk (Assamese) Best Seen
At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Data Deficient/ I/ Rare Social Unit:
Solitary Size: HBL: 100–150 cm, TL: 3–7 cm, Wt:285 30–80 kg

DESCRIPTION: A small forest bear with a South–East Asian distribution,

the Sun Bear is present at the western edge of its range only in a few
pockets in north–east India. It can be distinguished from the other two
Indian black bears by its small size, short black coat, a U-shaped mark on
the chest, more protruding lips286 and bowed legs. The ‘U’ mark can range
from off-white to cream to yellow to dark orange and, in many cases, is
joined at the top, forming a large circle of colour around a black centre. In
some individuals, it trails at the bottom end up to its forelegs. The muzzle is
grey to cream and the colour extends onto the face above the eyes, almost
making it look like a mask.287 With its small, stocky frame, it looks almost
like a large dog and is called Dog Bear in parts of its range. It has a very
long tongue (25 cm)288 that is used to lick out grubs from tree holes and
honey from hives. It has long claws that are horn-coloured to white.
BEHAVIOUR: The most arboreal bear, it makes rough nests of bent
branches in trees to sleep in. It uses its long claws for digging and tearing
up bark, and also thrusts its arms into termite mounds and licks the insects
off its paws.
DISTRIBUTION: Known from patchy sightings and camera-trap photos in
Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Mizoram, Nagaland and Manipur.289
HABITAT: Subtropical hardwood forests.

Ursus arctos isabellinus female, captive

Ursus arctos isabellinus female and cub, Kargil, Jammu & Kashmir

U.a. isabellinus, Great Himalayan NP, Himachal Pradesh

 Helarctos malayanus malayanus, Namdapha NP, Arunachal Pradesh

H.m. malayanus, captive

COMMON NAME: RED PANDA

Family: Ursidae Latin Name: Ailurus fulgens Cuvier, 1825 Subspecies: A.f fulgens290 Cuvier,
1825 Local Names: Oakdonga (Bhotia), Sak nam (Lepcha), Wah donka sak na/Ye ngalva ponva
(Nepalese) Best Seen At: Singalila NP, West Bengal IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ I/ Rare
Social Unit: Solitary outside breeding period; in small groups of 3–5 of related individuals Size:
HBL: 50–73 cm, TL: 28-49 cm, Wt: 3–6 kg291

DESCRIPTION: The Red Panda is one of the most striking creatures of

the north–eastern forests. The chestnut colour of its body is offset by the
white snout, inner ears and cheek patches. The ears are triangular and the
cheek patches bear wiry, white moustachial hair. The tip of the nose is
glossy black. The white cheek mask has chestnut coloured ‘teardrop stains,’
which in combination with its large, liquid brown eyes, lend it a peculiar
appeal. Its tail is ringed with six light and dark chestnut and buff bands. The
chest, ventral part of the body and the legs are black. The front legs are
shorter than the hind legs. Red Pandas are unique among subtropical
creatures in having white furred soles. The paws have strong, inwardly
curved and short claws that are semi-retractile. This, a false thumb (like the
Giant Panda’s), and the ability to rotate its ankle more than other arboreal
carnivores, are anatomical features that assist its tree-climbing and headlong
descent. The Red Panda has a robust skull and dentition, making it very
different from other protocyanids. Females have eight mammae. At birth,
the neonate is covered in thick buff fur and reddish hairs appear by day 15
just before the eyes open. Adult colouration is attained in approximately
two months.292
BEHAVIOUR: The Red Panda scent marks its territory with urine,
droppings and powerful secretions from its anal glands, and glands on paws
and foreskin. Other pandas detect these by taste and not smell.
Communication is through a wide repertoire of squeaks, snorts and
whistles. Red Pandas feed only on fresh bamboo leaves at the base of the
stalk and do not eat the stalk itself as the Giant Panda of China does.
DISTRIBUTION: In the north–eastern Himalayan states of Sikkim,
northern West Bengal and Arunachal Pradesh.
HABITAT: Dense moist temperate forests with thick bamboo and
rhododendron undergrowth. In the Himalayas from 1,500–4,800 m,
preferring 2,800–3,100 m,293 and in Meghalaya from 700–1,400 m.294 It
seems to prefer forests with old and big tree growth with plenty of hollows,
dead snags and proximity to water.295 South– and east–facing slopes
favoured.296

Ailurus fulgens fulgens on a tree branch, Jimithang, Arunachal Pradesh

Ailurus fulgens fulgens, Khangchendzonga NP, Sikkim
 A.f. fulgens, captive

A.f. fulgens, climbing a tree, Singalila NP, West Bengal

A.f. fulgens, Singalila NP, West Bengal

COMMON NAME: SMALL-TOOTHED FERRET BADGER

Family: Helictinidae Latin Name: Melogale moschata Gray, 1831297 Subspecies: M.m. millsi
Thomas, 1922298 Local Names: Unknown Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ II/ Rare Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 33–43 cm, TL:
14–23 cm, Wt:1–3 kg299

DESCRIPTION: Also called the Chinese Ferret Badger, the Small-toothed

Ferret Badger is a small, dark grey animal that appears silvery grey against
light. It has a black bandit’s mask on its face, and white lips, chin, throat,
belly and inner legs. Its tail is brownish grey with a white tip. The buff–
white forehead and cheeks match a white dorsal streak, which is broad at
the forehead and tapers down to the shoulders. It has small, narrow,
crowned molars while the Large-toothed Ferret Badger has larger molars.
BEHAVIOUR: Both Ferret Badgers are poorly studied species in the wild.
DISTRIBUTION: North-east India and northern West Bengal. .
HABITAT: Tropical forests and plantations; can survive near human
habitation.300

COMMON NAME: LARGE-TOOTHED FERRET BADGER

Family: Helictinidae Latin Name: Melogale personata I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831 Subspecies:
M.p. personata I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831301 Local Names: Unknown Best Seen At: Nowhere
commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Data Deficient/ II/ Rare Social Unit: Solitary Size:
HBL: 33–40 cm, TL: 15–23 cm, Wt: 1–3 kg302

DESCRIPTION: Also known as the Burmese Ferret Badger, it is very

similar to the Small-toothed Ferret Badger in size and colouration, differing
only in dentition, the pattern of its facial mask (which has more white in it)
and its dorsal streak, which runs at least to mid-back or all the way to its
tail. The tail length is more than half of head and body while that of the
Small-toothed is smaller. These differences, however, may not be specific
identification and may be individual variations.303
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: North–east India. HABITAT: Unknown.

COMMON NAME: HOG BADGER

Family: Mustelidae Subfamily: Melinae Latin Name: Arctonyx collaris Cuvier, 1825304 Local
Names: Bala suar/Bejoo/Bajra (Hindi), Baliya suor (Bengali), Bigu khawar (Telugu), Ghorkhodiyo
(Gujarati), Tharaikaradi (Tamil/Kannada) Best Seen At: Kaziranga NP, Assam IUCN/WPA/Indian
Status: Near Threatened/ I/ Uncommon Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 55–70 cm, TL: 10-20 cm,
Wt: 7–14 kg305
DESCRIPTION: Probably the commonest badger of the North–East, it
looks like an odd cross between a Wild Boar and a small bear. Its coat is a
uniform grizzled grey in contrast to the Honey Badger’s (its closest relative)
prominent pied colouration. The hairless snout is longer, giving it a porcine
appearance. The whitish face has two dark stripes through its eyes as in the
European Badger. Here, the similarity with true badgers ends: the throat is
pale and it has a black streak on the cheek, both absent in true badgers.306
The white ears are prominent. Its legs and head are darker than the rest of
its body. The tail and claws are white unlike the Honey Badger’s black
ones.
BEHAVIOUR: It relies more on smell than sight and gambols awkwardly
like a bear when running. Other than using its teeth and claws in defence if
cornered, it releases a pungent odour.307
DISTRIBUTION: North–east India HABITAT: Well-wooded countryside;
deciduous forests.

Melogale moschata, Namdapha NP, Arunachal Pradesh

 Large-toothed Ferret Badger

Small-toothed Ferret Badger

Arctonyx collaris (left) adult and (above) young, Kaziranga NP, Assam
 Honey Badger (see overleaf)

COMMON NAME: HONEY BADGER

Family: Mustelidae Subfamily: Melivorinae Latin Name: Mellivora capensis Schreber, 1776308
Subspecies: M.c. indica Kerr, 1792; M.c. inaurita Hodgson, 1836309 Local Names: Bejoo/bajra
(Hindi), Bigu khawar (Telugu), Gada Bhalu (Odia), Ghurnar (Gujarati), Khakhar (Bengali),
Tharaikaradi (Tamil/Kannada) Best Seen At: Melghat NP, Maharashtra IUCN/WPA/Indian Status:
Lower Risk/ I/ Uncommon Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 60–77 cm, TL: 15–25 cm, Wt: 7–13
kg310

DESCRIPTION: A large, pied badger, the Honey Badger or Ratel has a

broad streak of unwashed silver–grey from the crown to the base of the tail,
with the underparts being deep brown or black. The upper parts are more
buff or rust–brown in juveniles. The fur is short and coarse yet glossy. The
head is broad, the snout small and the ears are flattened flaps, giving it a
pugilist’s face. The tail is black with a pale tip. The forefeet are adapted for
digging and have black claws that are larger than those on the hind feet. The
females have two mammae. Both sexes look alike, although the males are
significantly larger.
BEHAVIOUR: The Ratel is reputed to dig up graves – a local belief that is
based on its scavenging habits.311 It is also a predator that feeds largely on
flesh, supplemented by a vegetarian diet.
DISTRIBUTION: Ranges from the Himalayan foothills to southern India.
Absent in Kerala and the North–East.
HABITAT: Hilly, stony, arid country, and dry and moist deciduous
forests312 (sea level to 4,000 m).313
COMMON NAME: STONE MARTEN
Family: Mustelidae Subfamily: Martinae Latin Name: Martes foina Erxleeben, 1777314
Subspecies: M.f. intermedia Severtzov, 1873315 Local Names: Unknown Best Seen At: Ladakh,
Jammu & Kashmir IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ I/ Uncommon Social Unit: Solitary
Size: HBL: 40–54 cm, TL: 22–30 cm, Wt: 1.1–2.3 kg316

DESCRIPTION: Only slightly bigger than a giant squirrel, the Beech or

Stone Marten is a long weasel-shaped marten, lighter in colour than the
other Indian martens, varying from liver–brown (Western Himalayas), to
chocolate, to drab tawny brown (Sikkim and eastern distribution). There is
not much distinction between the dorsal and ventral parts although the legs
and tail are darker than the body. The tail is only half the size of the head
and body and thus smaller than the Yellow-throated Marten’s. The neck is
white or pale yellow, split into two or patterned by the colour of the body
extending into the white. The upper lip is characteristically split. Males are
larger in size. Females have two pairs of mammae. M. intermedia is a small
subspecies with light fur, a dark brown tail and variable throat patch, which
in some cases is absent. The guard hairs are darker and the underfur is pale
and almost white.317 The feet are not densely furred and the tracks are clear
even in the snow.
BEHAVIOUR: Less arboreal than other martens, it creeps like a cat due to
its short legs and often raids hen coops.
DISTRIBUTION: Western and Central Himalayas: Jammu & Kashmir to
Sikkim.318
HABITAT: Temperate and alpine forests, open stony ground above the
treeline and near habitation (1,500–4,000 m).319
Mellivora capensis, Achanakmar NP, Chhattisgarh

Nilgiri Marten

Stone Marten
 Pale Weasel

Yellow Weasel

Yellow-throated Marten
 Himalayan Stoat

Himalayan Weasel

Martes foina intermedia, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

COMMON NAME: YELLOW-THROATED MARTEN

Family: Mustelidae Subfamily: Martinae Latin Name: Martes flavigula Bodaert, 1785 Subspecies:
M.f. flavigula Bodaert, 1785320 Local Names: Chitrola (Garhwali), Graan (Kashmiri), Shungsam
(Bhotia), Suchuyokai (Naga), Tutryal (Kumaoni) Best Seen At: Kedarnath WLS, Uttarakhand
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ II/ Locally Common Social Unit: Very often found in
pairs, trios and up to five animals in a hunting party321 Size: HBL: 45–65 cm, TL: 37–45 cm, Wt:
1.3–3 kg322

DESCRIPTION: The common forest marten of India, the Yellow-throated

Marten is a colourful animal, easily told apart from all other mustelids by its
large size, long tail (two-thirds of the head and body length) and
colouration. It is larger than the Beech Marten and has a less bushy tail. The
fur is comparatively shorter, less dense and more lustrous. It has a black
face, crown, tail and legs. The rest of the body is made up of shades of
yellow: golden or canary yellow on the neck and upper back, brownish
yellow on the lower back up to the base of the tail, blond on the underside
and deep orange or canary colour on the neck. The last is the brightest part
of the yellow on the marten, just as in the related but geographically distinct
Nilgiri Marten, which does not have the yellow on any other part of the
body.323 The ears are short but prominent, black on the outside but greyish
yellow inside. M.f. flavigula is larger, with longer fur, does not have a naked
skin above the plantar pads of the hind feet, and has more hair between the
plantar and carpal pads of the forefeet than other subspecies.324
BEHAVIOUR: A bold and agile animal, this marten hunts with equal ease
on trees as well as on the ground.
DISTRIBUTION: Himalayas from Jammu & Kashmir to Arunachal
Pradesh and the hill states of north–east, i.e., Assam, Nagaland, Manipur,
Mizoram and Meghalaya.325
HABITAT: Forests ranging from coniferous to broadleaved in hilly
terrain326 (160–2,500 m). Not found above the treeline.327

COMMON NAME: NILGIRI MARTEN

Family: Mustelidae Subfamily: Martinae Latin Name: Martes gwatkinsii328 Horsfield, 1851 Local
Names: Illingan (Muthuvan), Mara-nayu (Malayalam), Nilagiri mara-naai (Tamil) Best Seen At:
Eravikulam NP and associated shola forests, Kerala IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ II /Rare
Social Unit: Solitary, pairs, and hunting parties up to four329 Size: HBL: 55–70 cm, TL: 35–50 cm,
Wt:1–3 kg330

DESCRIPTION: The largest and rarest Indian marten, the Nilgiri Marten
is a dark brown to black animal with a pale yellow to bright yellowish
orange neck, and a flat skull with a concave depression on its forehead.
Unlike in the Yellow-throated Marten, the yellow in the Nilgiri Marten is
restricted only to the underside of the neck and chest down to the upper
forelegs. It has been mistaken in the field for the Malabar Giant Squirrel
when viewed in the trees, but can be distinguished at a glance by its shorter,
all-black tail331 and the lack of rufous or maroon anywhere on the body.
BEHAVIOUR: Very arboreal, it is found often at canopy level but also
equally terrestrial.
DISTRIBUTION: Endemic to the Western Ghats.
HABITAT: Montane (shola) and evergreen forests; rarely in moist
deciduous forests and plantations. In altitude, it ranges from 120–2,900
m332 but is more common from 600–1,400 m.333

Martes flavigula, Namdapha NP, Arunachal Pradesh

M. flavigula pair, Limber WLS, Jammu & Kashmir

M. flavigula, Munsiari, Uttarakhand

 M. gwatkinsii, Pambadum Shola NP, Kerala

Martes gawtkinsii, Pambadum Shola NP, Kerala

M. gwatkinsii pair, Periyar NP, Kerala

COMMON NAME: SMOOTH-COATED OTTER
Family: Mustelidae Subfamily: Lutrinae334 Latin Name: Lutrogale perspicillata I. Geoffroy Saint-
Hilaire, 1826335 Subspecies: L.p. perspicillata I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire 1826336 Local Names:
Udbilao (Hindi), Shanamba (Manipuri), Neer-nai (Tamil/Malayalam), Neeru nai (Kannada),
Nitikukka (Telugu), Best Seen At: Chambal WLS, Uttar Pradesh; Periyar NP, Kerala
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ I/ Locally Common Social Unit: Small family groups of 5–
11; a mated pair and several litters could form each pod Size: HBL: 59–75 cm, TL: 37–45 cm, Wt:
7–11 kg337

DESCRIPTION: The most common otter of India, the smooth-coated is

easily identified by its well-groomed grey–brown coat with a clear line
demarcating a lighter (normally grey) underside. The lips, cheek, throat and
chest are of this lighter colour. The Smooth-coated Otter differs from the
Eurasian Otter in having V-shaped nostrils set on a dusky nose pad or
rhinarium that has a flat or a very slightly convex upper margin, and a tail
that is clearly flattened towards the tip like a paddle. There are no spots on
its muzzle. The feet are well webbed on all digits and the webbing extends
to the second joint in each digit with the third joint being free of webbing.
Its paws are brown but lighter than the body. The tracks of the Smooth–
coated Otter are bigger than other Indian otters. Like other Indian otters, the
female Smooth–coated Otter has two pairs of mammae.
BEHAVIOUR: Known to roll around grassy banks after defecation. Spraint
sites may smell of rotten fish.
DISTRIBUTION: Throughout India, with the exception of the high
Himalayas and the arid parts of north–west India and the Deccan.
HABITAT: Essentially a creature of the plains, it inhabits lakes, rivers,
dams, irrigation canals and swamps. They are as much at home in deep dam
sites as in shallow, flooded rice paddies and mangroves but may prefer less
fast-flowing waters than Lutra lutra. They also prefer sloping banks with
vegetation where available.338
Lutrogale perspicillata (top and above left); Lutra lutra (top right and
above right); and Aonyx cinerea (bottom centre)

Lutrogale perspicillata, Bhitarkanika WLS, Odisha

L. perspicillata, Periyar NP, Kerala
 L. perspicillata pod, Kabini, Karnataka

COMMON NAME: EURASIAN OTTER

Family: Mustelidae Subfamily: Lutrinae Latin Name: Lutra lutra Linnaeus, 1758339 Subspecies:
L.l. kutub Schinz, 1844; L.l. monticola Hodgson, 1839; L.l. aurobrunnea Hodgson, 1839; L.l. nair
F.G. Cuvier, 1823340 Local Names: Udbilao (Hindi) Best Seen At: Corbett NP, Uttarakhand
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Near Threatened/ I/ Uncommon Social Unit: Solitary as an adult;
mother and offspring, and paired couples also seen341 Size: HBL: 50–80 cm, TL 35–50 cm,342 Wt:
7–12 kg (male);343 4–12 kg (female)

DESCRIPTION: The Eurasian Otter is a large otter344 with a coarse,

dusky brown coat that looks shaggy when dry and bedraggled when wet,
but never as smooth as the Smooth-coated Otter’s. In northern subspecies,
the pale tips to the hair on the back can give it a grizzled look345 and its
underside is light grey. It often bears spots on its lips and nose, and the
rhinarium is naked and black, with a W-shaped upper margin.346 The tail is
long, over half the head and body length, and is conical and not flattened as
in the Smooth-coated Otter. Female has two pairs of mammae.347 The five
toes have strong claws and webbing extending to the end of each digit.348
BEHAVIOUR: Known to swim underwater with their forepaws and hind
paws propelling them forwards.349
DISTRIBUTION: L.l. kutub in Jammu & Kashmir, L.l. aurobrunnea in
Uttarakhand, L.l. monticola in Sikkim and Assam, and L.l. nair in southern
India350 (in summers, up to 3,500 m in the Himalayas351).
HABITAT: Rapidly flowing headwaters and upstream habitats along rivers,
hill creeks and streams that have adequate cover.352

COMMON NAME: ASIAN OR ORIENTAL SMALL-

CLAWED OTTER
Family: Mustelidae Subfamily: Lutrinae Latin Name: Aonyx cinerea Illiger, 1815353 Subspecies:
Eastern Small-clawed Otter A.c.concolor Rafinesque, 1832; Southern Small-clawed Otter A.c. nirnai
Pocock, 1940354 Local Names: Neernai (Tamil/Malayalam), Neerunai (Kannada), Udbilao (Hindi)
Best Seen At: Periyar NP, Kerala IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ II/ Uncommon Social
Unit: Small groups of 2–4355 Size: HBL: 43–46 cm (male); 36–44 cm (female), TL: 22–27 cm
(males); 26–27 cm (female), Wt: 2.5–3.8 kg356

DESCRIPTION: The smallest otter in the world, the Small-clawed Otter

has incomplete webbing on its digits and short, spiky claws.357 It dorsal fur
is short, velvety and dark brown with a grey sheen, and its underside is light
brown to yellow. The sides of its lip, chin and throat are almost white.358
The pink nose pad is trapezoid in shape and the nostrils are placed below a
sharp tip of the nose. The eyes are larger, proportional to the head, than
other otters, giving it a babyish look. The last two teeth in the upper jaw are
large in size, giving it an advantage in crushing crustacean exoskeletons.
The incomplete webbing also gives it more dexterity in handling
crustaceans. The tail is about a third of total body length and is long, thick
and muscular.
BEHAVIOUR: Largely a crab and shellfish eater, it is not as dependent on
fish for its diet359 and catches its prey with its paws and not mouth like
other otters.
DISTRIBUTION: A.c. concolor in Himalayan foothills (Himachal
Pradesh), eastern (Sunderbans) and north-eastern India (Assam and
Arunachal Pradesh); A.c. nirnai in the hills of southern India (Coorg in
Karnataka, Ashambu, Nilgiri and Palni Hills of Tamil Nadu and Kerala360).
HABITAT: Rivers, streams, coastal wetlands, mangroves,361 marshes and
flooded paddy fields. In southern India, prefers hill stream362 pools rather
than cascades.363
 Lutra lutra, captive

L. lutra, captive

Aonyx cinerea concolor, Sunderbans, West Bengal

 A.c. concolor, Kazirana NP, Assam

Aonyx cinerea nirnai, Eravikulam NP, Kerala

COMMON NAME: MOUNTAIN WEASEL

Family: Mustelidae Subfamily: Mustelinae Latin Name: Mustela altaica364 Pallas, 1811 Local
Names: Unknown Best Seen At: Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Near
Threatened/ II/ Occasional Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 22–28 cm (male); 21–24 cm (female),
TL: 10–14.5 cm (male); 9–11.5 cm (female), Wt: 217–350 g (male);122–220 g (female)365
DESCRIPTION: The Mountain or Pale or Altai Weasel is perhaps the
commonest weasel of India. Like most mustelids, it has a flat, narrow skull,
a long, cylindrical body, short, close-set ears and short legs. The head is
short and the dentition, being suited to a predatory diet, has fewer molars
than the martens have. It is larger than the stoat but smaller than the
Siberian Weasel. It undergoes two moults during spring and autumn and,
therefore, has two colour phases; brownish above and creamy yellow below
in the winters, and slightly more grey in its dorsal fur in the summers. Its
head can be slightly greyer than the body. Its lips and cheek have small
white patches, and its paws are conspicuously white. Its long, spindly tail,
which is 40 per cent of the head and body,366 is the same colour as its back.
This characteristic easily distinguishes it from the other white-pawed
mustelid, the Stoat, which has a black tip to its tail. Sexes are approximately
the same size. The number of mammae seems to be variable between two
and four.367
BEHAVIOUR: It does not hibernate, but winters in deep holes in the
ground.
DISTRIBUTION: The Himalayas from Jammu & Kashmir to Sikkim.
HABITAT: Alpine meadows, temperate and evergreen forests (1,500–4,000
m).368

COMMON NAME: HIMALAYAN STOAT OR ERMINE

Family: Mustelidae Subfamily: Mustelinae Latin Name: Mustela erminea Linnaeus, 1758
Subspecies: M.e. ferghanae Thomas, 1895 Local Names: Lakimo (Ladakhi) Best Seen At: Nowhere
commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ II/ Uncommon Social Unit: Solitary
Size: HBL: 22–34 cm (male); 19–29 cm (female), TL: 4–12 cm, Wt: 208–283 g369

DESCRIPTION: The Himalayan Stoat or Ermine is a small, chestnut–

brown weasel (it is the smallest mustelid in India) flecked with white, with
a white chin, throat, belly and paws. Many individuals change colour
dramatically to become pure white between the winter months of October
and December. The tail is very short, much shorter than other weasels,
giving it the alternate name of Short-tailed Weasel. The tail tip, however,
remains black all year round, distinguishing it from all other mustelids. It
has four pairs of mammae.
BEHAVIOUR: This weasel is active by day. It is known to conceive even
while suckling the previous litter.
DISTRIBUTION: The Himalayas from Jammu & Kashmir to Sikkim.
HABITAT: Alpine and temperate forests; prefers banks of rivers and open
rock-strewn plains near lakes (3,200–4,200 m).

Mustela erminea ferghanae, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

Mustela altaica, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

 M. altaica, Sangla Valley, Himachal Pradesh

M.e. ferghanae, Wadavan Valley, Kishtwar, Jammu & Kashmir

 M. altaica, north Sikkim

M.e. ferghanae winter coat, Hirpora WLS, Jammu & Kashmir

M.e. ferghanae, Khangchendzonga WLS, Sikkim

COMMON NAME: SIBERIAN WEASEL

Family: Mustelidae Subfamily: Mustelinae Latin Name: Mustela sibirica Pallas, 1773 Subspecies:
Hodgson’s Weasel M.s. hodgsoni Gray, 1843; Himalayan Weasel M.s. subhemachalana Hodgson,
1837; Tibetan Weasel M.s. canigula Hodgson, 1842370 Local Names: Bash noog (Kashmiri) Best
Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ II / Uncommon
Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 28–30 cm (male); 25–30 cm (female), TL: 15.5–21 cm (male); 13–
16.5 cm (female), Wt: 650–820 g (male); 360–430 g (female)

DESCRIPTION: An orange–brown animal,371 it is the largest Indian

weasel and the only one with a uniformly coloured body.372 Its face has
varying degrees of white flecks, and a black or dark chocolate patch from
its snout to the eyes. Its throat varies from white to pale brown. The tail is
50 per cent of head and body. It has four pairs of mammae. Younger
animals can be browner. The soles are hairy. M.s. canigula and M.s.
hodgsoni both have tails without a black tip, but the former has much white
on its muzzle, all the way down the neck to the forelimbs, while M.s.
hodgsoni has the white on the face limited to the muzzle and throat.373 M.s.
subhemachalana has a black muzzle with only a white chin, a white line on
the face, and a tail tip that is black.374
BEHAVIOUR: One of the most efficient carnivores in the Himalayas.
DISTRIBUTION: Himalayas from Ladakh (M.s. canigula) in Jammu &
Kashmir to Uttarakhand (M.s. hodgsoni), and the eastern Himalayas from
Sikkim to Nagaland (M.s. subhemachalana) between 1,500–4,800 m.375

COMMON NAME: YELLOW-BELLIED WEASEL

Family: Mustelidae Subfamily: Mustelinae Latin Name: Mustela kathiah Hodgson, 1835376 Local
Names: Lakimo (Ladakhi) Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status:
Least Concern/ II/ Rare Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 20–29 cm, TL: 13–18 cm, Wt: 150–260
gm377

DESCRIPTION: A chocolate–brown, medium-sized weasel with a

sulphur–yellow belly, it is one of the least-known mustelids. Its upper lip,
chin and upper throat are whitish, and its long tail is the same colour as its
back. The feet are not pale but may show some white patches.
BEHAVIOUR: In Nepal, this nocturnal weasel is tamed by villagers to
catch rats.
DISTRIBUTION: Uttarakhand in the west through the eastern Himalayas
and North–East India.
HABITAT: Temperate and evergreen forests (3,000–5,200 m, but
commonly up to 4,000 m).378

COMMON NAME: BACK-STRIPED WEASEL

Family: Mustelidae Subfamily: Mustelinae Latin Name: Mustela strigidorsa Gray, 1853379 Local
Names: Unknown Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status:
Endangered/ I/ Rare Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 25–32.5 cm, TL: 10–20.5 cm, Wt: 700–2,000
g380

DESCRIPTION: A chocolate–brown weasel, identified by a pale silver

line running along its back from head to tail, and a corresponding yellow
stripe from chin to abdomen. It has a much shorter (less than half of body)
and bushier tail than other weasels. It has two pairs of mammae.
BEHAVIOUR: This weasel is active at night.
DISTRIBUTION: Northern West Bengal, Sikkim, Assam, Arunachal
Pradesh and Nagaland (1,000–2,500 m).
HABITAT: Temperate and evergreen forests.

Mustela sibirica hodgsoni (typical coat), Poonch, Jammu & Kashmir

M.s. hodgsoni juvenile, Dachigam NP, Jammu & Kashmir
 M.s. hodgsoni juvenile, Dachigam NP, Jammu & Kashmir

Mustela strigidorsa, extralimital

Mustela kathiah, with a rodent prey, Mishmi Hills, Arunachal Pradesh

Carnivore Paws
LARGE INDIAN CIVET PAWS: TAPAJIT BHATTACHARYA/WTI
Field Notes: Cat-walking
Which tiger do I remember the most? My first one or the closest
one? The biggest one or the most aggressive? It is a difficult choice.
But I do remember, on elephant back in Pakke, crossing a small
nullah and suddenly from the tall grass a tiger charging across (not
onto the elephant, just across); a blinding roar and rush. The elephant
immediately swung its trunk into the air and beat it on the ground
with a memorable sound of a gong, a feat it achieved by taking in air
and then rushing the trunk down. The sound of the roar and the gong
etch the animals more clearly in my mind than others I have seen.
Before I saw the Clouded Leopard cubs that WTI restocked into
Manas National Park, I saw the beautiful beast in a cage in a damp
room. . . four of them on the way to Myanmar, being smuggled from
the North–East. This was after tailing a trader for two months, when
he took me Clouded Leopard hunting. After placing the snare he set
the bait of fish (not meat, which will bring the Common Leopard, he
said) and then cleverly a slippery bamboo pole just shy of the trap - a
speedbreaker for the cat to put its paw over and into the snare!

My closest brush with a bear was in my teenage years, trekking to

Rohtang. Enroute were the apple orchards of the Kulu Valley. We
went into one of them, wanting a bit of stolen fruit. A Himalayan
Black Bear was already there, eating fruit, and we were chased half a
kilometre by it. The bear is short-sighted and what probably saved us
was that we were running upwind and once he lost sight of us around
a turn, we could shake off the charge. Downwind, he would have
smelt us out in no time.
On a speedboat with the head of the park in Periyar we came across
a pod of Smooth-coated Otters. I was just explaining the difference
between the three species to the officer and that the European Otter
was probably a misidentification as being found in the park. V-
shaped versus W-shaped nostrils and flattened versus conical
tail...the otters leapt all around us, swimming alongside the boat,
gambolling on the banks and hiding beneath overhanging rocks. No
place better to show ID than just there.

The only captive civet I saw was in Bali. It was kept not for farming
‘civet’, but for ingesting coffee seeds and defecating them. The
resultant seeds were ground into a brew that was one of the most
expensive coffees in the world - civet coffee. I had a cup.
Hares and Pikas
INDIAN LAGOMORPHS AT A GLANCE
NUMBER 11
OFSPECIES
BIGGEST Indian Hare
SMALLEST Nubra Pika
MOST COMMON Indian Hare
MOST Hispid Hare
ENDANGERED
Activity
Hares

Pikas

Niche Occupancy
 Royle’s Pika, Kedarnath, Uttarakhand

Lagomorph Skulls

Lepus Skull

Pika Skull
MAYUKH CHATTERJEE (ADAPTED FROM
WWW.ANIMALDIVERSITY.UMMZ.UMICH.EDU)

WHAT IS A LAGOMORPH?
Hares, rabbits and pikas are small-to medium-sized herbivores, forming the
order Lagomorpha. All lagomorphs have small peg-like teeth behind the
incisors in the upper jaw, which are not found in any other animal. They are
also known for a peculiar type of digestion; they have two types of pellets:
the so-called soft pellets or caecum faeces are rich in proteins of symbiotic
microbes; the hard pellets consist of large, undigested particles of
vegetation. Hares and rabbits eat soft pellets immediately after excretion.
Pikas either eat them instantly, or store them after drying to be consumed
later. Hares have long limbs built for quick flight and for assisting them to
jump (the hind limbs are longer than the forelimbs), and their large ears and
eyes help in quick detection of predators as well as in thermoregulation.
They have a light skull with prominent supraorbital bones. Their face is
long towards the nasal region and the nostrils are slit-like. Their upper lip is
split and their eyes placed on top of the head to enable all-round vision.
Hares, like rabbits, have 28 teeth.
Pikas or mouse hares are small, brownish grey in colour, and guinea-pig-
like in appearance. Unlike hares, they have round ears that are not long,
hind legs about the same size as their forelegs, and a short nasal region. The
skulls are light as well but without any supraorbital region. They have 26
teeth. Pikas live in family groups, in burrows (larger social families or on
individual territories), or under rock piles or taluses (smaller nuclear
family). Extremely inquisitive, they often sit beside their burrows or on
rocks, and are thus easily seen in their habitat. India has seven pika species
that can be told apart by careful examination of their fur colour (especially
behind the ears), skull shape and ear size. Their geographical distribution
and burrowing or non-burrowing habits also help to tell them apart.

HOW DO YOU TELL A HARE FROM A RABBIT?

India does not have any true rabbit species; what may be called rabbits are
actually hares. Leporids or hares are the most widely distributed lagomorph
globally, although rabbits are more prolific. Hares have longer ears and
limbs than rabbits, and thus can be distinguished externally at a glance.
Hares do not build nests; they scrape out ‘forms’ or shallow depressions in
the ground, as their young are born furred with open eyes. Rabbits build
nests as their young are born naked and blind, and need to be cared for by
the mother for over 2–3 weeks. Anatomically, rabbits have a semi-parietal
bone; this in the hares is fused with the parietal bone at a very early stage of
development.1

HOW DO YOU TELL A VOLE FROM A PIKA?

The rounded ears and short legs of pikas make them look very similar to
voles. Pikas, however, are lagomorphs; voles are rodents. Externally, pikas
have small, indistinguishable tails, unlike voles. Anatomically, their
dentition differs (pikas have four incisors instead of two) and behaviourally,
pikas eat directly with their mouths, not with paws.
Large-eared Pika, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

Stolicza’s vole, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

Woolly Hare, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

domestic rabbit, captive

 Evolutionary tree of Indian lagomorphs (Adapted from Keckesova et al.,
2009)

Hare Pelvis and Hind Limbs

Hare Tracks
Hare Gut

VASUNDHARA KANDPAL (ADAPTED FROM MACDONALD D.,

2001)

LOCOMOTION
Rock-or talus-dwelling pikas, such as the Royle’s Pika, scamper and leap
among rocks.2 Their limbs show modifications for leaping, and their claws
are sharp and bent.3 Their whiskers are longer than those of burrowing
pikas; this helps them to find their way in the dark in taluses.4 Meadow or
burrowing pikas, such as the Plateau Pika, have broad, straight claws and
broader scapulas.5 They shovel dirt with their forelimbs and burrow in the
ground, and are not known to leap or jump to any great degree. Hares are
mobile and run fast over long distances and also leap prodigiously,
especially when fleeing from predators or disturbances. They can lie
camouflaged with their bodies crouched and ears laid flat on their backs
when disturbed, can freeze motionless in headlights, and can run zigzag,
away from danger. Their long hind limbs are an adaptation to this end.

DIET AND FORAGING

Lepus nigricollis is a herbivore6 and is known to feed on Capparis,
Crotalaria, Panicum and Zizyphus in arid areas,7 grass, vegetable from
household gardens8 and crops, including peas and groundnuts.9 They are
known to travel up to half a kilometre to reach green vegetation.10 Lepus
oiostolus is known to feed on grasses, roots and twigs of herbaceous
plants.11 Caprolagus hispidus is known to feed on the inner portion of the
grass stems of Imperata cylindrica, Saccharum narenga and Themeda
arundinacea.12
Pikas are generally herbivores and many of them practise hoarding of
food piles including flowers, grasses, pine needles and pine cones during
the summer, which are utilized during the winter.13 Those that do, have
little altitudinal migrations with the seasons but live off their stored food.14
Ochotona roylei has been known to eat ferns and plants including
Picrorhiza kurroa, Saussurea costus, Aconitum heterophyllum, Angelica
glauca and Allium sp.15 Pikas produce two faeces: a small, green,
ellipsoidical one; and a longer, black one, coated with a gelatinous
excretion. The latter is the caecum faeces and is eaten and re-digested by
the animal.

VOCALIZATION AND COMMUNICATION

Pikas are shrilly vocal. Their calls are, therefore, often overlooked by the
casual observer. Only Ochotona curzoniae and Ochotona ladacensis have
loud, long-distance calls among Indian pikas. O. curzoniae is known to
have a continuous, long call or song of ‘tsi-tsi, tsi’. Juveniles are extremely
vocal: they emit a range of trills, whines, muffles and squeaks.16 Ochotona
ladacensis calls a repetitive ‘pieipiei’, Ochotona nubrica has a single
syllable high-pitched call and a higher-pitched alarm call, and O. roylei, a
repetitive, shrill whistle and a sharp alarm bellow. Ochotona macrotis is the
most silent, although a sharp whistle and a 3–4 syllable alarm call is
known.17
Hares are less vocal than pikas, although a shrill scream is known for
most species when in distress.

An Indian Hare bounds away, craigmore, Tamil nadu

 A Woolly Hare leaps in classic Leporidae fashion, Hemis NP, Jammu &
Kashmir

Pikas, like hares, are almost completely vegetarian: a Royle’s Pika with its
mouth full of food, chopta, Uttarakhand

An Indian Hare feeds, craigmore, Tamil nadu

 face-off between Woolly Hares, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

Thatch cuttings and pellets of Hispid Hare, Jaldapara WLS, West Bengal

Social Organization of Lagomorphs

Hispid Hare
Black-naped Hare

Plateau Pika

Ladakh Pika

VASUNDHARA KANDPAL (ADAPTED FROM MACDONALD D.,

2001)

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
Pikas are grouped into two broad ecotypes: the meadow-dwelling ecotype
dig burrows in shrub and forests and meadows, are highly social animals,
short-lived, highly fecund and showing wide fluctuations in populations
over time; the talus-living ecotypes live in boulder or rocky screes, do not
burrow, are normally not social, living in ones and twos, have lower
fecundity and show less variation in populations.18 Hares are normally
solitary and in pairs, seen in small groups very occasionally.
REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES
Lepus nigricollis breeds all year round but could have its peak during
monsoon.19 It has one to four young,20 rising from only one young in the
winters to more than three young in July.21 Lepus oiostolus breeds in the
spring and the gestation period is about 42 days. One to four leverets are
born with their eyes open. They are weaned after three weeks and are
independent in a month.22 Lepus tibetanus also breeds in the spring, but 3–
10 leverets are known to be born.23 These hares are known to indulge in
ritualized male–male contests as a precursor to mating when they box each
other with their front paws while rising high on their hind legs. Caprolagus
hispidus may be a monogamous species and breeds in late winters
(January–February), having a single young. They have a long gestation (37–
43 days) and build shallow nests, 7.5–10.5 cm deep and 17.5–25.4 cm
wide.24
In many pikas, sexual maturity is reached between seven and 12 months.
They have a gestation period of 30 days and the young ones are weaned in
another 30 days. They have one or two litters annually of 2–5 young, born
naked, with eyes shut. Examples include O. roylei and O. macrotis, both
known to breed in Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir, between June and early
September.25 O. ladacensis breeds between late June and early July.26 In
contrast, O. curzoniae breeds between May and August, producing 3–5
litters a year, with a shorter gestation period of 21 days. The litter size is
larger (2–8) and they are weaned faster, in about 21 days.27 O. tibetana
breeds between April and July, with a litter size of 1–5.28

THREATS AND CONSERVATION

Lepus nigricollis is widely hunted for its meat throughout India by locals
who set dogs on them, and also traps and snares. Habitat destruction,
especially by forest fires, is another threat. For grassland dependent species,
such as C. hispidus, grassland burning is critical. Livestock grazing and
thatch collection are other threats. Very little has been done for the
conservation of lagomorphs.29 A recent study30 shows clumping of
herbivores in certain habitats in Ladakh. If habitat conservation measures
are taken for the Urial, then the Desert Hare, the Nubra Pika and perhaps
the Large-eared Pika will benefit, and if measures are taken for the Wild
Ass, then the Woolly Hare and perhaps the Plateau and Ladakh Pikas may
profit.

Plateau Pikas are social animals that huddle together near their burrows, Tso
Lhamo, Sikkim

Royle’s (left) and Large-eared (right) Pikas do not burrow; they rest in rock
talus or boulder crevices, such as this one in Uttarakhand (left), and Wangat
naranag, Jammu & Kashmir (right)
 A forest Pika allogrooming its young, Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh

A Hispid Hare caught during research, Jaldapara WLS, West Bengal

COMMON NAME: INDIAN HARE

Family: Leporidae Latin Name: Lepus nigricollis F. Cuvier, 1823 Subspecies:31 Black-naped Hare
L.n. nigricollis F. Cuvier, 1823; Rufous-tailed Hare L.n. ruficaudatus, I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire,
1826; Desert Hare32 L.n. dayanus Blanford, 1874 Local Names: Choura pilli (Telugu) Kharghosh
(Hindi/Bengali), Molla (Kannada), Moyal (Malayalam), Muyal (Tamil), Saslo (Gujarati), Sassa
(Marathi), Soha pohu (Assamese), Thekua (Odia) Best Seen At: All peninsular forests
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ IV/ Locally Common Social Unit: Solitary or pairs
Size: HBL: 33–53 cm,33 EL: 0.56 cm,34 Wt: 1.8–3.6 kg;35 L.n. dayanus: 1.8 kg (male);36 2.2 kg
(female)
DESCRIPTION: The characteristic hare of the Indian Subcontinent, the
Indian Hare is reddish brown with black hair mixed throughout its face and
dorsal parts. It has whitish underparts. The hare has long, ovate ears, with
clear venation that stands out against the thin skin of the ears. The legs are
long, with the hind legs being longer than the forelegs. females are larger
than males. L.n. ruficaudatus of northern India has a rufous tail and a dark
brown patch on its nape. The nominate subspecies – L.n. nigricollis – in
southern India is larger with a black patch on the back of its neck, and its
tail is black on top. In the arid and desert regions of the west, L.n. dayanus
is paler and sandy yellow in colour.
BEHAVIOUR: A very territorial hare, it defends up to 100,000 sq. m of
land against rival males. They use several shelters every day, these ‘forms’
being changed even at different times of the day.37 The hare is generally
crepuscular to nocturnal and shy even though common throughout the
country.
DISTRIBUTION: The species is found from the foothills of the Himalayas
through peninsular and north–east India (except the Sunderbans, West
Bengal). The subspecific distribution is unclear, but broadly follows: L.n.
nigricollis in southern India; L.n. ruficaudatus in northern and central India;
and L.n. dayanus in arid parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan.
HABITAT: Open scrub, short, grassy patches and overgrazed forest land
except high altitudes and mangroves (up to 2,400 m in the Himalayas, 2,000
m in the Western Ghats).38 It is replaced by the Woolly Hare and the desert
Hare in the Himalayas at higher altitudes. Where it is conspecific with the
Hispid Hare, e.g., at Manas NP, Assam, it prefers more open habitat to the
dense grassland habitat of the latter.39
Masters of camouflage, Lepus nigricollis in grass, chinnar WLS, Kerala

Lepus nigricollis dayanaus, Kutch, Gujarat

Lepus nigricollis nigricollis, chinnar WLS, Kerala
Lepus nigricollis nigricollis, craigmore, Tamil nadu

Lepus nigricollis ruficaudatus, Bharatpur, Rajasthan

 L. nigricollis leverets, Kaziranga, Assam

Lepus nigricollis dayanaus, Gajner, Rajasthan

COMMON NAME: DESERT HARE

Family: Leporidae Latin Name: Lepus tibetanus Waterhouse, 184140 Subspecies: Lepus tibetanus
tibetanus, Waterhouse, 184141 Local Names: Ribong (Ladakhi) Best Seen At: Ladakh, Jammu &
Kashmir IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Uncommon Social Unit: Unknown
Size: HBL: 40.1–48 cm42

DESCRIPTION: This slim brown hare takes over from the Indian Hare at
high altitudes. It has straight hair, unlike the Woolly Hare, and is more
uniformly brown with little grey in the pelage. It is a slighter, longer-limbed
and -eared animal without the pale grey rump of the Woolly Hare.
BEHAVIOUR: Basically crepuscular but can be seen in the day.43
DISTRIBUTION: Jammu & Kashmir.
HABITAT: Alpine and subalpine shrub, open rocky areas and deserts.
Shares habitat with O. macrotis and O. nubrica, and separate from L.
oiostolus, O. curzoniae and O. ladacensis.44

COMMON NAME: WOOLLY HARE

Family: Leporidae Latin Name: Lepus oiostolus Hodgson, 1840 Subspecies: L.o. pallipes Hodgson,
1842; L.o. hypsibius Blanford, 187545 Local Names: Ribong (Ladakhi) Best Seen At: Ladakh,
Jammu & Kashmir IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/46 Unlisted/ Locally common Social
Unit: Solitary; pairs Size: HBL: 40–58 cm,47 TL: 8.5 cm, Wt: 2.5–3 kg

DESCRIPTION: A plump, moderately large hare with thick, curly fur,

rufous limbs and chest, and a back grizzled with a brownish grey, paling to
the rump. Its tail is brown above, dirty white below. Its face is grey. The
ears are long and grey with black patches at the tip. It has white eye rings.
BEHAVIOUR: Takes cover in marmot burrows.
DISTRIBUTION: Upper Indus and Upper Sutlej valleys of Jammu &
Kashmir (L.o. hypsibius); trans-Himalayan habitats of Ladakh, and Sikkim
(L.o. pallipes) at 2,500–5,400 m.48
HABITAT: Alpine meadows and plateaus; prefers open, rocky terrain.
Shares habitat with O. curzoniae and O. ladacensis, and separate from L.
tibetanus, O. macrotis and O. nubrica.49

COMMON NAME: HISPID HARE

Family: Leporidae Latin Name: Caprolagus hispidus Pearson, 183950 Local Names: Khargorkata
soha (Assamese) Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered/
I/ Rare Social Unit: Solitary or pairs51 Size: HBL: 40–50 cm, TL: 4-5 cm, EL: 7 cm, Wt:1.8–2.6 kg
(male);1.8–3.2 kg (female)52

DESCRIPTION: A brown, large and endangered lagomorph, it has a white

belly and a sprinkling of dark hairs, making the back look dark and
grizzled. It has shorter, rounded ears and smaller hind legs than the Indian
Hare. It does not have the flashing white underside to the tail, and is slower-
moving, with rounded droppings, unlike the slightly tapered pellets of the
former.
BEHAVIOUR: Being small-limbed, this hare has a characteristically
smaller home range than other hares.53 Its pellets are normally seen near
thatch cuttings.
DISTRIBUTION: The only endemic hare of the Indian subcontinent,54 it
ranges in scattered protected areas of the Himalayan foothills from Uttar
Pradesh55 in the west through Bihar56 and north Bengal57 to Assam and
Arunachal Pradesh.58,59
HABITAT: Early successional Terai grasslands, especially those
predominated by Imperata cylindrica, Themeda, Saccharum-Narenga,
Erianthus-Narenga and Arundo-Phragmites.60
Lepus tibetanus, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

L. tibetanus leaps away, extralimital

 Caprolagus hispidus, Manas NP, Assam

Lepus oiostolus pallipes, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

 L.o. pallipes, summer coat, Tso Lhamo, Sikkim

Lepus oiostolus hypsibius, winter coat, Spiti, Himachal Pradesh

COMMON NAME: INDIAN OR ROYLE’S PIKA

Family: Ochotonidae Latin Name: Ochotona roylei Ogliby, 183961 Subspecies: O.r. roylei Ogliby,
183962 Local Names: Runda (Garhwali), Wuse-gagun (Kashmiri), Zobra (Ladakhi) Best Seen At:
High-altitude villages of Uttarakhand IUCN/WPA/Indian Status Least Concern/ IV/ Locally
Common Social Unit: Pairs and offspring Size: HBL: 15.5–20.4, EL: 1.7–2.1 cm,63 Wt: 100–150
g64
DESCRIPTION: The most common pika of the Himalaya, the Indian or
Royle’s Pika is a moderately large, richly coloured species. It has a rufous–
grey body, a chestnut head, shoulders and upper back, reddish purple throat
and greyish white to dark grey underparts. The reddish colouration fades in
winter, but the distinction between the upper and lower parts remains. It has
moderately sized ears with sparse hair. The eyes are low-set and the feet are
pale. The female bears two pairs of mammae. Anatomically, its skull is only
slightly arched (less so than the Large-eared Pika), it has a short rostrum
and small bullae and frontal fenestrae that are present in the young ones but
disappear at maturity unlike in O. macrotis, where they persist into
adulthood. Young ones can be distinguished from adults as they do not have
signs of moult (blackish marks on the back where the new fur grows out)
and also do not have scars along the ear line, which are prominent in
adults.65 There are a number of colour variations in the O. roylei–macrotis
group and some of them require further studies to confirm as subspecies or
new species.66
BEHAVIOUR: It does not burrow but moves underground through existing
burrow systems in rocky and scree slopes. It constructs hay piles, hoards
limited food for winter (there is limited altitudinal movement of about 70 m
in a day67) and it is crepuscular.68
DISTRIBUTION: Southern Ladakh and other regions of Jammu &
Kashmir (3,100– 4000 m),69 Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, northern West
Bengal and Sikkim (2,400–4,300 m; perhaps commoner along the
treeline).70
HABITAT: Rocky or broken ground, pine, deodar or rhododendron forests,
and rock walls in human habitation. May prefer north–eastern aspect.71

COMMON NAME: LARGE-EARED PIKA

Family: Ochotonidae Latin Name: Ochotona macrotis Gunther, 187572 Subspecies: O.m. macrotis
Guenther, 187573 Local Names: Runda (Garhwali), Zobra (Ladakhi) Best Seen At: Lower Hundar,
Nubra, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir74 IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Locally
Common Social Unit: Pairs with offspring Size: HBL: 15–24 cm,75 EL: 2.3–2.9 cm,76 Wt: 120 g

DESCRIPTION: This small pika is often confused with the more common
Royle’s Pika. It is pale brownish grey with an ochre tinge. Its head and front
are a paler russet compared to the Royle’s Pika’s chestnut. In winter, the fur
colour changes to a straw-grey. Underparts are dirty white, more so in
winter. The eyes are low-set; the ears are slightly broader, as its name
suggests and are made conspicuous by the long hairs inside. The feet are
pale. Anatomically, the pika has two oval foramina in front of the orbit at
the anterior end of the frontal bones.
BEHAVIOUR: Like the Royle’s Pika, it does not make burrows.
DISTRIBUTION: Alpine areas (2,500–6,100 m) through the Himalayas:
Ladakh to Arunachal Pradesh. Found at higher altitudes than the Royle’s
Pika.
HABITAT: Alpine areas (2,500–6,100 m). Seen to share habitat with L.
tibetanus and O. nubrica, and separate from L. oiostolus, O. curzoniae and
O. ladacensis.77
 Ochotona roylei, summer coat, Ascot WLS, Uttarakhand

O. roylei showing front half summer and back half winter coat, valley of
flowers, Uttarakhand

O. roylei summer coat, Panchakuli, Uttarakhand

 O. roylei young yearling, valley of flowers, Uttarakhand J

Ochotona macrotis, winter fur, Sela Pass, Arunachal Pradesh

O. macrotis, summer coat, Kyongnosla Alpine Sanctuary, Sikkim

COMMON NAME: PLATEAU PIKA

Family: Ochotonidae Latin Name: Ochotona curzoniae Hodgson, 185878 Local Names: Zobra
(Ladakhi), Gumchipichi (Bhotia), Cumchen (Lepcha) Best Seen At: Tso Lhamo, Sikkim IUCN/
WPA/Indian Status Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Occasional Social Unit: 3–4 animals in a family unit
Size: HBL: 14–19.2 cm, TL: 1–2 cm,79 Wt: Unknown

DESCRIPTION: The Plateau Pika is small and sandy brown in colour

with paler, slightly yellowish brown underparts. It has distinctive facial
markings, with a distinct rust patch behind each ear, a black-tipped nose
with a buff patch above the nose, and black lips. The latter gives rise to the
name Black-lipped Pika. Its skull is medium-sized and sharply elevated to
give it a flat-headed look. The interorbital region is narrow and the
tympanic bullae moderate in size.80 The winter coat is greyer.
BEHAVIOUR: A very social animal, it lives in a family unit in burrows. A
family burrow usually consists of one male, one female and offspring, but
polyandry and polygyny are also known.
DISTRIBUTION: Trans-Himalayan, in northern Sikkim, and eastern and
northern Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir (4,100–4,700 m).81 It has been seen to
share habitat with L. oiostolus and O. ladacensis, and separate from L.
tibetanus, O. macrotis and O. nubrica.82
HABITAT: Open steppe and cold desert. Lower altitudes and more grassy
habitats compared to its congeneric O. ladacensis.83

COMMON NAME: LADAKH PIKA

Family: Ochotonidae Latin Name: Ochotona ladacensis Gunther, 187584 Local names: Zobra
(Ladakhi) Best Seen At: Tso Kar and Hanle, Ladakh,85 Jammu & Kashmir IUCN/WPA/Indian
Status Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Locally Common Social Unit: Scattered family groups86 Size:
HBL: 22.3–22.5 cm, TL: 1–2 cm, Wt: 200 g87

DESCRIPTION: A large, orangish, sandy brown or grey pika with dirty

white underparts, it has distinctive rust-coloured exteriors of ears. The
interorbital region is as wide as that of O. curzoniae, but the auditory bullae
are smaller and the skull shape is differently arched88 (it has a more
flattened appearance) and the animal itself is larger.
BEHAVIOUR: It lives in scattered family groups, and digs large holes into
which it retreats with a squeak when disturbed.
DISTRIBUTION: Eastern and northern Ladakh in Jammu & Kashmir
(4,400–5,600 m).89
HABITAT: Trans-Himalayan barren plateaus and xeric alpine valleys. Seen
to share habitat with O. curzoniae and L. oiostolus, and separate from L.
tibetanus, O. macrotis and O. nubrica.90

Ochotona ladacensis, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

 O. curzoniae, extralimital

O. curzoniae, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

 O. curzoniae, Tso Lhamo, Sikkim

O. ladacensis, Tso Moriri, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

 O. ladacensis, Tso Kar, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

COMMON NAME: MOUPIN’S PIKA

Family: Ochotonidae Latin Name: Ochotona thibetana Milne-Edwards, 187191 Subspecies: O.t.
sikimaria Thomas, 192292 Local Names: Cumche (Lepcha), Gumchipichi (Bhotia), Zobra
(Ladhakhi) Best Seen At: Kyongnosla WLS, Sikkim IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/
Unlisted/ Occasional Social Unit: Unknown Size: HBL: 14–18 cm,93 Wt: 80–85 g94

DESCRIPTION: A small, rich russet–brown pika with buff underparts. Its

fur is lightly speckled; the brown on its back continues across the throat like
a collar. In winters, its colour pales to buff–brown.
BEHAVIOUR: A burrowing species, found in rocky areas under forested
canopies.
DISTRIBUTION: Sikkim and perhaps northern West Bengal (1,800–4,100
m).
HABITAT: Medium-altitude rhododendron and bamboo forests.95

COMMON NAME: FORREST’S PIKA

Family: Ochotonidae Latin Name: Ochotona forresti96 Thomas, 1923 Local Names: Cumchen
(Lepcha), Gumchipichi (Bhotia) Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/ WPA/ Indian
Status Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Rare Social Unit: Unknown Size: HBL: 15.5–18.5,97 Wt:
Unknown
DESCRIPTION: This reddish-brown pika (its fur changes to grey–brown
in winter) looks like the Moupin’s Pika but differs both morphologically
and anatomically. Visually, behind both ears, it has grey patches, which
almost meet to form a grey nape, while the Moupin’s Pika has a pale buff
patches that do not meet. It has very long claws on its forefeet, much longer
than the Moupin’s. Anatomically, the zygomatic arch is wider in this pika
than the Moupin’s, the posterior end of the nasals is broader, and most98
have a ‘violin-shaped’ meeting of the incisive and palatal foramina.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: The Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh99 Himalayas
(2,600–4,400 m).
HABITAT: Mixed broadleaf or coniferous forested sun-facing slopes.100

COMMON NAME: NUBRA PIKA

Family: Ochotonidae Latin Name: Ochotona nubrica Thomas, 1922101 Subspecies O.n. nubrica
Thomas, 1922102 Local name: Zobra (Ladakhi) Best Seen At: Hundar–Diskit–Panamkik region
along River Indus and River Shyok, Jammu & Kashmir IUCN/WPA/Indian Status Least Concern/
Unlisted/Locally Common Social Unit: Size: HBL:14–18.4 cm,103 TL: 1–2 cm,104 Wt: Unknown

DESCRIPTION: It is a small pika, pale sandy brown with pale greyish

white underparts and, on close inspection, has a buff midline on its belly. Its
feet are brownish grey instead of the dull brown of the Moupin’s. It has a
distinct light patch (lacking in Moupin’s) behind the ears. Its skull is fairly
flat (not arched like Royle’s), the ears small, the eyes low-set,105 the
interorbital region wide and the tympanic bullae, small and narrow. The
skull size is intermediate to Royle’s and Moupin’s.106 It is overall paler than
the eastern subspecies.107
BEHAVIOUR: The Nubra Pika digs shallow burrows among root systems
of bushes. They have a well-developed system of families.108
DISTRIBUTION: Nubra Valley, central Ladakh in Jammu & Kashmir, and
parts of Himachal Pradesh (3,100–3,500 m).109
HABITAT: Subalpine and alpine shrubby habitats, especially Hippophae
(valley bottoms) or Caragana (higher elevations).110 Seen to share habitat
with L. thibetanus and O. macrotis, and separate from L. oisotolus, O.
curzoniae and O. ladacensis.111
Ochotona thibetana sikimaria, Kyongnosla Alpine Sanctuary, Sikkim
 O.t. sikimaria Zuluk, north Sikkim

O.t. sikimaria, winter fur, Zuluk, east Sikkim

Ochotona forresti black phase, Thenbang Bapu ccA, Arunachal Pradesh

 Ochotona nubrica, Ladakh

O. forresti, normal phase, Yumthung, north Sikkim

Pangolins
INDIAN PANGOLINS AT A GLANCE
NUMBER OF SPECIES 2
BIGGEST Indian Pangolin
SMALLEST Chinese Pangolin
MOST COMMON Indian Pangolin
MOST ENDANGERED Chinese Pangolin
Activity

Niche Occupancy
 Indian Pangolin, Pratapgarh, Rajasthan

Pangolin Skulls

Mandible
Grasping and Digging Claws

Tracks

Social Organization
MAYUKH CHATTERJEE (ADAPTED FROM
WWW.ANIMALDIVERSITY.UMMZ.UMICH.EDU & FROM
PIERCE.WESLEYANCOLLEGE.EDU)

WHAT IS A PHOLIDOT?
Pangolins or Scaly Anteaters are elongated, armour-plated insectivores with
a long tongue and no teeth. Their order Pholidota has an Old World
distribution, although they are related to the sloths and armadillos of the
New World. They are specialist feeders of termites and ants; their tongues
are coated with a sticky glue-like saliva that helps them feed. They are
unique in being able to curl up into a ball when threatened, tucking away
vulnerable parts beneath armour-plated scales. They retreat into ground
burrows and seal them up with loose soil, making the burrow entrance
inconspicuous. The overlapping keratinized scales, the long, toothless
snout, the protruding, glutinous tongue and their powerful forefeet with
long claws are their chief diagnostic features. The Asian species have
visible ear pinna and hair bristles between the scales – all anatomical
features that the African species do not have.1

DIET AND FORAGING

Pangolins eat termites, ants, beetles, larvae and ant eggs. They dig out prey
using their powerful forefeet, shovelling earth backwards, inserting their
sticky tongue into entrances of termite mounds or onto prey, then retracting
it into their tubular snout.

LOCOMOTION
They are primarily terrestrial, although they do climb trees and swim as
well.2 When walking, they bow their front legs and tuck the long claws
under them, shuffling on all four legs. When climbing, they use their tail as
a prehensile limb.

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
From what is known, they are mostly solitary in nature.
VOCALIZATION AND COMMUNICATION
Very little is known about vocalization and communication among
pangolins. They are known to hiss when disturbed. They also emit a strong
musky anal secretion, which could be a territorial marking.

REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES
They are sexually mature at two years, having one or, rarely, two offspring.
They breed in the spring; the gestation period is 65–70 days. The young are
six inches long when born, covered by soft scales that harden in a couple of
days. Although they start their insectivorous diet when they are a month
old, they do suckle for up to four months.

THREATS AND CONSERVATION

Pangolins have been traditionally hunted, dug out and eaten as a delicacy by
several village tribes around forests. Of late, the booming demand for their
scales in the Far East is a dire threat and the IUCN has moved the Chinese
Pangolin into the Endangered category.
Chinese Pangolin, Greater Manas, Assam
 A Chinese Pangolin burrows, Daboka, Nagoan Dist., Assam

Evolutionary tree of Indian Pholidotes (Adapted from Gaudin et al., 2009)

COMMON NAME: INDIAN PANGOLIN

Family: Manidae Subfamily: Maninae Latin Name: Manis crassicaudata Gray, 18273 Local
Names: Azhungu (Tamil), Bajra keet/Bajra kapta (Hindi), Eenam pechi (Malayalam), Khavlya
manjar (Marathi), Kidi khau (Gujarati) Best Seen At: Mudumalai WLS, Tamil Nadu; Bandipur NP,
Karnataka IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Near Threatened/ I/ Uncommon Social Unit: Solitary;
mother and young; mating pairs4 Size: HBL: 60–70 cm, Wt: 9–11 kg

DESCRIPTION: The Indian Pangolin is a large, Old World anteater that

has a faint pinkish white skin covered dorsally by a suit of 11–18 rows5 of
dirty yellow scales. Unlike in African Pangolins, the scales are sparsely
covered with reddish brown hair, and the skin is visible only on its lower
body and face. The scale colours vary in yellow and red overtones,
depending on the earth that it burrows in. The face is small and the mouth
tubular. The eyes are small, the ears are slits in the skin with a small ear
pinna.6 The nose is rounded, with large nostrils, which have flaps that
enable closure. The tongue is long and sticky. The hind legs have a
calloused sole and short, blunt nails on their five toes, in sharp contrast to
its powerful forelimbs armed with three very long claws (the other two
being shorter). The tail is long and ends in a scale.
BEHAVIOUR: Pangolins hiss sharply if confronted and then curl into a
ball, which is very difficult to ‘unroll’. As they do not have teeth, curling is
their primary defence mechanism. They can climb trees and swim when
required to.
DISTRIBUTION: Found through most of India except the arid deserts, the
high Himalayas and the North–East.7 Can go up to 2,500 m in the Nilgiris
in southern India.
HABITAT: Scrub, urban cultivation, grassland, forests (deciduous and
evergreen) and even semi-arid areas.

COMMON NAME: CHINESE PANGOLIN

Family: Manidae Subfamily: Maninae Latin Name: Manis pentadactyla Linnaeus, 1758 Local
Names: Bonrui (Assamese/Bengali) Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian
Status: Endangered/ I/ Uncommon Social Unit: Solitary; mother and offspring Size: HBL: 54–79
cm, TL 26–37 cm, Wt: 7 kg (male);8 2.35 kg (female)

DESCRIPTION: The Chinese Pangolin is a smaller, north–eastern species

that has a wider range in South–East and Far Eastern Asia. Like the Indian
Pangolin, it has a tubular snout, muscular tail, massive forefeet and claws,
and a body covered dorsally with overlapping scales. The tongue can
protrude 8–10 cm beyond its lips.9 A shorter tail that narrows towards its
naked tip, 15–18 rows of scales with a depression in the skin near the
anus,10 and a very pronounced ear pinna are the major external anatomical
differences between this and the peninsular Indian species.
BEHAVIOUR: The young are born with soft, not fully overlapping scales,
and the mother may curl herself around the offspring or sweep it under her
belly using the tail, to protect it. The baby and mother lie on their sides,
facing each other for suckling, so that the scales do not get in the way. The
mother carries her young hanging from her muscular tail for the first few
days after birth.
DISTRIBUTION: North–east India, Sikkim eastwards11 to Assam,
Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland and Meghalaya up to 1,500 m.12
HABITAT: Found in grasslands, deciduous forests, bamboo groves and
agricultural tracts.13

Manis pentadactyla, Daboka, Nagoan Dist., Assam

Manis crassicaudata, Parambikulam WLS, Kerala

M. pentadactyla, near Guwahati, Assam

Tree Shrews
INDIAN TREE SHREWS AT A GLANCE
NUMBER OF SPECIES 3
BIGGEST Northern Tree Shrew
SMALLEST Nicobar Tree Shrew
MOST COMMON Madras Tree Shrew
MOST ENDANGERED Nicobar Tree Shrew
Activity

Niche Occupancy
 A Madras Tree Shrew on its hind legs, peering from the fork of a tree,
Damoh Dist., Madhya Pradesh

Scandentia Skulls

Mandibles
Tracks

Social Organization

WHAT IS A TREE SHREW?

Tossed about for long among the orders of insectivorous shrews, elephant
shrews and even primates, tree shrews are now placed in an order of their
own, Scandentia. They look more like squirrels than shrews,1 but can be
told apart instantly as they do not possess the cheek whiskers of squirrels.
Despite the name, they are also not as arboreal as squirrels (perhaps with
the exception of the Nicobar Tree Shrew). They do not jump in trees, or jerk
their tails like squirrels.2 All 19 tree shrews of the world are found only in
Asia. They can be characterized by their long snout, laterally placed, large
eyes, large ears with unique ear flap, naked, moist nose pad, a whisker-less
face and a bushy tail. Anatomically, their dentition differs from rodents, and
they have a flat cartilaginous plate under their tongues, well-developed
orbital processes, a large brain case and a well-developed scrotal sac.

DIET AND FORAGING

Tree shrews are both insectivorous and frugivorous.3 They forage nearly
continuously during waking hours on the ground or on low branches. They
eat insects, other arthropods, fruit, bird chicks, even rodents, and drink
water regularly.4 While feeding on fruits, they spit out seeds and fibre,5 and
auto-groom after feeding.6

LOCOMOTION
They often stand up on two legs for better visibility of the surrounds. When
climbing, they use the tail to balance. They have naked pads below the feet
and strong curved claws to aid in climbing.

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
Tree shrews are solitary, or in pairs during courtships and mating.

VOCALIZATION AND COMMUNICATION

Aggressive squeals, screams indicating danger, chatters when disturbed,
clucking or whistles for mating and courtship are among eight vocalizations
heard in Tupaia.7 They scent mark boulders, branches, even offspring, with
urine and scent from anal and neck glands.8
REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES
Females are fertile within a year of birth and have between 1–4 litters
annually with gestation periods of 46-56 days. They appear monogamous,
and in T. nicobarica, mating has been observed thrice in five minutes with
an average of 15 seconds per mating.9 The young get little maternal care;
they sleep in nests separate from the mother’s resting place and are weaned
between 25–33 days.

THREATS AND CONSERVATION

All tree shrews, especially arboreal species, suffer habitat loss through
fragmentation. The island endemic is vulnerable to introduced domestic
predators such as cats.10

Tree shrews can be both terrestrial, e.g., Northern Tree Shrew, Pakke,
Arunachal Pradesh (above left), or arboreal, e.g., Nicobar Tree Shrew, Little
Nicobar Island (above right)
When on trees, tree shrews can look like squirrels with long snouts: Madras
Tree Shrew, Damoh Dist., Madhya Pradesh

On the ground, tree shrews can also be mistaken for rats or mice with bushy
tails: Northern Tree Shrew, Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh
 Tree shrews form part of the hunting pot in the North–East: Mokokchung,
Nagaland

Evolutionary tree of Indian tree shrews (Adapted from Robert et al., 2011)

COMMON NAME: MADRAS OR SOUTHERN TREE

SHREW
Family: Tupaiidae Latin Name: Anathana ellioti11 Waterhouse, 185012 Subspecies: None13 Local
Names: Unknown Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least
Concern/14 II/ Uncommon Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL:17.5–20 cm, TL:16–19 cm, Wt: 160 g
DESCRIPTION: The Madras Tree Shrew is chocolate–brown with pale
markings around the eyes and a characteristic white shoulder stripe. Its
upper parts are speckled yellow and brown near the shoulder and rufous
near the rump, while its underparts are greyish white. Central Indian forms
have more reddish brown upper parts compared with the pale upper coat of
south–eastern forms. Those found in the western part of the range have
grizzled brown backs and grey feet.15 Ears are large, with the lower lobe
being larger. It differs from Tupaia in having more hairs inside the ears, and
a more coarsely reticulated nose pad.
BEHAVIOUR: May slide down branches head first when anointing the
vegetation with secretions from their neck glands.
DISTRIBUTION: Peninsular and southern India, south of the rivers Ganga
and Narmada to Jharkhand in the east and Satpuras in the west (up to 1,400
m).16
HABITAT: Rocky areas in forests.

COMMON NAME: NORTHERN OR MALAY TREE

SHREW
Family: Tupaiidae Latin Name: Tupaia belangeri Wagner, 184117 Subspecies: T.b. belangeri
Wagner, 1841 Local Names: Unknown Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian
Status Least Concern/ II/ Uncommon Social Unit: Solitary; mother and offspring Size: HBL:17–23
cm, TL:17–23 cm, Wt:160 g

DESCRIPTION: It differs from A. ellioti in having an olive-brown or

greyish brown coat (not much of red in it) and a buff or orange venter (not
as white as the latter). The long, furry tail is equal to its head and body
length. The lower earlobe is slightly smaller than Ananthana, the inside of
the ears less hairy and the snout slightly longer.18
BEHAVIOUR: It displays very little maternal instinct and feeds its young
in a nest it visits only once in two days.19
DISTRIBUTION: North-east India and Eastern Himalayas (up to 1,830
m).
HABITAT: Evergreen and deciduous forests, plantations, bamboo groves
and gardens.20

COMMON NAME: NICOBAR TREE SHREW

Family: Tupaiidae; Latin Name: Tupaia nicobarica Zelebor, 186921 Subspecies: T.n. nicobarica
Zelebor, 1869; T.n. surda Miller, 1902 Local Names: Kachew-ein (Channaih Payuh)22 Best Seen
At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered/ II/ Rare Social Unit:
Solitary; pairs Size: HBL:13.5–19 cm, TL: 18–25 cm, Wt: 80–170 g23

DESCRIPTION: It is an unmarked reddish brown tree shrew, with paler

under parts, snout, nape and limbs.24 It is very similar in the field to T.
belangeri except that it is smaller, the tail is longer than the head and body,
and females have one pair of mammae.
BEHAVIOUR: Nearly fully arboreal and diurnal, often feeds in foraging
bird groups.25
DISTRIBUTION: T.n. nicobarica is confined to the Greater Nicobar
Island and T.n. surda to the Little Nicobar Island.
HABITAT: Low-lying littoral forests, tropical rainforests (up to 600 m).26

Anathana ellioti, biligiri Rangaswamy Temple WLS, Karnataka

Tupaia nicobarica surda, Little Nicobar, Andaman & Nicobar Islands
Tupaia belangeri, beneru, Nagaland

T. belangeri, Sikkim
T. belangeri, Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh
Shrews and Moles
INDIAN INSECTIVORES AT A GLANCE
NUMBER OF SPECIES 28
BIGGEST Short-tailed Mole
SMALLEST Pygmy White-toothed shrew
MOST COMMON House Shrew
MOST ENDANGERED Millers, Jenkins and Nicobar Shrews
Activity
Shrews, Moles

Niche Occupancy
 Hill Shrew in the forests of Vazachal, Kerala

Insectivores Skulls and Dentition

Mole skull and teeth

Shrew skull and teeth

Shrew and Mole Feet and Tracks

Mole (left) and shrew (right) forefoot

Mole (left) and shrew (right) tracks

Social Organization

MAYUKH CHATTERJEE (ADAPTED FROM

WWW.ANIMALDIVERSITY.UMMZ.UMICH.EDU)

WHAT IS AN INSECTIVORE?
Shrews (Family Soricidae) belong to the order Soricomorpha and are small,
mouse-like mammals. They live in subleaf litter stratum, fallen logs, rock
crevices (even underground); some species are semi-aquatic. A shrew is
often mistaken for a rodent. It has a long, pointed snout (not the short
muzzle of mice) and depressed conch-shaped ears (not the mice’s perky
triangular ears). Its characteristic front teeth are adapted to break the
cuticles of arthropod prey. Territorial by nature, they keep away rats and
mice. White-toothed Shrews have white, unpigmented teeth, long, scattered
hair on long, slim tails, and prominent ears. Shrews of the genus Suncus,
including the House Shrew, have four upper unicuspid teeth compared to
the three of Crocidura. Red-toothed Shrews have reddish pigmentation in
their teeth, due to iron deposits.
Moles are small, ancient mammalian forms that hunt voraciously, aided
chiefly by their sense of smell. They are subterranean, rarely coming above
ground. They have very small or vestigial eyes, a streamlined shape,
reversible hair, and powerful digging limbs.

LOCOMOTION
Both moles and shrews have a plantigrade locomotion (placing the entire
palm/sole on the ground when walking) and five digits on each foot. Shrews
scurry quickly with a jerky start-stop motion, foraging, sniffing the air and
foraging again. Slow movers on ground, moles tunnel quickly with
modified forefeet to shovel earth.

DIET AND FORAGING

Shrews feed mainly on small invertebrates, and sometimes on amphibians,
reptiles, fish, vegetable matter and small rodents. Mainly nocturnal, their
high metabolic rates lead to a daily food intake of up to their body weight or
more, so they show a polyphasic activity rhythm in constant search for
food. Food-hoarding has been reported for several species. Moles feed on
earthworms, beetles, grubs, seeds and nuts.

VOCALIZATION AND COMMUNICATION

Shrews communicate by a series of clicks and twitters. Moles are mostly
silent, with some vibrational and chemical communication.
REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES
Shrews breed through the year with typically two litters. The gestation
period is about a month; 1–8 young are born. When led out, the young latch
onto the mother’s fur and siblings so tightly that one can pick up a mother
and her entire caravan off. Moles have short life cycles, the young gestating
for only 35 days. They attain adulthood in 6–9 months and live to about
three years.

THREATS AND CONSERVATION

Insectivores are threatened indirectly due to habitat loss and use of
pesticides and insecticides close to their habitats.

White-tailed Mole, Tinsukhia, Assam

Hill Shrew, Upper Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu

Evolutionary tree of Indian shrews and moles (Adapted from Graphodatsky
A.S. et al., 2011)

COMMON NAME: ASIAN GREY SHREW OR GREY

WOODLAND SHREW
Family: Soricidae Latin Name: Crocidura attenuata1 Milne Edwards, 1872 Local Names:
Unknown Best Seen At: Northern Indian farmlands IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/
Unlisted/ Locally Common Social Unit: Unknown Size: HBL: 6.8–8.9 cm, TL: 4.3–6 cm, HF: 1.1–
1.6 cm

DESCRIPTION: A medium-sized shrew with a greyish brown back and

pale yellowish grey underside, the Grey Woodland Shrew is the most
widely distributed White-toothed Shrew in north India. It has a dark brown
tail, which is paler below, and its feet have short, pale hairs on the back. It
has prominent ears and three upper unicuspids with the first one being much
larger than the other two.
BEHAVIOUR: Known to have an omnivorous diet of insects, seeds and
fruits.
DISTRIBUTION: Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Assam, Manipur,
Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh.
HABITAT: Fields, secondary forests, farmland and open land (150–2,200
m).2

COMMON NAME: KELAART’S LONG-CLAWED SHREW

Family: Soricidae Latin Name: Feroculus feroculus Kelaart, 1850 Local Names: Unknown Best
Seen At: Eravikulam NP, Kerala Local Names: None known IUCN/WPA/Indian Status:
Endangered/ Unlisted/ Rare Social Unit: Unknown Size: HBL:10–12 cm, TL: 5.6–7.3 cm

DESCRIPTION: An ashy grey shrew with paler underparts, the Kelaart’s

Long-clawed Shrew was thought to be endemic to Sri Lanka before its
discovery in southern India. It has characteristic large, whitish forefeet with
long claws and smaller, pale hind feet. Its tail is grey with some whitish
hairs near the tip.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: Recorded from Eravikulam NP, Kerala, and Upper
Bhavani in the Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu (1850–2,400 m).3
HABITAT: Montane swamps and marshes of sholas.4

Feroculus feroculus, extralimital

Jenkins Andaman Spiny Shrew

 Andaman White-toothed Shrew

Caravanning: a White-toothed Shrew characteristic

Crocidura spp, Ranga RF, Lakhimpur, Assam

 Crocidura spp, Yumthang, Sikkim

SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME DISTRIBUTION DESCRIPTION MEASUREMENTS
Crocidura andamanensis5 Miller, 1902 South Andaman Island6,7,8
MILLER’S ANDAMAN Dorsal pelage bluish– grey washed with brown, HBL: 11.4 cm, TL:
SHREW lighter brown venter, yellowish brown feet, dark 8.6 cm, HF: 0.25 cm
Critically Endangered/ Unlisted /Rare brown tail and ears
Crocidura hispida9 Thomas, 1913
ANDAMAN SPINY Northern Middle Andaman Grey–brown pelage, tail longer than HBL HBL: 8. 5 cm, TL:
Island10
SHREW 10.3 cm
Vulnerable/ Unlisted/ Rare
Crocidura jenkinsi11 Chakraborty, 1978 South Andaman Island12,13
JENKIN’S ANDAMAN Brown, bristly fur HBL: 10.7 cm, TL:
SHREW 9.5 cm
Critically Endangered/ Unlisted/ Rare
Crocidura nicobarica14 Miller, 1902
NICOBAR SPINY SHREW Southern tip of Great Sooty brown, bristly dorsal fur HBL: 10.7–12 cm,
Nicobar15,16
TL: 9–9.5 cm
Critically Endangered/ Unlisted/ Rare
GUELDENSTAEDT’S Crocidura suaveolens Jammu & Kashmir Grey–brown dorsal and paler venter; tail shorter than HBL: 10.7 cm, TL:
(gueldenstaedti)17 Pallas, 1811 Least
WHITE-TOOTHED HBL 9–9.7 m
SHREW
Concern/ Unlisted/Unknown
Crocidura perigrisea18 Miller, 1913 Jammu & Kashmir19
PALE GREY SHREW Pale grey on top and creamy grey undersides HBL: 5.6 cm, TL:
4.5 cm
Data Deficient/ Unlisted/ Unknown
KASHMIR WHITE- Crocidura pullata Miller, 1911 Data Northern Jammu & Kashmir, Uniformly mousy grey–brown HBL: 8 cm, TL: 4.4
TOOTHED SHREW OR Deficient/Unlisted/ Unknown and Ladakh cm
DUSKY SHREW
Crocidura horsfieldi20 Tomes, 1856
HORSFIELD’S SHREW 2 records: Mysore, Karnataka, Greyish brown above, grey below; tail dark grey HBL: 5.7 cm, TL: 3–
and Ladakh,21,22 Jammu &
with silver hair 4.8 cm
Data Deficient/ Unlisted/Unknown
Kashmir
SOUTH–EAST ASIAN Crocidura fuliginosa Blyth, 1856 Least North–east India Dark grey with lighter under parts; silver gloss on HBL: 7–10 cm, TL:
SHREW Concern/ Unlisted/ Unknown top; dark brown tail 6.2–8.9 cm

COMMON NAME: HOUSE SHREW

Family: Soricidae Latin Name: Suncus murinus Linnaeus, 1766 Subspecies: S.m. murinus
Linnaeus, 1756; S.m. caeruluscens Shaw, 1800; S.m. sindensis Anderson, 1877; S.m. nemorivagus
Hodgson, 1855; S.m.viredescens Blyth 185923 Local Names: Chhuchhundar (Hindi), Chunchu
eluka (Telegu), Chundeli (Malayalam), Moonjooru (Tamil) Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Common Size: HBL: 10–16 cm, TL: 4.5–9
cm, HF: 1.7–2.6 cm

DESCRIPTION: The common shrew of India, it is also called the Grey

Musk Shrew because of the characteristic odour that it leaves about the
house. It is greyish brown dorsally with a paler venter, has a short, thick tail
with a few bristles that tapers to a point, and large, pink ears. It varies in
size and colour: The southern form is smaller, the western arid form is paler,
and the Himalayan and north–eastern form is smaller and darker.
BEHAVIOUR: This shrew is very vocal, and odorous, and keeps away
insects from the home. Active just after dusk, it has acute hearing but poor
eyesight.
DISTRIBUTION: Throughout India.
HABITAT: Burrows near homes; lives in and around sewers.

COMMON NAME: PYGMY WHITE-TOOTHED SHREW

Family: Soricidae Latin Name: Suncus etruscus Savi, 182224 Subspecies: S.e. perrotteti Duvernoy,
1842; S.e. nudipes Blyth, 1855; S.e. micronyx Blyth, 1855; S.e. pygmaeoides Anderson, 1877; S.e.
nitidofulva Anderson, 1877 Local Names: Unknown Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Occasional Size: HBL: 3–5.5 cm, TL: 2.5–3
cm, HF: 0.7–0.9 cm

DESCRIPTION: This is one of the smallest terrestrial mammals in the

world (by weight), weighing a little over two grams. It has a velvety dark
greyish brown coat dorsally, with silvery brown below, very short hind
limbs compared to its forelimbs, conspicuous pink ears, and a long tail
scattered with white hair. Large ears, and a low, flat skull with a concave
portion in the middle is prominent. It has four upper unicuspids.
BEHAVIOUR: Breeds throughout the monsoon.
DISTRIBUTION: Across India, except arid areas of Gujarat and
Rajasthan, and Jammu & Kashmir.
HABITAT: Temperate and tropical forests and forest fringes.25

COMMON NAME: HIGHLAND OR HILL SHREW

Family: Soricidae Latin Name: Suncus niger Horsfield, 185126 Local Names: Unknown Best Seen
At: Nowhere commonly seen; recorded at Eravikulam NP, Kerala27 IUCN/WPA/Indian Status:
Endangered/Unlisted/ Rare Size: HBL: 8–10.5 cm, TL: 4.5–6.5 cm, HF: 1.4–1.7 cm

DESCRIPTION: This mountain species is dark brown, almost black, and

smaller than the House Shrew.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: South Indian highlands of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and
Kerala (900–2,400 m).28
HABITAT: Wet, humid and montane forests.

Suncus niger, Madikeri, Kodagu, Karnataka

Enigmatic Suncus with partial albinism of tail, Nalbari, Assam

 Suncus murinus, Simtham, Sikkim

S. murinus, Siddhapura, Kodagu, Karnataka

 Suncus dayi, Periyar NP, kerala

Suncus etruscus, extralimital

SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME DISTRIBUTION DESCRIPTION MEASUREMENTS
Suncus dayi29 Dodson, 1888
DAY’S SHREW Palni, Nilgiri and High Wavy hill ranges of Tamil Small and brown pelage; does not have HBL: 7 cm, TL: 6.3
Nadu (1,500–2,500 m)30
bristles on its tail cm, HF: 1.5 cm
Endangered/ Unlisted/ Rare
ANDERSON’S OR Suncus stoliczkanus Anderson, Recorded from Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Silvery grey dorsal, paler venter; yellow HBL: 5.8–8.0 cm, TL:
YELLOW-THROATED 1877 Least Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra fur on throat; very small fourth upper 3.5–5.1 cm, HF: 1.1–
SHREW Concern/Unlisted/Uncommon and Karnataka unicuspid tooth 1.4 cm

COMMON NAME: HIMALAYAN OR SIKKIM LARGE-

CLAWED SHREW
Family: Soricidae Latin Name: Soriculus nigrescens Gray, 184231 Local Names: Unknown Best
Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Occasional
Size: HBL: 7–9.5 cm, TL: 3.4–4.8 cm, HF:1.4–1.7 cm

DESCRIPTION: The Sikkim Large-clawed Shrew is a large, fossorial

shrew with large feet and claws and a short tail. The shrew is dark brown
above and pale brown ventrally. It has four upper unicuspids.
BEHAVIOUR: Nocturnal; at times seen at dawn or dusk.
DISTRIBUTION: Endemic to the Himalayas, eastwards from Kumaon in
Uttarakhand32 to Sikkim and north West Bengal,33 Assam and Arunachal
Pradesh.34
HABITAT: Montane forests (deciduous, evergreen, coniferous), scrub,35
open rocky areas36 (1,560–4,300 m).

Soriculus nigrescens, Singalila NP, West Bengal

COMMON NAME: ELEGANT WATER SHREW

Family: Soricidae Latin Name: Nectogale elegans Milne Edwards, 1870 Local Names: Unknown
Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/
Uncommon Size: HBL: 9.9–12.5 cm, TL: 9.6–12.3 cm, HF: 2.3–3.2 cm

DESCRIPTION: The Elegant Water Shrew is a large shrew with a long

snout, webbed feet and a unique tail that is fringed by long, white guard
hair. It has a slaty grey dorsal pelage and a greyish white venter that is
sharply distinct. Flattened head and long, elongated incisors are further
indicative.
BEHAVIOUR: They swim upstream foraging for fish and small
invertebrates and then float downstream in open water.37
DISTRIBUTION: Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.
HABITAT: Mountain streams (up to 3,300 m).
SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME
TIBETAN SHREW Sorex thibetanus Kastschenko,
1905 Data Deficient/ Unlisted/
Unknown
EURASIAN PYGMY OR TINY Sorex minutus Linnaeus, 1766
SHREW Least concern/Unlisted/ Common
FLAT-HEADED KASHMIR SHREW Sorex planiceps Miller, 1911
Least
Concern/Unlisted/Occasional
BLANFORD’S LONG-TAILED OR Soriculus macrurus Blanford,
ARBOREAL BROWN-TOOTHED 1888 Least Concern/Unlisted/
SHREW Unknown
Nectogale elegans, Hazulu village, Vijaynagar, Changlang Distt., Arunachal
Pradesh
DISTRIBUTION DESCRIPTION MEASUREMENTS
High mountainous Dark brown fur; long tail, shorter than HBL HBL: 5.7–7.4 cm, TL:
regions in Jammu & 3.7– 4.8 cm
Kashmir
Jammu & Kashmir Dark grey-brown fur; five upper unicuspids HBL: 4.6–7.4 cm, TL:
3.7–5.2 cm, HF: 1–1.3
cm
Jammu & Kashmir38
Dark grey-brown in colour; venter not very HBL: 5.7–7.4 cm, TL:
different; five upper unicuspids 3.7–4.8 cm, HF: 1–1.3
cm
Northern West Bengal Pale slaty grey dorsal; pale grey venter with buff HBL: 4.5–6.5 cm, TL:
and Sikkim39 (2,400–
wash; pale grey tail, silver below; four upper 7.7–10.3 cm, HF: 1.3–
unicuspids 1.8 cm
3,000 m)
 Episoriculus caudatus, Kyongnosla, Sikkim

IDENTIFYING SOME SHREWS BY TAILS

COMMON SCIENTIFIC NAME DISTRIBUTION DESCRIPTION MEASUREMENTS
NAME
Sikkim40 (2,000–3,000 m)
INDIAN LONG- Soriculus leucops Horsfield, Dark brown dorsal, paler buff venter; tail similar to body (brown HBL: 5–7 cm, TL:
TAILED 1855 Least above, pale below); four upper unicuspids 5.5–7 cm, HF: 1.1–
SHREW Concern/Unlisted/ Unknown 1.6 cm
HODGSON’S Soriculus caudatus Through the Himalayas, Uttarakhand Cinnamon brown dorsal and pale brown venter; slender pale HBL: 4–7 cm, TL:
BROWN- Horsfield, 1851 Least 41 (1,800– 3,600 m)42 brown tail; four upper unicuspids 4–6 cm, HF: 1–1.7
TOOTHED Concern/Unlisted/ Unknown eastwards cm
SHREW
HIMALAYAN Chimarrogale himalayica Through the Himalayas, recorded from Blue–grey dorsal speckled with white hair; longer white hair HBL: 8–13 cm, TL:
WATER SHREW Gray, 1842 Least Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, northern West towards rump; light brown venter; dark brown tail with whitish 8–10.5 cm, HF: 2.2–
Bengal (800–1,500 m)43
Concern/Unlisted/ Unknown basal third; three upper unicuspids 2.4 cm

COMMON NAME: ASSAM MOLE SHREW

Family: Talpidae Latin Name: Anourosorex squamipes Milne-Edwards, 187244 Local Names:
Unknown Best Seen at: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status Least Concern/
Unlisted/ Occasional Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 8–11 cm, TL: 0.8–1.5 cm, HF:1.3–1.6 cm

DESCRIPTION: Different from all the other shrews, this is a large,

fossorial shrew with a truncated tail, and minute ears and eyes. It has long,
velvety, olive-grey fur on its back and a pale grey venter. It has short, broad,
scaled feet with white claws. The dentition is stout. It has two upper
unicuspids and the first upper antemolar is the biggest.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur and
Mizoram.
HABITAT: Forest edges, agricultural land, shrubby wastelands (300–3,000
m).45

COMMON NAME: SHORT-TAILED MOLE

Family: Talpidae Latin Name: Euroscaptor micrura Blyth, 185046 Local Names: Cheeka
(Bengali), Ukmuk (Assamese), Best Seen At: Nowhere common; seen in forest areas of Assam
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Occasional Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL:
10–16 cm

DESCRIPTION: Alternately called the Eastern or Himalayan Mole, it is

covered with dense, black, velvety fur with the only exposed parts being its
pinkish nose pad and large shovel-like forefeet. Its fur is pliable and can lie
in any direction, helping it to scurry backwards and forwards in low
burrows. The glossy fur does not allow earth to stick to it. The tail is short
and wholly black. The eyes are small and reduced. The incisors are small,
the canines are bicuspid and large, three small premolars are unicuspid and
the fourth one is large.47
BEHAVIOUR: Unlike European moles, this species does not shovel earth
out of its burrows and so does not leave telltale molehills on the ground. It
is territorial by nature.
DISTRIBUTION: Central and Eastern Himalayas, including Assam,
Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Meghalaya,48 and Sikkim (up to 2,040
m).
HABITAT: The name ‘Himalayan Mole’ is a misnomer; it was once
thought to be found only in the hills, but it is, in fact, a forest creature.
Found in black vegetable mould areas where the original forest cover has
been destroyed.

COMMON NAME: WHITE-TAILED MOLE

Family Name: Talpidae Latin Name: Parascaptor leucura49 Blyth, 1850 Local Names: None
known Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen; can be seen in Namdapha NP, Arunachal Pradesh;
Balphakram NP, Meghalaya IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Rare Social Unit:
Solitary Size: HBL: 8–11 cm

DESCRIPTION: A rare, little-known mole, the White-tailed Mole looks

very much like the Short-tailed Mole except that it is smaller and its tail is
longer, narrower at the base and widening slightly into a club shape towards
the tip. The tip is covered with white hair, giving it the name ‘White-tailed
Mole’. It lacks one of the unicuspid premolars that the Short-tailed Mole
has.50
BEHAVIOUR: This forest species spends time outside its burrow during
the night, foraging on the forest floor. It establishes territories of 100–200
sq. m.
DISTRIBUTION: Recorded from Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and
Meghalaya.51
HABITAT: It inhabits hills and grassy and forested plains (1,000–2,500
m).52

Euroscapator micrura, Lakhimpur, Assam

Parascapator leucura, Pakke TR, Arunachal Pradesh

P. leucura, Namdapha NP, Arunachal Pradesh

P. leucura, Namdapha NP, Arunachal Pradesh
Hedgehogs
INDIAN HEDGEHOGS AT A GLANCE
NUMBER OF SPECIES 3
BIGGEST Indian Longeared Hedgehog
SMALLEST Madras or Bare-bellied Hedgehog
MOST COMMON Indian Longeared Hedgehog
MOST RARE Madras Hedgehog
Activity

Niche Occupancy
 Indian Long-eared Hedgehog, Churu, Rajasthan

Hedgehog Skull

Hedgehog Dentition
Hedgehog Paw Bones and Tracks

Social Organization of Hedgehogs

MAYUKH CHATTERJEE (ADAPTED FROM
WWW.ANIMALDIVERSITY.UMMZ.UMICH.EDU
& WWW.YPTE.ORG.UK)

WHAT IS A HEDGEHOG?
Formerly considered among insectivores, hedgehogs differ from moles and
shrews in having large external ears, quadrate low-cusped teeth, spines
covering their back, and a different skeletal structure. Ecologically, they are
both fossorial (burrowdwelling) and terrestrial, while shrews are terrestrial
and moles are fossorial. they have recently been put into a separate order –
Erinaceomorpha.1 they hunt by using their sense of smell. the hedgehog
seizes its prey with its teeth, half curled into a ball, with its spines erect.
When the prey tries to strike back, it gets impaled on the spines. If
disturbed, the hedgehog moves away rapidly, but if cornered, it hisses and
arches its back while erecting its spines. the defensive ability of a hedgehog
to ‘curl up’ is caused by thick muscles attached to loose skin. the
hedgehog’s spines are small and do not shed like those of the porcupine.
Sexes can only be differentiated in hand by examining the ventral side.
Males have a penis and prepuce halfway down the abdomen, while females
have a vulva near the rectum.

LOCOMOTION
The Indian Hedgehog is known to scurry at great speed when capturing
prey, and to roll up its body using the specialized musculature to cover itself
with its sheath of spines. If threatened, it can curve its back and prick with
its spines but does not leave the spines in an intruder’s body like a
porcupine.

DIET AND FORAGING

Hedgehogs eat insects, frogs, snakes, scorpions, spiders, lizards, and also
fruits. they are known to favour dung beetles (Helicopris bucephalus)2 and
Zizyphus fruits that have fallen ripe.3 they do not drink water directly most
of the time but get moisture from their diet.

VOCALIZATION AND COMMUNICATION

Not known to vocalize except for a sharp hiss when cornered.

REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES
They breed during the monsoon and females bear one or two young
between July and September. Male collared hedgehogs have been noted to
have a dancing ritual that lasts for several days before mating takes place.
the young are born in burrows and are naked at birth with soft spines that
harden in a few days.

THREATS AND CONSERVATION

No major threat is known for hedgehogs although roadkills have
infrequently been reported. No conservation action is known to have been
taken nor long-term research conducted on hedgehogs in India.
 Indian Long-eared Hedgehog, Churu, Rajasthan

Indian Long-eared Hedgehog, Jaisalmer, Rajasthan

 Indian Porcupine, Eravikulam NP, Kerala

Indian Long-eared Hedgehog hit by a car, Churu, Rajasthan

Evolutionary tree of Indian hedgehogs (Adapted from Graphodatsky A.S. et
al., 2011)

COMMON NAME: INDIAN HEDGEHOG

Family: Erinaceidae Latin Name: Paraechinus micropus4 Blyth, 1846 Local Names: Jhau musa
(Hindi/Rajasthani), Kooram (Kannada), Shero (Gujarati) Best Seen At: Desert NP, Rajasthan;
Narayan Sarovar Sanctuary, Gujarat IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ IV/ Uncommon
Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 14–23 cm, TL: 2–4 cm, Wt: 300–450 g; females are lighter

DESCRIPTION: Also called the Pale Hedgehog, it has a masked face

because of greyish white hairs on its forehead and cheeks. Its spines,
arranged in 16-18 compartments,5 have a pale tip, giving the hedgehog an
overall pale or frosted appearance. Its spines are neatly parted along the top
of its forehead. Its fur is pale rufous on the face and belly, and it has smaller
ears, pentadactyl limbs, and claws, making it more compact than the
Collared Hedgehog.
BEHAVIOUR: this hedgehog is less inclined to burrow compared to the
Collared Hedgehog, probably because it does not aestivate. It can often be
found curled up under a Zizyphus bush, the fruit of which it eats. But if food
or water is scarce, it curls up in a burrow in a torpor for many days. It also
self anoints with saliva for marking unfamiliar objects.
DISTRIBUTION: Rajasthan (eastern parts), Gujarat (Kutch), and a single
record in Pune. Adjoining arid areas of Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh
could also have the species.
HABITAT: Arid and rocky habitats up to 700 m.

COMMON NAME: COLLARED OR DESERT HEDGEHOG

Family: Erinaceidae Latin Name: Hemiechinus collaris6 Gray, 1830 Local Names: Jhau musa
(Hindi/Rajasthani), Shero (Gujarati) Best Seen At: Desert NP, Rajasthan IUCN/WPA/Indian
Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Uncommon Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 14-17.5 cm, TL: 2.3
cm, Wt: 400–500 g

DESCRIPTION: A small, dark hedgehog with long legs and ears, it is also
known as the Longeared Hedgehog. The spines are dark, its belly and tail
are black, and it does not have a white mask; therefore, overall, it has a dark
brown appearance. Its legs have sharp, visible claws.
BEHAVIOUR: Males are known to eat other male hedgehogs and females
sometimes cannibalize their young. It lives in a burrow that it also uses to
aestivate during very hot summers or hibernate during very cold winters.
DISTRIBUTION: Rajasthan, Gujarat (Kutch), up to Agra in Uttar Pradesh,
up to 2,000 m.7
HABITAT: Semi-deserts, scrub and desert.8

COMMON NAME: MADRAS OR BARE-BELLIED

HEDGEHOG
Family: Erinaceidae Latin Name: Paraechinus nudiventris, Horsfield 18519 Local Names:
Mulleli/Ithil Panni (Malayalam) Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian
Status: Least Concern/10 Unlisted / Uncommon Social Unit: Solitary Size: Unknown

DESCRIPTION: Previously considered to be a subspecies of the Indian

Hedgehog, this was recently described as a separate species. Little research
has been done on it. This hedgehog is more reddish in appearance than the
Indian Hedgehog. It has an incomplete zygomatic arch and a rudimentary
upper premolar, giving it the species rank.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: Endemic to Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala,
up to 700 m.11
HABITAT: Dry deciduous scrub and rocky hills.12

Paraechinus micropus, Kutch, Gujarat

P. micropus, Surendranagar, Gujarat
 Hemiechinus collaris, Kutch, Gujarat

H. collaris, Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan

Paraechinus nudiventris, Kumarakom, Kerala

P. micropus, Surendranagar, Gujarat

Rodents
INDIAN RODENTS AT A GLANCE
NUMBER OF SPECIES 105
BIGGEST Indian Crested Porcupine
SMALLEST Pygmy Gerbil
MOST COMMON House Mouse, House Rat
MOST ENDANGERED Malabar Spiny Dormouse
Activity
Murids
Squirrels

Porcupines

Niche Occupancy
 Red Flying Squirrel pokes its head out of its nest hole, Lansdowne,
Uttarakhand

Funambulus squirrels
Porcupine

Rats

WHAT ARE RODENTS?

Rodents are a diverse group of mammals with a single pair of incisors in
both jaws, which grow continuously through life. The incisors are very
often visible in the field though the rodents may be small. Nearly 40 per
cent of all mammals worldwide and more than 25 per cent in India are
rodents. India has typical rodent genera in all its biogeographic zones
(hamsters and voles in the Himalayas, gerbils and jirds in the desert,
bamboo rats in the north–east, bandicoots and mice in the plains, spiny
dormice in the Western Ghats). Porcupines are the largest rodents of the
subcontinent with modified dorsal hair that are thick and stiff and known as
quills. Squirrels are medium- to large-sized rodents with long, bushy tails.
Taxonomists divide the family into two subfamilies: Sciurinae and
Petauristinae. Within Sciurinae, the Ratufini tribe comprises giant squirrels,
the Funambulini tribe – striped squirrels, and the Callosciurini tribe – the
non-striped diurnal squirrels. The squirrels in the Petauristinae subfamily
are nocturnal, and include the flying squirrels. The two ground-dwelling
marmots are also members of the Sciuridae family (large ground squirrels):
heavyset, with a flat head, a prominent sagittal crest and a long tail.
The murids including, rats, mice, hamsters, voles, lemmings, and gerbils
comprise 281 genera and 1,326 species worldwide. The most widely
distributed family, they are found across the world, except certain islands
and Antarctica. They are mostly small (10–80 cm), with long tails and short
limbs. They are all terrestrial, but some live in trees and caves. They can be
diurnal or nocturnal. While most of them are graminivorous (grain-eating)
and feed on vegetable matter, some feed on invertebrates and small
vertebrates. Rats and mice breed prodigiously almost throughout the year,
when temperatures are favourable, and usually have large litters. This is
offset by their very short lives, averaging less than two years. Many species,
especially those living near human habitation, are thought to be vermin due
to their diet and propensity for spreading diseases. However, the family also
includes many non-threatening and rare forest forms.
Hamsters are small murid rodents with short tails and limbs. While
marmots live in colonies in complex underground tunnel systems and are
diurnal, they live solitarily or in small groups in burrows in the sand and are
nocturnal. Gerbils and Jirds are long-tailed rodents adapted to semi-arid
regions and deserts, and live in colonies. Gerbils have characteristic furry
tails ending in a tuft of hairs; many species have long legs and a rabbit-like
hopping locomotion. Voles are small, cylindrical rodents adapted to a
fossorial (burrowing) lifestyle in colder climates. Like elephants, their
rootless teeth grow through life, adapted to a diet of coarse vegetable
matter. They have hypsodont molars with a triangular pattern on their worn
surfaces. Metads or soft, furred field rats are medium-sized South Asian
species with characteristics of both house rats and wood rats. Not found in
human habitation, they have a very soft pelage, semi-naked tails and large
ears. They have less than six soft pads (plantar pads) under their feet.
Indian Porcupine, Eravikulam NP, Kerala

Himalayan Marmot, North Sikkim

 Roof Rat, Upper Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu

Indian Giant Squirrel, Chinnar WLS, Kerala

 Evolutionary tree of Indian rodents (Adapted from Macdonald D., 2001)

Indian Giant Squirrel, Periyar NP, Kerala

Giant Squirrel
Bamboo Rat

Hamster

Vole

LOCOMOTION
Most rodents are quadrupedal, but some including gerbils show bipedality,
while others such as the flying squirrels have evolved to glide in air.
Rodents have varying speeds ranging from 10.3 kmph to 17.1 kmph on
land.1 Giant squirrels are mainly arboreal but are known to take giant leaps
with outspread limbs covering up to 20 m.2 On ground, gerbils are the giant
leapers, clearing 1-1.5 m in a leap when alarmed.3 The most evolved
locomotion is that of flying squirrels, which glide from a higher branch to a
lower one, with the aid of a thin membrane, the patagium, connecting their
ankles and wrists. This squarish flap of skin forms a parachute when the
squirrel opens all four legs up and gains speed as it falls downwards. The
tail stabilizes it in flight and slows it down on landing, when it is raised.
Wing tips are held at an upward angle to the rest of the wing when gliding,
forming an air foil and reducing drag.4 They can glide for 50 m or more;
Petauristas can glide for up to 450 m or more. Gliding locomotion uses less
energy than quadrupedal locomotion.5

DIET AND FORAGING

Rodents have varied diets, but are largely herbivorous (more graminivorous
and frugivorous); carnivory is also known. Hystrix indica eats tubers, roots,
stems, leaves and tree bark but also raids crops of potato, groundnut and
maize. They prefer softer barks of Melia, Mangifera and Morus while
avoiding thick and rough barks.6 The Indian Flying Squirrel has been
recorded to consume fruit, leaves and plant parts of nine species (those of
Ficus racemosa, Cullenia exarillata and Artocarpus heterophyllus were
most eaten).7 Gerbils eat grain, roots, leaves and grass, and can be pests of
crops. They are partial to Opuntia fruits and also eat insects, eggs and
nestlings of ground birds, and smaller rodents. Rats and mice are
graminivores but have preferences: Golunda elliotti is adapted to eating
Lantana seeds. Palm squirrels eat seeds of Acacia arabica, Albizia lebbeck,
Salvadora persica, Ziziphus spp and Citrullus colocynthis in the wild along
with flowers, leaves and insects.8 In habitation, it turns omnivorous, even
eating cooked food. Other commensals such as Rattus rattus, rattus
norvegicus and Mus musculus are omnivores and raiders of kitchens, eating
cooked food. Cannibalism (the young being eaten) is not uncommon.9
Indian Flying Squirrel gliding branch to branch, near Jambughoda WLS,
Gujarat

Bark comprises an important food source for rodents: Red Giant Flying
Squirrel eating bark, Namdapha NP, Arunachal Pradesh
Indian Desert Jird eating what little is available in the arid regions of the
Rann of Kutch, Gujarat

Malabar Giant Squirrel leaps between two branches, Bhadra WLS,

Karnataka
 Orange-bellied Squirrel with nut, a more traditional rodent diet, Tawang,
Arunavchal Pradesh

Himalayan Marmots show aggressive behaviour, Changthang, Ladakh,

Jammu & Kashmir

VOCALIZATION AND COMMUNICATION

The palm squirrel’s call is one of the commonest voices with a scolding
chatter, repeated frequently. Giant squirrels in forests have a loud rattling
call, too. Both the Hoary-bellied and Orange-bellied Squirrels have a very
loud, cackling cry. Flying squirrels are very vocal at night with their
repetitive calls although Petaurista philipensis also has a sharper alarm call
and a chatter cry.10 Marmots utter a sharp whistling scream in alarm,
warning others to get back into burrows.11 Rats emit ultrasonic
vocalizations as pup distress calls, during mating, aggressive encounters
and other behaviourally aroused states.12
Male rodents use several mating strategies including defence of mates, mate
searching and sperm competition.13 These strategies are varied as female
rodent societies can be solitary, dispersed, asocial, highly clustered or
colonial and matrilineal.14 Mating systems in rodents, therefore, include
polygyny (defence and non-defence), promiscuity, polyandry and
monogamy.15 Females rear offspring solitarily, or in complex societies.
Generally, the gestation period is 18–30 days and litter size can vary
between 1–22.16 Most squirrels build dreys or large nests of twigs and
leaves high up in trees, or nest in tree hollows. Most murids have burrows,
or breed in crevices, rock overhangs and human-modified environments
(drainpipes, sewers and irrigation ditches).
Funambulus pennantii is known to breed in the spring and autumn, with
a gestation period of 40–42 days and an average litter of three.17 Petaurista
petaurista is a seasonal breeder with low reproductive rates. Females are
sexually active in May–July and November–January and males in March–
June and October–November.18 Marmots breed in the autumn; 2–4 young
are born in the spring. Porcupines breed in separate burrows to the ones
they live in and females may have such burrows in tall vegetation.
Gestation is about 112 days19 and they have 2–4 young in March. Wood
mice may exhibit scramble competition during breeding season where
multiple mating occurs and the litter has multiple paternity. The gestation is
25–26 days; the litter is on average five. The soft-furred metad may have
breeding seasons in March–May and August–October, and have 2-7 litters
with 1-8 young per litter.
The fecundity of rats, mice and bandicoots is legendary. The Indian
Bandicoot may produce up to 70 young a year with only a month or so
between pregnancies.20 Rattus rattus can produce 6–7 litters a year with
13–14 young in a litter, and breeding occur every month of the year
(gestation is only 21–29 days).21 Mus musculus has an even shorter
gestation period of 18–21 days and up to 12 young are produced in a litter
in underground nests.22
Mammary Formulae of Muridae
THREATS AND CONSERVATION
The greatest threat facing rodents is the lack of awareness of their true
status. A classic example is the murids. All rats and mice are placed in
Schedule V of the Wildlife Protection Act, labelling them as Vermin, with
the exception of the Malabar Spiny Dormouse. This clumping of
endangered, threatened and abundant species has perpetuated the myth of
all rodents being harmful to humans. However, rodents such as squirrels,
porcupines and marmots, are afforded some protection. It is known that 27
per cent of all living rodents globally require some conservation attention.23
Ecological threats to rodents include loss of habitat including large trees for
certain sciurid species, introduction of non-native species and competition,
non-selective hunting for the pot in tribal communities, and disease.
Presence of several monotypic taxa means that the whole taxa may suffer
the risk of extinction in several cases. Very little work is done in India for
rodent conservation.

Giant Squirrel entering its drey, Wayanad WLS, Kerala

 Indian Jird mating in dry scrub, Rann of Kutch, Gujarat

Himalayan Striped Squirrel taking tree bark for nest lining, Pakke TR,
Arunachal Pradesh
Bhutan Giant Flying Squirrel peeks out from its drey, extralimital

Mating Indian Giant Squirrels, Nagarhole WLS, Karnataka

Rodents are abundant breeders: Roof Rat with young, Upper Nilgiris, Tamil
Nadu

COMMON NAME: INDIAN CRESTED PORCUPINE

Family: Hystricidae Latin Name: Hystrix indica Kerr, 179224 Subspecies: None25 Local Names:
Sayal/Sahi (Hindi), Sayal/Salindar (Marathi), Yedu/Mulla pandi (Telugu), Mullan panni
(Malayalam/Tamil), Shojaru (Bengali), Kong-brar (Kashmiri), Mulluhandi (Kannada), Jhinka (Odia)
Best Seen At: Bandipur NP, Karnataka IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ IV/ Common
Social Unit: Solitary; groups of 2–4 Size: HBL: 60–90 cm, TL: 8–10 cm, Wt: 11–18 kg

DESCRIPTION: The commonest and largest among Indian porcupines,

this thickset rodent is covered with long black and white quills and a long
crest of spines flowing from the forehead to the middle of its back. Its short
tail (less than a fifth of the head and body length)26 ends in a bunch of thick
white quills. In central and southern India, a form often referred to as the
‘Red Porcupine’ has quills with a rusty tinge instead of white.27
BEHAVIOUR: When the porcupine senses danger, it erects the quills on its
back and rattles its tail quills menacingly. If the danger persists, it rushes
backwards into its attacker, leaving its quills embedded in the victim’s
flesh.28 In the case of big cats, this can lead to mortality.
DISTRIBUTION: It is found throughout India except the North–East (up
to 2,400 m).29
HABITAT: Rocky hillsides, open countryside, deciduous forests, thick
bush and tall grass.30

PORCUPINE
Family: Hystricidae Latin Name: Hystrix brachyura Linnaeus, 1758 Subspecies: H.b. hodgsonii
Gray, 1847; H.b. subcristata Swinhoe, 1870 Local Names: Ketelapohu (Assamese), Sakhu (Mizo),
Suku (Naga) Best Seen At: Orang NP, Assam IUCN /WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ II/
Occasional Social Unit: Solitary; groups of 2–4 Size: HBL: 45–75 cm, Wt: 8 kg

DESCRIPTION: It can be told apart from the Indian Porcupine by its

shorter dorsal crest (15 cm instead of up to 30 cm); small tail instead of a
visible tail with white quills; thinner body quills, and smaller size. Its dorsal
quills have one dark band while the Indian Porcupine’s have more than two.
H.b. subcristata is a larger subspecies with more developed caudal rattling
quills.31
BEHAVIOUR: Does not rattle tail quills as much as the H. indica.
DISTRIBUTION: H.b. hodgsonii: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam. Meghalaya,
Sikkim, West Bengal; H.b. subcristata: Manipur, Mizoram and Nagaland.32
HABITAT: It inhabits forests and forest fringes having rocky outcrops.33

COMMON NAME: ASIATIC BRUSH-TAILED PORCUPINE

Family: Hystricidae Latin Name: Atherurus macrourus Linnaeus, 175834 Subspecies: None35
Local Names: Ketelapohu (Assamese), Shojaru (Bengali) Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ II/ Rare Social Unit: Groups of 6–8 Size: HBL: 38– 52
cm, TL: 14–23 cm,36 Wt: 1.5–4 kg

DESCRIPTION: The smallest of Indian porcupines, it lacks the long body

quills of the other species. The first third of its long, scaly tail (a third to
half the size of head and body) is spineless and the rest covered in quills
that seem beaded due to rice-grain-sized thickenings on them.
BEHAVIOUR: Nocturnal and fossorial.
DISTRIBUTION: Recorded from Assam,37 Arunachal Pradesh and
Meghalaya38 but may be distributed more widely in the North–East.39
HABITAT: Subtropical and tropical forests, especially with cane, bamboo
and palms.40

Hystrix indica, Craigmore, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu

Hystrix indica, Tadoba buffer, Maharashtra
 Hystrix brachyura, Manas NP, Assam

Atherurus macrourus, Namdapha NP, Arunachal Pradesh

COMMON NAME: HIMALAYAN MARMOT

Family: Sciuridae Latin Name: Marmota himalayana Hodgson, 184041 Local Names: Phia,
Mirgot (Ladakhi), Shippa (Monpa) Best Seen At: Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir IUCN/WPA/Indian
Status: Least Concern/ II/ Locally Common Social Unit: Gregarious; groups of pairs to families
living in 100 or so adjacent burrows;42 commonly 10-15 individuals with an adult male, a couple of
adult females, subadults and young Size: HBL: 45–67 cm, TL: 12–15 cm, Wt: 4–9.2 kg43

DESCRIPTION: Marmots are some of the highest living, large-bodied

ground squirrels of the world. The southernmost of these is the common
marmot of the Himalayas, the Himalayan Marmot, which is the size of a
domestic cat and has short, coarse fur on its body, with some black hair on
its back. In warmer areas, the species tends to be paler buff while in cooler
areas it has more colour and tends towards rust.44 In no subspecies of M.
himalayana does the black appear as contiguous as a saddle patch as in
Marmota caudata, and especially in Marmota himalayana himalayana it is
almost absent. Its face is dark brown, the ears are short, the eyes are dark
with a buff eye ring, and a blackish patch near the snout and forehead. The
short tail, which is brown tipped with black, is a third of its body length.
They have prominent incisors.
BEHAVIOUR: The winter burrows, which are used to hibernate for six or
seven months, can be as deep as 10 m, while summer excavations may be
shallower.45 During hibernations, marmots wake up once a month on
average to urinate or defecate. They lose half their body weight during
hibernation.46
DISTRIBUTION: It is distributed through the Himalayas from Ladakh in
Jammu & Kashmir through Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and
Arunachal Pradesh (3,500–5,200 m).47
HABITAT: Montane areas including meadows, grassland and areas with
low rainfall. Chooses soil conditions that assist easy excavation.48

COMMON NAME: LONG-TAILED MARMOT

Family: Sciuridae Latin Name: Marmota caudata Geoffroy, 184449 Subspecies: M.c. caudata
Geoffroy 184450 Local Names: Phia/Mirgot (Ladakhi) Best Seen At: Zanskar, Ladakh, Jammu &
Kashmir IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ II/ Occasional Social Unit: Gregarious;
monogamous pairs or family groups of up to seven adults and their offspring51 Size: HBL: 45.5–
55.5 cm, TL: 21.5–27.5 cm, Wt: 3–5 kg52

DESCRIPTION: A golden marmot with a long and bushy tail, the

nominate subspecies has coarse black hair spread like a saddle dorsally over
a base of yellow–buff or rich gold. The underparts are a rich orange–gold.
The tail is more than half of the body length and a very large part of its tip
is black. Eye patches of the male are larger those of in the female.53
BEHAVIOUR: Diurnal and semi-fossorial. It hibernates for half the year54
and emerges only in spring from its burrows. Often seen basking on rock
faces or standing sentry by their burrows.
DISTRIBUTION: In Zanskar in Ladakh and Gilgit in Jammu & Kashmir,
and in Sikkim (3,200-4,850 m).55
HABITAT: Above the treeline in alpine meadows and scrubs (associated
with glacial moraines), particularly habitat that has dwarf juniper.56
Marmota himalayana, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir
Marmota caudata, Zanskar, Jammu & Kashmir

M. himalayana, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

M. caudata, Zanskar, Jammu & Kashmir

 M. caudata, Zanskar, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

COMMON NAME: INDIAN GIANT SQUIRREL

Family: Sciuridae Latin Name: Ratufa indica Erxleben, 177757 Subspecies: R.i. indica Erxleben,
1777, R.i. centralis Ryley, 1913, R.i. dealbata Blanford, 1897; R.i. maxima Schreber, 178458 Local
Names: Shekra (Marathi), Anil (Tamil), Kenjjiri (Coorgi), Malayannan (Malayalam),
Kendalilu/Kyasala (Kannada)59 Best Seen At: R.i. indica: Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu; R.i. centralis:
Andhra Pradesh; R.i. dealbata: not seen for several years; presumed extinct); R.i. maxima: Periyar
NP, Kerala IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Near Threatened60/ I/ Locally Common Social Unit:
Solitary or pairs61 Size: HBL: 35–51 cm, TL: 60 cm, Wt: 2 kg

DESCRIPTION: There are four species of giant squirrels (the largest

squirrels in the world) in South and South–east Asia, of which three are
found in India. The common species in India is the Indian or the Malabar
Giant Squirrel, which is an endemic squirrel of varying bright pelages. The
back is a mixture of maroon and black and the underparts are cream or buff.
R.i. indica is completely maroon on its back and ears with a pale cream
venter, pale face and pale tail tip. R.i. dealbata is a very pale brown with an
almost all-white or cream tail. The extent of white on the tail varies in
different forms as it intergrades southwards. R.i. maxima is similar to R.i.
indica except that it has a black saddle across its shoulders, the maroon on
the dorsal side is darker, and the tail is black and brown with no pale tip.
R.i. centralis has red ear tufts instead of maroon, this colour continuing
through the back, sides and hind legs. It has black on the forelimbs and
shoulders, and the tail is also black with a pale tip.62
BEHAVIOUR: These forest canopy-dwellers rarely come down to the
forest floor. They build multiple globe-shaped nests, and use some for
sleeping and at least one as a nursery. They make shrill sounds and their
high-pitched alarm calls rival those of monkeys, especially when they mob
predatory birds. They are also known to take shelter inside their nests in the
middle of the day as an anti-predator strategy.63 They often sleep draped
over a branch, with their tails falling over.
DISTRIBUTION: They are distributed in discontinuous patches in
southern and central India (Satpuras, Eastern and Western Ghats). R.i.
dealbata has been reported from the Dangs (in Gujarat); R.i. centralis from
eastern and central India (Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand,
Odisha and Andhra Pradesh). R.i. indica in the northern and central Western
Ghats up to the Palakkad (Palghat) Gap in (Maharashtra, Goa, Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka and Kerala) and R.i. maxima in the southern Western Ghats south
of the Palakkad gap (in Kerala and Tamil Nadu).
HABITAT: It inhabits high canopy in dry and moist deciduous, semi-
evergreen and evergreen forests and dry scrub. Not found in plantations
unless forest fragments are present in them.64

Ratufa indica, Yawal WLS, Maharashtra

Ratufa indica maxima, Periyar NP, Kerala
R.i. maxima, Vazhachal, Kerala
 Ratufa indica indica, Bandipur NP, Karnataka

(left and above): R.i. indica, Mahabaleshwar, Maharashtra

COMMON NAME: BLACK GIANT SQUIRREL
Family: Sciuridae Latin Name: Ratufa bicolor Sparrman, 177865 Subspecies: R.b. gigantea
McClelland, 183966 Local Names: Ram kota (Bengali), Le-hyuk (Lepcha), Shingsham (Bhotia),
Chikkat/Lippo (Adi), Papiang (Bugun), Subge (Miji) Bitha (Lisu), Seki (Nishi) Best Seen At:
Kaziranga NP, Assam IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Near Threatened/ II/ Common Social Unit:
Solitary or pairs Size: HBL: 33.5 cm (male); 36.5 cm (female), TL: 41.5 cm (male); 42.3 cm
(female), Wt: 1–1.2 kg (male); 1.2–1.3 kg (female)67

DESCRIPTION: A black and buff eastern Indian forest squirrel, the

Malayan or Black Giant Squirrel is deep brown (appearing black) on the
back and creamy buff on the ventral side. It has large black ears with hairy
tufts, a black tail and black marks on its face below the eyes. The forelegs
are black in front and buff on the back. R.b. gigantea does not have the
flash pattern on the forearm that many other subspecies have.68
BEHAVIOUR: Feeds on nuts, seeds, leaves, flowers, tree bark and fruit
pulp but may not eat insects. They are not known to store food.69
DISTRIBUTION: It is distributed in Sikkim, northern West Bengal, and
north–east India.
HABITAT: Montane moist deciduous, semi-evergreen and evergreen
forests (middle or upper-canopy dweller).70

COMMON NAME: GRIZZLED GIANT SQUIRREL

Family: Sciuridae Latin Name: Ratufa macroura Pennant, 176971 Subspecies: R.m. dandolena
Thomas and Wroughton, 191572 Local Names: Malayannan/Chaambalannan/Pulliannan
(Malayalam), Anil (Tamil), Betta alluva (Kannada)73Best Seen At: Chinnar WLS, Kerala;
Srivilliputhur WLS, Tamil Nadu IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Near Threatened/ II/ Occasional Social
Unit: Solitary or pairs Size: HBL: 25–45 cm, TL: 30–45 cm, Wt: 1.5–3 kg74

DESCRIPTION: The smallest of the giant squirrels in India, the Grizzled

or Sri Lankan Giant Squirrel is brownish grey in colour, with pale hair tips
giving it a grizzled look. Its underside is dirty white. The ears, crown and
dorsal midline are dark brown or black. The ears are short, round and often
tufted. The tail is as long or longer than head and body, and has long pale
hair, making it greyish looking compared to the tails of other subspecies.75
Their broad feet and hands have well-developed claws to aid climbing.76
BEHAVIOUR: Feeds on young Tamarindus leaves, and young leaves,
pollen and bark of Albizia.77
DISTRIBUTION: Five populations in the eastern slopes of the southern
Western Ghats in Kerala and Tamil Nadu (150–500 m).
HABITAT: Riverine or evergreen broadleaved forests dominated by
Terminalia, Tamarindus, Mangifera, Pongamia, Albizia and Syzygium
trees.78 They are common in mango orchards that abut such forests. When
present alongside Ratufa indica, this species favours drier rain-shadow
areas.

Ratufa macroura, Bhimeshwari, Cauvery WLS, Karnataka

Ratufa bicolor, Kaziranga NP, Assam

Ratufa bicolor, Kaziranga NP, Assam

 R. bicolor, Manas NP, Assam

R. macroura, Chinnar WLS, Kerala

 R. macroura, Chinnar WLS, Kerala

COMMON NAME: RED GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL

Family: Sciuridae Latin Name: Petaurista petaurista Pallas, 176679 Subspecies: P.p. albiventer
Gray, 1834; P.p. candidula Local Names: Hojo (Adi), Raato rajpankhi lokharke/Thuto raso lokharke
(Nepalese), Harbekku (Kannada)80Best Seen At: All over the Himalayas IUCN/WPA/Indian
Status: Least Concern/ II/ Common Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 32–49 cm, TL: 38–44 cm81

DESCRIPTION: All flying squirrels have an elastic skin called the

patagium, stretched between the wrist and the ankles, which they use to
glide. Petauristas have an additional flap of skin (called the uropatagium)
that connects the heel and tail as well. Petauristas are known to have great
variation in their pelage colouration both seasonally and even between
sexes.82 The Red Giant Flying Squirrel is a relatively large, chestnut–red (in
males) to rufous brown (in females) species with flesh-coloured nostrils and
large, liquid brown eyes. The long, slender tail is furred but not bushy and is
carried curved on the back. Its feet are black and furred although the soles
are naked. P.p. albiventer has buff under parts with a white throat, a black
eye ring that is very visible, rufous (males) or grey (females) on the cheeks
and a tail that is bay-coloured but with a third of it tipped with black. P.p.
candidula has almost white underparts, a grey tail that is tipped black and
extensive white grizzling on the back.
BEHAVIOUR: Flying Squirrels do not actually fly but are master gliders
that run up to high branches and launch themselves into a glide to lower
branches. This squirrel can easily glide up to 100 m. While passing
overhead, it makes a noise like rushing wind. It has a monotonous call,
which sounds like someone exhaling sharply, repeated 30–40 times at dusk.
DISTRIBUTION: P.p. albiventer from Jammu & Kashmir to Arunachal
Pradesh; Assam, Meghalaya and Manipur; P.p. candidula in eastern
Arunachal Pradesh (150–3,000 m83).
HABITAT: Restricted only to forests, this squirrel is not found near human
habitation.

COMMON NAME: INDIAN GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL

Family: Sciuridae Latin Name: Petaurista philippensis Elliot, 1839 Subspecies: P.p. philippensis
Elliot, 1839 Local Names: Kath bola (Rajasthani), Udan gilahari (Hindi), Parakkin anil (Tamil),
Haru bekku/Haru alilu (Kannada)84Best Seen At: Anamalais, Tamil Nadu IUCN/WPA/Indian
Status: Least Concern/ II/ Common Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 30–45 cm, TL: 35–60 cm,81
Wt: 2.2 kg85

DESCRIPTION: The Indian Giant Flying Squirrel (Petaurista philipensis

philipensis) is a drabber cousin of the Red Giant Flying Squirrel. Its coat
varies from coffee–brown to grey, grizzled with white. It has white or pale
grey undersides and a rufous patagium. Its head is the same colour as the
rest of its body and its ears have reddish brown margins. The tail is
uniformly brown–grey with the tip being noticeably darker in some
individuals.
BEHAVIOUR: Owls may be important predators of the squirrel, as calls of
certain owls in the Western Ghats have resulted in the animals making
alarm calls and thereby being spotted by the human eye.86 Early night
(19:30–23:30) is the most active gliding time for the species.87
DISTRIBUTION: Rajasthan, Gujarat, Goa, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala (up to 1,800 m).88
HABITAT: Deciduous, semi-evergreen and evergreen forests; frequently
found in forest edges89 and cardamom plantations.90
Petaurista petaurista albiventer male, Berajan, Assam
 P.p. albiventer female, Great Himalayan NP, Himachal Pradesh

Petaurista petaurista candidula, Namdapha NP, Arunachal Pradesh

 Petaurista philippensis philippensis, captive

P.p. philippensis, Anamalai WLS, Tamil Nadu

COMMON NAME: BHUTAN OR GRAY’S GIANT FLYING

SQUIRREL
Family: Sciuridae Latin Name: Petaurista nobilis Gray, 184291 Subspecies: P.n. nobilis Gray,
1842; P.n. singhei Saha, 1977 Local Names: Sibyong (Adi), Dichai, Thring (Bugun), Chuowa-
changkor, (Monpa), Khiaw (Sherdukpen), Sundar rajpankhi lokharke (Nepalese)92 Best Seen At:
Darjeeling, West Bengal IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Near Threatened/ II/ Locally Common Social
Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 41.7–42.7 cm, TL: 46.8–52.2 cm, Wt: 2.7 kg93

DESCRIPTION: A large, dark chestnut–brown squirrel with pale rufous

(P.n. nobilis) or yellow undersides (P.n. singhei), the Bhutan Flying Squirrel
is larger than the sympatric P. magnificus with a slightly smaller tail. It has
a yellow or fulvous patch on its crown that continues down its back as a
dorsal stripe; the shoulders and sides are yellow, and the patagium is
brownish yellow. The long, rufous tail is black-tipped. The feet are dark
maroon or black. P.n. singhei differs from the nominate subspecies in being
larger, having a dark saddle patch, and also in lacking the pale mid-dorsal
stripe.94
BEHAVIOUR: Crepuscular and nocturnal in habits;95 is often found on
salt licks on the ground in contrast to other highly arboreal squirrels.
DISTRIBUTION: P.n. nobilis: Sikkim, northern West Bengal; P.n. singhei:
Arunachal Pradesh (1,500–2,300 m96)
HABITAT: Tropical and subtropical montane forests of pine and
rhododendron.97

COMMON NAME: WOOLLY FLYING SQUIRREL

Family: Sciuridae Latin Name: Eupetaurus cinereus Thomas, 1888 Local Names: Unknown Best
Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered/ II/ Rare Social Unit:
Solitary Size: HBL: 30–45 cm, TL: 35–60 cm98

DESCRIPTION: This high-altitude flying squirrel has long silken hair,

rather than woolly hair as its name suggests. Larger than the genus
Petaurista, it also looks bulkier because of its dense fur. Its uniform blue–
grey coat is only broken by a paler tip to its long, heavily furred tail. It is
paler grey at the belly and creamy on the throat. Its feet are well furred and
have pink soles. Its small ears are covered with buff hair and its elongated
muzzle has black whiskers. A unique dentition pattern99 places it in a single
species genus.
BEHAVIOUR: It does not hibernate like the other Himalayan flying
squirrels and reportedly prefers rocky caves to trees.
DISTRIBUTION: Jammu & Kashmir to Sikkim.100
HABITAT: Coniferous, dwarf rhododendron and juniper forests and the
mountain steppe.

Biswamoyopterus biswasi, Namdhapha NP, Arunachal pradesh

Petaurista caniceps, Kanchendzonga NP, Sikkim

Petaurista nobilis nobilis, Gangtok, Sikkim

 P.n. nobilis licking salt from a salt lick, road to Gangtok, Sikkim

Petaurista nobilis singhei, Pakke, Arunachal Pradesh

SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON LATIN NAME OCCURRENCE IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME
NAMDAPHA Biswamoyopterus Patkai Range, Reddish grizzled coat, white below; furry tail transitions from smoky grey to russet
FLYING biswasi Saha, Arunachal Pradesh to clove–brown; patagium mahogany above and rufous below; violet–grey patch on
SQUIRREL 1981 crown; HBL: 40.5 cm, TL 10.10 cm101
HODGSON’S Petaurista Sikkim, northern Maroon (summer) or chestnut (winter) coat with dark saddle patch; middle of neck
FLYING magnificus West Bengal and and back always darker than patagium and shoulders;102 ochre underparts; yellow
SQUIRREL hodgsoni Ghose Arunachal Pradesh spot on crown that continues in some individuals as a streak; black-tipped rufous
and Saha, 1981 (up to 3,000 m) tail; HBL: 38-40 cm, TL: 45–49 cm, Wt: 1.8 kg
SPOTTED Petaurista Eastern Arunachal Greyish brown with orange–brown underparts; a row of white speckles or spots on
GIANT elegans Muller, Pradesh104 the head and back; belly and parachute dark reddish brown; tail progresses from
FLYING 1840103 reddish brown to black; HBL: 33 cm, TL: 35–36 cm
SQUIRREL
GREY- Petaurista Sikkim, northern Same as P. elegans but grey head and brown back without spots; smaller than other
HEADED caniceps Gray, West Bengal and Petauristas; HBL: 30–37 cm, TL: 36–40 cm
FLYING 1841105 Arunachal Pradesh
SQUIRREL (up to 3,600 m106)

COMMON NAME: KASHMIR FLYING SQUIRREL

Family: Sciuridae Latin Name: Eoglaucomys fimbriatus Gray 1837107 Subspecies: E.f. fimbriatus
Gray, 1837; E.f. baberi Blyth, 1847 Local Names: Unknown Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly
seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Rare Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL:
23.5–30 cm, TL: 25–35.5 cm,108 Wt: 733 g109

DESCRIPTION: This small and dark flying squirrel appears grizzled grey
because of short black hairs interspersed with longer, pinkish buff ones. Its
underside is cream, turning to grey–buff beneath the wing flaps. This
squirrel can be distinguished from the large flying squirrels by its shorter
flat and, therefore, feathery brown tail, broad at the base and narrowing to a
black tip. Its muzzle is elongated and its upright pink ears are hairless.
BEHAVIOUR: Often shelters in roofs of village houses. When eating nuts,
it bores a neat square hole in them which is a telltale sign of this squirrel.
DISTRIBUTION: E.f. fimbriatus: Deciduous and coniferous forests of
Jammu & Kashmir (2,000–3,500 m), east to Himachal Pradesh, and
Uttarakhand; E.f. baberi: probably extreme north–west Jammu & Kashmir,
including Pakistan-occupied Kashmir.
HABITAT: It is tolerant of drier areas as well as of human presence.

COMMON NAME: TRAVANCORE FLYING SQUIRREL

Family: Sciuridae Latin Name: Petinomys fuscocapillus Jerdon, 1847110 Subspecies: None111
Local Names: Paran (Malayalam), Chikka harbekku (Kannada)112 Best Seen At: Anamalai WLS,
Tamil Nadu IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Near Threatened/ I/ Uncommon Social Unit: Solitary or
pairs Size: HBL: 31.9–33.7 cm, TL: 25–28.7 cm, Wt: 712 g113
DESCRIPTION: This is a small, dark brown or rufescent flying squirrel
with yellowish white undersides; this colour extends to the cheeks, and
white hairs fringe its wing membrane. The seven species of Petinomys
found in South and South–East Asia are placed in a separate genus due to
the peculiar honeycombed bones in their ears.
BEHAVIOUR: Seems to be almost entirely a canopy dweller.114
DISTRIBUTION: Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and
possibly Goa.
HABITAT: Evergreen forests, forest edges and plantations.115

COMMON NAME: PARTI-COLOURED FLYING

SQUIRREL
Family: Sciuridae Latin Name: Hylopetes alboniger Hodgson, 1836 Subspecies: H.a. alboniger
Hodgson, 1836; H.a. leonardi116 Local Names: Kerketua (Assamese), Pahadi/Ban lokharke
(Nepalese) Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ II/
Locally Common Social Unit: Solitary of pairs Size: HBL: 21.4–22.3 cm, TL: 19.6–20.2 cm, Wt:
240–269 g117

DESCRIPTION: Small, grey and white in its nominate form, H.a.

alboniger has brown hairs only on the back. The remaining upper body is
grey, the venter pure white (except the tail). The tail is also grey, and darker
on the venter. H.a. leonardi is smaller with buff on the face, neck and
underparts, white only on the chest, brown in the tail, upper parts mixed
with the grey and a black base of ears.118
BEHAVIOUR: Very high pitched vocalizations that can be used to detect it
in the forests.
DISTRIBUTION: Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur, Nagaland,
Sikkim, northern West Bengal,119 and Assam.120
HABITAT: Tropical and subtropical forests and near human habitation (up
to 3,500 m).
Eoglaucomys fimbriatus Kishtwar, Jammu & Kashmiir
 Petinomys fuscocapillus, Periyar NP, Kerala

P. fuscocapillus. Anamalais, Tamil Nadu

Hylopetes alboniger leonardi, Kaziranga NP, Assam

 Hylopetes alboniger alboniger, Kaziranga NP, Assam

SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON LATIN NAME OCCURRENCE IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME
Hairy- Belomys Sikkim, northern West Small, grizzled, ochraceous; short, bushy tail; patagium is dark with an orange
footed pearsonii Bengal and north–east wash on the venter; large ears with long, dark chestnut hair growing out from the
Flying pearsonii Gray, India (900–2,400 m122) base; HBL 18–19 cm, TL:16.1–16.9 cm, Wt: 155 g123
Squirrel 1842121

COMMON NAME: HOARY-BELLIED SQUIRREL

Family: Sciuridae Latin Name: Callosciurus pygerythrus I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1831124
Subspecies: C.p. lokroides Hodgson, 1836; C.p. blythi Tytler, 1854; C.p. stevensi Thomas, 1908125
Local Names: Kerketua (Assamese), Pahadi/Ban lokharke (Nepalese) Best Seen At: Kaziranga NP,
Assam IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern /II/ Common Social Unit: Solitary or pairs Size:
HBL: 18–23 cm, TL: 17–19 cm126

DESCRIPTION: A small, brown squirrel, the Hoary-bellied or Irrawaddy

Squirrel has a pale grey venter, a buff belly and a rufous tinge at the base of
its limbs. It is smaller than the Pallas’s Squirrel, its muzzle is blunter than
the Orange-bellied Squirrel and it does not have the bright ventral colours
of either species. The dorsal hairs have two light rings of yellow, giving it a
hoary or grizzled look. In summers and the wet season, there is a pale patch
on the hips that fades when the winter coat appears. This is cream in C.p.
blythi, buff in C.p. stevensi and orangish buff in C.p. lokroides. It has a long
tail, approximately as long as head and body length,127 without a dark tip.
BEHAVIOUR: Found near human habitation where C. erythraeus is not
found.128
DISTRIBUTION: Sikkim, north West Bengal and north–east India (200–
2,000 m129). C.p. lokroides: Sikkim to western Arunachal Pradesh; C.p.
blythi: eastern Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland and lower north–east; C.p.
stevensi: Arunachal Pradesh.
HABITAT: Mid-canopy in riverine and mixed forests and near inhabitation.

COMMON NAME: PALLAS’S SQUIRREL

Family: Sciuridae Latin Name: Callosciurus erythraeus Pallas, 1799130 Subspecies: C.e. eythraeus
Pallas, 1799; C.e. erythrogaster Blyth, 1842; C.e. intermedia Anderson, 1879 Local Names:
Kerketua (Assamese), Thrui (Bugun) Best Seen At: Borajan WLS; Assam; Dampa WLS, Mizoram
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ II/ Uncommon Social Unit: Solitary or pairs Size:
HBL: 21.7–22.7 cm, TL: 20.5– 21.6 cm, Wt: 359–375 g131

DESCRIPTION: A medium-sized olive–brown grizzled squirrel, the

Pallas’s or Red-bellied Squirrel has reddish, maroon, orange–brown or
creamy undersides.132 The paws are coloured agouti on the dorsal side, a
band of agouti may separate the reddish underside into two halves (only in
some forms) and the long olive–brown tail (equal to head and body length)
may have a reddish, black or pale tip. All three subspecies belong to the
C.e. erythraeus group and are similar at sight.
BEHAVIOUR: Nests are built by adult females on the outer branches of
trees and consist of three layers of leafy twigs, smaller twigs, and leaves
and bark linings.133
DISTRIBUTION: Throughout north–east India (500–3,000 m134).
HABITAT: Primary and secondary forests.
Callosciurus erythraeus erythraeus, Borajan WLS, Assam

Callosciurus pygerythrus, Kaziranga NP, Assam

C. pygerythrus, Kaziranga NP, Assam
 C. pygerythrus, Kaziranga NP, Assam

C.e. erythraeus killed for the pot along with forest birds, Nagaland

COMMON NAME: HIMALAYAN STRIPED SQUIRREL

Family: Sciuridae Latin Name: Tamiops macclellandi Horsfield, 1840135 Subspecies: T.m.
macclellandi Horsfield 1840 Local Names: Kerketua (Assamese) Best Seen At: Kaziranga and
Manas NPs, Assam IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ II/ Locally Common Social Unit:
Solitary, pairs or even small groups Size: HBL: 12.9–13.9 cm, TL: 10.83–10.88 cm, Wt. 49.4–51.8
g136

DESCRIPTION: A small, striped squirrel, the Himalayan Striped Squirrel

resembles a Palm Squirrel at first glance except for its smaller size. A closer
look will reveal its shorter nose, smaller, white-tipped ears, and a black
mid-dorsal stripe running from nape to tail and flanked by two indistinct
pale stripes, which are in turn flanked by two broader black stripes and,
finally, by two more pale stripes (these ones more yellow and more distinct,
and running from the base of the tail to the nose in a continuous line). The
venter is buff and there is no trace of red in the sparsely furred grizzled tail,
which is about the length of head and body. Females have three pairs of
mammae.
BEHAVIOUR: Very arboreal in habit, it can freeze in the midst of frenzied
dashes by spreadeagling its body and tail onto a tree trunk.
DISTRIBUTION: Sikkim, northern West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam, Manipur, Mizoram, and Nagaland (up to 2,500 m).137
HABITAT: Deciduous, evergreen and semi-evergreen forests as well as
close to human habitation.138

COMMON NAME: ORANGE-BELLIED HIMALAYAN

SQUIRREL
Family: Sciuridae Latin Name: Dremomys lokriah Hodgson, 1836139 Subspecies: D.l. lokriah
Hodgson, 1836; D.l. macmillani Thomas, 1916140 D.l. pagus Moore, 1956; D.l. motuoensis Cai and
Zhang, 1980141 Local Names: Kerketua (Assamese), Kath beral/Kotha (Bengali), Himali ban
lokharke (Nepalese) Best Seen At: Sikkim and northern West Bengal IUCN/WPA/Indian Status:
Least Concern/ II/ Locally Common Social Unit: Solitary or pairs Size: HBL: 18–19.4 cm, TL:
12.5–13.1 cm, Wt: 172–180 g142

DESCRIPTION: A shy yet common species, this medium-sized forest

squirrel has a chunky body, short limbs, small ears and a pointed snout.
Although a long-nosed squirrel, it has the shortest snout of any Dremomys,
barely longer than Callosciurus and there is no red in the cheeks.143 The
thick and soft hairs of the dorsal coat are brown at the base, yellow in the
middle and black at the tip. The tail is shorter than head and body.144
Females have three pairs of mammae. D.l. lokriah has an agouti, grizzled
with brown, dorsal pelage, bright orange venter and the tail has no red on or
under it. D.l. pagus is like D.l. lokriah except with pale yellow venter. D.l.
motuoensis has a darker, yellowish brown dorsally rather than the agouti
pelage of the other subspecies with the colour extending on to the face. D.l.
macmillani is grizzled greyer on the back, with buff venter and buff patches
behind the ear. It has a black line down its back from nape to tail and a
rufous patch at the base of the tail and inguinal area.
BEHAVIOUR: Nests in tree holes close to the ground.
DISTRIBUTION: D.l. lokriah: in Sikkim, northern West Bengal and
north–east India, north of River Brahmaputra; D.l. macmillani: in north–
east India, south of the River Brahmaputra;145 D.l. pagus: Mizoram; D.l.
motuoensis: perhaps in parts of northern West Bengal and Sikkim.
HABITAT: Forested hills and foothills (900–3,000 m146).

Tamiops macclellandi, Kaziranga NP, Assam

T. macclellandi, Pakke NP, Arunachal Pradesh
 T. maclellandi, Manas NP, Assam

Dremomys lokriah (possibly motuoensis), Lava, northern West Bengal

Dremomys lokriah lokriah, Sikkim

SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON NAME LATIN NAME OCCURRENCE IDENTIFICATION TIPS
PERNY’S LONG- Dremomys pernyi Milne- Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Very similar to D. lokriah (no red on cheeks or under-
NOSED SQUIRREL Edwards, 1867147 Manipur (up to 3,500 m148) tail) with longer snout
ASIAN RED- Dremomys rufigenis Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Similar to D. lokriah and D. pernyi but with a very
CHEEKED rufigenis Blanford, 1878 Nagaland149 long nose, red cheeks and red under-tail
SQUIRREL

COMMON NAME: THREE-STRIPED PALM SQUIRREL

Family: Sciuridae Latin Name: Funambulus palmarum Linnaeus, 1766150 Subspecies: F.p.
palmarum Linnaeus, 1766; F.p. bellaricus Wroughton, 1916151 Local Names: Khar (Marathi),
Annarakannan (Malayalam), Anna pilli (Tamil), Mudu charala udatha (Telugu) Best Seen At:
Southern Indian towns IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Very Common Social
Unit: Solitary or pairs; larger feeding congregations Size: HBL: 12–15 cm, TL: 14–16 cm

DESCRIPTION: The common commensal squirrel of peninsular India, the

Three-striped or Indian Palm Squirrel is small, greyish brown or olive–
brown with pale underparts. It has three pale parallel lines on its back from
head to tail. Its legs are short, and its bushy, black-and-white peppered tail
has a bold, reddish brown mid-ventral line running through it.
BEHAVIOUR: Diurnal, semi-arboreal and adapted to being close to human
settlements.
DISTRIBUTION: Southern India, north to Maharashtra in the west and
Bihar in the east.
HABITAT: Forests, scrub, grasslands, rural and urban habitation.

COMMON NAME: FIVE-STRIPED OR NORTHERN PALM

SQUIRREL
Family: Sciuridae Latin Name: Funambulus pennantii Wroughton, 1905 Subspecies: F.p. pennantii
Wroughton, 1905 Local Names: Gileheri (Hindi), Kath berali (Bengali), Aidu charala udutha
(Telugu), Khiskoli (Gujarati), Pattamusa (Odia) Best Seen At: Northern Indian towns and cities
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ IV/ Very Common Social Unit: Solitary of pairs; larger
feeding congregations Size: HBL: 13–16 cm, TL: 14–16 cm

DESCRIPTION: A ubiquitous squirrel of North India, this is almost a

replica of its South Indian cousin except that it has five pale stripes (instead
of three) on its greyish brown or olive–brown body. The tail does not have a
mid-ventral line and resembles a grey bottlebrush.
BEHAVIOUR: Bold and inquisitive, it has shrill, bird-like calls that it
repeats up to 10 times, accompanied by frenzied tail jerks.
DISTRIBUTION: Northern India (south to Dharwad (Karnataka), east to
Meghalaya). Introduced into north–east India, and Andaman & Nicobar
Islands.152
HABITAT: Urban, rural and forested areas.

COMMON NAME: DUSKY-STRIPED SQUIRREL

Family: Sciuridae Latin Name: Funambulus sublineatus Waterhouse, 1838153 Subspecies: F.s.
sublineatus Waterhouse, 1838154 Local Names: Unknown Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ Unlisted/ Rare Social Unit: Solitary or pairs Size: HBL:
14.4–14.9 cm, TL: 14.7–15.7 cm, Wt: 99–117.5 g155

DESCRIPTION: Smallest, thicker furred and darker than the two

commensal species, F. sublineatus has three pale stripes that are rather dull
and not prominent, and lost in its longer fur. It does not have a red line in
the tail. F.s. sublineatus has narrower (3–5 mm) dark stripes156 between the
pale mid-dorsal and lateral stripes.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown. It is known to be a prey of the green viper.157
DISTRIBUTION: Western Ghats in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
HABITAT: Riparian habitats (especially Ochlandra reed beds) in tropical
evergreen and moist deciduous forests.158

Funambulus palmarum, Kabini, Karnataka

Funambulus pennantii, Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan
 Funambulus sublineatus, Anamudi Shola Kerala

Funambulus tristriatus gnawing at the bark of a branch, Chalakudy, Kerala

SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON LATIN NAME OCCURRENCE IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME
JUNGLE Funambulus tristriatus Western Ghats of Maharashtra, Goa, It has been known to eat both crops such as
STRIPED Waterhouse.1837159 F.t. Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu; F.t. coconut flowers and paddy, and insects, e.g.,
SQUIRREL tristriatus Waterhouse, 1837; tristraitus south and F.t numarius north termites, caterpillars, beetles;162 HBL: 15.8-15.
F.t. numarius Wroughton, of 12°N (700-2,100 m)161 cm, TL: 13.9-14.3 cm, Wt: 139 g163
1916160

COMMON NAME: SILVERY MOUNTAIN VOLE

Family: Muridae Latin Name: Alticola argentatus Severtzov, 1879164 Local Names: Unknown
Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/
Common Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 10–12 cm, TL: 3.9–5.8 cm

DESCRIPTION: Like all Alticola voles the Silvery Mountain Vole is a

resident of high altitudes, and has a longer tail and larger, rounded ears than
most other voles. It is also not specialized to live underground like some
other vole species. Externally, it is a silvery grey vole with dense, velvet fur
and it has a long, bicoloured tail – grey above and white below. Its feet are
whitish.165
BEHAVIOUR: This bold rodent visits homes and campsites. It is often
seen with the Royle’s Pika and Long-tailed Marmots. Its small banana-
shaped droppings are easy to distinguish from the round droppings of pikas.
It lives in rock crevices and does not burrow much.166
DISTRIBUTION: Recorded from Jammu & Kashmir but could have wider
distribution through the Himalayas.
HABITAT: Alpine meadows and rocky screes above the treeline (3,500 m).

COMMON NAME: STOLICZKA’S MOUNTAIN VOLE

Family: Muridae Latin Name: Alticola stoliczkanus Blanford 1875 Local Names: Unknown Best
Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Common
Social Unit: Solitary Size: HBL: 10–12 cm; TL: 3.9–5.8 cm

DESCRIPTION: The Stoliczka’s Vole is similar in appearance to the

Silvery Mountain Vole except that it is a bright rufous brown vole with
white or slaty grey underparts.
BEHAVIOUR: A plateau dweller, it constructs burrow systems that are not
very deep. It breeds twice a year with four or five young in each litter.167
DISTRIBUTION: Northern Ladakh (Jammu & Kashmir) and Sikkim.
HABITAT: Alpine meadows, rocky screes above 3,000 m (prefers areas
near wetlands).

A. stoliczkanus, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

Alticola stoliczkanus, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

A. stoliczkanus, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

 Alticola argentatus, Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir

A. argentatus, Great Himalayan NP, Himachal Pradesh

 Alticola montosa, Hirpora WLS, Jammu & Kashmir

SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON NAME LATIN NAME OCCURRENCE IDENTIFICATION TIPS
TRUE’S OR SUB- Hyperacrius fertilis Jammu & Kashmir (3,000 m Dark alpine vole; short brown dorsal fur; grey and buff
ALPINE True, 1894 upwards) underparts; short, bicoloured tail, grey above and paler below;
KASHMIR VOLE smaller than the Alticola spp.
MUREE OR Hyperacrius wynnei Jammu & Kashmir (1,850– Large, dark brown; grey undersides with no rufous tinges
CONIFEROUS Blanford, 1881 3,050 m)
KASHMIR VOLE
SCULLY’S Alticola blanfordi Jammu & Kashmir; Similar to Silvery Vole but dark brown with rufous tinges
MOUNTAIN VOLE Scully, 1880 Himachal Pradesh
ROYLE’S Alticola roylei Gray, North Kumaon; north Similar to Silvery Vole but darker; brown upper parts and grey
MOUNTAIN VOLE 1842 Himachal Pradesh venter
KASHMIR Alticola montosa Jammu & Kashmir (2,400 – Identical to the Royle’s Mountain Vole, except cranial and dental
MOUNTAIN VOLE True, 1894 3,600 m) differences
WHITE-TAILED Alticola albicauda Pak-occupied Kashmir168 Similar to but duller than A. roylei; no rufous/fawn; shorter tail, a
MOUNTAIN VOLE True, 1894 third of HBL
THOMAS’S Alticola stracheyi Jammu & Kashmir; Very similar to Stoliczka’s Vole; considered to be a subspecies by
SHORT-TAILED Thomas 1880 Himachal Pradesh some
VOLE
SIKKIM Microtus sikimensis Sikkim; Darjeeling, West Small, dark brown forest vole; hair on back tinged yellow, paler
MOUNTAIN VOLE Horsfield, 1841 Bengal (2,500–3,700 m) brown below
PERE DAVID’S Eothenomys Mishmi Hills, Arunachal Forest-dwelling vole; does not make tunnels
RED-BACKED melanogaster Milne- Pradesh
VOLE Edwards, 1871
BLYTH’S Microtus Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir; Long, thick grey coat, lighter below and darker above; fur-tipped
MOUNTAIN VOLE leucurusBlyth, 1863 Kangra, Himachal Pradesh ochre
(>3,500 m)
GREY HAMSTER Cricetulus Gilgit, Jammu & Kashmir Pale grey dorsal; white underparts; short tail; blunt muzzle; large
migratorius Pallas, (1,500–4,000 m) eyes; funnel-shaped ears;169 HBL: 9.4–12.2 cm, TL: 2– 4.5 cm
1773
LADAKH Cricetulus alticola Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir; Resembles C. migratorius but light grey belly, not white.
HAMSTER Thomas, 1917 Himachal Pradesh

COMMON NAME: INDIAN GERBIL

Family: Muridae Latin Name: Tatera indica Hardwicke, 1807 Local Names: Unknown Best Seen
At: Rann of Kutch, Gujarat IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Locally Common
Social Unit: Colonies Size: HBL: 14.3–18.8 cm, TL: 20.5 cm

DESCRIPTION: This gerbil is a large biscuit-coloured rodent with white

venters. It has a peculiar, long tail that is bicoloured (cream along the sides,
and grey on top and bottom), ending in a tuft of blackish brown hairs. It is
distinguished from other gerbils by its long, naked ears and naked soles. It
has long well-developed hind feet that are pale in front. It is more erect in
stature as compared to the jirds.
BEHAVIOUR: It is a nocturnal and very territorial animal; individuals live
in separate burrow systems, within a loose colony. Due to its aggressive
territorial instincts, it can turn cannibalistic and juveniles often fall prey to
such attacks from adults.
DISTRIBUTION: Sub-Himalayan northern India, east to the River Ganges
delta, western and peninsular India.
HABITAT: It inhabits arid and semi-arid regions, including deserts, open,
barren land, grasslands and rocky areas. It is also known from scrub and dry
deciduous forests.170

COMMON NAME: INDIAN DESERT JIRD

Family: Muridae Latin Name: Meriones hurrianae Jordan, 1867171 Local Names: Unknown Best
Seen At: Desert NP, Rajasthan IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Common
Social Unit: Colonies Size: HBL: 11.5–14.3 cm, TL:10–15 cm

DESCRIPTION: The Indian Jird is also called the Desert Gerbil, but it
does not have the long hind feet and erect stature of a gerbil. The tail is
shorter than the head and body length, and it has much smaller ears than a
gerbil. The jird is greyish brown with a peppering of black on the rump and
yellowish grey on the belly. It has long black claws and its incisors are a
characteristic orange.
BEHAVIOUR: Jirds are less aggressive than gerbils and live in colonies
close to each other, their burrows honeycombing the habitat. Their diurnal
nature also distinguishes them from the three nocturnal gerbils.
DISTRIBUTION: Rajasthan and Gujarat.
HABITAT: Uncultivated, barren land with firm soil, including alluvial
plains, clay flats, sandy plains with high bush density.172 Not present in
extensive sand dunes or rocky areas.

COMMON NAME: LITTLE INDIAN HAIRY-FOOTED

GERBIL
Family: Muridae Latin Name: Gerbillus gleadowi Murray, 1886173 Local Names: Unknown Best
Seen At: Desert NP, Rajasthan IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/Uncommon
Social Unit: Colonies Size: HBL: 7.5–10 cm, TL:12–14.5 cm

DESCRIPTION: This gerbil is smaller than the Pygmy Gerbil and can be
told apart by its reddish buff fur. Its eyes look wide open because of the stiff
hair surrounding them, and the soles of its feet are hairy. Both these
characteristics are adaptations for existence in sand dunes.
BEHAVIOUR: In its diet, it is more tolerant of salty vegetation, though it
eats insects and seeds as well. It is nocturnal, gregarious and fossorial in
habit.
DISTRIBUTION: Rajasthan and Gujarat.
HABITAT: Sand dunes (desert/semi-desert areas).

Tatera indica, Someshwara WLS, Karnataka

 T. indica, Rann of Kutch, Gujarat

Meriones hurrianae, Rann of Kutch, Gujarat

Head of Gerbillus species (left) showing characteristic white patches behind

ears; and head of Millaridia gleadowi (right) lacking the same
 M. hurrianae, Tal Chhapar WLS, Rajasthan

SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON LATIN OCCURRENCE IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME NAME
PYGMY Gerbillus Rajasthan and Small; sandy buff upper parts; white venter; tail is buff on top and cream below, with brown
GERBIL nanus Gujarat tuft; white spot behind the eye, extending to back of the ear, characteristic; naked soles and
Blanford, pinkish, naked ears; HBL: 6.5–8.7 cm, TL: 9.5–12.7 cm
1875

COMMON NAME: MALABAR SPINY DORMOUSE

Family: Muridae Latin Name: Platacanthomys lasiurus Blyth, 1859174 Local Names: Unknown
Best Seen At: Kalakkad–Mundanthurai NP, Tamil Nadu IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ I/
Rare Social Unit: Colony Size: HBL: 13–14 cm, TL: 8–10.4 cm

DESCRIPTION: A unique forest mouse with no similar species, the

Malabar Spiny Dormouse has spiny and light brown fur and cream venters.
It has a long and bushy tail. The eyes are large and conspicuous, and the
hind feet are long.
BEHAVIOUR: An arboreal mouse inhabiting tree hollows, it is also called
the Pepper Rat because of its reputation as a pest in pepper plantations.
DISTRIBUTION: Endemic to the Western Ghats, usually below 900 m, in
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka, north to Shimoga.
HABITAT: Evergreen forests.

COMMON NAME: INDIAN LONG-TAILED TREE MOUSE

Family: Muridae Latin Name: Vandeleuria oleracea Bennett, 1832175 Subspecies: V.o. oleracea
Bennett, 1832; V.o. dumeticola Hodgson, 1845 Local Names: Unknown Best Seen At: Nowhere
commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ V/ Uncommon Social Unit: Unknown
Size: HBL: 6–10 cm, TL: 9.5–13 cm

DESCRIPTION: A medium-sized mouse, the Long-tailed Tree Mouse or

Palm Mouse is recognizable by its extremely long tail. Its overall body
colour is fawn or light brown – a brighter shade in specimens found in the
north, and duller one in southern India. It has white or off-white underparts.
BEHAVIOUR: It builds its nest high up in the branches of trees or in tree
holes.
DISTRIBUTION: Almost throughout India except the high Himalayas and
the coast.
HABITAT: Forests as well as near human habitation.

COMMON NAME: LONG-TAILED FIELD MOUSE OR

EUROPEAN WOOD MOUSE
Family: Muridae Latin Name: Apodemus sylvaticus Linnaeus, 1758176 Subspecies: A.s. rusiges
Miller, 1913; A.s. wardi Wroughton, 1908 Best Seen At: Himachal Pradesh IUCN/WPA/Indian
Status: Least Concern/ V/ Locally Common Social Unit: Unknown Size: HBL: 9–10.5 cm, TL: 9.8–
10 cm

DESCRIPTION: A yellowish brown (greyish in juveniles) field mouse, it

looks remarkably like the House Mouse except that on closer examination,
the feet are white and the long tail is bicoloured: brown on top and pale
grey at the bottom. The ventral parts of the body are also grey. The ears are
large, rounded and the same colour as the body. The female has three pairs
of teats. Some specimens have a yellowish spot on the chest, but this is not
frequently seen. The orange-coated upper incisors lack the notch that all
Mus species normally have.
BEHAVIOUR: Nocturnal, burrowing, gregarious creatures, they cache
food in burrows that are often shared by a number of mice.
DISTRIBUTION: Himalayan foothills and the North–East (1,850–3,600
m).
HABITAT: Montane forests, scrub and grassland away from habitation.177
Platacanthomys lasiurus, Vazhachal RF, Kerala

Vandeleuria oleracea, Blue Mountains, Mizoram

 Vandeleuria nilagirica, Madikeri, Kodagu, Karnataka

Apodemus sylvaticus spp (left) incisors showing no notch found in all Mus
sp (right)

Apodemus sylvaticus, Great Himalayan NP, Himachal Pradesh

SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON LATIN NAME OCCURRENCE IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME
PENCIL-TAILED Chiropodomys Bamboo forests of north–east Warm brown or chestnut coat with white underparts and long tail; has
TREE MOUSE gliroides Blyth, India, especially Meghalaya a claw on the fifth digit of both feet that is not present in Vandeleuria.
1846
FUKIEN OR Apodemus Eastern Arunachal Pradesh; Similar to Common Wood Mouse; Darker; with longer tail and ears;
SOUTH CHINA draco178 eastern Assam (high-altitude has four pairs of teats.; darker form with longer tail found in the
WOOD MOUSE Barrett- rainforest: 2,700–3,400 m) Mishmi Hills, Arunachal Pradesh (A.d. orestes).
Hamilton, 1900
MILLER’S Apodemus Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Dark mid-dorsal stripe along body; long tail
WOOD MOUSE rusiges Miller, Pradesh, and Kumaon,
1913 Uttarakhand
WROUGHTON’S Apodemus Ladakh and rest of Jammu & Larger and paler than Miller’s Wood Mouse; may be a subspecies
WOOD MOUSE wardi Kashmir
Wroughton,
1908
NILGIRI LONG- Vandeleuria Kodagu, Karnataka; and Nilgiri, Yellow underparts and a very long tail (up to 13 cm)
TAILED MOUSE nilagirica Tamil Nadu
Jerdon, 1867

COMMON NAME: HOUSE MOUSE

Family: Muridae Latin Name: Mus musculus Linnaeus, 1758 Subspecies: M.m. bactrianus Blyth,
1846; M.m. castaneus Waterhouse, 1843 Local Names: Chooha (Hindi), Eli (Malayalam), Indur
(Bengali), Undir (Marathi/Gujarati) Best Seen At: Homes throughout India IUCN/WPA/Indian
Status: Least Concern/ V/ Abundant Social Unit: Solitary; groups of 2–3 Size: HBL: 5.2–10 cm,
TL: 6–9.5 cm

DESCRIPTION: Mice are small rodents with relatively short outer toes on
the hind feet and unique dentition (first molar enlarged, third molar reduced
or absent). A small creature with a short, blunt nose, the House Mouse
comes in all shades of brown, from sandy to rufous, with slightly whitish or
paler underparts. There is also considerable variation in the colouration of
the different body parts. The tail, which is always longer than the head and
body, may be lighter below or wholly dark, while the feet may be white, or
dark with white toes.
BEHAVIOUR: Common in kitchens and grain storehouses.
DISTRIBUTION: Throughout the country.
HABITAT: Human habitation and agricultural land.
Mus musculus, Madikeri, Kodagu, Karnataka

Mus saxicola, Bengaluru, Karnataka

 Mus booduga, Madikeri, Kodagu, Karnataka

Mus pahari, Eagles Nest WLS, Arunachal Pradesh

 Mus saxicola, Bengaluru, Karnataka

COMMON NAME: LITTLE INDIAN FIELD MOUSE

Family: Muridae Latin Name: Mus booduga Gray, 1837 Local Names: Unknown Best Seen At:
Paddy fields through India IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ V/ Common Social Unit:
Solitary/groups of 2–3 Size: HBL: 5.6–6.3 cm, TL: 5.5–7.5 cm

DESCRIPTION: This is a small greyish brown field mouse, much like a

miniature House Mouse. It differs most markedly in its white underparts
and lower limbs. Its eyes are large and so are the rounded ears. The muzzle
is more pointed than that of the House Mouse.
BEHAVIOUR: Breeding season corresponds with crop season. Burrows
are in flat fields, 30–40 cm deep and air exchange is from the top.179
DISTRIBUTION: Throughout India.
HABITAT: Croplands, paddy fields and dry deciduous forests.180
SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON LATIN NAME OCCURRENCE IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME
BONHOTE’S Mus famulus Bonhote, 1898 Western Ghats Medium-sized, brown dorsal side and light brown venter; tail
MOUSE (around 1,500 shorter than head and body length; dark brown feet; HBL: 9
m). cm, TL: 8 cm
SPINY FIELD Mus platythrix Bennett, 1832 Peninsular India, Large fossorial mouse with short, spiny fur; brown back and
MOUSE up to West white underneath, with a clear demarcating line between the
Bengal in the two; tail is shorter than HBL; HBL: 7.8 –10.4 cm, TL: 5.5 –9
east cm
FAWN- Mus cervicolor cervicolor Hodgson, Sikkim, north– Similar to Little Indian Field Mouse; distinguishable only by
COLOURED 1845 east India, and distribution
MOUSE Andamans
WROUGHTON’S Mus phillipsi Wroughton, 1912 Peninsular India, Similar to Little Indian Field Mouse; distinguishable only by
MOUSE north to distribution
Rajasthan
SIKKIM MOUSE Mus pahari Thomas, 1916 Sikkim, northern Spiny, brown coat with silvery underside and light brown feet
West Bengal,
north–east India
HARVEST Micromys minutus Pallas, 1771 North–east India Small grey–brown mouse with tail longer than HBL; grey
MOUSE undersides
ELLIOT’S Mus saxicola saxicola Elliot, 1839; Scattered Grey–brown with bicoloured tail; bristly hind quarters; HBL:
BROWN SPINY Mus saxicola gurkha Thomas, 1914; locations 7.2–10 cm
MOUSE Mus saxicola sadhu Wroughton, 1911 throughout India
PYGMY FIELD Mus terricolor Blyth, 1851 Throughout India Similar to Mus booduga; HBL: up to 7 cm
MOUSE
COOKE’S Mus cookii cookii Ryley 1914; Mus Western Ghats, Tail as long as head and body; light grey underside; grey–
MOUSE cookii nagarum Thomas, 1921 Assam, Nagaland brown feet; HBL: 7–10 cm
KASHMIR Sicista concolor Buchner, 1892 Gilgit, Jammu & Drab grey–fawn colour; very long, bicoloured tail (one and a
BIRCH MOUSE Kashmir (above half times HBL); birch mice differ from Mus in having longer
3,300 m) tails, elongated hind feet and poorly developed cheek pouches
CRUMP’S Diomys crumpi Thomas, 1917 Assam, Manipur, Dark above, pale below HBL: up to 13 cm
MOUSE Parasnath Hills,
Bihar

COMMON NAME: BAY BAMBOO RAT

Family: Muridae Latin Name: Cannomys badius Hodgson, 1841181 Subspecies: Cannomys badius
badius Hodgson, 1841182 Local Names: Unknown Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ V/ Uncommon Social Unit: Groups of 2–3 Size: HBL:
15–26 cm, TL: 6–7.5 cm

DESCRIPTION: A relatively large rodent with a blunt face and a short

tail, the Bay or Lesser Bamboo Rat has a rufous body. It has dense, soft fur
that hangs down like a cloak over the body. The chunky face is blunt, and
the eyes and ears are small. The female has four teats. The foot pads of this
rat are smooth in comparison to the granular foot pads of the Hoary
Bamboo Rat.
BEHAVIOUR: Has a habit of living under bamboo clumps.183
DISTRIBUTION: In Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, northern
West Bengal,184 and Bihar.185
HABITAT: Montane temperate forests, bamboo patches and secondary
forests.
COMMON NAME: HOARY BAMBOO RAT
Family: Muridae Latin Name: Rhizomys pruinosus Blyth, 1851186 Local Names: Unknown Best
Seen At: Khasi Hills, Meghalaya IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ V/ Uncommon Social
Unit: Groups of 2–3 Size: HBL: 25–35 cm, TL: up to 12 cm

DESCRIPTION: The Hoary Bamboo Rat is much larger than the Bay
Bamboo Rat and has grey fur tipped with white, giving it a grizzled or
hoary appearance. It has granular foot pads and the female has two teats
anteriorly and three posteriorly.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram,
Nagaland and Tripura.187
HABITAT: Foothills and mountainous areas.

Cannomys badius, Valmiki TR, Bihar

 C. badius, Doigurung, Golaghat, Assam

Millardia meltada, Upper Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu

 Rhizomys pruinosus, Numaligarh, Golaghat, Assam

Millardia gleadowi, Rann of Kutch, Gujarat

Millardia gleadowi, Rann of Kutch, Gujarat

COMMON NAME: SOFT-FURRED FIELD RAT

Family: Muridae Latin Name: Millardia meltada Gray, 1837188 Subspecies: None189 Local
Names: Puleli (Tamil) Best Seen At: Through India in open fields IUCN/WPA/Indian Status:
Least Concern/ V/ Common Social Unit: 2–3 Size: HBL: 10–15.5 cm, TL: 9.2–14.4 cm

DESCRIPTION: This is a medium-sized field rat, smaller than the House

Rat, with soft grey fur that is pale but grizzled. It has a pale grey throat,
undersides and feet. Its tail is dark grey on top and paler, almost white
below, with clear annular rings, and is equal to, or shorter than, the head and
body in length. It has very prominently rounded ears and eyes. On close
observation, this rat has eight mammae and four or five pads on its feet
(other rats have six).
BEHAVIOUR: It is a poor burrower and makes its home in cracks in the
soil or embankments.
DISTRIBUTION: Throughout India, north to Himachal Pradesh and east
to West Bengal (0–2,670 m).190
HABITAT: Fields and open country (both rocky ground and alluvial
plains). It prefers cultivated area, gravelly grounds or grassy embankments.
SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON LATIN NAME OCCURRENCE IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME
KONDANA Millardia kondana Endemic to Pune Very similar to, but larger than Millardia meltada; has six plantar pads on soles of
RAT Mishra and Dhanda, Dist., Maharashtra feet
1975
SAND- Millardia gleadowi Gujarat, Rajasthan Smaller, paler, soft-furred rat with a shorter tail; four plantar pads and six pairs of
COLOURED Murray, 1885 mammae; underparts are strikingly white; HBL: 8–11 cm, TL: 6.5–9.5 cm
RAT

COMMON NAME: WHITE-TAILED WOOD RAT

Family: Muridae Latin Name: Madromys blanfordi Thomas, 1881 Local Names: Unknown Best
Seen At: Parambikulam and Peechi WLSs, Kerala IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ V/
Uncommon Social Unit: Solitary; groups of 4–5 Size: HBL: 15–19.5 cm, TL: 20.2–23.5 cm

DESCRIPTION: This is an adaptable forest and scrub rat that is easily told
apart by its bicoloured tail. It is brownish grey dorsally and paler ventrally,
almost approaching white, but what sets it apart from other rats is the brown
tail, which two-thirds of the way down is covered with long white hairs.
The genus Madromys is separated from Rattus because of anatomical
features such as a longer, incisive foramen. They also have a long fifth toe
and six plantar pads on each hind foot, but this is not visible in the field.
Their incisors are reddish orange and prominently grooved.
BEHAVIOUR: This rat builds its nest in tree hollows in southern forests,
but adapts to building its nest in boulder crevices, too.
DISTRIBUTION: Southern and central India, north to Madhya Pradesh,
and east to Bihar and West Bengal.
HABITAT: Deciduous and evergreen forests, scrub jungle and open
country. It is remarkably adapted to rocky country, even in forests.

COMMON NAME: INDIAN BUSH RAT

Family: Muridae Latin Name: Golunda ellioti Gray 1837 Local Names: Unknown Best Seen At:
Keoladeo Ghana NP, Rajasthan IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ V/ Common Social
Unit: Solitary; 4–5 Size: HBL: 11.4–15.5 cm, TL: 9.3– 12.5 cm

DESCRIPTION: Slightly smaller than the House Rat, the Indian Bush Rat
differs from the former in many ways. A reddish or yellowish brown rodent,
it has a long tail that is brownish above and yellowish grey below. The head
is vole-like and eyes are large. Its ears are very large and conch-like, and
hairy on the outside, a unique characteristic of this rat, as are the naked and
black soles of its hind feet.
BEHAVIOUR: It burrows under thick bush and makes characteristic
pathways from its burrow to its foraging ground. It is arboreal as well as
terrestrial by nature and often raids crop fields and coffee estates.
DISTRIBUTION: Peninsular India, east to western Assam (north of River
Brahmaputra).
HABITAT: Grassland and scrub forests.

Cremnomys cutchicus, Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh

Madromys blanfordi, Upper Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu

Golunda ellioti, Keoladeo Ghana NP, Rajasthan

 G. elliotti, Banashankari, Bengaluru, Karnataka

SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON LATIN NAME OCCURRENCE IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME
KUTCH Cremnomys cutchicus Found discontinuously in India Similar to Madromys blanfordi except for tail, which is
ROCK RAT Wroughton, 1912 brown and paler underneath
ELLERMAN’S Cremnomys elvira Ellerman, Endemic to Salem district in Smallest of the three Cremnomys rats
RAT 1947 Eastern Ghats

COMMON NAME: MANIPUR RAT

Family: Muridae Latin Name: Berylmys manipulus Thomas, 1916 Subspecies: B.m. manipulus
Thomas, 1916 Local Names: Unknown Best Seen At: Unknown IUCN/WPA/Indian Status:
Unlisted/ V/ Uncommon Social Unit: Unknown Size: HBL: 13.5–18.5 cm, TL: 14.5–19.5 cm.

DESCRIPTION: A burrowing rat of hilly forests, the Manipur Rat has a

dense, coarse, brown pelage with a paintbrush texture. It can be recognized
at close quarters by its very white incisors, with only a trace of yellow. The
tail, which is as long as the head and body, has a short white tip. It has large
hind feet for burrowing.
BEHAVIOUR: The Manipur Rat is not an agricultural pest.
DISTRIBUTION: South of River Brahmaputra, with a concentration from
Karbi Anglong, eastwards to Upper Assam, Nagaland and Manipur.
HABITAT: Hills and foothills, oak and evergreen forests, scrub, and
riverine meadows.
 Niviventer fulvescens, Siju WLS, Meghalaya

Niviventer confucianus, Fakim WLS, Nagaland

 Berlemys bowersi, extralimital

COMMON NAME: CHESTNUT RAT

Family: Muridae Latin Name: Niviventer fulvescens Gray, 1847 Local Names: Unknown Best Seen
At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ V/ Common Social Unit:
Unknown Size: HBL: 14–16 cm, TL: 21–24 cm

DESCRIPTION: India is home to half a dozen species of soft, densely

furred, high-altitude rats that are assigned to the genus Niviventer. Nearly all
of them are richly coloured on the back, while the underside is white or
very pale. The tail is slightly longer than the head and body. Some of the
species have spines in the fur, but none of them have guard hairs. The
Chestnut Rat has chestnut–brown, tending to reddish upper parts and clear
white underparts. Its tail is bicoloured with a dark tip and flexible (N.
niviventer has an unfurred tip and holds its tail rather erect). It has a brown
stripe on its feet that continues up to the fingers and toes. It has small
auditory bullae.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: Foothills of the Himalayas, from the western Himalayas
to Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.
HABITAT: Evergreen, coniferous and deciduous forests and forests
edges.191
SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON NAME LATIN NAME OCCURRENCE IDENTIFICATION TIPS
BOWER’S RAT Berylmys bowersi Anderson Assam (south of River Large (23–30 cm); flat spines in grey coat; pale
1897 Brahmaputra), Meghalaya orange incisors and two pairs of pectoral teats
KENNETH’S Berylmys mackenziei Assam (south of River Smaller rat (19–25 cm) with shorter tail (80 per cent
WHITE-TOOTHED Thomas 1916 Brahmaputra), Nagaland, of head and body).
RAT Manipur
MILLARD’S Dacnomys millardi Thomas Northern West Bengal, Assam, Large grey–brown rat with brown tail; very large
LARGE- 1916 Arunachal Pradesh molars
TOOTHED RAT
HUME’S Hadromys humei Thomas Assam, Manipur Speckled grey–brown rat with fawn or ochraceous
MANIPUR BUSH 1886 undersides
RAT
EDWARD’S Leopoldamys edwardsi Northern West Bengal, Garo Large rat(21–25 cm) with very long brown tail; sleek
NOISY RAT Thomas 1882 Hills, Arunachal Pradesh, dull brown fur.
Nagaland
SMOKE-BELLIED Niviventer eha Wroughton, Coniferous and rhododendron Brownish above with a smoky grey belly; long,
RAT 1916 forests in Sikkim and West bicoloured tail
Bengal
MISHMI RAT Niviventer brahma Thomas, High altitudes of Arunachal A slightly larger version of the Smoke-bellied Rat.
1914 Pradesh
WHITE-BELLIED Niviventer niviventer High altitudes of the Himalayas Small rat, with reddish upper parts (duller than
RAT OR Hodgson, 1836 Niviventer from Jammu & Kashmir to Niviventer fulvescens); white underparts; long
HIMALAYAN niviventer lepcha Sikkim and northern West bicoloured tail with naked tip; darker chest patch in
NIVIVENTER Wroughton, 1916 Bengal Sikkim
LANG BIAN RAT Niviventer langbianis Arunachal Pradesh (needs Brownish grey uppers; creamy underparts; completely
Robinson and Kloss, 1922 confirmation) dark tail; large bullae
TENNASERIM Niviventer tenaster Thomas, Mizoram (needs confirmation) Large dark brown rat with white underside; bicoloured
RAT 1916 tail with slight tuft at end
CHINESE OR Niviventer confucianus Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland Large rat; cinnamon brown uppers; whitish or creamy
CONFUCIAN Milne-Edwards, 1871 underparts; long bicoloured tail with white tip
WHITE- BELLIED
RAT

COMMON NAME: LARGE BANDICOOT RAT

Family: Muridae Latin Name: Bandicota indica Bechstein, 1800192 Subspecies: B.i. indica
Bechstein, 1800; B.i. nemorivaga Hodgson, 1836;193 B.i. malabarica Shaw, 1801194 Local Names:
Mothi ghoos (Marathi), Musa (Odia), Pedda pandi kokku (Telugu), Perchelli (Tamil), Perichazhi
(Malayalam) Best Seen At: South India IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ V/ Very
Common Social Unit: Groups of 2–3 Size: HBL: 21–34 cm, TL: 16.7–34 cm

DESCRIPTION: A large dark brown, nearly black, rat with coarse fur, at
first sight it provokes revulsion in most people. It is dark overall, as both the
feet and tail (longer than head and body) are black, and the underside is
only slightly greyer compared with the rest of the body.
BEHAVIOUR: It lives in a single burrow system that has large openings
on the surface.
DISTRIBUTION: B.i. indica: throughout India. Except in the north–east,
northern West Bengal eastwards (B.i. nemorivaga) and Western Ghats (B.i.
malabarica).
HABITAT: Alongside human habitation and farms, except in deserts and
mountains.
COMMON NAME: LESSER BANDICOOT RAT OR INDIAN
MOLE RAT
Family: Muridae Latin Name: Bandicota bengalensis Gray and Hardwicke, 1833195 Subspecies:
B.b. bengalensis Gray, 1835; B.b. wardi Wroughton, 1908196 Local Names: Chhoti ghoos
(Marathi), Gatua musa (Odia), Pandi kokku (Telugu), Varappu eli (Tamil) Best Seen At: Kolkata,
West Bengal IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ V/ Very Common Social Unit: Two to
three Size: HBL: 14–25.5 cm, TL: 11.3–20.2 cm

DESCRIPTION: Only slightly smaller than B. indica, this is identified by

its browner rather than black colouration, and a dark tail that is shorter than
its head and body length. Its undersides are greyish; its face is more
rounded, with a broad muzzle and round, pinkish ears. In hand, it is seen to
have up to 18 mammae, while the Large Bandicoot only has twelve.
BEHAVIOUR: Its burrow system has up to a dozen openings, normally
plugged with loose soil. It grunts often and is a very aggressive rat.
DISTRIBUTION: Throughout India (up to 3,500 m). B.b. wardii: only in
Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.
HABITAT: Near human habitation and crop fields, pasture, wasteland,
vegetation near wetlands or waterbodies, and inundated paddies.

Bandicota indica, Kottayam, Kerala

 B. indica, extralimital

Bandicota bengalensis, Theralu, Kodagu, Karnataka

Nesokia indica, Kolkata, West Bengal

N. indica, Kolkata, West Bengal

 N. indica, Kolkata, West Bengal

COMMON NAME: SHORT-TAILED BANDICOOT RAT

Family: Muridae Latin Name: Nesokia indica Gray, 1830 Subspecies: N.i. indica Gray, 1830 Local
Names: Unknown Best Seen At: North Indian farms IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ V/
Common Social Unit: Twos and threes Size: HBL: 15.3– 21 cm, TL: 9.7–13 cm

DESCRIPTION: A smaller, dull brown or pale brown rat with a lighter

grey underside. Its chunky body is emphasized by a short dark tail. In hand,
one can see that it has only eight mammae.
BEHAVIOUR: Crop damage by this rat is immense because of its
behaviour of feeding on the underground parts of the plants.
DISTRIBUTION: North Indian plains (Punjab, Delhi, Rajasthan, Haryana,
Bihar, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh).
HABITAT: Cultivated fields and gardens in urban areas, plantations, scrub,
grasslands and pastures..197

COMMON NAME: HOUSE RAT OR BLACK RAT

Family: Muridae Latin Name: Rattus rattus Linnaeus, 1758 Subspecies: R.r. rattus Linnaeus, 1758;
R.r. arboreus Horsfield, 1851; R.r. bhotia Hinton, 1918; R.r. brunneusculus Hodgson, 1845; R.r.
bullocki Roonwal, 1948; R.r. gangutrianus Hinton, 1919; R.r. narbadae Hinton, 1918; R.r. rufescens
Gray, 1837; R.r. tistae Hinton, 1918; R.r. wroughtoni Hinton, 1919 Local Names: Chooha (Hindi),
Eli (Malayalam/Tamil), Indur (Bengali), Musa (Odia), Pedda eluka (Telugu), Uchi (Manipuri), Undir
(Marathi/Gujarati) Best Seen At: Abundant all over India IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least
Concern/ V/ Abundant Social Unit: Groups of 2–3 Size: HBL: 14– 20 cm; TL: 12.6–30 cm

DESCRIPTION: The most common rat in the world, the House or Black
Rat, variously known as the Roof or Ship Rat, is a medium-sized dark
brown rat with many distinct subspecies. The two most common subspecies
are a greyish–buff-ventered form that occurs in homes and urban areas (R.r.
rufescens) and a white-ventered forest form (R.r. wroughtoni). Darker forms
that almost verge on black are also found, such as R.r. rattus. Some forms in
the hills such as R.r. tistae and R.r. gangutrianus have longer, softer fur in
winter, while the common village rat of the Kashmir Valley (R.r. vicerex)
has a tail that is shorter than its head and body. The House Rat is
characterized by flat spines in its dorsal fur, a feature shared by five other
species.
BEHAVIOUR: Very adaptable; highly varied.
DISTRIBUTION: In homes and forests throughout India.
HABITAT: Found in all habitats in India except cold deserts.198

Rattus norvegicus, Narcondom Island, Andaman & Nicobar Islands

Rattus andamanensis, Meghalaya

 Rattus satarae, Kutta, Kodagu, Karnataka

Rattus rattus rufescens, Upper Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu

COMMON NAME: BROWN RAT

Family: Muridae Latin Name: Rattus norvegicus Berkenhout, 1769 Local Names: Same as House
Rat Best Seen At: Ports IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ V/ Common Social Unit:
Groups of 2–3 Size: HBL: 17–25 cm, TL:15.5–20 cm
DESCRIPTION: Also called the Norway Rat or Sewer Rat, this is a large,
dark brown rat with lighter underparts and feet, small ears, and a tail that is
always shorter than its head and body. It has a blunter muzzle in comparison
with the common House Rat or Black Rat and, like the Himalayan rats,
does not have spines in its fur. The Brown Rat is more terrestrial and less of
a climber than the House Rat, and frequents wet areas as well.
BEHAVIOUR: Females tend to forage in several short bursts, while males
forage in fewer and longer periods.199
DISTRIBUTION: Coastal states and islands.
HABITAT: Sewers, ports along the coast, banks of rivers and forests.
SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON LATIN OCCURRENCE IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME NAME
WHITE- Rattus nitidus Himalaya, from Kumaon Small commensal hill rat; dark grey–brown sleek fur above, dull grey or
FOOTED Hodgson, eastwards through the pale below; dark mid-dorsal patch or line; pale feet; dark tail longer than
HIMALAYAN 1845 North–East HBL; six pairs of mammae; gracile molars; HBL: 13–20 cm; TL: 14–19.8
RAT cm
HIMALAYAN Rattus Himalayan foothills, from Shaggy brown fur; wide rostrum; chunky molars
RAT pyctoris200 Jammu & Kashmir to
Hodgson, Arunachal Pradesh
1845
INDO-CHINESE Rattus Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Grey–brown upper parts; white underparts; long tail; large body202
FOREST RAT andamanensis Meghalaya, Andaman &
Blyth, 1860 Nicobar Islands201
RANJINI’S RAT Rattus Endemic to Large body; long, slender hind feet; large claws; long molar rows203
ranjiniae Thiruvananthapuram Dist.,
Agarwal and Kerala
Ghosal, 1969
SAHYADRIS Rattus Western Ghats (Satara, Golden brown back; white undersides; very long tail204
FOREST RAT satarae Maharashtra; Coorg,
Hinton, 1918 Karnataka; Nilgiris, Tamil
Nadu)
ORIENTAL Rattus North–east India; introduced Similar to, but smaller than, the House Rat; has less coarse fur; white/buff
HOUSE RAT tanezumi to Andaman & Nicobar venter; mono-coloured tail equal to HBL; smaller hind feet
Temminck, Islands
1844
MILLER’S Rattus burrus Endemic to Little and Great Similar to Malaysian Wood Rat
NICOBAR RAT Miller, 1902 Nicobars, and Trinket
Islands, Andaman &
Nicobar Islands
ANDAMANS Rattus stoicus Endemic to Andaman Large rat; tail slightly longer than in the Nicobar Rat; underside of tail is
ARCHIPELAGO Miller, 1902 Islands lighter
RAT
CAR NICOBAR Rattus Endemic to Car Nicobar Very large rat, around 27.5 cm; undersides are pale grey; tail is two-thirds
RAT palmarum Islands the body size
Zelebor, 1869
Bats
INDIAN BATS AT A GLANCE
NUMBER OF SPECIES 123
LARGEST Large Flying Fox
SMALLEST Indian Pygmy Bat
MOST COMMON Indian Flying Fox (some Microchirpoterans)
MOST ENDANGERED Peter’s Tube-nosed and Wroughton’s Free-tailed Bat
Activity

Niche Occupancy
 Fulvous fruit bats at a cave roost, Dholpur, Rajasthan

Skulls and Dentition in Bat Families

Pteropodidae
Rhinopomatidae

Molossidae

MAYUKH CHATTERJEE (ADAPTED FROM BATES & HARRISON,

1997)

Emballonuridae

WHAT ARE BATS?

The only mammals capable of true flight, bats are found globally except in
Antarctica. The order Chiroptera to which they all belong was traditionally
divided into two suborders: the frugivorous, large Megachiroptera, and the
insectivorous, small Microchiroptera, but recent advances in phylogenetics
profoundly change this division. Bats roost in caves, on trees, in rock
crevices, or in disused buildings during the day, emerging only at night to
take to the sky. When roosting, they hang upside down as a preference,
although a few families cling to rocky surfaces like geckos on a wall. Most
bats find their way around by echolocation, which is a technique of
producing high-frequency sounds that bounce back to them off obstacles.
Bats fly by paddling through the air with their limbs and wings. Most bats
are difficult to identify while in the air although a combination of their tail,
muzzle and ears, the geography, time of sighting, and the type of flight are
pointers to identification. True species identification, however, can be done
based on the length of the forearm, dental and cranial characteristics.

Fruit bats: All fruit bats are medium to large in size, have furred bodies,
long snouts, simple nose and ears, and no tail (or a small tail). Pteropus
comprises five large fruit bats of which the Indian Flying Fox is found in
the mainland and the other four in the Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Eight
other fruit bats are also found in India.

Mouse-tailed bats: Small insectivorous bats, found in the arid parts of

India, the three mouse-tailed bats are characterized by a long and slender
mouse-like tail that hangs partially free from the thigh membrane. They
have ears with a simple tragus, joined at the forehead by a membrane, and a
nose pad with the beginnings of a nose leaf.

Tomb or Sheath-tailed bats: The six tomb bats, found all over India, have
a tail that is loosely attached to the thigh membrane but emergent at the tip.
These small, strong-smelling bats have doglike heads, with squarish
muzzles, no nose leaf, simple ears and eyes that shine in the dark.

Free-tailed bats: The free-tailed bats do not have a nose leaf but have
wrinkled lips, medium-sized, fleshy ears and a simple tragus. These bats
have a thick tail that is mostly free of the membrane.
False vampires: The two Indian species of this carnivorous bat family are
tailless, with tall oval ears, a distinct, bifurcated smaller 'inner ear' or tragus,
and a simple nose leaf. The easiest way of telling them apart is by the shape
of their nose leaf.

Fruit bats: Indian Flying Fox hanging by its claws, Bengaluru, Karnataka;
Note large size, furry body and long muzzle
Free-tailed bats: Wrinkle-lipped Free-tailed Bat, extralimital; Note thick
fleshy ears and wrinkled lips

Tomb bats, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh; Note tip of tail emerges from
membrane
 Mouse-tailed bat, Bhuj, Gujarat; Note long, naked tail

Evolutionary tree of Indian bats (Adapted from Ingi et al., 2011)

Skulls and Dentition in Bat Families

Megadermatidae

Rhinolophidae

Hipposideridae
Vespertilionidae

MAYUKH CHATTERJEE (ADAPTED FROM BATES & HARRISON,

1997)

Horseshoe bats: The 17 species of Indian horseshoe bats have a complex

nose leaf, with a horseshoe-shaped projection surrounding the nostrils. They
can be told apart by the shape of the sella (flap over the horseshoe
projection) and lancet (the erect, triangular back of the nose leaf).

Leaf-nosed bats: Closely related to horseshoe bats, the 14 species of Indian

leaf-nosed bats are small, insect-eating, cave-roosters. They have a
complicated nose leaf comprising anterior, intermediate and posterior layers
arranged vertically above each other, and supplementary leaflets arranged
below in whorls. The posterior of the nose leaf is rounded and without the
triangular projection found in horseshoe bats.

Evening bats: There are many kinds of small insect-eating bats grouped
together as evening bats. The Tube-nosed Bats, for example, have
prominent tubular nostrils that project beyond the muzzle. They are small
bats with dense woolly or wavy fur and relatively broad wings.
The three long-eared Indian bat species have long (as long as head and
body), oval ears set close together on the forehead and a long tail enclosed
in a membrane that is equally long.
Pipistrelles and serotines are small- or medium-sized bats with broad
wings, a groove between the nostrils, and swellings on either side of the
muzzle. They lack a nose leaf and exaggerated ears. As a group they exhibit
the same rapid, erratic flight and are the first bats out in the evening. The
tragus in the ear is short and blunt. Yellow House Bats are similar to
serotines, with smaller ears and a pointed tragus.
 The Flat-headed or Bamboo Bats are two serotine-like bats with a broad
and flattened head gently sloping to the nostrils. These bats have fleshy
pads on the thumb and the sole of the foot, making them look club-footed.
Despite being among the smallest bats (the size of a large moth), the
Painted Bats are the easiest to recognize due to their distinctive coat.
However, despite their bright colours, these bats are excellently
camouflaged in dead banana leaves or other ingenious hiding places such as
abandoned nests of weaver birds.

Evening bats: Myotis horsfieldii, extralimital Note broad wings, small size
and thick fur
 False vampire bat roosting head down, Achanakmar WLS, Chhattisgarh;
Note tall, oval ears, simple nose leaf and no tail

Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bat, Channapatna, Karnataka; Note very large ears,

ornate nose leaf without lancet

Rufous horseshoe bat, Parambikulam WLS, Kerala; Note complex

horseshoe on nose leaf with lancet and large ears
 Evening bat Scotophilus heathii, extralimital; Note: some evening bats are
brightly coloured

Evening bat Plecotus auritus, extralimital; Note: this genus has long ears
IDENTIFYING BAT FAMILIES
FAMILY TAIL EARS MUZZLE
FRUIT BATS Small or absent Simple, no tragus Simple; no nose leaf.
MOUSE-TAILED Thin and very long, naked, with a major part Membrane joins ears above forehead; Nasal ridge; no nose leaf
BATS free of membrane tragus present
TOMB BATS Tip emerges from middle of membrane Variable; tragus present Simple; no nose leaf
FALSE Absent Large, joined over forehead; tragus Long, erect nose leaf
VAMPIRES bifid
HORSESHOE Enclosed in membrane Large,; no tragus Complex nose leaf
BATS
LEAF-NOSED Enclosed in membrane Large; no tragus Complex nose leaf; no sella
BATS and lancet
FREE-TAILED Thick, free of membrane Thick and fleshy; small tragus Broad, no nose leaf, wrinkled
BATS lips
EVENING BATS Long, enclosed in membrane Simple; tragus present Simple; no nose leaf

(Adapted from Bates & Harrison, 1997)

Characteristic Tail Types in Bats

MAYUKH CHATTERJEE (Adapted from Bates & Harrison, 1997)

Measuring Bats

Right wing of Myotis (ventral view)

Left wing of Rhinolophidae (ventral view)

Useful Contacts for Bat Conservation

BANDANA AUL
Bombay Natural History Society bandana_aul@rediffmail.com
www.bnhs.org
DR PAUL BATES
The Harrison Institute pjjbates2@hotmail.com www. harrisoninstitute.org

LOCOMOTION
The distinguishing feature of bats, for even any layperson, is the fact that
they fly. Some of them, like free-tailed bats roost high, drop down and then
flap away; others flutter weakly while most bats fly strongly. To aid this, the
forelimbs of bats have been modified with a long and thin humerus, a
reduced ulna and a large patagium or skin-like membrane that stretches
from shoulder to ankle. It also extends between the hind legs (as the
uropatagium) and encloses the tail fully or partially. This unique structure
assists the bats in achieving true flight, unique to mammals.
In caves or on the ground, bats can crawl using their hind feet, and wrists
and thumb of the forefeet. Pteropus and other fruit bats can move around
trees using the claw on their thumbs. Tylonycteris has a unique adaptation of
sole pads to slide inside bamboo culms. Taphozous and Rhinopoma can
cling onto cave walls and crawl like geckos, using their hind claws, thumbs
and wrists.

DIET AND FORAGING

Popularly, bats are broadly divided into Megachiroptera and
Microchiroptera. While these names suggest large and small bats, the
essential difference is in their diets. Frugivorous bats feed by perching on
trees and gnawing on fruit. The Flying Fox Pteropus giganteus feeds on
fruits and flowers, often in cropland and large orchards, although wild fruits
are also eaten.1 One study showed that their guano had 70 per cent of
banyan seeds, showing their key role in plant dispersal.2 Cynopterus sphinx
favours banana and guava fruits and is considered a useful pollinator.
Insectivorous bats hawk insects on the wing, or pick them off foliage or the
ground and can eat up to a third of their body weight, or hundreds of insects
a day.3 A few, e.g., false vampires, are carnivorous and eat small mammals
and reptiles, and the Fulvous Fruit Bat4 catches fish.

VOCALIZATION AND COMMUNICATION

Bats may well be among the most vocal mammals but most sounds are not
audible to the human ear. Some clicks, screeches and calls can be heard but
most, including complex courtship calls, are ultrasonic in frequency. Bats
use their highly complex auditory systems and ornate nose leafs (that are
used for echolocation) to capture such sounds. These vocalizations are used
to find their way about, to avoid obstacles, to detect small prey and also to
communicate with each other. Scientists are recognizing individual auditory
signatures in bat vocalizations that could be rudimentary forms of language.
Chemical signalling is also used by bats to recognize roost-mates. Bats
produce sebum and other chemicals from various glands on their heads,
faces and wing sacs. Olfaction is also critical for fruit-eating bats to locate
ripe fruits and flowers. Bats can also see very well, and use touch and sight
to add to their auditory and chemical communication.

Megaderma spasma shows large ears and specialized nose leaves,

characteristic of an echolocation-dependent creature, Interview Island,
Andaman & Nicobar Islands
 Lesser Mouse-tailed Bat vocalizing, Channapatna, Karnataka

Cynopterus sphinx eating a banana flower, Kumarakom, Kerala

 Pteropus faunulus, a fruit-eater, Cliffs Bay, Andaman & Nicobar Islands

Rhinolophus rouxii, dark phase (left) and normal phase (right),

Parambikulam WLS, Kerala

Social Organization of Bats

Vespertilionidae

Molossidae

Pteropodidae

Rhinopomatidae

Emballonuridae
Megadermatidae

Rhinolophidae

Hipposiderida

MAYUKH CHATTERJEE (ADAPTED FROM BATES & HARRISON,

1997)

REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES
Bats generally have a single young each year, although twins are known
from Eonycterus spelaea, Tylonycteris pachypus and Pipistrellus spp. Bat
young vocalize constantly after birth for the mothers to recognize them in
large roosts. Some species carry them around while foraging whereas others
leave them at the roost. In about three months, bats are independent and
they reproduce normally late in their first year or into their second year.
Pteropusgiganteus is known to mate noisily with both sexes 'screaming' and
the male displaying by fanning and stretching its wings towards the female.
Mating takes place normally with the male gripping the female by the scruff
of the neck by his teeth and pinning her down with his thumbs before
copulation.5 They have a single young between April and early June.6
Cynopterus sphinx is known to have 'nests' in palm trees where males guard
females in September-October and then again in February-March when
sexual activity is at a peak.7 The gestation period is between 115125 days
and if the bat has two sets of offspring in a year, then two sides of the
female genitalia are utilized!8
 Microchiropterans have several different ways of segregation during the
breeding period, with some forming maternal female-only roosts, others
including a few males in them, and yet others living in sexually
unsegregated gatherings.

THREATS AND CONSERVATION

Bats are threatened by habitat loss, persecution and diseases, many of which
are not even known to humans. Bat roosts are often disturbed and bats
smoked or driven away, especially when they roost in man-made
constructions e.g., Taphozous nudiventris, which used to be relatively
common at monument sites but seems to be declining due to persecution.9
Bats are driven off largely due to the guano, which defiles the structure, or
their odour which is unpleasant for tourists. Fruit bats get electrocuted by
high-tension power lines if they roost on them. A new threat to bats is wind-
energy mills that kill bats that get caught up in their blades.
Fruit bats, besides their intrinsic values, are useful to humans in
pollinating several plants.10 Trees like Pongamiapinnata are known to be
primarily bat-pollinated. The role of bats as regenerators of the forest is,
therefore, critical. Similarly Microchiropterans are an efficient and cheap
pest-control mechanism for the country.11 Only 27 Indian bats are listed as
threatened by IUCN; however, only two bats are protected in the country
(Latidenssalimalii and Otomops wroughtoni).
Even more worrying, all fruit bats are listed as Vermin in Schedule V of
the Indian Wildlife Protection Act. This includes Pteropus faunulus, which
is a threatened bat. An urgent review of these schedules is needed to correct
this. India also needs to conduct more long-term and detailed studies of its
bats.
 Short-nosed Fruit Bat roosting singly, Hailakandi, Assam

Holding a bat the right way: Hipposideros fulvus, Peechi, Kerala

Measuring a radio metacarpal pouch in a tomb bat, Nagbhid, Maharashtra

Greater Horseshoe Bat with pup in flight, extralimital

 Painted Bat with pup, Pambady, Kerala

Fulvous Fruit Bats roosting in a huddle, Dholpur, Rajasthan

COMMON NAME: INDIAN FLYING FOX

Family: Pteropodidae Latin Name: Pteropus giganteus Brunnich, 178212 Subspecies: P.g.
giganteus Brunnich, 1782; P.g. leucocephalus Hodgson, 1835 Local Names: Badur (Bengali),
Chamgadhad(Hindi), Chamachidu (Gujarati) Vavval(Malayalam) Best Seen At: All over India, e.g.,
Tughlak Road, New Delhi lUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ V/ Abundant13 Social Unit:
Roosts of hundreds and, occasionally, even thousands of bats14 size: HBL: 19.8-30 cm (male
larger15), FA: 15.2-18.3 cm16

DESCRIPTION: Possibly the best known bat in India, the Indian Flying
Fox or Indian Fruit Bat has a chestnut-brown head with large black, pointed
ears and huge black wings that it often folds over its tan or orange belly.17
The back is blackish brown with scattered pale hair. On folded wings, the
rich colouration of the body can be fully covered, making the bat look dark.
It has a long hairy snout with visible nostrils. P.g. leucocephalus of the
Himalayas has longer and softer fur on its body.
BEHAVIOUR: The Indian Flying Fox constantly grooms itself. It hangs
upside down to defecate and sprinkles urine on itself to keep cool in
summer. The guano is a greyish black pellet, elongated and measuring 1-2 x
0.5 x 0.8 cm and can be seen in large agglomerations under roosts.18 It
usually flies out about half an hour after sunset to feed. It takes in only the
juice and discards chewed fruit; citrus fruits are not part of its diet. The bat
flies over water and drinks before feeding.
DISTRIBUTION: P.g. leucocephalus: in the Himalayas, including Jammu
& Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam, Manipur; P.g. giganteus: through peninsular India.19
HABITAT: Large trees near human habitation along roads and avenues,
near cropland and near water bodies.

COMMON NAME: BLYTH’S OR BLACK-EARED FLYING

FOX
Family: Pteropodidae Latin Name: Pteropus melanotus Blyth, 1863
Subspecies: P.m. melanotus Blyth 1863; P.m. tytleri Dobson, 1874 Local
Names: Tayam (Tribal dialect in Kamorta and Car Nicobar), Tukeinyal
(Channaih Payuh) best seen at: Car Nicobar Island, Andaman & Nicobar
Islands IuCn/WPA/Indian status: Vulnerable/ V20/ Locally Common
social unit: 10-15 to several hundreds, even thousands21 size: 17-40 cm,
FA: 14.8-16.3 cm22

DESCRIPTION: The Blyth's Flying Fox is a medium-sized island bat with

variable fur that ranges from dark brown – almost black in the Andaman
Islands – to a golden tawny mantle, and pale brown venter and head in the
Nicobars. The backs of both forms are sprinkled with grey hairs. Males tend
to be more orange—buff than females, which are darker.
BEHAVIOUR: It is not easily disturbed when at roost.23
DISTRIBUTION: Great Nicobar, Camorta, Katchal, Tilangchong, South
Andaman, Little Andaman and North Andaman islands.24
HABITAT: It prefers roosting in mangroves and riverbank vegetation, or
near the coast.
Pteropus melanotus tytleri, Camorta, Andaman & Nicobar Islands

Pteropus faunulus, Camorta, Andaman & Nicobar Islands

P.g. giganteus male with wings unfolded, Bengaluru, Karnataka
Pteropus giganteus giganteus male, Wayanad, Kerala
 P.g. giganteus with wings closed, Bengaluru, Karnataka

Pteropus hypomelanus, Narcondom Island, Andaman & Nicobar Islands

SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON LATIN NAME OCCURRENCE IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME
ISLAND Pteropus hypomelanus Narcondom and Barren Islands (Andaman & Small; dark greyish brown; short and broad
FLYING Temminck, 1853 (P.h. Nicobar Islands) ears; FA: 13.5—14.5 cm
FOX geminorum)
NICOBAR Pteropus faunulus Miller, Car Nicobar, Camorta, Trinket, Katchal, Medium-sized brownish (grey—brown in one
FLYING 1902 Nancowry (Andaman & Nicobar Islands)25 form); triangular ears; FA: 11.0–11.6 cm
FOX
LARGE Pteropus vampyrus26 Car Nicobar, Andaman & Nicobar Islands27 Largest bat in India; blackish brown fur; long,
FLYING Linnaeus, 1758 pointed ears; FA: 19.5–20.9 cm
FOX

COMMON NAME: FULVOUS FRUIT BAT

Family: Pteropodidae latin name: Rousettus leschenaultii Desmarest,
182028 subspecies: R.l. leschenaultii Desmarest, 1820 best seen at:
Kanheri Caves, Mumbai, Maharashtra IUCN status/ WPa/Indian status:
Least Concern/ V/ Common social unit: Commonly 2–3, occasionally in
hundreds; up to 10,00029 size: HBL: 11.1–14.7 cm, FA: 7.5–8.6 cm, TL:
0.8–2.1 cm30

DESCRIPTION: A robust fruit bat with well-developed hind legs, it has

fine, fulvous brown fur on the back and a grey belly. Older bats have grey
flanks and males have longer yellowish throat hair. The face is robust and
the flared nostrils are separated by a groove. The ears are long and simple.
It has a short tail. Their eyes reflect orange in torchlight.31
BEHAVIOUR: Very noisy and smelling of fermented fruit, they roost in
mixed colonies although juveniles roost singly. They can be easily disturbed
and fly out en masse.
DISTRIBUTION: Throughout India except deserts and high mountains
(up to 1,372 m).32
HABITAT: It inhabits caves, tunnels, disused buildings and, rarely, trees.33

COMMON NAME: GREATER SHORT-NOSED FRUIT BAT

Family: Pteropodidae latin name: Cynopterus sphinx Vahl, 179734
subspecies: C.s. sphinx Vahl, 1797;35 C.s. scherzeri Zelebor, 186936 best
seen at: Common throughout India IuCn/ WPa/Indian status: Least
Concern/ V/ Very Common social unit: commonly 3–4; up to 2537 size:
HBL: 7.6–11.3 cm, FA: 6.4–7.9 cm, EL: 1.75–2.4 cm38
DESCRIPTION: The soft, silky and brown-furred Short-nosed Fruit Bat is
half the size of the Indian Flying Fox. It has large, fur-lined coffee–brown
ears with pale borders and dark brown wings marked by pale ‘fingers’. The
first and second digits have two claws. A small tail, half free of the
membrane between the thighs, is characteristic. Males are orange on the
chin, sides of the chest, belly and thighs, whereas females have a paler grey
belly and a tawny brown collar. The bats found in northern India are larger
than those found in the south.39 C.s. scherzeri is dark with very short ears,
long forearms and a small skull.40
BEHAVIOUR: The male constructs a tent from stems to shelter itself,
females and pups during the breeding season.
DISTRIBUTION: C.s. sphinx: throughout India except deserts and the
high Himalayas; C.s.scherzeri: in the Nicobar Islands41(sea level to 400
m).42
HABITAT: Gardens,43 farmland and forests, although it roosts on roofs as
well.

COMMON NAME: LESSER SHORT-NOSED FRUIT BAT

Family: Pteropodidae latin name: Cynopterus brachyotis Muller, 183844
subspecies: C.b. brachysoma Dobson, 1871 45 C.b. brachyotis Muller, 1838
best seen at: Nowhere commonly seen IuCn/WPa/Indian status: Least
Concern/ V/ Occasional46 social unit: Small groups size: HBL: 8–9.6 cm,
FA: 5.7–6.3 cm, EL: 1.4–1.8 cm47

DESCRIPTION: Similar in appearance to its slightly larger cousin, C.

sphinx, it can be identified by its much shorter ears with a slight or no pale
border and wings with darker ‘fingers’.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: C.b. brachyotis in Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh and West
Bengal;48 C.b. brachysoma in the Andamans and central Nicobar group of
islands.49
HABITAT: Largely a hill forest species;50 also found near human
habitation (up to 1,500 m).
 Rousettus leschenaultii, Madurai, Tamil Nadu

Cynopterus sphinx sphinx male, Kumarakom, Kerala

Cynopterus sphinx female, Cliffs Bay, Andaman & Nicobar Islands

C.s. sphinx, Thrissur, Kerala

 Cynopterus brachyotis brachysoma, Cliffs Bay, Andaman & Nicobar
Islands

Cynopterus brachyotis brachyotis, Parambikulam WLS, Kerala

COMMON NAME: LESSER DAWN BAT

Family: Pteropodidae Latin Name: Eonycteris spelaea Dobson, 187151 Subspecies: E.s. spelaea
Dobson, 1871 Best Seen At: Muroor Caves, Karnataka IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/
V/ Occasional Social Unit: Large colonies52 Size: HBL: 9.2–13 cm, FA: 6.6–
7.8 cm, TL: 1.15–2.3 cm53

DESCRIPTION: Slightly smaller than the Fulvous Fruit Bat, the Dawn
Bat has a thinner muzzle and has a claw only on its thumb and not on the
second digit as in the former. Unlike Cynopteran bats,54 it does not have
‘finger’ markings on its uniform brown wings nor does it have the pale ear
borders. Fur is dark brown dorsally and mottled, greyish brown below.
Males have a slight ruff. It has a long, protrusible tongue with papillae at its
pointed tip.55
BEHAVIOUR: It makes a clapping noise with its wings as it flies.56
DISTRIBUTION: Patchy distribution in Uttarakhand, Andaman
archipelago, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Manipur,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Sikkim.57
HABITAT: Largely cave-roosting; also known to roost in village hut
roofs.58

COMMON NAME: SALIM ALI’S FRUIT BAT

Family: Pteropodidae Latin Name: Latidens salimalii Thonglongya, 197259 Best Seen At: Kardana
Coffee Estate, Chinnamannur, Tamil Nadu Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered/ I/ Rare Social Unit: Low hundreds60 Size: HBL: 10.2–
10.9 cm, FA: 6.6–6.9 cm61

DESCRIPTION: The Salim Ali’s Fruit Bat has short, soft and dark brown
dorsal fur. The fur is sparse on the belly and throat. There is a marked
grizzling on the shoulders, back, and between the eyes and cheek. The
lower back, elbows and forearms are chestnut. Its ears are brown ovals
without a hairy or pale fringe. It is tailless externally, thus distinguishing it
from the more common Greater Short-nosed Fruit Bat.
BEHAVIOUR: Partial to eating Ficus racemosa figs.62
DISTRIBUTION: Periyar TR, Kerala, and Kalakkad–Mundanthurai TR
and Kardana Coffee Estate, High Wavy Mountains, in Tamil Nadu.63
HABITAT: Cave dwelling in montane, broadleaved forests interspersed
with plantations.64
COMMON NAME: BLANFORD’S FRUIT BAT
Family: Pteropodidae Latin Name: Sphaerias blanfordi Thomas, 189165 Subspecies: S.b. blanfordi
Thomas 1891 Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/
V/ Rare Social Unit: Unknown Size: HBL: 8.4–8.9 cm, FA: 5.1–5.6 cm66

DESCRIPTION: A small, uniformly brown bat which superficially

resembles Cynopterus and Megaerops, the Blanford’s Fruit Bat differs in
not having a tail and from the latter in having pale fringes on its brown ears,
two buff spots on its chin, and unique triangular incisors (visible only with
the bat in hand). The fur is long and extends onto the arms and legs.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: Uttarakhand, West Bengal, Sikkim, Mizoram and
Arunachal Pradesh.
HABITAT: Lower montane bamboo forests;67 may also frequent pine and
oak forests.

Eonycteris spelaea female, Baratang Island, Andaman & Nicobar Islands

Latidens salimalii, Meghamalai WLS, Tamil Nadu
 Sphaerias blanfordi, extralimital

Megaerops niphanae, extralimital

Macroglossus sobrinus, extralimital

All bats on this page are tailless.

COMMON NAME LATIN NAME OCCURRENCE IDENTIFICATION TIPS
RATNAWORABHAN’S FRUIT BAT Megaerops Darjeeling in West Bengal, Manipur, Tailless; greyer than other fruit bats;
niphanae Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh olive belly; FA: 5.2–6.3 cm
Yenbutra and
Felten, 198368
GREATER LONG-NOSED FRUIT Macroglossus Sikkim, northern West Bengal, and Small; clay-brown back; buff sides;
BAT OR HILL FRUIT BAT sobrinus sobrinus north–east India Small or no tail;
K. Andersen, 1911 FA: 4.4–5.2 cm

COMMON NAME: GREATER MOUSE-TAILED BAT

Family: Rhinopomatidae Latin Name: Rhinopoma microphyllum Brunnich, 178269 Subspecies:
R.m. kinneari70 Wroughton 1912 Best Seen At: Tughlakabad Fort, Delhi IUCN/WPA/Indian
Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Abundant Social Unit: Groups of 1–10, at times up to 3,00071
Size: HBL:6–8.4 cm, FA: 6.4–7.5 cm, TL: 5–7.7 cm72

DESCRIPTION: Grey–brown in colour, the Greater Mouse-tailed Bat has

short fur only on its head and on the upper part of its body. Its face, ears,
membranes, wings and the lower part of the body are naked. It has a long
tail that is shorter than its forearm, unlike the Lesser Mouse-tailed Bat,
which has a tail that is longer than the forearm. Its nose has valves that can
close.73
BEHAVIOUR: Greater Mouse-tailed Bats live in sexually segregated
colonies with a typically strong smell and despite being used to bright light,
if disturbed, crawl along the roof in a crab-like fashion before taking flight.
A late evening bat, its flights are usually weak and fluttering, with frequent
glides. It migrates seasonally.
DISTRIBUTION: Dry, arid parts of India including deserts, predominantly
in Gujarat, Rajasthan, parts of Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Also
recorded in Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and Tamil
Nadu.74
HABITAT: It lives in caves, tunnels, disused buildings and crevices75
(108–1,169 m).76

COMMON NAME: LESSER MOUSE-TAILED BAT

Family: Rhinopomatidae Latin Name: Rhinopoma hardwickii Gray, 1831 Subspecies: R.h.
hardwickii Van Cakenberghe and de Vree, 1994 Best Seen At: Qutab Minar environs, Delhi
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Common Social Unit: Groups of 1–10, at
times up to 1,50077 Size: HBL: 5.5–7.3 cm, FA: 5.2–6.4 cm, TL: 5.6–7.8 cm78
DESCRIPTION: A smaller version of the Greater Mouse-tailed Bat, the
Lesser Mouse-tailed Bat has a relatively longer tail and a distinct grey belly.
Its feet are also more delicate than its larger cousin’s.
BEHAVIOUR: The colonies of both these bats are characterized by a very
strong, pungent odour. This late-evening bat, too, has a weak flight.
DISTRIBUTION: This species has a wider distribution than R.
microphyllum, which is more adapted to desert conditions, but the two have
a range that overlaps. Recorded from the states of Delhi, Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Arunachal Pradesh,
Karnataka, Odisha, Bihar and West Bengal.79
HABITAT: It lives in caves, tunnels, disused buildings, and crevices in
semi-arid regions (108-923 m).80
SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON NAME LATIN NAME OCCURRENCE IDENTIFICATION TIPS
SMALL MOUSE- Rhinopoma muscatellum Two doubtful records from Tamil Nadu Smallest tail (5.6 mm), longer than
TAILED BAT Thomas, 1903 and Rajasthan forearm
(4.9 cm); FA: 5.2–6.4 cm

Rhinopoma microphyllum kinneari, Patwon ki Haveli, Jaisalmer, Rajasthan

R.m. kinneari, Patwon ki Haveli, Jaisalmer, Rajasthan
 Rhinopoma hardwickii hardwickii, Gokarna, Karnataka

R.h. hardwickii, showing naked tail, Jambughoda WLS, Gujarat

 R.h. hardwickii, Channapatna, Karnataka

COMMON NAME: EGYPTIAN FREE-TAILED BAT

Family: Molossidae Latin Name: Tadarida aegyptiaca E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 181881
Subspecies: T.a. thomasi Wroughton, 1919 Best Seen At: Aurangabad, Maharashtra
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted / Common Social Unit: Variable; from ones
and twos to roosts of hundreds82 Size: HBL: 6.1–7.7 cm, FA: 4.6–5.2 cm, TL: 3.3–683

DESCRIPTION: A medium-sized bat, smaller than Otomops but bigger

than C. plicata, the Egyptian Free-tailed Bat is buff to dark brown dorsally
and paler on the venter. Like all free-tailed bats it has a short, thick tail free
of the membrane. The ears are large and fleshy, directed downwards, and
the lips are wrinkled. It has hairy feet. It can be distinguished from C.
plicata and Otomops by its colour and the ears not being connected.
BEHAVIOUR: Noisy bats, and roosts with unpleasant smell.
DISTRIBUTION: Southern and western India from Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and one
record from West Bengal.
HABITAT: Varied. From moist to arid areas, cliffs, boulder overhangs,
crevices in old buildings, rock faces and caves.

COMMON NAME: WRINKLE-LIPPED FREE-TAILED BAT

Family: Molossidae Latin Name: Chaerephon plicata Buchannan, 180084 Subspecies: C.p. plicata
Buchannan, 1800 Best Seen At: Khandwa, Madhya Pradesh IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least
Concern/ Unlisted/ Common Social Unit: Groups of 200–50085 sometimes up to the thousands86
Size: HBL: 6.6–7.1 cm, FA: 4.3–5 cm, TL: 3–4.4 cm87

DESCRIPTION: The smallest free-tailed bats in India, they resemble T.

aegyptiaca and can be distinguished easily by the fact that their ears are
connected with a membrane on top of their head like Otomops. The fur is
dark brown on the dorsal side and paler on the venter.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: Widely distributed. Recorded from scattered locations
in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Goa,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and Meghalaya.
HABITAT: Mostly in caves, and also in deserted buildings and rock
crevices.

COMMON NAME: WROUGHTON’S FREE-TAILED BAT

Family: Molossidae Latin Name: Otomops wroughtoni Thomas, 191288 Best Seen
At: Barapade Caves, Talewadi, Karnataka IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Data Deficient/ I/ Common
Social Unit: Groups of 2-1589 Size: HBL: 8.7–9.9 cm, FA: 6.3–6.7 cm, TL: 4.1–4.9 cm90

DESCRIPTION: A large, glossy, chocolate–brown species, this bat has

large ears that are connected to each other with a membrane, on top of its
head. It has a distinct grey collar on a lighter brown ventral surface and a
small gular sack in both sexes. Hairs that resemble a small moustache are
present beneath circular nostrils.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: Known from two locations in Barapade Caves in
Belgaum Dist. of Karnataka and from Phrang Karuh Cave, near Nongtrai
village, Shella confederacy, Meghalaya.91
HABITAT: Ceilings of caves in moist and semi-evergreen forested valleys
and plateaus (150–800 m).

Tadarida aegyptiaca, extralimital

 Chaerephon plicata, extralimital

Otomops woroughtoni, Barapade Caves, Karnataka

 C. plicata, extralimital

O. wroughtoni, Barapade cave, Karnataka

SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON NAME LATIN NAME OCCURRENCE Identification tips
EUROPEAN FREE-TAILED Tadarida teniotis Rafinesque, Kurseong, West Doglike muzzle; deeply furrowed upper lip; large
BAT 1814 Bengal ears;
HBL: 7.4–9 cm, FA: 5.8–6.3 cm

COMMON NAME: LONG-WINGED TOMB BAT

Family: Emballonuridae Latin Name: Taphozous longimanus Hardwicke, 1825 Subspecies: T.l.
longimanus Hardwicke 182592 Best Seen At: Khandala Caves, Elephanta Island, Maharashtra
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Locally Common Social Unit: Variable;
generally in the hundreds93 Size: HBL: 7.3–8.6 cm, FA: 5.5–6.2 cm, TL: 2–3 cm94

DESCRIPTION: A small, brown bat in which, like all sheath-tailed bats,

the tail is enclosed, emerging from the inter-femoral membrane. Males are
reddish brown, have a gular pouch and a circular gland on the chest but no
beard. Females are darker with no gular pouch or gland.95 Wings are
attached to ankles. The third metacarpal is longer than the forearm.96
BEHAVIOUR: It comes out in the early evening. In non-breeding season,
sexes live separately; females in large groups, males in smaller groups. Has
a strong smell.
DISTRIBUTION: Widespread.97
HABITAT: Caves, ruins, trees and even roofs of houses.

COMMON NAME: NAKED-RUMPED TOMB BAT

Family: Emballonuridae Latin Name: Taphozous nudiventris Cretzschmar, 1830–31 Subspecies:
T.n. kachensis Dobson, 1872 Best Seen At: Step wells in Ahmedabad IUCN/WPA/Indian Status:
Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Locally Common Social Unit: In tens or hundreds Size: HBL: 9–10.5 cm,
FA: 7.1–8 cm; TL: 2.2–4.6 cm98

DESCRIPTION: Like the Long-winged Tomb Bat, this bat has a gular
pouch and a circular gland on the chest but no beard. However, unlike the
former, both sexes possess the gular sac. Its lower back and abdomen are
not hairy but bare. Wings are attached to the tibia.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: Recorded from arid areas in peninsular India.99
HABITAT: Varied, from crevices in rock to deserted buildings, step wells
and tombs.

COMMON NAME: BLACK-BEARDED TOMB BAT

Family: Emballonuridae Latin Name: Taphozous melanopogon Temminck, 1841100 Subspecies:
T.m. melanopogon Temminck, 1841 Best Seen At: Champa Baoli, Mandu, Madhya Pradesh
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Locally Common Social Unit: Groups
ranging from 200 to 4,000 Size: HBL: 6.7–8.6 cm, FA: 6–6.8 cm

DESCRIPTION: This bat is easily recognized by its hairy chin (that turns
black or dark brown in males). Its back is pale buff, dark brown or black,
but the ventral side is always paler. Its hair appears grizzled because of
paler hair bases. The female has a more reddish hue. Unlike other bats, its
wings are attached to the shanks and not the ankles.
BEHAVIOUR: Roosting in unisex colonies, this bat is easily disturbed and
even flies out in daylight. The beard gets wet with secretion during the rut.
DISTRIBUTION: All over India except north–west, north–east and the
high Himalayas.101
HABITAT: Hilly terrain and well-watered forests, caves, ruins and even
urban areas.102
 Taphozous longimanus, extralimital

Taphozous nudiventris, Bhuj, Gujarat

Taphozous melanopogon, female (left) and male (right), Mahadev Pahadi,

Nagbhid, Maharashtra
Taphozous melanopogon, Mandu, Madhya Pradesh

Taphozous nudiventris, Bhuj, Gujarat

 Saccolaimus saccolaimus, extralimital

Taphozous theobaldi, extralimital

Taphozous perforatus, Bhuj, Gujarat

SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON NAME LATIN NAME OCCURRENCE IDENTIFICATION TIPS
EGYPTIAN TOMB BAT Taphozous perforatus Arid regions of Gujarat, Rajasthan Mousy grey body; buff throat with beard;
E. Geoffroy, 1818 gular pouches;
FA: 5.4–6.3 cm
THEOBALD’S TOMB Taphozous theobaldi Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka Grey body; bare wings; black beard in males;
BAT Dobson, 1872 no gular sack;
FA: 7.1–7.6 cm
POUCH-BEARING Saccolaimus saccolaimus Patchy locations in India, including Brown dorsal and grey venter; bearded and
TOMB BAT Temminck, 1838 the Andamans with gular sack;
FA: 6.3–6.8 cm

COMMON NAME: GREATER FALSE VAMPIRE

Family: Megadermatidae Latin Name: Megaderma lyra E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1810
Subspecies: M.l. lyra E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1810103 Best Seen At: Kanheri Caves, Mumbai,
Maharashtra IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Common Social Unit: Groups of
15–20, occasionally single and up to several hundreds104 Size: HBL: 7–9.5 cm,105 FA: 5.6– 7.1 cm

DESCRIPTION: This is a large, well-built mouse-grey bat with paler

undersides and an almost whitish belly. Its wings are broad and the
membranes are greyish black. The large translucent greyish ears are fringed
with white hair and are joined for at least two-thirds of their length. The
face is hairy, but the snout is naked and it has a tall nose leaf that resembles
two ovals stuck together. The base of the nose leaf is rounded, the edges are
straight and it extends well above the line of the eyes. Juveniles are darker
than adults.
BEHAVIOUR: A late and silent flier,106 it emerges an hour after sunset.
The genus is unique among Indian bats in eating vertebrates (frogs, rodents
and small birds) as well as insects. Females carry the young till they are
almost adult-sized.
DISTRIBUTION: Through India, except the high Himalayas and deserts.
HABITAT: Very varied habitat from caves to forests and human dwellings.

COMMON NAME: LESSER FALSE VAMPIRE

Family: Megadermatidae Latin Name: Megaderma spasma Linnaeus, 1758107
Subspecies: M.s. horsfieldii Blyth, 1863 Best Seen At: Barapade Caves, Karnataka
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Locally Common108 Social Unit: One to 27
individuals109 normally hanging singly, sometimes in small groups Size: HBL: 5.4–8.1 cm,110
FA: 5.4–6.2 cm

DESCRIPTION: As the name suggests, the Lesser False Vampire is a

smaller version of the Greater False Vampire. It is deep brown unlike the
grey of the former, and with a pale belly. Its nose leaf, by which it can be
distinguished from M. lyra, is shorter (does not extend too far above the line
of the eyes) and broader, convex-sided and heart-shaped at the base. Its tall
ears are thicker and also not attached as high up as the former, being
attached towards the base.
BEHAVIOUR: The Lesser False Vampire flies very close to the ground111
and may fly for the first few hours after dark without hunting, starting to
feed only as the night progresses. It often rests in under rocks and bushes
between its flapping flight.
DISTRIBUTION: Discontinuous distribution in the Western Ghats (Goa,
Maharashtra,
Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu), Andaman Islands and lowland humid
forests of north–east India (Assam, Mizoram and West Bengal).112
HABITAT: Prefers a more moist habitat than the Greater False Vampire.
Roosts in caves,113 but also in disused houses, wells, and also occasionally
in tree hollows.

Megaderma spasma, Mudumalai WLS, Tamil Nadu

Megaderma lyra, Bhuj, Gujarat
M. lyra, Jambughoda WLS, Gujarat
M. spasma, Parambikulam WLS, Kerala
M. lyra (left) and M. spasma (right), comparison of nose leaves, extralimital

COMMON NAME: GREATER HORSESHOE BAT

Family: Rhinolophidae Latin Name: Rhinolophus ferrumequinum114 Schreber, 1774
Subspecies: R.f. proximus K. Andersen, 1905; R.f. tragatus Hodgson, 1835 Best Seen
At: Mussoorie, Uttarakhand; Manali, Himachal Pradesh IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/
Unlisted/ Locally Common Social Unit: Large groups at roost; solitary when in flight; Size: HBL:
5.6–7.9 cm,115 FA: 5.4–6.2 cm

DESCRIPTION: A medium-sized grey–brown bat with long and dense as

opposed to woolly fur, this bat can be told apart from the Intermediate and
Rufous Horseshoe Bats by the shape of its connecting process and by the
length of the forearm and the third metacarpal, once in hand.116 The Greater
Horseshoe Bat has large ears and a narrow horseshoe. The sella (Type 1) is
narrow and so is the pointed lancet, which has concave sides. R.f. proximus
is a lighter grey–brown while R.f. tragatus is almost chestnut–brown on top.
The undersides of both are pale buff.
BEHAVIOUR: It flies in a slow fluttering manner soon after dark. In the
roost, these bats hang together in clusters, but once in the air they turn
solitary feeders.117
DISTRIBUTION: R.f. proximus in Jammu & Kashmir; R.f. tragatus in
Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, northern West Bengal, Sikkim, Arunachal
Pradesh and Nagaland. Recorded from 923 m118 to 3,500 m119 although in
India recorded from 1,900–2,000 m.120
HABITAT: Caves and ruins in wooded montane countryside.

COMMON NAME: RUFOUS HORSESHOE BAT

Family: Rhinolophidae Latin Name: Rhinolophus rouxii Temminck, 1835 Subspecies: R.r. rouxii
Temminck, 1835 Best Seen At: Mahabaleshwar, Khandala and Kanheri Caves, Maharashtra
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Very Common121 Social Unit: Colonies of
several hundred (particularly females)122 and few individuals (especially males, during parturition
and lactation times for females)123 Size: HBL: 4.2–6.6 cm,124 FA: 4.6–5.2 cm

DESCRIPTION: A medium-sized bat, the Rufous Horseshoe Bat is similar

to the Greater and the Intermediate Horseshoe Bats. The pelage is dense,
long and not woolly. Pelage colour is very variable ranging from orange to
rufous in winter and dull brown or greyish in the summer. The ears are
larger than the Intermediate Bat but smaller than the Greater Horseshoe
Bat.125 The nose leaf is similar to the Greater Horseshoe Bat (sella Type 1)
but slightly broader and the lancet is varied in shape.126
BEHAVIOUR: Emerges soon after sunset and flies below canopy level,
sometimes low at bush level and for first hour hawks on the wing. Then it
rests for an hour or two, and sits on a branch and swoops on insects in a
‘flycatcher-like’ style.127
DISTRIBUTION: R.r. rouxii in peninsular India. Recorded in Himachal
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka,
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal, Sikkim,
Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland and Meghalaya.
HABITAT: Caves, tunnels,128 wells, temples and tree hollows129 in wet,
humid forests.130

Lateral views of seven sellae types of Rhinolophus found in India

 Rhinolophus ferrumequinum, extralimital

Rhinolophus ferrumequinum, Mussoorie, Uttarakhand

 Rhinolophus affinis, extralimital

Rhinolophus rouxii, Srirangapatna, Karnataka

Note, dull brown summer fur

 R. rouxii, Tikona Fort, near Pune, Maharashtra; Note orange winter fur

Rhinolophus affinis, extralimital

SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON LATIN NAME OCCURRENCE IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME
INTERMEDIATE Rhinolophus Uttarakhand, North Bengal, Arunachal Brown to orange bat, similar to R. ferrumequinum but
HORSESHOE affinis Horsfield, Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Andaman & smaller with smaller ears; slightly larger than R. rouxii;
BAT 1823 Nicobar Islands HBL: 5.6–7.9 cm,
FA: 5.0–5.5 cm
CHINESE Rhinolophus Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, northern Concave side of lancet and shorter second phalanx of
RUFOUS sinicus K. West Bengal, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, third digit; HBL: 4.3–5.2 cm,
HORSESHOE Andersen, Nagaland, Meghalaya FA: 4.5–4.9 cm
BAT 1905131
COMMON NAME: LESSER HORSESHOE BAT
Family: Rhinolophidae Latin Name: Rhinolophus hipposideros Bechstein, 1800132 Subspecies:
R.h. midas K. Andersen, 1905 Best Seen At: Bumzov Caves, Jammu & Kashmir133
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Occasional Social Unit: Large groups134
Size: HBL: 3.8–4.8 cm,135 FA: 3.5–4 cm

DESCRIPTION: A buff-brown or grey bat, the Lesser Horseshoe Bat is

small and has a unique sella (Type 2) with a tall, narrow, triangular lancet. It
has a long tail in comparison to other horseshoe bats.
BEHAVIOUR: Not known.
DISTRIBUTION: Found only in Jammu & Kashmir (1,231–1,846 m136).
HABITAT: Caves, ruins and outhouses.137

COMMON NAME: BLYTH’S HORSESHOE BAT

Family: Rhinolophidae Latin Name: Rhinolophus lepidus Blyth, 1844 Subspecies: R.l. lepidus
Blyth, 1844; R.l. monticola K. Andersen 1905 Best Seen At: Ranthambore NP, Rajasthan
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Locally Common Social Unit: Singly, small
groups, or even in a few hundreds138 Size: HBL 3.5–5.4 cm, FA: 3.7–4.1 cm139

DESCRIPTION: A grey brown bat, small but larger than most bats that
have a Type 3 sella, the Blyth’s Horseshoe Bat differs from the Least
Horseshoe Bat in having a more broadly rounded off sella and a longer
forearm and tibia.
BEHAVIOUR: It is known to urinate on intruders.140 Flies with a low and
slow flight.141
DISTRIBUTION: Throughout India from 246–2,338 m.142 R.l. lepidus in
peninsular India and R.l. monticola in the Himalayas.
HABITAT: Generally a forest bat, found roosting in forts, caves, tunnels
and ruins.143 Also found in deserts.144

COMMON NAME: BIG-EARED HORSESHOE BAT

Family: Rhinolophidae Latin Name: Rhinolophus macrotis Blyth, 1844 Subspecies: R.m. macrotis
Blyth, 1844 Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status:
Least concern/Unlisted/Rare Social Unit: Unknown Size: HBL: 3.9–4.8 cm,145 FA: 3.9–4.6 cm
DESCRIPTION: This small bat has a buff-coloured woolly coat and large
ears. The undersides are paler. Its nose leaf differs from that of other bats of
this family in having a projecting sella (Type 5).
BEHAVIOUR: Emerges at twilight146 and flies with a rapid flight.
DISTRIBUTION: A few records in Uttarakhand, northern West Bengal,
Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya.147
HABITAT: Caves and abandoned mines in hilly regions.148

Nose leaf of Rhinolophidae: lateral (left) and anterior (right)

Rhinolophus hipposideros, extralimital

Rhinolophus lepidus, Jodhpur, Rajasthan
 Rhinolophus macrotis, extralimital

Rhinolophus macrotis, extralimital

Rhinolophus pusillus, extralimital

Rhinolophus siamensis, Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya

SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON LATIN OCCURRENCE IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME NAME
COMMON LATIN OCCURRENCE IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME NAME
THAI Rhinolophus Krem Bylliat and Krem DiengJem Caves, Jaintia Small, light brown horseshoe bat; large ears; broad
HORSESHOE siamensis149 Hills, Meghalaya nose leaf; lower lip has three vertical grooves; the
BAT Gyldenstolpe, connecting process is broadly rounded off and hairy;
1917 FA: 4.2 cm
LEAST Rhinolophus R.p. blythi in Uttarakhand, northern West Bengal, Small bat, dark brown above,
HORSESHOE pusillus Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Andhra pale below with a Type 3
BAT Temminck, Pradesh, Odisha and Karnataka; R.p. gracilis in triangular sella; HBL: 3.0–4.0 cm, FA: 3.4–3.7 cm
1834 Kerala150
LITTLE Rhinolophus Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya A very small cinnamon–brown
NEPALESE subbadius (pale below) bat; Type 3 sella;
HORSESHOE Blyth, 1844 HBL: 3.5–3.7 cm, FA: 3.3–3.5 cm
BAT
ANDAMAN Rhinolophus North, Middle, South and Little Andamans, Small but larger than other similar- looking bats with
HORSESHOE cognatus K. Andaman & Nicobar Islands151 large sella (Type 3) and tall nose leaf; FA: 3.7–4.0 cm
BAT Andersen,
1906

COMMON NAME: LESSER WOOLLY HORSESHOE BAT

Family: Rhinolophidae Latin Name: Rhinolophus beddomei K. Andersen, 1905152 Subspecies:
R.b. beddomei K. Andersen, 1905 Best Seen At: Periyar NP, Kerala IUCN/WPA/Indian Status:
Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Common Social Unit: Single, in pairs, or up to three individuals153 Size:
HBL: 6.5–7.5 cm, FA: 6.1–6.4 cm154

DESCRIPTION: A medium-sized horseshoe bat, very similar to the Large

Woolly Horseshoe Bat except in size, the Lesser Woolly Horseshoe Bat is
clad in dark grey tending to black, dense, woolly fur.155 It has a broad, dark
horseshoe divided into two halves by a median parting. The sella is narrow
and broadly rounded off below.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: Southern India; recorded from Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala156 (sea level to 800 m).157
HABITAT: Tree hollows, caves, deserted buildings, and low-altitude dry
and moist tropical forests.158

COMMON NAME: PEARSON’S HORSESHOE BAT

Family: Rhinolophidae Latin Name: Rhinolophus pearsonii Horsfield, 1851 Subspecies: R.p.
pearsonii Horsfield, 1851 Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status:
Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Occasional Social Unit: Unknown Size: HBL: 5.1–6.4 cm,159 FA: 5–5.4
cm

DESCRIPTION: This medium-sized bat is chestnut-brown and has soft,

woolly fur. Juveniles are greyer than adults. It has a broad horseshoe, which
is divided into two halves by a groove.
BEHAVIOUR: It uses perches to sally forth from to capture insects.
DISTRIBUTION: Northern West Bengal, Sikkim, Manipur, Meghalaya,
Uttarakhand,160 Assam and Mizoram.161 Altitudes vary from 610 m162 to
1,846 m.163
HABITAT: Caves in montane forests.164

COMMON NAME: DOBSON’S HORSESHOE BAT

Family: Rhinolophidae Latin Name: Rhinolophus yunanensis Dobson, 1872165 Subspecies: R.y.
yunanensis Dobson, 1872 Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status:
Unlisted/ Unlisted/ Rare Social Unit: Unknown
Size: HBL: 6–6.8 cm, FA: 5.4–5.9 cm

DESCRIPTION: This species is similar in appearance to the Pearson’s

Horseshoe Bat, but larger in size. Its pelage and ears resemble the Pearson’s
and like the former, its nose leaf is broad and bisected, and its sella does not
have lappets (flaps) on either side.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: Recorded at two sites in Arunachal Pradesh and
Mizoram,166 and recently, also from the Andaman archipelago and Little
Andaman Island.167
HABITAT: Unknown.
Rhinolophus yunanensis, Interview Island, Andaman & Nicobar Islands

Rhinolophus beddomei, Periyar NP, Kerala

Rhinolophus pearsonii, extralimital

Rhinolophus yunanensis, Wandoor village, South Andman Island, Andaman
& Nicobar Islands

Rhinolophus trifoliatus, extralimital

Rhinolophus luctus, extralimital

SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON LATIN NAME OCCURRENCE IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME
COMMON LATIN NAME OCCURRENCE IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME
WOOLLY Rhinolophus luctus R.l. perniger in Uttarakhand, northern West Similar externally to
HORSESHOE Temminck, 1835 Bengal,168 Assam, Meghalaya and R. beddomei; larger; dark nose leaf; HBL: 8.5–9 cm,
BAT FA: 7–8 cm
Nagaland169
TREFOIL Rhinolophus Darjeeling in northern West Bengal and Smaller than other woolly bats; woolly buff-brown
HORSESHOE trifoliatus Assam bat with narrow sella; pale nose leaf; HBL: 6.2–6.5
BAT Temminck, 1834 cm,
FA: 5–5.3 cm
MITRED Rhinolophus Endemic to Bihar170 Dark brown dorsal, paler below; large ears; broad
HORSESHOE mitratus Blyth, horseshoe; grooved lower lip; FA: 5.7 cm
BAT 1844
SHORTRIDGE’S Rhinolophus Northern India Similar to R. lepidus
HORSESHOE shortridgei
BAT K. Andersen,
1918171

COMMON NAME: DUSKY LEAF-NOSED BAT

Family: Hipposideridae Latin Name: Hipposideros ater Templeton, 1848172 Subspecies: H.a. ater
Templeton, 1848 Best Seen At: Konark Temple, Odisha IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/
Unlisted/ Common Social Unit: Few individuals173 Size: HBL: 3.8–4.8 cm,174 FA: 3.4–3.8 cm

DESCRIPTION: A small bat with small forearms, brownish black, naked

wings and body fur varying from golden to dark brown to grey, the Dusky
Leaf-nosed Bat has a nose leaf with no supplementary leaflets. The anterior
leaf is hairy and has a triangular septum between the nostrils. The
intermediate leaf is simple, with a convex upper border, and the posterior
leaf is divided into four cells.
BEHAVIOUR: Males often live singly while females live in small unisex
colonies. This late evening bat flies low with rapid wing beats.
DISTRIBUTION: Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Kerala, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Odisha.175
HABITAT: Deep wells, wall crevices, abandoned buildings, thatch roofs,
tree hollows, seashore caves and abandoned mines.176

COMMON NAME: FULVOUS LEAF-NOSED BAT

Family: Hipposideridae Latin Name: Hipposideros fulvus Gray, 1838 Subspecies: H.f. fulvus Gray,
1838; H.f. pallidus K. Andersen, 1918 Best Seen At: Ajanta and Ellora Caves, Maharashtra
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Locally Common Social
Unit: Few to over 200177 Size: HBL: 4–5 cm,178 FA: 3.8–4.4 cm

DESCRIPTION: The Fulvous Leaf-nosed Bat is similar to H. ater in

colouration and nose leaf but with larger ears, smaller wing and a longer
forearm.
BEHAVIOUR: This late-evening bat with a fluttering low flight, feeds on
cockroaches and beetles.
DISTRIBUTION: H.f. fulvus in peninsular India and Andaman
archipelago; H.f. pallidus in northern India. Absent in the high Himalayas
and north–east India.
HABITAT: It favours cool and damp places, including caves and disused
buildings close to water.

Nose leaf of Hipposideridae (anterior view)

Hipposideros fulvus, Parambikulam WLS, Kerala

 Hipposideros ater ater, Chennai, Tamil Nadu

Hipposideros pomona, Camorta, Andaman & Nicobar Islands

 Hipposideros pomona extralimital

Hipposideros cineraceous, extralimital

Hipposideros nicobarule, Little Nicobar, Andaman & Nicobar Islands

SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON LATIN NAME DISTRIBUTION IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME
COMMON LATIN NAME DISTRIBUTION IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME
ANDERSEN’S Hipposideros North–east India (H.p. gentilis); Small; similar to H. ater and H. fulvus; no supplementary lappet;
LEAF-NOSED pomona south India and central Nicobars ears larger than H. ater, differs in dentition; FA: 3.8–4.3 cm,
BAT K. Andersen, (H.p. pomona) HBL: 3.6–5.2 cm
1918
LEAST LEAF- Hipposideros Uttarakhand to Arunachal Almost identical to H. ater; paler venter; no supplementary lappet;
NOSED BAT cineraceus Pradesh179 Differs in baculum being bifid; FA: 3.3–3.6 cm, HBL: 3.3–4.2 cm
Blyth, 1853
KHAJURIA’S Hipposideros Jabalpur,180 Madhya Pradesh Resembles H. ater; more brown than grey; no supplementary
LEAF-NOSED durgadasi lappet; longer FA and shorter ears than H. cineraceus; longer tail;
BAT Khajuria, 1970 FA: 3.6-3.7 cm
KOLAR LEAF- Hipposideros Caves in Kolar and Mysore, One supplementary leaflet; large ears;
NOSED BAT hypophyllus Karnataka; endemic FA: 3.7–4 cm, HBL: 4.2–4.7 cm
Kock and Bhat,
1994
NICOBAR Hipposideros Southern Nicobar Islands181 No supplementary leaflet;
LEAF-NOSED nicobarule FA: 3.8 –4.1; cm, HBL: 4.3 cm
BAT Miller, 1902

COMMON NAME: TAILLESS LEAF-NOSED BAT

Family: Hipposideridae Latin Name: Coelops frithii182 Blyth, 1848 Best Seen At: Nowhere
commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Rare Social Unit: 6– 16183
Size: HBL 5.2–5.5 cm,184 FA: 5–5.2 cm

DESCRIPTION: This small brown bat with long, lustrous fur can be
distinguished from all other leaf-nosed bats by its rudimentary tail185 and
ill-developed inter-femoral membrane. The ears are round like saucers with
a large antitragus. The nose leaf is distinctive in having a large anterior leaf
that extends beyond the muzzle, two narrow and long supplementary
lappets, and a large posterior leaf with a process at the top. The anterior leaf
is divided into two halves by a groove; the posterior has a single cell.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: Two records in West Bengal and Meghalaya.186
HABITAT: Caves and tree hollows in subtropical forests.187

COMMON NAME: SCHNEIDER’S LEAF-NOSED BAT

Family: Hipposideridae Latin Name: Hipposideros speoris Schneider, 1800188 Subspecies: H.s.
speoris Schneider, 1800189 Best Seen At: Elephanta Caves, Maharashtra IUCN/WPA/Indian
Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Locally Common Social Unit: Few to several hundred
individuals190 Size: HBL: 4.6–6.2 cm,191 FA: 4.5–5.4 cm

DESCRIPTION: A medium-sized species, the Schneider’s Leaf-nosed Bat

varies from grey to orange-brown, but is always palest between the
shoulders and on the ventral side. It has small ears and its nose leaf is
similar to the smaller leaf-nosed bats except for the three supplementary
leaflets and well-developed lappets next to the nostrils.
BEHAVIOUR: It leaves its roost about 10 minutes after sunset and hunts
in small parties of 10–15 bats. Males and females live together for most of
the year.192
DISTRIBUTION: Endemic to the Indian subcontinent, it is largely found
in southern India. It is also recorded in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Odisha and
Uttarakhand.
HABITAT: It roosts in caves, tunnels, disused buildings, and hill crevices
in forested and hilly areas.
SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON LATIN NAME DISTRIBUTION IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME
GEOFFROY’S Asellia tridens murraiana One record from Rajasthan193 Pale buff body; long and broad leaf-like ears, no tragus; nose
TRIDENT BAT E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, leaf distinctive with three cusps (trident-like); HBL: 5.48
1813 cm,194 FA: 5.4 cm
HORSFIELD’S Hipposideros larvatus Caves and mines of north–east Larger than H.speoris; cinnamon–brown back; rounded ears;
LEAF-NOSED leptophyllus Horsfield, India; and Little Andaman three supplementary leaflets; HBL: 7.4–7.8 cm, FA: 6.1–6.4 cm
BAT 1823 Island195
CANTOR’S Hipposideros galeritus Central, western and southern Same size as the Schneider’s Bat, but two supplementary nose
LEAF-NOSED brachyotis India. One record in Bihar leafs instead of three; HBL: 4.5–5.9 cm, FA: 4.5–5.1 cm
BAT Cantor, 1846

Coelops frithii, extralimital

Aselia tridens, Thar desert, Rajasthan
Hipposideros galeritus, Ramanagara, near Bengaluru, Karnataka

Hipposideros speoris, Parambikulam WLS, Kerala

 Hipposideros larvatus, extralimital

H. speoris, Channapatna, near Bengaluru, Karnataka

COMMON NAME: GREAT HIMALAYAN LEAF-NOSED
BAT
Family: Hipposideridae Latin Name: Hipposideros armiger Hodgson, 1835196 Subspecies: H.a.
armiger Hodgson, 1835 Best Seen At: Mussoorie, Uttarakhand IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least
Concern/ Unlisted/ Locally Common Social Unit: Single or few in colony197 Size: HBL: 8.2–10.5
cm,198 FA: 8.5–9.5 cm

DESCRIPTION: The largest of the leaf-nosed bats, this species is clearly

identified by the four supplementary leaflets on its anterior nose leaf. The
intermediate leaf has wave-shaped patterns and there is a fleshy pad behind
the four-celled posterior leaf. The dark brown wings and membranes stand
out against a grey–brown body with soft, long fur.
BEHAVIOUR: It circles around trees, close to the ground or around
bushes, like flying foxes, and hunts shortly after sunset. This bat is not
easily disturbed by humans at its roost sites.
DISTRIBUTION: Central and eastern Himalayas (west as far as
Mussoorie in Uttarakhand,
east as far as Assam, Garo Hills in Meghalaya, and Manipur.199
HABITAT: It roosts in caves or in old or disused buildings in montane and
bamboo forests.200
 Hipposideros armiger, extralimital

COMMON NAME: KELAART’S LEAF-NOSED BAT

Family: Hipposideridae Latin Name: Hipposideros lankadiva201 Kelaart, 1850 Subspecies: H.l.
indus Andersen, 1918 Best Seen At: Kolar, Vijayanagar, Karnataka IUCN/WPA/Indian Status:
Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Locally Common Social Unit: From 50 to several thousands Size: HBL:
8.7–10.6 cm, FA: 7.5–9.9 cm

DESCRIPTION: An endemic,202 large, leaf-nosed bat with four

supplementary lappets, similar to H. armiger. The fourth leaflet is, however,
greatly reduced. The pelage varies greatly from cream to orange or red. It is
paler on the belly. H.l. indus is smaller than the Sri Lankan subspecies.
BEHAVIOUR: An early evening bat that can hawk high in the air or fly
sallies around vegetation. It can eat hard-bodied insects like beetles.
DISTRIBUTION: Rajasthan, central and south India, West Bengal, Odisha
and Meghalaya.
HABITAT: Caves and ruins in wet and hilly forests.
SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON LATIN NAME DISTRIBUTION IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME
COMMON LATIN NAME DISTRIBUTION IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME
DIADEM Hipposideros203 Central Nicobar Islands Tricoloured hair (chocolate, grey, brown) on back; grey front; four
LEAF-NOSED diadema including Trinket204 supplementary leaflets, fourth highly reduced; FA: 5.8–6.4 cm
BAT nicobarensis
E. Geoffroy Saint-
Hilaire, 1813

Hipposideros armiger, extralimital

Hipposideros lankadiva, Mandu, Madhya Pradesh

H. lankadiva, Bandhavgarh, Madhya Pradesh

 Hipposideros diadema, Katchal Island, Andaman & Nicobar Islands

H. diadema (albino form), Katchal Island, Andaman & Nicobar Islands

COMMON NAME: HODGSON’S BAT

Family: Vespertilionidae Latin Name: Myotis formosus Hodgson, 1835205 Subspecies: M.f.
formosus Hodgson, 1835; M.f. auratus Dobson, 1871 IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/
Unlisted/ Rare Social Unit: Small groups206 Size: FA: 4.4–4.9 cm

DESCRIPTION: This rare, medium-sized tree bat of striking colouration

has a yellowish back, flanks and undersides, and a cinnamon throat. Its
oval, pale ears stick out of its hairy head, and its wings are orange with
black markings along the wing bones. The eastern Indian subspecies is
larger.
BEHAVIOUR: The Hodgson’s Bat roosts in trees, often camouflaged in
decaying leaves or flowers of the same colour as itself.
DISTRIBUTION: M.f. formosus: throughout northern India, north of
Nagpur, Maharashtra; M.f. auratus eastern India, east of Goalpara,
Assam.207 Sea level to the Himalayan foothills.208
HABITAT: It is largely a tree- or bush-roosting bat; occasionally roosts in
caves. It frequents both primary and secondary forests.

Myotis formosus, extralimital

COMMON NAME: NEPALESE WHISKERED BAT

Family: Vespertilionidae Latin Name: Myotis muricola Gray, 1846209 Subspecies: M.m. muricola
Gray, 1846; M.m. caliginosus Tomes, 1859 Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Common Social Unit: Small groups of one to
eight Size: HBL: 4.1–4.7 cm, FA: 3.1–3.7 cm

DESCRIPTION: This small bat has a lip with a hairy whisker-like fringe.
Its hair is russet–brown with dark bases, and it has small ears and feet. M.m.
caliginosus is slightly larger than the eastern subspecies.
BEHAVIOUR: Often roosts in rolled-up banana leaves at the centre of the
plant.
DISTRIBUTION: Valleys and mountains of northern and eastern India (up
to 3,000 m). M.m. muricola in the eastern Himalayas and M.m. caliginosus
in the western Himalayas.
HABITAT: Scrub and disturbed forests.
Myotis mystacinus, extralimital

Myotis muricola, extralimital

 Myotis siligoriensis, extralimital

Myotis horsefieldii dryas, Baratang Island, Andaman & Nicobar Islands

 Myotis longipes, Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya

Myotis blythii, extralimital

Myotis daubentonii, extralimital

SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON NAME LATIN NAME DISTRIBUTION IDENTIFICATION TIPS
LESSER MOUSE- Myotis blythii Scrubland of Largest of the genus in the Indian subcontinent; woolly buff
EARED BAT Tomes, 1857 north India coat; large ears; HBL: 6.5–8 cm, FA: 5.5–5.8 cm
WHISKERED BAT Myotis mystacinus North and east India Brown hair on back has pale tips;
Kuhl, 1917 HBL: 3.8–4.7 cm, FA: 3.4–3.6 cm
SILIGURI BAT Myotis siligorensis Uttarakhand, northern West Dark brown; FA: 3–3.1 cm
Horsfield, 1855 Bengal, Sikkim, Meghalaya
COMMON NAME LATIN NAME DISTRIBUTION IDENTIFICATION TIPS
MANDELLI’S Myotis sicarius Sikkim and north West Bengal Chocolate back and ginger ventral side;
MOUSE-EARED Thomas, 1915 HBL: 5–5.6 cm, FA: 4.8–5.4 cm
BAT
KASHMIR CAVE Myotis longipes Jammu & Kashmir, Garo and Dark grey back; creamy ventral surface; long feet; HBL:
BAT Dobson, 1873 Khasi Hills, Meghalaya 4.3–4.6 cm,
FA: 3.6–3.9 cm
HASSELT’S BAT Myotis hasseltii Extralimital (Sri Lanka); once in Dark brown bat with extremely long feet; HBL: 5.2–5.8 cm,
Temminck, 1840 Kolkata, West Bengal FA: 3.7–4 cm
HORSFIELD’S Myotis horsfieldii South India, once in Meghalaya, Brown bat with chocolate wings
BAT Temminck, 1840 Andaman & Nicobar Island HBL: 4.9–5.9 cm, FA: 3.6–4.1 cm
WATER BAT Myotis daubentonii Meghalaya Sooty coat; face naked around eyes;
Kuhl, 1817 HBL: 4.1 cm, FA: 3.4 cm
HAIRY-FACED Myotis annectans West Bengal, Nagaland Furry face; HBL: 4.5–4.8 cm,
BAT Dobson, 1871 FA: 4.5–4.6 cm
PEYTON’S Myotis peytoni Karnataka, Tamil Nadu Dark brown; HBL: 5.6–6.2 cm,
WHISKERED BAT Wroughton & Ryley, FA: 4–4.6 cm
1913

COMMON NAME: INDIAN PIPISTRELLE

Family: Vespertilionidae Latin Name: Pipistrellus coromandra Gray, 1838210 Subspecies: P.c.
coromandra Gray, 1838 Best Seen At: Cities such as Mumbai (Maharashtra), Bengaluru (Karnataka)
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Common Social Unit: Small groups Size:
HBL: 3.4–4.9 cm,211 FA: 2.5–3.4 cm

DESCRIPTION: A small pipistrelle, this brown bat is chocolate or

chestnut on top and beige below (with dark hair bases). Its wings,
membranes and tip of the muzzle are naked and black, and its brown
triangular ears are rounded at the tips.
BEHAVIOUR: Though it inhabits dense vegetation, it is also known to fly
into houses in search of insects and to roost in bamboo thatch roofs. It could
roost next to P. tenuis but slightly separately. It is an early flier, with slow
fluttering flight.212
DISTRIBUTION: Present throughout the country except in Rajasthan.
HABITAT: Tree holes, under the bark, in old or disused buildings in
forested areas as well as in towns and cities.213

COMMON NAME: INDIAN PYGMY BAT

Family: Vespertilionidae Latin Name: Pipistrellus tenuis Temminck, 1840214 Subspecies: P.t.
mimus Wroughton 1899215 Best Seen At: Same as with Indian Pipistrelle IUCN/WPA/Indian
Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Common Social Unit: Small groups Size: HBL: 3.3–4.5 cm,216
FA: 2.5–3 cm
DESCRIPTION: Almost identical to the Indian Pipistrelle, the Indian
Pygmy Bat is marginally smaller (smallest pipistrelle), darker, and with ears
that appear squarish when seen in outline. It also lacks the paler wing
margin of the Indian Pipistrelle. The pelage is variable, like the former,
ranging from dark yellow to clove brown or even dark blackish brown.
Although both species share roosts, they occupy separate spaces – probably
the only way to tell them apart in the field.
BEHAVIOUR: One of the first bats to come out at dark217 with a slow,
erratic flight.218
DISTRIBUTION: Throughout India except in the high Himalayas and
desert (sea level to 769 m).219
HABITAT: Same as in Indian Pipistrelle.

COMMON NAME: JAVAN PIPISTRELLE

Family: Vespertilionidae Latin Name: Pipistrellus javanicus Gray 1838220 Subspecies: P.j.
babu Thomas, 1915; P.j. camortae Miller, 1902 Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Locally Common Social Unit: Small groups
Size: HBL: 4–5.5 cm,221 FA: 3–3.6 cm

DESCRIPTION: A medium-sized pipistrelle, chestnut to clove-brown on

the back (tips paler, roots darker) the Javan Pipistrelle has naked, dark
brown wings and ears.
BEHAVIOUR: Emerges early and flies with a slow, low, fluttering
flight.222
DISTRIBUTION: P.j. babu: in the Himalayas (Jammu & Kashmir to
Arunachal Pradesh); north–east India,223 stray records in Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh;224 P.j. camortae: in Andaman &
Nicobar Islands; 185 m in Assam to 1,385 m in Uttarakhand.225
HABITAT: Forested habitats.
 Pipistrellus pipistrellus, extralimital

Pipistrellus javanicus, Andaman & Nicobar Islands

 Pipistrellus tenuis, Kumarakom, Kerala

Pipistrellus paterculus, extralimital

Pipistrellus coromandra, Kumarakom, Kerala

 Pipistrellus coromandra, Jamshedpur, Jharkhand
SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON LATIN NAME DISTRIBUTION IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME
COMMON Pipistrellus Jammu & Kashmir and in one Small; smoky brown on top; paler on lower back; narrow dark brown
PIPISTRELLE pipistrellus location in Assam opaque wings; HBL: 4–4.8 cm,
aladdin FA: 3–3.1 cm
Schreber, 1774
MOUNT Pipistrellus Jammu & Kashmir, Bihar and Olive–brown, with a deep chocolate back; ginger–brown abdomen;
POPA pipistrellus the North–East sloping forehead; HBL: 4.4 cm (4.2. cm–4.8 cm), FA: 3.0 cm (2.9–3.4 cm)
PIPISTRELLE paterculus
Thomas, 1915
JAPANESE Pipistrellus Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Dorsal region grey-brown; ventral is uniform grey; tragus is rounded; at
PIPISTRELLE abramus Pradesh, Meghalaya, Uttar the tip; HBL: 3.6–4.8 cm,
Temminck, 1838 Pradesh FA: 3.2–3.6 cm
KUHL’S Pipistrellus West Bengal, Assam and Small; long tail; light brown to reddish brown back; knife-shaped tragus;
PIPISTRELLE kuhlii Meghalaya dark brown to black wings, with white margin; HBL: 4.2–4.8 cm, FA:
Kuhl, 1819 2.9–3.4 cm

COMMON NAME: KELAART’S PIPISTRELLE

Family: Vespertilionidae Latin Name: Pipistrellus ceylonicus Kelaart, 1852226
Subspecies: P.c. indicus Dobson, 1878 Best Seen At: Pune and Mumbai, Maharashtra
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Common Social Unit: Solitary to groups of
200227 Size: HBL: 4.5–6.4 cm,228 FA: 3.3–4.2 cm

DESCRIPTION: A relatively large pipistrelle with dark brown ears, face

and membranes, the Kelaart’s Pipistrelle varies in body colour from grey–
brown to chestnut or even red–gold at times. Its ventral surface is duller and
darker.
BEHAVIOUR: It clings to the surface of its roost with its feet and wing
claws, and does not hang downwards like other bats.229 It crawls if placed
on the ground, and finds it difficult to become airborne except from a high
roost.
DISTRIBUTION: South, central, eastern, and western India; it is not
recorded north of Mount Abu or in the North–East. Recorded from
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal).230
HABITAT: Inhabits old buildings and tree hollows in both forested areas
and close to human habitation.

COMMON NAME: DORMER’S BAT

Family: Vespertilionidae Latin Name: Scotozous dormeri Dobson, 1875231 Subspecies: S.d.
dormeri Dobson, 1875 Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least
Concern/ Unlisted/ Occasional Social Unit: Solitary232 to groups of two dozen233 Size: HBL: 3.9–
5.5 cm,234 FA: 3.2–3.6 cm

DESCRIPTION: A medium-sized pipistrelle with a short tail, it has a

glossy grey–brown back, sometimes yellowish brown, and a pale front. Its
face, ears and wings are dark brown, and its inter-femoral veins are
sometimes white.
BEHAVIOUR: This bat is a slow flier, despite fast wingbeats, and it glides
occasionally.
DISTRIBUTION: Throughout India, except in the high Himalayas. It is
especially abundant in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
HABITAT: It roosts in disused buildings, under tiles in the roof, and tree
hollows, in towns and villages.

COMMON NAME: GREAT EVENING BAT

Family: Vespertilionidae Latin Name: Ia io Thomas, 1902235 Subspecies: I.i. io Thomas, 1902
Best Seen At: Mawsmai Cave, Meghalaya IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/
Rare Social Unit: Unknown; in large groups extralimitally236 Size: FA: 7–7.7 cm

DESCRIPTION: Among the biggest of the evening bats, this species

resembles a large grey-brown serotine with black wings. Its long tail sticks
partially out of a dark inter-femoral membrane, and its ears are broad and
rounded off.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: Meghalaya and Assam.
HABITAT: Caves at 1,500 m, in an oak forest setting.
 Pipistrellus ceylonicus, Bhuj, Gujarat

P. ceylonicus, Parambikulam WLS, Kerala

 Scotozous dormeri, Parambikulam WLS, Kerala

Ia io, extralimital

Hypsugo cadornae, extralimital

SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON LATIN NAME DISTRIBUTION IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME
BLACK GILDED Pipistrellus Shillong, Totally black pelage with orange sheen created by brown hair tips; brown
PIPISTRELLE ceylonicus Meghalaya ears with pale margins; HBL: 9.5 cm, FA: 4.1–4.3 cm
circumdatus
Temminck, 1840
CHOCOLATE Falsistrellus affinis Scattered localities Grizzled, grey-brown pelage;
PIPISTRELLE mordax all over India HBL: 4.3–5 cm, FA: 3.8 –4.1 cm
Dobson, 1871
THOMAS’S Hypsugo cadornae Forests of Dark brown, with soft long fur;
PIPISTRELLE Thomas, 1916 Darjeeling, West HBL: 4.7–5.2 cm, FA: 3.2–3.6 cm
Bengal
SAVI’S Hypsugo savii Cherrapunjee, Blackish face; dark brown back, pale front; small tail; HBL: 4.7–6 cm, FA:
PIPISTRELLE austenianus Meghalaya 3.2–3.8 cm
Bonaparte, 1837

COMMON NAME: COMMON SEROTINE

Family: Vespertilionidae Latin Name: Eptesicus serotinus Schreber 1774 Subspecies: E.s.
pachyomus Tomes, 1857 Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least
Concern/ Unlisted/ Uncommon Social Unit: Ones and twos, or small groups Size: HBL:
8 cm,237 FA: 5.4–5.5 cm

DESCRIPTION: This is a large, dark brown serotine with a pale buff belly
and throat, and dark hair roots on both sides of the body. It has a thick
muzzle, naked except for some hair on the lip, with glandular swellings on
both sides. Its ears are dark and long, with six parallel ridges on them, and it
has a long tail with a small portion protruding beyond
the membrane.
BEHAVIOUR: It has a straight, even, slow flight, and makes constant
clicks and squeaks. It hibernates in tree hollows.
DISTRIBUTION: The Himalayas, from Jammu & Kashmir to Nagaland.
HABITAT: Hollow trees and caves. It prefers foothills and is not found at
high altitudes.

COMMON NAME: ASIATIC GREATER YELLOW HOUSE

BAT
Family: Vespertilionidae; Latin Name: Scotophilus heathii Horsfield 1831 Subspecies: S.h. heathii
Horsfield 1831 Best Seen At: Towns and cities all over India; IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least
Concern/ Unlisted/ Common Social Unit: Between one and fifty238 Size:
FA: 5.5–6.5 cm, HBL: 6.7–9.3 cm239

DESCRIPTION: Easily recognizable by its yellowish brown back and

bright yellow underside, this bat is thickset, with a long tail that is enclosed
in the membrane. The dark muzzle is naked and swollen. It has a pale nape
and small ears with transverse ridges
on them.
BEHAVIOUR: It has a low, straight, silent flight, and is not shy of light
when roosting.240
DISTRIBUTION: Throughout India except Jammu & Kashmir and the
high Himalayas (up to 1,400 m).
Habitat: Roosts in old buildings, hollow trees, under palm fronds, and even
houses.

Scotophilus heathii, Choolannur, Kerala

S. heathii, Irinjalakuda, Thrissur, Kerala

Eptesicus serotinus, extralimital

 Harpiocephalus harpia, extralimital

Scotophilus kuhlii, extralimital

SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON LATIN NAME OCCURRENCE IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME
BOBRINSKII’S Eptesicus gobiensis Jammu & Kashmir Pale buff bat; straw-coloured throat and pale yellow wing
SEROTINE Bobrinskii, 1926 membranes;
FA: 4.1 cm
SOMBRE BAT Eptesicus tatei Ellerman Endemic to Darjeeling hills, Black bat; HBL: 4.8 cm, FA: 4.3 cm
& Morrison-Scott, 1951 West Bengal
BOTTAE’S Eptesicus bottae Peters, Jammu & Kashmir Pale buff upper body with dark hair roots; dark brown
SEROTINE 1869 membranes;
HBL: 5.7 cm, FA: 4.2 cm
THICK-EARED Eptesicus pachyotis Khasi Hills, Meghalaya Similar to Eptesicus serotinus; triangular ears have
BAT pachyotis Dobson, 1871 characteristic thick and fleshy lower lobe; HBL: 5.5–5.6 cm,
FA: 3.8–4 cm
PARTI- Vespertilio murinus Jammu & Kashmir Chocolate back, frosted with pale hair; pale venter with dark
COLOURED Linnaeus, 1758 tips on belly;
BAT HBL: 4.4. cm (4.2–4.5 cm),
FA: 5.5–6.6 cm
LESSER Scotophilus kuhlii Leach, Peninsular India except the Smaller than Scotophilus heathii; venter buff– brown instead
YELLOW 1821 North–East and Rajasthan of yellow; HBL 6.0–7.8, FA: 4.4–5.6 cm
HOUSE BAT
YELLOW Scotoecus pallidus Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Small; fine pale brown fur on dorsal side and pale grey on
DESERT BAT Dobson, 1876 Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal venter; brown wings; HBL: 5–5.8 cm, FA: 3.4–3.7 cm
HAIRY-WINGED Harpiocephalus harpia Kerala, Tamil Nadu, the Dorsal pelage is rufous, buff and
BAT Temminck, 1840 North–East grey; paler venter; HBL: 6–7.5 cm,
FA: 4.4–5 cm

COMMON NAME: HARLEQUIN BAT

Family: Vespertilionidae Latin Name: Scotomanes ornatus Blyth, 1851241 Subspecies: S.o.
ornatus Blyth, 1851; S.o. imbrensis Thomas, 1921 IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least
Concern/Unlisted/ Occasional Social Unit: Unknown Size: HBL: 6.4–8.5 cm,242 FA: 5.6–6.1 cm
DESCRIPTION: A large evening bat, it has an orange dorsal side and a
brown underside with tufts of paler, white hairs on both sides of the body,
forming patterns. Sometimes, a whole line is formed by the white tufts on
the back. The wings and large ears are both dark brown and naked.
BEHAVIOUR: Flies high and fast just after dark, uttering a twittering
call.243
DISTRIBUTION: North–east India.244
HABITAT: Trees and tall vegetation in well-wooded valleys.245

COMMON NAME: TICKELL’S BAT

Family: Vespertilionidae Latin Name: Hesperoptenus tickelli Blyth, 1851246 Subspecies:
H.t. tickelli Blyth, 1851 Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status:
Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Locally Common247 Social Unit: Solitary/small groups Size: HBL: 6.1–
7.9 cm, FA: 5–6 cm

DESCRIPTION: This is a large golden brown bat with a grey head. Its
ears are yellowish brown with white hair at the base. Its wings are long and
its long tail is enclosed in a membrane, except for the tip. Its muzzle is
broad and swollen.
BEHAVIOUR: A slow flier, it emerges in the early evening. It roosts in tall
trees with dense vegetation and may hold territories.248
DISTRIBUTION: Recorded from Andaman islands, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Assam, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Goa and Rajasthan.249
HABITAT: Lowland bat of floodplains, coasts and even low hills.250

Hesperoptenus tickelli, Little Andaman Island, Andaman & Nicobar Islands

COMMON NAME: PAINTED BAT
Family: Vespertilionidae Latin Name: Kerivoula picta Pallas, 1767251 Subspecies: K.p. picta Hill,
1965 Best Seen At: Banana groves, Kerala IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/Unlisted/
Uncommon Social Unit: Solitary or pairs Size: HBL: 4.5–4.8 cm,252 FA: 3.1– 3.7 cm

DESCRIPTION: This species has bright orange and black wings and long,
dense fur that is bright orange on the back and warm buff below. Its hairy
face has no ornamentations or nose leaf. The ears are large with a
transparent tragus.
BEHAVIOUR: It flies with an up and down flutter reminiscent of moths. It
hangs upside down among dead leaves, especially of plantain trees.253
DISTRIBUTION: Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Goa, Rajasthan, Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam and Odisha.254
HABITAT: Dry deciduous forests, banana groves and fields.255

Scotomanes ornatus, extralimital

Kerivoula picta, Thrissur, Kerala

Kerivoula picta, Pambadi, Kerala

 Kerivoula hardwickii, extralimital

Kerivoula kachinensis, Cherrapunjee, Khasi Hills, Meghalaya

SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON LATIN NAME OCCURRENCE IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME
HARDWICKE’S Kerivoula hardwickii Horsfield, 1824 The North–East; stray records from Clove-brown with grey undersides; large
FOREST BAT Jammu & Kashmir and Karnataka ears; wings are near transparent;
HBL: 3.9–5.5 cm, FA: 3.1–3.6 cm
PAPILLOSE Kerivoula papillosa Temminck, 1840 Known only from Kolkata, West Brownish grey bat with unfringed wings;
BAT Bengal HBL: 5.3–5.5 cm, FA: 4–4.2 cm
LENIS Kerivoula lenis Tamil Nadu 256 Similar to Kerivoula papillosa but smaller,
WOOLLY BAT Thomas, 1916 whiter head and darker grey fur; FA: 3.8 cm
EASTERN Barbastella leucomelas Cretzschmar, The Himalayas, from Jammu & Squared ears joined at forehead; ridged
BARBASTELLE 1826 Kashmir to Meghalaya nostrils open upwards; FA: 3.8–4.2 cm
KACHIN Kerivoula kachinensis Meghalaya Long and woolly fur, with grey–
WOOLLY BAT Bates, Struebig, Rossiter, Kingston, Sia brown upper parts and dark grey bases; FA:
Sein Lein Oo & Khin Mya Mya, 2004 4.1–4.3 cm

COMMON NAME: FLAT-HEADED BAT

Family: Vespertilionidae Latin Name: Tylonycteris pachypus Subspecies: T.p. aurus Thomas, 1915;
T.p. fulvidus Blyth, 1859; Best Seen At: Sirsi, Karnataka IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least
Concern/ Unlisted/ Occasional Social Unit: Multi-male–multi-female Size:
HBL: 3.4–4.6 cm, FA: 2.6–2.9 cm

DESCRIPTION: This is a very small bat with triangular ears and dark
brown wings. It has a golden head, throat and upper back while the lower
back and belly are dark brown.
BEHAVIOUR: This bat lives in bamboos, entering the stem through slits
created by insect larvae. The fleshy pads and balls on its feet help it to cling
and move inside the smooth surface of the bamboo.
DISTRIBUTION: Western Ghats, Andaman & Nicobar Islands257 and
north–east India.
HABITAT: Bamboo forests.

COMMON NAME: COMMON NOCTULE

Family: Vespertilionidae Latin Name: Nyctalus noctula Schreber, 1774 Subspecies: N.n. labiata
Hodgson, 1835 Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least concern/
Unlisted/ Occasional Social Unit: Colony Size: HBL: 6.8–8 cm, FA: 5–5.7 cm

DESCRIPTION: A large, robust bat, the Common Noctule is a mountain

bat of the early evenings. It has extremely narrow and long, leathery black
wings, and glossy cinnamon or dark brown fur. The short triangular ears
have a club-shaped tragus. Its large nostrils are set above the mouth, which
has a swelling on the upper lip and a yellowish buccal pad in adults.
BEHAVIOUR: The bats, as well as their roost, have a strong odour.
Hibernating in winter in colonies, they appear only in spring.
DISTRIBUTION: From the Himalayas (Jammu & Kashmir to Nagaland).
HABITAT: Caves, human habitation and tree hollows. It is not a very high-
altitude bat (1,000–2,000 m).

COMMON NAME: GREY LONG-EARED BAT

Family: Vespertilionidae Latin Name: Plecotus austriacus Fischer, 1829 IUCN/WPA/Indian
Status: Least Concern/ Unlisted/ Occasional Social Unit: Small groups Size: HBL: 4.7– 5.3 cm, FA:
4.1– 4.5 cm

DESCRIPTION: A small, dark buff or cream bat, it has grossly

exaggerated ears, characteristic of this family. They are pale brown,
translucent and ridged with 20 lines on each. It is larger than Plecotus
auritus and the pelage varies from being very pale to darker buff.
BEHAVIOUR: This is a slow-flying, early-evening bat that hovers in front
of bushes in search of food.
DISTRIBUTION: Forests and mountains of Jammu & Kashmir.
HABITAT: Unknown.
Plecotus austriacus, extralimital

Nyctalus leisleri, extralimital

Tylonycteris pachypus, Mayabunder, Andaman & Nicobar Islands

Tylonycteris robustula, extralimital

 Nyctalus noctula, extralimital

Otonycteris hemprichii, extralimital

SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON NAME LATIN NAME OCCURRENCE IDENTIFICATION TIPS
LEISLER’S BAT Nyctalus leisleri Western Himalayas Smaller than Nyctalus noctula; longer, thicker
Kuhl, 1817 fur; HBL: 6.2–7.2 cm,
FA: 4.2–4.5 cm
MOUNTAIN Nyctalus montanus Western Himalayas Has a bicoloured coat due to hair being black at
NOCTULE Barett-Hamilton, 1906 the roots; HBL: 7 cm, FA: 4.2–4.3 cm
GREATER FLAT- Tylonycteris robustula Mizoram Throat and belly dull grey–brown; uniform dark
HEADED BAT Thomas, 1915 brown wing membrane;
HBL: 4.0–4.4 cm, FA: 2.6–2.8 cm
BROWN LONG- Plecotus auritus Jammu & Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Himachal Enlarged ears; naked tail longer than body,
EARED BAT Linnaeus, 1758 Pradesh, West Bengal, Meghalaya uniformly brown;
HBL: 4.5–4.8 cm, FA: 3.8 cm
HEMPRICH’S Otonycteris hemprichii Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh Heavy build; yellowish brown ears; pale grey
LONG-EARED Peters, 1859 venter; HBL: 6.1–7.6 cm, FA: 6.5 cm
BAT

COMMON NAME: ROUND-EARED TUBE-NOSED BAT

Family: Vespertilionidae Latin Name: Murina cyclotis Dobson, 1872 Subspecies: M.c. cyclotis
Dobson, 1872258 Best Seen At: Khasi Hills, Meghalaya IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least concern/
Unlisted/ Locally Common Social Unit: 2–5259 Size: HBL: 3.8–5 cm,260 FA: 2.9–3.4 cm

DESCRIPTION: Small rufous bat with rounded ears, it has an orangish

back and paler venter. The wing-tops have fine orange fur while the
undersides are naked. It appears darker than M. leucogaster and paler than
M. tubinaris.
BEHAVIOUR: It displays a slow, deliberate flight, at times skimming
close to the ground.
DISTRIBUTION: Recorded from northern West Bengal, Meghalaya,
Mizoram, Sikkim, Mayabunder and Landfall Islands, Andaman Islands and
all islands of Nicobar, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.261
HABITAT: Forests and hilly plantations (especially cardamom).262

COMMON NAME: SCHREIBER’S LONG-FINGERED BAT

Family: Vespertilionidae Latin Name: Miniopterus schreibersii Kuhl, 1817 Subspecies: M.s.
fuliginosus Hodgson, 1835 Best Seen At: Robber’s Cave, Mahabaleshwar, Maharashtra263
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Near Threatened/ Unlisted/ Rare Social Unit: Large colonies
Size: HBL: 4.7–6.5 cm,264 FA: 4.4–4.9 cm

DESCRIPTION: A small evening bat with long, dense fur varying from
russet to dark brown, the Long-fingered Bat has long limbs and a highly
enlarged third digit. Its ears are small, rounded and set apart, and do not rise
above the head, which has a highly domed forehead. Its tragus is slender,
tall and slightly curled at the tip, and its tail is enclosed almost fully in a
membrane. It is most easily recognized by its characteristic position at rest,
with its wings folded back, giving it the alternate name of Bent-winged Bat.
BEHAVIOUR: Lives in huge colonies, but hunts solitarily. An enormous
colony of these bats emerging from a cave can be a spectacular sight.
DISTRIBUTION: Recorded from Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand,
West Bengal, Sikkim, Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh.
HABITAT: Caves in hilly and forested areas.
 Miniopterus schreibersii, Maharashtra

Miniopterus magnater, Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya

Miniopterus pusillus, Baratang, Andaman & Nicobar Islands

 Murina jaintiana, Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya

Murina cyclotis, Trinket Island, Andaman & Nicobar Islands

 Murina pluvialis, Khasi Hills, Meghalaya
SIMILAR SPECIES
COMMON LATIN NAME DISTRIBUTION IDENTIFICATION TIPS
NAME
NICOBAR Miniopterus pusillus Nicobar Islands, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu Smaller and darker than Miniopterus schriebersi; FA:
LONG- Dobson, 1876 3.9–4.3 cm
FINGERED BAT
SANBORN’S Miniopterus magnater The North–East FA: 4.7–5.3 cm
LONG- Sanborn, 1931
FINGERED BAT
SCULLY’S Murina tubinaris The Himalayas (Jammu & Kashmir to Grey or ferruginous pelage; emarginated ear; HBL:
TUBE- NOSED Scully, 1881 Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, 3.9–4.8 cm,
BAT Mizoram)265 FA: 3–3.4 cm
GREATER Murina leucogaster Darjeeling, West Bengal, and eastern Larger species with brownish red and fawn hair on
TUBE-NOSED Milne-Edwards, 1872 Himalayas back; very pale, almost white venter; HBL: 4.7 cm,
BAT FA: 4 cm
HUTTON’S Murina huttoni huttoni Jammu & Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Pointed ears, grey–brown back; whitish belly; HBL:
TUBE-NOSED Peters, 1872 northern West Bengal, Assam 4.8 cm, FA: 3.2–3.5 cm
BAT
LITTLE TUBE- Murina aurata Milne- Sikkim and Meghalaya Golden brown bat with soft, thick fur; HBL: 4.5 cm,
NOSED BAT Edwards, 1872 FA: 2.7–2.9 cm
RAINFOREST Murina pluvialis Ruedi, Khasi Hills, Meghalaya Domed head; banded dorsal fur (black, yellowish red,
TUBE-NOSED Biswas and Csorba, and bright red); dark belly
BAT 2012 HBL: 4.6 cm,266 FA: 3.4 cm
JAINTIA TUBE- Murina jaiantiana Jaintia Hills, Meghalaya Domed head; banded dorsal fur (black, dirty white
NOSED BAT Ruedi, Biswas and and brown); HBL: 4 cm,267 FA: 2.9 cm
Csorba, 2012
PETER’S TUBE- Murina grisea Peters, Endemic to one location in Dark brown bat with yellow-tipped dorsal fur; ashy
NOSED BAT 1872 Uttarakhand268 grey-tipped ventral fur; FA: 3.2 cm
Whales and dolphins
INDIAN CETACEANS AT A GLANCE
NUMBER OF SPECIES 25-29
BIGGEST Blue Whale
SMALLEST Finless Porpoise
MOST COMMON Bottlenose dolphin
MOST ENDANGERED south asian River dolphin
Activity

Niche Occupancy
 Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphin surfaces showing blowhole, extralimital

Cetacean Features

Cetacean (top) and shark (above) face showing absence and presence of
gills
Cetacean (top) and shark (above) tail showing horizontal and vertical flukes

Difference between cetacean (top) and shark (bottom) skin

WHAT IS A CETACEAN?
Whales and dolphins belong to the order Cetacea, which evolved around 60
million years ago when the dinosaurs had just died out. They were thought
to be fish by biologists till the 18th century when it was discovered that they
were mammals as they were warm-blooded, gave birth to live young, and
breathed through lungs and not gills.
Externally, fish and cetaceans can be easily distinguished by the
horizontal tail flukes of the latter compared with the vertically aligned tail
fins of fish. Dolphins and some whales belong to the suborder Odontoceti
or toothed whales. They are carnivorous and eat crustaceans, small fish and
small marine mammals. The other suborder, Mysticeti or baleen whales, are
toothless, and filter plankton and small copepods through large sheets that
hang in their mouths like curtains. Indian cetacean species are diverse and
wide-ranging. Most of them are marine, some live in estuaries and tidal
creeks, and one species inhabits rivers. Some such as the Ganges River
Dolphin are endemic to India, while others such as the Humpback Whale
are global in distribution. Ranging from the mammoth Blue Whale – the
world’s largest living creature – to the small dolphins, the order Cetacea
includes some of the most enigmatic, social and intelligent creatures.
Besides the 29 species profiled in this book, the Northern or Black Right
Whale (Eubalaena glacialis) may also be found in Indian waters. There is a
single stranding report of the species from off the coast of Gujarat but no
other record of the family of right whales (Balaenidae).

WHALES, DOLPHINS AND PORPOISES

All three are cetaceans, but whales are generally the largest of the
cetaceans, dolphins smaller, and porpoises the smallest. Porpoises and
dolphins are easily told apart in hand by the spade-shaped teeth of the
former and the conical teeth of the latter. Otherwise (there are some
exceptions), dolphins have longer beaks, and are more acrobatic and larger.
While many toothed whales are only large dolphins, the baleen whales or
rorquals have baleen plates and no teeth.

LOCOMOTION
Cetaceans have evolved to lead a marine life, with several adaptations to
swim and dive. These include reducing the body’s surface area by 23 per
cent compared to other mammals (thereby reducing drag), having no hind
limbs, pinnae, hair or external genitalia, and having a highly developed
caudal oscillation locomotion that increases the thrust and efficiency of the
lift-based propulsion system.1 Three other evolutionary strategies, i.e.,
bradycardia (slowing down of heart rate), peripheral vasoconstriction, and
increasing oxygen storage capacities allow cetaceans to dive for long hours
underwater. In addition, toothed whales have a melon on their forehead that
aids in echolocation by transmitting a focused sound and bouncing it off
obstructions to find its way, much like a bat in the air. Flukes are the key to
their locomotion as they give a hydrodynamic thrust when the caudal
vertebrae oscillate in a dorso-ventral fashion.2 However, in some cases,
such as in humpback whales, where long flippers are present, it is seen that
independent of fluke movements, flippers can aid movement in all
directions.3 Baleen whales, despite their size, can reach top speeds of 48 km
per hour, although normally they cruise at 19–22.5 km per hour. Sei is one
of the fastest swimming of the rorquals reaching speeds of 55.5 km per
hour, which is also about the same top speed as a much smaller bottlenose
dolphin.

Blue Whale, extralimital

 Bottlenose Dolphins, extralimital

Evolutionary tree of Indian cetaceans (Adapted from Velez–Juarbe J., et al.,

2012)

Cetacean Skulls
Unbeaked dolphin skull

Beaked dolphin skull

Unbeaked whale skull

Beaked whale skull

DIET AND FORAGING
Gangetic River Dolphins eat fish and shrimp, largely from riverbeds.
Cooperative hunting is known. The Irrawaddy Dolphin and the Finless
Porpoise have a similar diet except cephalopods as they have oceanic
ranges.4 The Irrawaddy Dolphin is known to spit water as a hunting strategy
to confuse or stun fish, a unique predatory technique. Cephalopods and fish
from the seabed or around reefs form the principal diet of the Indo-Pacific
Bottlenose Dolphin and Indo-Pacific Humpback Dolphin. Rough-toothed
dolphins have a diet similar to other small dolphins but may take large
dolphinfish. Narrow-beaked oceanic dolphins, such as the Long-beaked
Common Dolphin and the Pan-tropical Spotted Dolphin, eat small fish and
crustaceans but also krill. Humpbacks use both bubble-feeding and lunge-
feeding to get at krill and small fish while Blue Whales feed almost
exclusively on krill using a gulp-feeding technique. Fins and Sei use both
lunge- and gulp-feeding for krill, crustaceans, fish and squid. The Bryde’s
and Minke Whales feed on both fish and plankton, but like the Blue Whale,
may use more gulp feeding. Fins feed mainly on their right side, showing
the pale left side of the mouth; Seis also sometimes feed on the side. Pilot
Whales, beaked whales, Dwarf and pygmy sperm whales eat mostly squid,
but some fish and crustaceans, too. Orcas are catholic in their diet, but
different fish-eating and mammal-eating populations are known. Pygmy and
false killer whales largely eat squid and fish but have been known to take
dolphins including Stenella sp. Risso’s Dolphins eat cephalopods and krill,
and are largely nocturnal feeders.

VOCALIZATION AND COMMUNICATION

The South Asian River Dolphin can be fairly vocal, with continuous
echolocating clicks and a loud, sneeze-like blow, gives it its common Hindi
name, susu. Marine dolphin vocalizations have been correlated to feeding,
social cohesion, resting, travelling and breeding.5 Generally, cetaceans emit
whistles, pulsed calls including clicks and noisy vocalizations. The clicks
are high frequency and can range from 120–140 Hz.6 Burst pulse sounds
are broadband sounds that vary in intensity and are short in duration.
Whistles are tonal and frequency modulated and are on a range of 3–24 Hz.
Vocalization as a signature call between separated dolphin mothers and
calves7 and complex humpback songs in mating grounds are examples of
these evolved communication mechanisms in cetaceans.8

Blow or warm moist air is expelled by cetaceans when they emerge from
the water to breathe: a Sperm Whale, extralimital

Spy-hopping is rising above eye level from the water and then scanning the
horizon by rotating the head: an Irrawaddy Dolphin, Chilika Lake, Odisha
Lobtailing or tail-slapping is the slapping of the water with the tail before
submergence: a Sperm Whale, extralimital

Rolling is the act of exposing their nostrils for breathing and then arching
their back to submerge: a sperm whale, extralimital
 Indo-Pacific Humpback Dolphin feeding on fish, Chilika Lake, Odisha

Breaching is a leap that takes the whole body out of water: an Indo-Pacific
Humpnose Dolphin, Ashtamudi Port, Kerala

Echolocation in cetaceans

Useful Contacts for Cetacean Conservation

KUMARAN SATHASIVAM
Author, Marine Mammals of India kumaran.sathasivam@gmail.com

DIPANI NITIN SUTARIA

dipani.sutaria@gmail.com

VARDHAN PATANKAR
National Conservation Foundation vardhan@ncf-india.org

REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES
Gangetic Dolphins have a gestation of a year and the calf, born in early
winter, is weaned at less than a year. Indo-Pacific Humpback Dolphin
courtship may involve high-speed circular swimming, and they and the
Indo-Pacific Bottlenose Dolphins have a single young after a year’s
gestation (peaking in late spring or summer). The calf is weaned in two
years; that of the Bottlenose may stay with the mother for up to three more
years. Narrow-beaked Oceanic Dolphins breed year-round with calving in
spring or autumn after a 10–11 month gestation, weaning of a year or two,
and an inter-calving interval of about three years. The Long-beaked
Common Dolphin is known to have lactating or pregnant females separate
from the pod. Pan-tropical Spinner Dolphins are known to be promiscuous
and polygynous. Humpbacks breed in the early part of the year (January–
February) and bear one young after 11–12 months of gestation. Calves
wean in a year but stay on with the mother for another year. Fins breed in
winter (October–March) and have the same gestation as Humpbacks.
Multiple foetuses are known, but possibly only one young is raised. Sei and
Bryde’s Whales have their young in late autumn or early winter, with a
year’s gestation and the young are weaned in 6–8 months. Blue Whales
breed more in the autumn; gestation is a shorter 6–8 months. Minke Whales
breed and calve December–June; gestation is of 11 months. Pilot Whales
breed only every 6–9 years as calves are weaned only between two and four
years of age; gestation is of 15–16 months. Orcas have a gestation of 15–18
months and one young every two to three years in autumn–spring, although
year-round breeding is also reported. False Killer Whales have gestations of
11–16 months, calves wean in a year and a half to two years; they may
breed (year-round but peaking in late winters) only once in 7–8 years.
Pygmy and dwarf sperm whales have short gestations of about seven
months, calving peaks March–August; the one young is weaned in a year
with the female available for the next year’s breeding cycle. Nothing much
is known of the breeding of pygmy killers (except that calves are probably
born in summers), Risso’s Dolphins (probably a gestation of 13–14
months), Beaked Whales (may breed year-round) or rough-toothed
dolphins.

THREATS AND CONSERVATION

River dolphins are threatened by incidental fishing, toxic contamination,
catching of fish fingerlings and crustacean larvae in small sieve nets,
increased river vehicular traffic and decreased water flow due to damming
of rivers.9 All phoconoids are susceptible to gill net entanglements, for e.g.,
with Neophocaena phocaenoides.10 Larger oceanic cetaceans are threatened
due to bycatch, pollution, habitat destruction, over-fishing, climate change
and underwater noise pollution.11 Very little has been done for cetacean
conservation in India, but the recent Marine Mammal Conservation
Network of India provides a great deal of information and hope for
coordinated work.

Humpback dolphins can be very socially active; here, two dolphins

playfully rub beaks and bodies, Cochin Port, Kerala
 Sperm whale mother and child, extralimital

Cetaceans can be found in pairs, such as this socially active pair of Indo-
Pacific Humpback Dolphins, Maharashtra
Cetaceans could also be in schools such as these bottlenose dolphins,
Andaman Sea

Whale watching of a solitary Blue Whale, extralimital

 Blue Whale cut up by propellers, extralimital

COMMON NAME: SOUTH ASIAN RIVER DOLPHIN

Family: Platanistidae Latin Name: Platanista gangetica Roxburgh, 1801
Subspecies: Indus River Dolphin P.g. minor; Ganges River Dolphin12 P.g.
gangetica Local Names: Bolla gadini (Telugu), Poonan eedi (Malayalam);
P. g.minor: Bhoolan (Punjabi); P.g. gangetica: Hiho seho (Assamese), Susu
(Hindi), Susuk (Bengali) Best Seen At: P.g. minor: Between Beas town and
Harike Barrage, Punjab; P.g.gangetica: Vikramshila WLS, Bihar; Kaziranga
NP, Assam IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered/ I/ Locally Common
Social Unit: Normally solitary or in pairs, but occasionally in small groups
going even up to 1013 Size: HBL: 2.2 m (male); 2.6 m (female), Wt: 70–90
kg14

DESCRIPTION: The only true freshwater cetacean in India, this

endangered dolphin is easily recognized by its long beak, bearing a row of
sharp, interlocking teeth designed to trap prey. When viewed closely, its
mouth curves upwards at the end of its snout, giving it a menacing leer. Its
flexible neck enables it to turn its head at right angles. Other distinguishing
features are large, paddle-shaped flippers and a low hump-like dorsal fin on
the back. The colour of its stocky body may vary from slate–blue to muddy
brown. The eyes are small and this is the only cetacean without a crystalline
eye lens, rendering it blind.15 P.g. minor is inseparable from P.g. gangetica
in the field and can only be separated by geography and genetics.16
BEHAVIOUR: Very active and continuously vocal, this river dolphin is
highly visible, as it sticks its beak out of the water. It is known at times to
swim on its side a few inches above the riverbed, with its head bobbing
sideways and its right flipper trailing in the mud.
DISTRIBUTION: Rivers Ganges and Brahmaputra and their tributaries,
including the Sunderbans17 (P.g. gangetica);18 one population between Beas
and Harike Barrage in Punjab (P.g. minor).19
HABITAT: Ganges River Dolphins concentrate in counter-current pools
and sharp meanders or turns in large rivers, and frequent seasonal lakes or
beels in the Brahmaputra, and sometimes in canals off the rivers.20 Indus
River Dolphins are found in deep river channels such as the one created by
the Harike Barrage.21

COMMON NAME: INDO-PACIFIC OR INDIAN

HUMPBACK DOLPHIN
Family: Delphinidae Latin Name: Sousa chinensis Osbeck 175622
Subspecies: Not determined23 Local Names: Bolla gadini (Telugu), Ongil
(Tamil), Poonan eedi (Malayalam) Best Seen At: Calicut (Kozhikode)
coast, Kerala IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Near Threatened/ II/ Occasional
Social Unit: Small pods of 3–7; up to 25 animals occasionally24 Size:
HBL: 1.8–3 m, Wt: 250–283 kg25

DESCRIPTION: A large dolphin, coloured lead–grey with a pinkish tinge

on the underside, flippers and flukes, and with occasional spotting on its
body, it can be identified by its characteristic hump26 topped with a small
dorsal fin. The mouth line is straight and the beak moderately long. The
forehead bulges slightly.
BEHAVIOUR: It breaks out of the water at an angle, breathes with the
beak at the surface, arches its back, and lifts its flukes in the air before
flopping back.
DISTRIBUTION: Recorded off both coasts, from Gujarat through
Maharashtra,27 Goa, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh to
Gahirmatha in Odisha,28 and the Andamans.
HABITAT: Found in coastal and estuarine shallow water and mangroves
(less than 20–30 m deep).29 Seasonal movements and choice of habitats for
feeding and breeding are known.30
Difference between river dolphin (left) and gharial snouts (right)

Females have a longer beak than males

 Platanista gangetica

Sousa chinensis

Sousa chinensis, western population, showing strong spotting, small dorsal

fin on wide hump, Goa (left) and eastern population showing unspotted
 body, larger dorsal fin on a pronounced hump, Odisha (right)

COMMON NAME: FINLESS PORPOISE

Family: Phocoenidae Latin Name: Neophocaena phocaenoides G. Cuvier,
182931 Subspecies: None32 Local Names: Bhulga (Marathi), Eliyan
eedi/Minikutty (Malayalam), Molagan (Tamil) Best Seen At: Nowhere
commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ II/ Locally
Common Social Unit: Solitary, pairs and groups of up to 17 recorded in
India;33 up to 50 recorded globally Size: HBL: 1.2–2 m, Wt: 70–100 kg34

DESCRIPTION: One of the smallest cetaceans in the world, this is the

only porpoise found in Indian waters. Its pale blue or grey–blue body colour
is like the Ganges River Dolphin’s, but it does not have the long-toothed
snout of the dolphin. As the name indicates, it has no fin on its back and
possesses only a dorsal ridge with tubercles. The head has a large, blunt
melon and a depression behind the blowhole. Its lips, chin and underside are
pale and some individuals may have a dark chinstrap. Flippers are long and
tapering. The tail fluke is deeply notched and has a concave trailing edge.
Males are larger than females and adults paler than juveniles. Porpoises can
be distinguished from dolphins by their spade-shaped teeth, as opposed to
the dolphin’s conical ones and this species has 26–44 teeth in each jaw.
BEHAVIOUR: This porpoise does not normally come out of the water, but
it ‘spy-hops’ – holds itself vertically and lifts its head clear of the water
surface. Young calves may surface completely as they ride on the mother’s
back.
DISTRIBUTION: Recorded from the east and west coasts, from the mouth
of Mumbai harbour35 to Gahirmatha in Odisha,36 and Lakshadweep.
Recently recorded off the Gulf of Kutch.37
HABITAT: Found mainly in estuarine and coastal waters, with a sandy
bottom.38 Also seen in shallow bays and mangrove habitats.39

COMMON NAME: IRRAWADDY DOLPHIN

Family: Delphinidae Latin Name: Orcaella brevirostris Gray, 188640
Subspecies: None41 Local Names: Susu (Odia) Best Seen At: Chilika
Lake, Odisha IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ I/Occasional Social
Unit: Usually 2–3, occasionally 10-1542 Size: HBL: 1.7–2.75 cm, Wt: 90–
130 kg43

DESCRIPTION: The Irrawaddy Dolphin is a blunt-headed, beakless,

‘beluga-like’ dolphin that varies in colour from dark blue-grey to pale blue,
with an invariably lighter underside. It is much larger than the similar
Finless Porpoise and also differs in having a small dorsal fin. It has long
and broad flippers with a curved, trailing edge, and a tail with broad flukes
notched in the middle. It has a neck crease and the neck is flexible. It has
34–40 peg-like teeth in the upper jaw and 30–36 in the lower jaw.44
BEHAVIOUR: Though this dolphin’s blow is loud, it is invisible, as the
animal rarely comes out of the water. Water that is shot out, is by spitting. It
usually performs a smooth, slow roll in a leisurely style and breaches in a
low fashion, occasionally.
DISTRIBUTION: Recorded off the eastern coast of India, from Chennai in
the south45 to West Bengal in the east46 including the Sunderbans.47 There
is an isolated population in Chilika Lake, Odisha.
HABITAT: Inhabits coastal waters and estuaries, creeks and mangrove
habitats. Prefers river mouths, ranging only as far as the freshwater plume
extends.48

Irrawaddy Dolphin spitting water to stun prey, Chilika Lake, Odisha

Stranded Neophocaena phocaenoides, Devi river mouth, Odisha

Neophocaena phocaenoides
 Stranded Orcaella brevirostris, Chilika Lake, Odisha

Orcaella brevirostris, Chilika Lake, Odisha

Orcaella brevirostris

COMMON NAME: INDO-PACIFIC BOTTLENOSE

DOLPHIN
Family: Delphinidae Latin Name: Tursiops aduncus Ehrenberg, 183349
Local Names: Changan eedi (Malayalam), Gadamu (Telugu),
Ongole/Ongil/Odan (Tamil) Best Seen At: Malvan coast, Maharashtra
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Data Deficient/ II/ Common Social Unit: 5–15
animals although very large congregations are occasionally known50 Size:
HBL: Up to 2.6 m, Wt: Up to 230 kg51

DESCRIPTION: One of the commonest dolphins in Indian waters, it is a

large, stocky creature that appears drab grey in most waters (the extent of
grey can vary). It has a short, distinct beak separated from the forehead by a
sharp crease. A tall dorsal fin is darker than the rest of its body and a darker
cape may also be seen. The underside is paler and, in some individuals,
spotted. Its flippers are slender and moderately long. The tail stock is thick
and flukes are slightly notched with curved, trailing edges. It has 40–52
teeth in the upper jaw and 36–48 in the lower jaw.
BEHAVIOUR: Friendly and active, this dolphin swims close to boats and
is said to help fishermen drive shoals of fish into their nets. It shows its
forehead, not the beak, when breaching.
DISTRIBUTION: It is recorded off both coasts, from Maharashtra through
Karnataka, Goa, Kerala,52 Lakshadweep Islands and Tamil Nadu to
Midnapore Dist., West Bengal.53
HABITAT: Shallow coastal waters on the continental shelf and near
islands.54

COMMON NAME: LONG-BEAKED COMMON DOLPHIN

Family: Delphinidae Latin Name: Delphinus capensis Gray, 1828
Subspecies: D.c. tropicalis van Bree, 197155 Local Names: Changan eedi
(Malayalam), Ganupuli (Telugu), Panavai meen/Ponigra (Tamil) Best Seen
At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Data Deficient/
II/ Common Social Unit:10-30 normally, but concentrations of 100–500
known to coalesce56 Size: HBL: 2–2.5 m (male); 1.9–2.2 m (female), Wt:
80–150 kg57

DESCRIPTION: Though it varies in colour, form, and shape, the Common

Dolphin is one of the easiest dolphins to identify as it has a characteristic
hourglass pattern on its body across the flanks. The back, always darker,
can be brownish, black or purplish, with a yellow or tan patch on both sides.
Its undersides are white or creamy, there is a dark circle around its eyes and
a dark stripe from flipper to jaw. It has broad, black flippers and its dorsal
fin is tall with a pointed tip. It has 80–120 teeth in each of its jaws.58
BEHAVIOUR: Large pods of acrobatic, boisterous dolphins often associate
with other dolphins including the bottlenose. The Long-beaked Common
Dolphin may segregate at times by age and sex.59
DISTRIBUTION: Recorded off the coasts of Goa60 through Kerala,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Andaman & Nicobar Islands and
Lakshadweep Islands to Paradip, Odisha.61
HABITAT: Warm open waters, over- continental shelf waters of depths less
than 180 m; closer to shore.62

Dorsal fin shapes of dolphins

Tursiops aduncus
T. aduncus, extralimital

T. aduncus, extralimital

Delphinus capensis
COMMON NAME: LONG-SNOUTED SPINNER DOLPHIN
Family: Delphinidae Latin Name: Stenella longirostris Gray, 182863
Subspecies: Gray’s Spinner Dolphin S.l. longirostris Gray, 182864 Local
Names: Unknown Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Data Deficient/ II/ Locally Common Social
Unit: 5–200, sometimes up to 1,00065 Size: HBL: 1.75–2.4 m, Wt: 45–75
kg66

DESCRIPTION: A grey dolphin with a creamy white underside that can

be either fairly extensive or restricted to a patch on the belly, it has a very
long, dark-tipped beak with a prominent crease where it joins the forehead.
Other distinguishing features are a large, erect, falcate and triangular dorsal
fin, and long flippers. In males, the tail is prominently keeled on top and
below.
BEHAVIOUR: It throws itself in the air up to a height of 3 m, then twists
on a vertical axis up to seven times. It is the only dolphin in Indian waters
that spins, while others only somersault and dive. Large schools of these
can often be seen churning the water into frothy foam.
DISTRIBUTION: Recorded off both coasts from Mumbai in
Maharashtra67 through Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Lakshadweep
Islands, till Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh.68
HABITAT: Found in warm, tropical, inshore waters, near islands and
coast,69 specifically in tropical surface water that is a shallow mixed layer
of water with a sharp thermocline.70

COMMON NAME: PAN-TROPICAL SPOTTED DOLPHIN

Family: Delphinidae Latin Name: Stenella attenuata Gray, 184671
Subspecies: S.a. attenuata Gray, 184672 Local Names: Unknown Best
Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least
Concern/ II/ Uncommon Social Unit: 50–1000 73 Size: HBL: 1.6–2.6 m
(male); 1.6– 2.4 m (female), Wt: 90–120 kg74

DESCRIPTION: The grey or blue body of this dolphin is extensively

spotted. Newborns are plain, but spots appear with age, and older dolphins
can be completely covered in bubble-like spots. It has three bands of grey
across its body: a dark cape on its back, a medium-grey body and a pale
grey underside. Other distinguishing features are a dark fin and small
flippers that are strongly convex. The beak is white-tipped (unlike the fully
black beak of spinners) and it has white lips.
BEHAVIOUR: An active and energetic swimmer that jumps about a lot in
water. Occasionally breaches, making high leaps in the air and falling back
into water after a moment or so of being motionless in air.
DISTRIBUTION: One or two sightings and some type records from West
Bengal,75 Lakshadweep Islands, the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.76
HABITAT: Found in warm waters with a clear thermocline, it can occur in
the high seas and in waters less than 50 m deep.77

Not recorded from India but may be present.

COMMON NAME: STRIPED DOLPHIN
Latin Name: Stenella coeruleoalba Meyen, 183378

DESCRIPTION: Its bluish grey body is accentuated by three stripes

starting at the eye and delineating a pale pink or cream underside. A lighter-
coloured swathe cuts across with a finger-like projection just below a
prominent, strongly falcate and dark dorsal fin. The next stripe runs from
eye to tail; the third ends at the short, stubby flippers. A dark patch encircles
the eyes.
HABITAT: Warm and deep oceanic waters beyond the continental shelf.79

Stenella longirostris
Stenella attenuata
 Stenella coeruleoalba

Stenella longirostris, extralimital

S. coeruleoalba, extralimital

COMMON NAME: ROUGH-TOOTHED DOLPHIN

Family: Delphinidae Latin Name: Steno bredanensis G. Cuvier in Lesson,
1828 Local Names: Unknown Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ II/ Uncommon Social Unit:
10–20; occasionally up to 50 individuals80 Size: HBL: 2.1–2.6 m, Wt: 90–
160 kg81

DESCRIPTION: Unlike most beaked dolphins, the beak of the Rough-

toothed Dolphin does not have a crease separating it from the forehead. Its
head has a unique conical shape that, combined with its white lips and
throat, makes it easy to recognize. The whole shape of the head and fore
body is unlike that of most dolphins and has been referred to as reptilian.82
Another unique feature: its almond-shaped teeth, with vertical striations.
There are yellowish or pink blotches on its underbelly, while its large dorsal
fin has a concave trailing edge and is set at an angle of 45º to its body.
BEHAVIOUR: This species swims fast just beneath the water surface and
rarely surfaces. When it does, it pops out in a low arc. It is often seen with
Bottlenose Dolphins and tuna.
DISTRIBUTION: Recorded off Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Nicobar Islands.
Earlier records of Delphinus maculiventer probably refers to this species.83
HABITAT: Deep offshore and warm waters, beyond the continental shelf.84

COMMON NAME: GREY OR RISSO’S DOLPHIN

Family: Delphinidae Latin Name: Grampus griseus G. Cuvier, 1812 Local
Names: Panavai meen (Tamil) Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ II/ Uncommon Social Unit:
Mean group size 10–30,85 sometimes in the hundreds Size: HBL: 2.6–4 m,
Wt: 300–500 kg; females smaller86

DESCRIPTION: The Grey or Risso’s Dolphin is easily identified by its

dome-shaped forehead with a crease that runs from the centre to the mouth
line. It is almost beakless with younger animals having a short beak. It has a
white mouth line. Its body is heavily scarred with white streaks and varies
from very dark grey (juveniles) to almost white or pale grey (adults), while
its underside is always paler. The dorsal fin of the female is almost as tall as
a Killer Whale’s and has a rounded edge.
BEHAVIOUR: It tends to come half out of the water before slapping its
head back in. It feeds primarily on deep water squid; it uses echolocation
and a variety of clicks to navigate.
DISTRIBUTION: It has been recorded off Kerala, Lakshadweep Islands,
Tamil Nadu and the Nicobar Islands.87
HABITAT: Deep offshore and continental shelf waters (400–1,000 m
deep).88

Not recorded from India but may be present.

COMMON NAME: FRASER’S DOLPHIN
Latin Name: Lagenodelphis hosei Fraser, 1956

DESCRIPTION: A blue–grey dolphin with a pinkish white underside, the

Fraser’s Dolphin was scientifically described only in the late 1950s from the
waters around Malaysia. Like the Striped Dolphin, it has a clear dark stripe
running along the length of its body. However, it is easy to distinguish this
dolphin by its shorter beak, a smaller dorsal fin and small, pointed flippers.
HABITAT: Deep waters and oceanic shelf of the Indian Ocean.89

Steno bradenensis
Grampus griseus
 Lagenodelphis hosei

Grampus griseus, extralimital

L. hosei, extralimital

COMMON NAME: SHORT-FINNED PILOT WHALE

Family: Delphinidae Latin Name: Globicephala macrorhynchus Gray,
1846 Subspecies: None90 Local Names: Unknown Best Seen At: Nowhere
commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Lower Risk/ II /Uncommon
Social Unit: 10–50 Size: HBL: 3.6–6.5 m, Wt: 1,100–3,000 kg (male)91

DESCRIPTION: It closely resembles the False Killer Whale, but has a

more bulbous head and a rounded dorsal fin. It has an off-white belly patch
on a dark grey body, a W-shaped grey patch on its throat, and a grey or
white diagonal stripe from its eye to the dorsal fin. The pale throat patch is
also diagnostic. Very social, this night-feeder travels in large pods and often
associates with other cetaceans, especially the Bottlenose Dolphin.
BEHAVIOUR: Like the Melon-headed Whale, it is known from being
stranded in large numbers. It has a strong blow and is easily identifiable,
since it approaches ships in large numbers.
DISTRIBUTION: It is recorded from mass strandings at Kolkata and
Tuticorin;92 recorded from Lakshadweep Islands, the Andamans, West
Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra.93
HABITAT: Deep waters off the continental shelf.94

COMMON NAME: MELON-HEADED WHALE

Family: Delphinidae Latin Name: Peponocephala electra Gray, 184695
Local Names: Unknown Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ II/ Uncommon Social Unit:
100–500 up to 2,000 Size: HBL: 2.1–2.7 m, Wt: 160–275 kg

DESCRIPTION: A dark, small dophin with a torpedo-shaped body, the

Melon-headed Whale gets its name from its rounded head. The head
becomes more bulbous with age.96 Its fin is tall, variably shaped but more
falcate in older individuals. The flippers are pointed and it has a small
inconspicuous grey–white belly. What is conspicuous is its narrow face
wearing a dark mask with white lips, and a dark cape running across its
back, giving it a bandit-like look! Along with the Pilot and Killer Whales,
this species belongs to a group of smaller-toothed whales also known as
‘blackfish’. These are larger in size, but closely related to dolphins and
alternately classified as whales or dolphins.
BEHAVIOUR: Little seen and shy of sailing vessels, it makes shallow
leaps out of the water. It travels in large numbers and, like the Pilot Whale,
can also strand in large numbers.
DISTRIBUTION: Known from Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, the Palk
Straits, Tamil Nadu, and Car Nicobar Islands in Andaman & Nicobar
Islands.97
HABITAT: Deep waters from continental shelf, seaward.98

Not recorded from India but may be present.

COMMON NAME: PYGMY KILLER WHALE
Latin Name: Feresa attenuata Gray, 1875

DESCRIPTION: Very similar to the Melon-headed Whale in its dark grey

body and narrow pointed head, this is a lesser-known deep tropical water
species. It has a large white patch on its belly, divided by a deep groove,
and rounded flippers (not pointed as in the Melon-headed Whale). Many
have a white chin (goatee) the latter lacks; the dorsal fin is larger (up to 40
cm) with a wavy, trailing edge.99 On a close look, the cape is shallower, not
extending to the mid- body. This whale is shyer and generally seen in
smaller numbers than the Melon-headed Whale.
HABITAT: Deep, warm waters off the continental shelf.100

Globicephala macrorhynchus, extralimital

Globicephala macrorhynchus
 Peponocephala electra

Feresa attenuata

COMMON NAME: KILLER WHALE

Family: Delphinidae Latin Name: Orcinus orca Linnaeus, 1758101 Local
Names: Thimingalam (Malayalam/Tamil) Best Seen At: Nowhere
commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Data Deficient/ II/
Uncommon Social Unit: 3–50 Size: HBL: 5.5– 9.8 m, Wt: 3,800–5,500
kg102

DESCRIPTION: Probably the best known whale because of its appearance

in films and marine shows, the Killer Whale is a black and white dolphin
with a huge dorsal fin that in males may be as long as 1.8 m. Its jet-black
body has a white oval patch behind the eye and a grey saddle patch behind
the fin. It has a white chest, white side patches and rounded flippers. Males
are larger and heavier than females and have taller, straighter dorsal fins.
Younger ones have more conical heads than adults and may show tan or
yellow colouration in the white patches.103
BEHAVIOUR: A very inquisitive, acrobatic species, the Killer Whale
often approaches boats and humans. It has a low blow but displays other
whale-like behaviour such as lobtailing, breaching, flipper-slapping, and
speed swimming.
DISTRIBUTION: The species is known from half a dozen records off
Gujarat, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Andaman & Nicobar Islands,104 and
Lakshadweep Islands.105
HABITAT: Most marine habitats especially in areas of high marine
productivity areas, including near the shore.106

COMMON NAME: FALSE KILLER WHALE

Family: Delphinidae Latin Name: Pseudorca crassidens Owens, 1846
Local Names: Thimingalam (Malayalam/Tamil) Best Seen At: Nowhere
commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Data Deficient/ II/ Rare Social
Unit: 10– 50, sometimes over 100 Size: HBL: 4–6 m, Wt: 1,100–2,200 kg

DESCRIPTION: A rare, large and active whale, the False Killer Whale is
uniformly dark grey in colour. It has a slightly grey or off-white ‘W’ on its
chest, a large dorsal fin and a unique flipper that is set very far forward on
the body with a clear elbow. This whale has a long slender head unlike the
Pilot Whale, and is larger than the Melon-headed and Pygmy Killer Whales.
BEHAVIOUR: An active swimmer, it is known to feed on smaller
cetaceans. It frequently swims with its mouth open, exposing its sharp teeth.
DISTRIBUTION: Recorded off the coast of Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil
Nadu and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.107
HABITAT: It prefers deep, warm, offshore waters, but is also known to
move into shallow water on occasion.108
 Pseudorca crassidens, extralimital

Orcinus orca, showing typical breaching

 O. orca

P. crassidens

COMMON NAME: SPERM WHALE

Family: Physeteridae Latin Name: Physeter macrocephalus Linnaeus,
1758109 Local Names: Enna thimingalam (Malayalam/Tamil), Ratchata
thimingalam (Tamil) Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ II/ Uncommon Social Unit: 1–50,
sometimes 100+ Size: HBL: 10110–18 m, Wt: 2,000–5,000 kg
DESCRIPTION: The most easily recognizable large whale, it has a large,
square head with an inconspicuous lower jaw and small eyes. The shrivelled
prune-like purple–brown body has no dorsal fin; it has a triangular hump on
the back and a row of knuckles between the hump and tail. Its flippers are
short; its face, mouth and belly may be paler or whitish. Its large teeth are
conical.
BEHAVIOUR: Unlike any cetacean, it blows an angled bushy blow of
water from the left side of its nose.
DISTRIBUTION: Recorded off the Jakhau coast of Gujarat,111
Karnataka,112 Maharashtra, Kerala to Tamil Nadu and Puducherry. It is also
known from the waters of Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep
Islands.113
HABITAT: Deep open oceans (depth more than 1,000 m). More frequent in
areas of high productivity, and females and young usually in warmer
waters.114

COMMON NAME: PYGMY SPERM WHALE

Family: Kogiidae Latin Name: Kogia breviceps Blainville, 1838115 Local
Names: Unknown Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Data Deficient/ II/ Uncommon Social Unit: 3–
6, up to 10 Size: HBL: 2.7–3.4 m, Wt: 300–400 kg

DESCRIPTION: This small whale is probably not related to the Sperm

Whale but is probably a close cousin of the Dwarf Sperm Whale. Both
whales have a squarish head that resembles that of the Sperm Whale.
Overall, it is steel–grey, with a pale or pinkish underside, a tiny hooked
dorsal fin, a prominent false gill behind the ear and broad flippers. The
body may appear wrinkled although not as much as that of the Sperm
Whale.
BEHAVIOUR: It has an inconspicuous, low blow. When rising to the water
surface, it may drop back without arching out, a habit unique to it. Like
squids, it releases a red or brown ink jet if startled.
DISTRIBUTION: Only a few records from Thiruvananthapuram in
Kerala, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, and Visakhapatnam in Andhra
Pradesh.116
HABITAT: Deep outer continental shelf and beyond, and warm temperate
waters.117

COMMON NAME: DWARF SPERM WHALE

Family: Kogiidae Latin Name: Kogia sima Owen, 1866118,119 Local
Names: Unknown Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Data Deficient/ II/ Uncommon Social Unit: 1–
2, up to 10 Size: HBL: 2.1–2.7 m, Wt: 135–275 kg

DESCRIPTION: Almost identical externally to the Pygmy Sperm Whale,

this was thought to be a subspecies until recently. The shape and size of the
dorsal fin easily tell it apart. The Dwarf and Pygmy Sperm Whales can be
confused with sharks because of their under-slung jaw, small sharp teeth
and false gill behind the eye. But their blowhole and bulky bodies indicate
they are whales.
BEHAVIOUR: Unknown.
DISTRIBUTION: Recorded from Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh,
Chennai in Tamil Nadu and Thiruvananthapuram in Kerala.120
HABITAT: Deep waters; it is found in deeper waters than the Pygmy
Sperm Whale.121

Physeter macrocephalus breaches

Physeter macrocephalus
 P. macrocephalus tail flukes, extralimital

P. macrocephalus blows, extralimital

Kogia breviceps

Kogia sima

COMMON NAME: CUVIER’S BEAKED WHALE

Family: Ziphiidae Latin Name: Ziphius cavirostris G. Cuvier, 1823122
Local Names: Unknown Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Least Concern/ II/ Uncommon Social Unit: 1–
25 Size: HBL: 5.5–7 m, Wt: 2,000–3,000 kg

DESCRIPTION: Beaked whales are medium to large cetaceans that live in

deep ocean trenches and are rarely seen above water. All of them have
reduced number of teeth and females have no teeth at all. The most
abundant of all beaked whales, the Cuvier’s Beaked Whale may be
recognized by its goose-beak shaped mouth and a gently sloping forehead.
The colour of this species varies from pale brown to cream to purplish black
and red, thereby making identification extremely difficult. Two small
conical teeth are present in the lower jaw of the male. White or cream-
coloured scars are seen on the lower side and on the tail.
BEHAVIOUR: Rarely breaches, and has an indistinct blow that appears in
front and to the left of the whale. Head may be exposed while swimming.
DISTRIBUTION: It is recorded only twice in Porto Novo (Parangipettai),
Taml Nadu, and Lakshadweep Islands.123
HABITAT: They prefer deep waters (deeper than 200 m), especially those
near a steep sea slope and around oceanic islands. Not found near coasts but
pelagic; confined by the 10°C isotherm and the 1,000 m bathymetric
contour.124

COMMON NAME: BLAINVILLE’S BEAKED WHALE

Family: Ziphiidae Latin Name: Mesoplodon densirostris Blainville, 1817
Local Names: Unknown Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Data Deficient/ II/ Uncommon Social Unit: 1–
12 Size: HBL: 4.5–6 m, Wt:1,000–1,500 kg

DESCRIPTION: A marginally smaller beaked whale, this species can be

identified only at close range by its large, single-lobed, flattened teeth. The
teeth emerge in males from an arched lower jaw and protrude well over the
upper jaw. Its dark bluish grey body has a lighter patch on the underside and
a large number of parasitic-shark-bite scars all over.
BEHAVIOUR: A series of shallow dolphin-like dives is followed by a
slightly longer, deeper dive from which it emerges with its beak pointing
skywards.
DISTRIBUTION: They are only recorded off Nicobar Islands.125
HABITAT: Deep (200–1000 m) continental slope waters.126

Not recorded from India but may be present.

COMMON NAME: GINGKO-TOOTHED BEAKED WHALE
Latin Name: Mesoplodon gingkodens Nishiwaki & Kamiya, 1958

DESCRIPTION: Very little is known about the Gingko-toothed Beaked

Whale. Unless stranded, it is difficult to distinguish from the Blainville’s.
Its teeth are characteristically fan-shaped, like the leaf of the Gingko tree.
Lack of scarring on the body, a slightly larger size and a very triangular
fluke with no notch can help distinguish it from the Blainville’s. It has not
been recorded from Indian waters thus far, but this may well be because of
misidentification due to its similarity with other beaked whales.
HABITAT: Warm, deep, offshore waters.127

Ziphius cavirostris
Mesoplodon densirostris
 Mesoplodon gingkodens

COMMON NAME: MINKE WHALE

Family: Balaenopteridae Latin Name: Balaenoptera acutorostrata
Lacepede, 1804 Subspecies: B.a. thalmaha Local Names: Thimingalam
(Malayalam/ Tamil) Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Lower Risk/ II/ Uncommon Social Unit: 1–3;
can reach up to 100 Size: HBL: 6.7–10.7 m, Wt: 500–1,000 kg

DESCRIPTION: The smallest and most common of the rorqual whales,

the Minke is dark grey or slaty brown above, and white or pale grey–brown
on its lower side. It has a sharp triangular head with a pointed snout and a
single longitudinal ridge on the head. Most Indian populations have a white
band on the flipper, although this is variable.
BEHAVIOUR: The Minke can be easily spotted by the appearance of its
triangular snout, with which it breaks out of the water surface. It starts
blowing as soon as the snout emerges but the low, indistinct blow is almost
like spray and easy to miss (it reaches only 2–3 m in height). During
breaching, which it seldom does, the Minke leaves the water at 45º and then
either slaps down back into water or enters head first like a dolphin, never
showing its tail flukes. Stranded Minkes can be identified by the creamy
white baleen plates numbering 230–260.128
DISTRIBUTION: Only three records: an unconfirmed one from Tamil
Nadu, the second from Kakinada in Andhra Pradesh,129 and the third from
Lakshadweep.130
HABITAT: Temperate waters, rarely in tropical waters.

COMMON NAME: HUMPBACK WHALE

Family: Balaenopteridae Latin Name: Megaptera novaeangliae Borowski,
1781131 Local Names: Thimingalam (Malayalam/Tamil) Best Seen At:
Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ II/ Rare
Social Unit: 1–3 commonly; up to 15 animals in feeding concentrations
Size: HBL: 11–16 m, Wt: 2,500–3,000 kg

DESCRIPTION: A large, energetic whale with very distinctive flippers,

head, and tail, the Humpback is one of the best-known whales in the world.
It has a slender head (almost crocodilian) with a single ridge and a large
splash guard similar to the Blue Whale’s. It has a number of small knobs (or
tubercles) on the head and lower jaw. Its flippers are the longest in any
whale, nearly one-third of the size of the body, and these also have tubercles
along the edges. Its body is blue–black or dark grey with whitish patches on
the underside, especially on the belly. The broad blue–black tail flukes are
frayed along the leading edges and have white patches. Stranded whales can
be identified by the 270–400 black baleen plates with olive–black bristles
and by the tubercles on the jaw.132
BEHAVIOUR: The Humpback is known to leap clear out of the water and
land on its back in the water. During a dive its tail is arched and its flukes
break clear above the water. It is also one of the best-known vocalizers
among aquatic mammals. Males sing uninterrupted for as long as 35
minutes, and continue vocalizing all day till other whales join in.
DISTRIBUTION: It is known from seven strandings in Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.133
HABITAT: Low-latitude, warm waters in winter, and high-latitude, cold
waters in summer globally. Not known from the Indian Ocean.
Balaenoptera acutorostrata
 Megaptera novaeangliae

COMMON NAME: SEI WHALE

Family: Balaenopteridae Latin Name: Balaenoptera borealis Lesson,
1828134 Local Names: Thimingalam (Malayalam, Tamil) Best Seen At:
Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Lower Risk/ II/
Uncommon Social Unit: 5–6, up to 100 Size: HBL: 13.5–14.5 m, Wt:
2,000–3,000 kg

DESCRIPTION: A bluish grey whale, the Sei has a tall and slender dorsal
fin that is strongly sickle-shaped in most individuals, small, dark flippers
and a small tail that is clearly notched.135 The dark grey of the body has
whitish brush strokes on its upper half.136 The Sei Whale’s underside is pale
and mottled with white scars, and there is a single ridge on its head.
Stranded specimens can be identified by their silky, ashy baleen plates that
number 300– 410.137
BEHAVIOUR: The Sei Whale swims close to the surface at times. Its
blowhole and dorsal fin are both visible during its shallow dive. When
diving and breaching, its head comes out at a much shallower angle than
other rorquals, almost kissing the water surface. In a breach, its belly flops
back into water, and in a dive the dorsal fin and back are visible for a longer
period; the fin is the last to disappear. Its short, diffuse blow rises up to 3 m.
DISTRIBUTION: Recorded on a dozen occasions off Gujarat, Kerala and
Tamil Nadu.138
HABITAT: Temperate waters; warmer waters during winter.

COMMON NAME: BRYDE’S WHALE

Family: Balaenopteridae Latin Name: Balaenoptera edeni Anderson,
1879139 Local Names: Thimingalam (Malayalam/Tamil) Best Seen At:
Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Data Deficient/ II/
Uncommon Social Unit: 1–2, groups up to 30 Size: HBL: 12.2–12.5 m,
Wt:1,200–2,000 kg

DESCRIPTION: A smoky–grey or brown tropical whale with blue–grey,

purplish or creamy grey undersides, the Bryde’s (pronounced broo-dees)
Whale has three longitudinal ridges on its head – a unique feature among
rorqual whales. The dorsal fin is erect and variable in shape, although a
number of them have fins that are sickle-shaped like the Sei’s. Their large
tail flukes have whitish undersides. The throat grooves can be yellowish.140
Stranded specimens can be told apart by the 250–370 slate–grey baleen
plates.141
BEHAVIOUR: It breaches fairly regularly, at times leaving the water
almost vertically between 70º and 90º, showing three-quarters of its body as
it does. Its back arches before it flops back into water. While diving, its
blowholes disappear before the dorsal fin is seen (as opposed to the Sei
Whale) and just before the dive, the whale arches its back and tail stock
clearly. It has jerky fishlike movements, and closely approaches ships and
boats unlike the shyer and more sedate Sei. Its indistinct and thin blow can
rise up to 4 m.
DISTRIBUTION: Has been recorded a dozen times in the Bay of Bengal,
Tamil Nadu, Lakshadweep Islands and Kerala.142
HABITAT: Prefers warm waters (between 40ºN and 40ºS only) off both the
east and west coasts.

Bryde’s Whale, extralimital

Balaenoptera borealis
 Balaenoptera edeni

COMMON NAME: FIN WHALE

Family: Balaenopteridae Latin Name: Balaenoptera physalus Linnaeus,
1758 Subspecies: B.p. physalus Linnaeus, 1758143 Local Names:
Thimingalam (Malayalam/Tamil) Best Seen At: Nowhere commonly seen
IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered/ II/ Uncommon Social Unit: 3–7,
up to 100 Size: HBL: 19– 26 m, Wt.: 4,000–7,500 kg

DESCRIPTION: The second largest whale in the world after the Blue
Whale, the Fin Whale is easily recognizable, if seen on its right side
because of its bicoloured lip. The lower lip is dark grey on the left side and
white on the right, the colour continuing onto the upper body as a greyish
chevron. Its white underside usually appears as a small patch on the belly,
and its throat grooves are exceptionally long and reach up to the navel. A
distinct ridge joins the backswept fin to the tail flukes, giving it the
alternative name of Razorback. Stranded specimens can be identified by
their 260–480 baleen plates, which have two colours: the front plates on the
right side are yellowish white and others are striped blue–grey and
cream.144
BEHAVIOUR: The Fin Whale’s blow is a visible tall, narrow column of
spray that can reach up to 6 m in height. At first, its head emerges out of
water, after which it rests with only its back showing and then it blows tall
and loud. After the blow, it arches (only then does the dorsal fin becomes
visible) and dives. Tail flukes are rarely seen. During infrequent breaching,
its body breaks the surface at around 45º and then re-enters with a loud
splash.
DISTRIBUTION: Found off east and west coasts. Recorded eight times
off Tamil Nadu, Goa, Gujarat and Maharashtra.145
HABITAT: Deep offshore waters.

COMMON NAME: BLUE WHALE

Family: Balaenopteridae Latin Name: Balaenoptera musculus Linnaeus,
1758 Subspecies: Northern Indian Ocean Blue Whale B.m. indica Blyth,
1859146 Local Names: Hut/Raghwa (Hindi), Devmasa (Marathi),
Thimingalam (Tamil/Malayalam), Thimingila (Kannada) Best Seen At:
Nowhere commonly seen IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Endangered/ II/
Uncommon Social Unit: 1–4, more in feeding concentrations Size: HBL:
20–27 m, Wt: 8,000–12,000 kg147

DESCRIPTION: The Blue Whale is the largest living creature on earth.

This whale is uniformly blue–grey, with some mottling. The under-body is
the same colour as the back. The head appears broad and U-shaped like a
submarine. The rear side of the body is elongated ending in a deep tailstock.
The dorsal fin is tiny, perched way back, almost on the tailstock and the
flipper is large. Stranded whales can be identified by their 250–400 short,
black and stiff baleen plates.
BEHAVIOUR: When diving, the Blue Whale comes out of the water at a
shallow angle, back visible horizontally, blows a tall columnar spout and
dives back. Its back is visible for longer, the tiny dorsal fin emerging just
before it sinks downwards. Sometimes, its tail flukes are visible in a dive
but never distinctly like the Humpback’s.
DISTRIBUTION: Indian Ocean.148 Recorded innumerable times on both
coasts from Okhamandal in Gujarat to Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh,
and West Bengal.149
HABITAT: Cold waters and open seas off both coasts. Found normally in
the top 100 m of the sea; rarely in the deep.

Baleonoptera musculus, extralimital

Baleonoptera physalus
Balaenoptera musculus
Dugongs
INDIAN SIRENIANS AT A GLANCE
NUMBER OF SPECIES 1

Activity

Niche Occupancy
 Dugong, Neil Island, Andaman & Nicobar Islands

Dugong

Manatee

Dugong skull

Dugong Flipper Skeletal Details

WHAT IS A DUGONG? WHAT IS A MANATEE?
The order Sirenia comprises the marine dugongs and manatees, which look
somewhat like a cross between a walrus and a dolphin. Sirenians are the
only completely vegetarian marine mammals and considered to be closely
related to the elephant. They have only six vertebrae while most other
mammals have seven. They do not have canines, but only incisors (the first
pair is tusk-like in males) and molars. Dugongs (Family Dugongidae) are
found in the oceans of East Africa, Asia and Australia, while manatees
inhabit the New World and West African waters. Dugongs have a notched
tail; manatees have a rounded fluke.

LOCOMOTION
Dugongs are strong swimmers, using their tail flukes and flippers to good
effect. They can stay for long periods at their seagrass feeding beds. They
are known to move relatively long distances, which seems individualistic,
and includes daily and seasonal movements.

DIET AND FORAGING

Dugongs are voracious feeders of seagrass and, in India, they are known to
feed on Cymodocea serrulata, Halodule uninervis, Halophila ovalis and
Enhalus acoroides.1 Their presence in marine areas can be determined by
the serpentine trails of feeding in seagrass beds. Unlike turtles that eat only
the blades, dugongs dig up seagrass beds and eat the tubers, too. In the
Andaman & Nicobar Islands, they were seen to only frequent seagrass beds
of Halodule uninervis and Halophila ovalis, with distribution correlated to
the even, continuous spread of seagrass within meadows.2 This selection of
both highly nutritious and highly digestible forage species is a known
ecological strategy to maximize nutritious intake rather than bulk-feed.3

REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES
They have a long lifespan (70 years on record), with a very low
reproductive rate, low generation time and a very high investment in their
young4 – the period between two births being between three to seven years.
Gestation is between 13–15 months; the single calf suckles and is
dependent on the mother for 14–18 months, and inter-calving intervals may
vary from 2.5–7 years.5

VOCALIZATION AND COMMUNICATION

Dugongs are known to chirp, trill and whistle.

THREATS AND CONSERVATION

The dugong is possibly the most threatened marine mammal in India. There
is off-take, targeted and incidental, its seagrass beds are declining and there
is disturbance due to increased vessel movements.6 In the Andaman &
Nicobar Islands, they were common till the 1950s, but numbers have
dropped; distribution seems restricted to four sites near the Andaman
Islands and three around the Nicobar Islands.7
Dugong dugon, Neil Island, Andaman & Nicobar Islands

Dugong found dead, Gulf of Kutch, Gujarat

Evolutionary tree of Indian sirenians (Adapted from www.sirenian.org;
Velez-Juarbe J; Domning D.P., Pyenson N.D., 2012)

Dugong dugon, Gulf of Kutch, Gujarat

 Dugong dugon

COMMON NAME: DUGONG

Family: Dugongidae Latin Name: Dugong dugon Muller, 1776 Subspecies: D.d. dugon Muller,
17768 Local Names: Dariyayi gai (Gujarati), Kadal panni (Tamil), Kadal pasu (Malayalam) Best
Seen At: Gulf of Mannar, Tamil Nadu IUCN/WPA/Indian Status: Vulnerable/ I/ Rare Social Unit:
2–69 Size: HBL: 2.5–3 m (adults can reach 4 m), Wt: 250–420 kg10

DESCRIPTION: The Sea Cow or Dugong is a very large marine mammal

resembling a dolphin in general body shape, with a streamlined or spindle-
shaped torso, flattened and deeply notched tail flukes, and flippers for
forelimbs. The general body colour is brownish grey above, and whitish or
dirty flesh colour11 below. The face of the Dugong is more like that of a seal
or walrus with several bristles around the muzzle and ending in a fleshy
pad-like lip. The nostrils are crescent shaped and open behind the muzzle.
Males have a pair of protruding, tusk-like incisors. The eyes and ear
openings are small. Two mammae are present in the female. Sexes can be
differentiated by the presence of tusks and heavy scarring of body in
males,12 mammae in female and the positioning of the urinogenital opening:
this, in the female, is a slit close to the anus while, in the males, it is placed
anteriorly and at a distance from the anus. The young are paler and with
smoother skin.
BEHAVIOUR: Dugongs are secretive creatures, rarely displaying the
familiarity with humans that their cousins, the manatees, do.
DISTRIBUTION: They have been recorded off Gujarat, Karnataka,
Kerala,13 Tamil Nadu, and Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
HABITAT: Seagrass pastures in coastal or near-shore waters.
ENDNOTES

PRIMATES
1. This varies between 17–26 depending on which taxonomic
authority is followed, especially vis-à-vis the langurs.
References have been given for each species in the endnotes
and therefore no one taxonomic system has been followed for
the entire book 2. Macdonald, D. (2001) 3. Macdonald, D.
(2001) 4. Swapna, N., Radhakrishna, S., Gupta, A.K. and
Kumar, A. (2010) 5. Radhakrishna, S. and Singh, M. (2002)
6. Macdonald, D. (2001) 7. Radhakrishna, S. and Singh, M.
(2002) 8. Slow Lorises are known to have a toxin secreting
gland near their elbow. Hagey, L.R. et al. (2007). There is
some indication of similar glands being present in Slender
Lorises as well (Rasmussen, D.T., 1986) 9. Long term studies
on Lar Gibbons (Reichard, U.H, 2012) have shown that they
are just not monogamous with high number of extra-pair
copulation among groups. More detailed work needs to be
done on Hoolock to establish this 10. Macdonald, D. (2001)
11. Thierry, B., Singh, M., and Kaumanns, W. (2004) 12.
Smuts, B.B., Cheney, D.L., Seyfarth, R.M., Wrangham, R.W.,
Struhsaker, T.T. (eds.) (1987) 13. van Hooff, J.A.R.A.M. and
van Schaik, C.P. (1994) 14. van Schaik, C.P. and Kappeler,
P.M. (1997) 15. There is considerable debate on the
taxonomy of this species. Wilson, D.E. and Reeder, D.M.
(2011) record it as Bunopithecus hoolock and for consistency
this has been used first. However, this taxon is now
considered monotypic; it was formerly considered conspecific
with Hoolock leuconedys. The previous generic name,
Bunopithecus, was changed by Mootnick, A.R. and Groves,
C.P. (2005) to Hoolock (Haimoff, E.H. et al., 1984) 16.
Chetry, D., Chetry, R. and Bhattacharjee, P.C. (2007) 17.
Prater, S.H. (1971) 18. Mukherjee, R.P. (1982), Choudhury,
A. (1990), Alfred, J.R.B. and Sati, J. P. (1986) all confirm
mean group size with minor variations 19. Chetry, D., Chetry,
R. and Bhattacharjee, P.C. (2007) 20. Shortridge (1914);
Schultz, A.H. (1969) 21. Chetry, D., Chetry, R. and
Bhattacharjee, P.C. (2007) 22. Prater, S.H. (1971) 23. Sati, J.
P. and Alfred, J.R.B. (2001) 24. Gupta, A.K. (2005) 25.
Chetry, D., Chetry, R. and Bhattacharjee, P.C. (2007) 26.
Alfred, J.R.B. and Sati, J. P. (1986) and (1994) 27. Chetry,
D., Chetry, R. and Bhattacharjee, P.C. (2007) 28. Chetry, D.,
Chetry, R. and Bhattacharjee, P.C. (2007) 29. Das, J., Biswas,
J., Bhattacharjee, P.C. and Mohnot, S.M. (2006) 30.
Streicher, U., Singh M., Timmins, R.J. and Brockelman, W.
(2008) 31. Radhakrishna S., Goswami, A.B. and Sinha, A.
(2006) 32. Swapna, N., Radhakrishna S., Gupta, A.K. and
Kumar A. (2010) 33. Choudhury, A. (2001) 34. Srivastava,
A. (1999) 35. Radhakrishna S., Goswami, A.B. and Sinha, A.
(2006) 36. Choudhury, A. (2001) 37. Nekaris, A., Singh, M.
and Kumar C., A. (2008) 38. Brandon-Jones et al. (2002) 39.
Tara Gandhi pers. comm. 40. Kumara, H.N., Singh, M. and
Kumar, S. (2006) 41. Radhakrishna, S., Kumara, H.N. and
Sasi, R. (2011) 42. Monotypic by Fooden, J. (2000) 43.
Feeroz, M.M. et al. (2010) 44. Kumar, R., Radhakrishna, S.
and Sinha, A. (2011) 45. Seth, P.K., Seth, S., Chopra, P.K.
and Reddy G.J. (1989) 46. Brandon-Jones et al. (2004),
Singh M. et al. (2008) 47. Singh M., Kumara, H.N., Kumar,
M.A., D’Souza L. (1997) 48. Prater, S.H. (1971) 49. Sinha,
A. (2002) 50. Glick, B.B. (1980) 51. Singh, M., Kumar, A.,
Molur, S. (2008) 52. Singh, M., Kumar, A., Molur, S. (2008)
53. Ajit, A., personal communication in Singh, M. et al.
(2008) 54. Boonratna, R. et al. (2008) 55. Southwick et al.
(1964); Wada, K. (2005) 56. Fooden, J. (1988) 57. Fooden, J.
(1982) 58. Verma, A., Verma, N. (2011) 59. Sinha, A., Datta,
A., Madhusudan, M.D. and Mishra, C. (2005) 60. Biswas, J.,
Borah, D.K., Das, A., Das, J., Bhattacharjee, P.C., Mohnot,
S.M. and Horwich, R.M. (2011) 61. Sinha, A., Chakraborty,
D., Datta, A., Gama, N., Kumar, R.S., Madhusudan, M.D.,
Mendiratta, U., Ramakrishnan, U. and Mishra, C. (2013) 62.
Sinha, A., Chakraborty, D., Datta, A., Gama, N., Kumar, R.S.,
Madhusudan, M.D., Mendiratta, U., Ramakrishnan, U. and
Mishra, C. (2013) 63. Ong, P. and Richardson, M. (2008) 64.
Umapathy, G., Singh, M. and Mohnot, S.M. (2003) 65.
Groves, C.P. (2001) 66. Sponsel, L.E. et al. (2002); Rowe, N.
(1996); Groves, C.P. (2001); Crockett, C.M. and Wilson,
W.L. (1980); Fa, J.E. (1989); Choudhury, A. (2003) 67.
Srivastava, A. and Mohnot, S. (2001); Choudhury, A. (2003)
68. Uno et al. (1967) 69. Fa, J. E. (1989); Fooden, J. et al.
(1985); Gupta, A.K. (2002); Srivastava, A. (1999) 70.
Kumar, A. (2002) 71. Kumar, A. (2002) 72. Ramachandran,
K.K. and Joseph, G.K. (2000) 73. Singh, M., Kumar, M.A.,
Kumara, H.N., Sharma, A.K. and Sushma, H.S. (2000) 74.
Singh, M., Kumara, H.N., Kumar, M.A., D’Souza, L. (1997)
75. Sunderraj, S.J.W. (2002) 76. Kumar, A. (2002) 77. In the
Wildlife Protection Act all the Grey Langurs are listed as
Hanuman Langurs in Schedule II. 78. Reena, M. and Ram,
M.B. (1992) 79. Nag, K.S.C., Pramod, P. and Karanth, K.P.
(2011) have shown that instead of the Tapti-Godavari systems
separating the northern and Southern tail carriages, the
northern form has penetrated the state of Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka up to the Krishna River in the east 80. Scientists
are currently debating whether this langur is a single species
with several subspecies, or whether eight different species
actually exist 81. A further indeterminate form has been
requested by Nag, K.S.C. et al. (2011) in Walayar and parts of
northern Malabar. Further work is required to confirm its
identity 82. Whereas it integrates with S. priam 83. Nag,
K.S.C. et al. (2011) 84. Nag, K.S.C. et al. (2011) 85. Nameer,
P.O. (in litt) in Brandon-Jones, D. (2004) 86. More common
in the lower foothills under 300 m; rarely in the Nilgiris 87.
Roberts, T.J. (1997) 88. Brandon-Jones, D. (2004) 89.
Photographs from Dachigam NP in Kashmir Valley and
Dalhousie in Chamba Valley both show dark forearms. More
work needs to be done to classify Himalayan Langur
taxonomy 90. Roberts, T.J. (1997) 91. Prater, S.H. (1971) 92.
Prater, S.H. (1971) 93. (a) Nag et al. (2011); (b) Considers
coat colour to be plastic in langurs. Kaziranga displays either
a mixing of P.p. pileatus and P.p. durga as evidenced by
cream vs deep orange bellies or colouration varies greatly
seasonally 94. Groves, C.P. (2001); Brandon-Jones, D., Eudy,
A.A., Geissmann, T., Melnick, D.J., Morales, J.C., Shekelle,
M. and Stewart, C.B. (2002) 95. Roonwal, M.L. and Mohnot,
S.M. (1977) 96. Prater, S.H. (1971) 97. Prater, S.H. (1971)
98. Choudhury, A. (2001) in Das, J., Molur, S. and Bleisch,
W. (2008) 99. It has been proposed that the Bhutanese
species be called T.g. butanensis (Wangchuk, R. et al., 2006)
100. Chetry, R. and Chetry, D. (2009) 101. Srivastava, A.
(1999) 102. Srivastava, A. (1999) 103. Srivastava, A. (1999)
104. Chetry, R. and Chetry, D. (2009) 105. Srivastava, A.
(1999) 106. Gupta, A.K. (1998) 107. Gupta, A.K. (1998)

ELEPHANTS
1. Groning, K. (1998) 2. Sukumar, R. (1989) 3. Bhaskaran,
N. (1998) 4. Sukumar, R. (1992) 5. Bhaskaran, N. (1998) 6.
Nair, S., Balakrishnan, B., Seelamantula, S. and Sukumar, R.
(2009) 7. Payne, K.B., Langbauer, W.R., and Thomas, E.M.
(1986) 8. O’Connell-Rodwell, C.E., Arnason, B.T. and Hart,
L.A. (2000) 9. Rasmussen in Sukumar, R. (2003) 10. Roth,
Gerhard (2005); Stamenov, M.I. and Gallese, V. (2002) 11.
Poole, J. and Moss, C.J. (2008); Elephant Voices website 12.
Other than intra-specific examples of elephant intelligence,
there is much evidence in its complex relationship with its
handlers or mahouts in captivity. Elephants are known to
grow fond of, recognize after years of separation, and take
revenge against mahouts whose behaviour towards them
leads them to such action 13. Parsell, D.L. (2003) 14.
Masson, J. and McCarthy, S. (1996) 15. Sukumar, R. (1994)
16. Shoshani, J. and Eisenberg, J.F. (1982) 17. Sukumar, R.
(2003) 18. Sukumar, R. (2003) 19. Menon, V. (2002) 20.
Sukumar, R. (2011) 21. Both works are ascribed to Palakapya
Muni, a sage who lived in the kingdom of Anga, present-day
Bihar 22. Rangarajan, M. et al. (2010) 23. Kurt, F. and Garai,
M.E. (2007) 24. Rangarajan, M. et al. (2010)

ODD-TOED UNGULATES
1. Kleinschmidt, T., Czelusniak, J., Goodman, M., Braunitzer,
G. (1986); McKenna, M.C. and Bell S.K. (eds.) (1977) and
Seiffert, E. and Guillon, J.M. (2007) 2. Nowak, R.M. (eds.)
(1991); Oakenfull, E.A, Lim, H.N. and Ryder, O.A. (2000) 3.
This allows them to eat a broad range of high-fibre diets in
large quantities – critical for survival in an arid countryside 4.
Ali (1946) 5. Roberts, T.J. (1997) 6. Schaller, G. (1998) 7.
Shah, N., St. Louis, A., Huibin, Z., Bleisch, W., van Gruissen,
J. and Qureshi, Q. (2008) 8. Schaller, G.B. (1998) 9. Jhadav
(1979) 10. Shah, N. (1993); Shah, N. (1994) 11. Wilson, D.E.
and Mittemeir, R. (eds.) (2011) 12. Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeir, R. (2011) 13. Ranjitsinh, M.K. (1997) 14.
Schaller, G. (1998) 15. Shah, N. and Qureshi, Q. (2007) 16.
Veselovsky, Z. and Volf, J. (1965); Bannikov (1971) 17.
Shah, N. (1993) 18. Veselovsky, Z. and Volf, J. (1965) 19.
Even up to a year if the female does not become pregnant
again 20. Bannikov (1971) 21. Bhatnagar, Y.V. et al. (1996)
22. Shah, N. (1994) 23. Roberts, T.J. (1997) 24. Singh, S.
and Rao, K. (1984) 25. Klingel, H. (1977); Shah, N. (1993);
Shah, N. and Qureshi, Q. (2007) calls the breeding groups
‘territorial harems’ and the term ‘harem’ is still being debated
by scientists 26. Groves, C.P. (1974) 27. Ali (1946) 28.
Many a time the tuft is missing in stallions due to being bitten
off by rival males 29. Roberts, T.J. (1997) 30. Sinha, S.K.
(1983); Shah, N. pers. comm. 31. Ali (1946); Prater, S.H.
(1948); During the dry season (March–June), Asses may
congregate in large numbers in these bets and shift from bet
to bet as availability of grass decreases on one 32. Shah, N.
(1993); Shah, N. and Qureshi, Q. (2007) 33. Rawat, G.S.,
Shanker, K. and Upadhyay, A.K. (2001) 34. Shah, N., St.
Louis, A., Huibin, Z., Bleisch, W., van Gruissen and Qureshi,
Q. (2008) 35. Shah, N., St. Louis, A., Huibin, Z., Bleisch, W.,
van Gruissen and Qureshi, Q. (2008); Believe this variation to
not constitute subspecific level differences 36. Ranjitsinh,
M.K. (1997) notes that to approach it closely it is best to lie
on ones belly and allow the Kiang’s natural curiosity to get
the better of it, when it will come closer and inspect you! 37.
Rawat, G.S., Shanker, K. and Upadhyay, A.K. (2001) 38.
Sharma, B.D., Clevers, J., de Graaf, R. and Chapgain, N.R.
(2004) 39. Rawat, G.S., Shanker, K. and Upadhyay, A.K.
(2001) 40. Sharma, B.D., Clevers, J., de Graaf, R. and
Chapgain, N.R. (2004); Studies in Nepal have shown a slope
of less than five degrees, not further than two km from water
and more than five km from human habitations form ideal
Kiang habitat within its altitudinal range 41. Monotypic 42.
Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeir, R. (eds.) (2011) 43. The Black
and White Rhinos of Africa and the Sumatran Rhino of Asia
have two horns each, which easily set them apart. The highly
endangered Javan or the Lesser One-horned Rhinoceros is
much smaller and does not have the armour plates of its
Indian cousin. India had all three Asian rhinoceroses till the
19th century, but today it is a refuge for only the Greater One-
horned Rhinoceros, the largest of the Asian rhinoceroses. 44.
Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeir, R. (eds.) (2011) 45. Menon, V.
(1996)

EVEN-TOED UNGULATES
1. Depending on whether the two newly described species of
muntjac and leaf deer are confirmed conclusively to be Indian
range species and whether the Chinkara is one species with
three subspecies or three distinct species. This rendering also
takes the Red Muntjac and the Serow to be one species and
the goral to be three species 2. Hoffman, R.R. and Stewart,
D.R.M. (1972) 3. Spitz, F. (1986) 4. Prater, S.H. (1948) 5.
Krishnan, M. (1972) 6. This study is from Kedarnath in
Uttarakhand on the Himalayan Musk Deer although the
Alpine Musk Deer also occurs in the same belt, Timmins, R.J.
and Duckworth, J.W. (2008) 7. Kleberg bluestern or Hindi
grass, Dicanthium annulatum and Mesquite or Vilayati Kikar
(Prosopis juliflora) pods comprised nearly half of all that was
eaten by the Blackbuck in Velavadar, Jhala, Y.V. (1997) 8.
One herd of 300 Blackbuck were known to have caused
damage to 48,600 kg of Sorghum crop in one season valued
at Rs. 29,000 in Surendranagar district of Gujarat (Jhala, Y.V.,
1993) 9. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (2011) 10.
Timmins, R.J. and Duckworth, J.W. (2008) 11. Estes, R.D.
(1991) 12. Schaller, G.B. (1977) 13. Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (2011); Spitz, F. and Janeau, G. (1990);
The dynamics of the basic group include the dislocation of
preparturient female, her re-entry with young, entry of
nulliparous females, the arrival of adult males with the
simultaneous departure of subadult animals (Spitz, F.,
1986).14. Prater, S.H. (1948) quotes Dunbar Brander as
having seen a herd of 170 boars and sows in a circle around a
master boar! 15. Schaller, G.B. (1977) 16. Wallace, H.F.
(1913) 17. Stebbins (1912) 18. In Pakistan a shepherd is
recorded to have crept up close to a pair of sparring Chinkara
and caught them by their hind legs, without their even
noticing his presence 19. Exact months for Moschiola indica
not known 20. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (2011) 21.
Raman, T.R.S. (2004); Madhusudan, M.D. and Karanth, K.U.
(2000, 2002). The latter gives details of hunting techniques as
well and the fact that women join this hunt as much as men.
They also document that 78 percent of their respondents said
that mouse deer were what they hunted the most 22. Yang,
Q.S. et al. (2003) 23. In one instance, religious intolerance
has led to the extirpation of the Wild Pig in Dachigam,
Kashmir. On the orders of a top-ranking politician, the Wild
Pigs of Dachigam were exterminated so that water sources
that would later supply Srinagar would not be contaminated!
24. Described as Meminna indica. Monotypic. Was for long
under Tragulus genus. Reclassified by Groves, C.P. and
Grubb, P. (1987) into Moschiola and split from Moschiola
memmina by Groves, C.P. and Meijaard, E. (2005) into M.
indica 25. Wilson, D.E. and Reeder, D.M. (2011) 26. Groves,
C.P. and Meijaard, E. (2005) 27. Champion, S.W. (1929);
Prater, S.H. (1947); Menon, V. (2002) 28. Hinton, M.A.C.
and Fry, T.B. (1923); Tehsin, R.H. (1980); Groves, C.P. and
Meijaard, E. (2005); Mitchell, R. and Punzo, F. (1976) 29.
Was traditionally thought of as a subspecies of M.
chrysogaster, e.g., by Grubb, P. (1990), but it was given
separate species level by Groves, C.P. and Grubb, P. (1987)
and by Groves, C.P. et al. (1995). Currently monotypic, but
enough indications that other subspecies or even species may
exist awaiting taxonomic and field research within the general
lump of Himalayan and Alpine Musk Deer 30. Relatively
large for a Musk Deer with a skull size of 15.3–16 cm 31.
Groves, C.P. et al. (1995) 32. The presence in the north–east
and the distribution limitations between it and the Alpine and
Black Musk Deer is uncertain and needs further field research
33. In Kedarnath WLS, which may have a different taxon,
Musk Deer inhabit open pastures on warmer north facing
slopes. Green, M. (1985, 1986) 34. Monotypic. Initially
thought to be a subspecies of Himalayan Musk Deer M.
chrysogaster, but it is very similar to Himalayan Musk Deer
M. leucogaster. However, Groves, C.P. et al. (1995)
suggested that it might be a separate species, a course
followed by Grubb, P. (2005) and it is so treated here 35.
Skull length 15–15.5 cm 36. Hair length 33–38 mm on
withers and 37–58 mm on rump 37. This is a well-defined
species (Grubb, P., 1982, 2005; Groves, C.P. et al. 1995). The
form sifanicus was included in M. moschiferus as a
subspecies by Ellerman, J.R. and Morrison-Scott, T.C.S.
(1951) and considered an independent species by Gao, Y.T.
(1963). However, Groves, C.P. et al. (1995) included it in M.
chrysogaster as a subspecies. The chrysogaster of Cai, G.Q.
and Feng, Z.J. (1981) is subspecifically or specifically
distinct, and the available name for this taxon may be
leucogaster Hodgson, B.H. (1839); Groves, C.P. et al. (1995);
Grubb, P. (2005). Some Chinese authors continue to
recognize M. sifanicus as a full species, e.g., Yang, Q.S. et al.
(2003); Zhou, K. et al. (2004) 38. The other described
subspecies is extralimital 39. Zhixiao, L. et al. (2002);
Zhixiao, L. and Helin, S. (2008); Xiuxiang et al. (2003),
Xiuxiang et al. (2005) 40. Skull length 14.5–16 cm 41. Hair
length on withers is 35–42 mm and on rump 55–64 mm 42.
The exact distribution of various species of Musk Deer still
needs field work to be accurate 43. Monotypic. Described by
Li Zhixiang (1981) and Groves, C.P. et al. (1995) later
elaborated on it. Moschus saturatus (Hodgson, 1839) may be
a prior name for this species. Gao, Y.T. (1985) treated fuscus
as a subspecies of M. chrysogaster i.e., M. chrysogaster
fuscus. But Groves, C.P. et al. (1995) considered it as valid
species; Su et al. (1999) demonstrated its phylogenetic status
as a valid species by analysis of cytochrome 44. Skull length
13.5–14.5 cm 45. 32–46 mm on withers and 51–63 mm on
rump (Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A., 2011) 46.
Described as Cervus muntjak. Taxonomy follows Wilson,
D.E. and Reeder, D.M. (2005), Ten subspecies recognized,
although some authors feel there should be three species;
Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Hedges, S. et al. (2008);
Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (2011) 47. Wilson, D.E.
and Mittermeier, R.A. (2011) 48. Record up to 27 cm long
49. Nagarkoti, A. and Thapa, T.B. (2007) based on research
done in Nepal 50. Wurster, D.H. and Benirschke, K. (2006)
51. James, J., Ramakrishnan, U. and Datta, A. (2007) 52.
This could also be close to M. crinifrons the Black Muntjac,
but based on the Gongshan Muntjac being found closer to the
‘dark north–eastern muntjac’ it is currently believed to be M.
gongshanensis pending further work 53. James, J.,
Ramakrishnan, U. and Datta, A. (2007) 54. First described as
Cervus unicolor. Taxonomy follows Wilson, D.E. and Reeder,
D.M. (2005) 55. Other four subspecies occur outside India
56. Schaller, G.B. (1967); Karanth, K.U. and Sunquist, M.E.
(1992) 57. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011)
58. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011) 59.
Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011) 60. Wilson,
D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds) (2011). Although
Ranjitsinh, M.K. (1997) has seen them well-developed even
outside the rut 61. Ranjitsinh, M.K. (1997) feels they are the
most swamp- and water-loving of the large cervids 62. No
Indian ungulate has a larger habitat preference (Schaller,
G.B., 1967), but today nowhere is it locally abundant (Sankar,
K. and Acharya, B., 2004) 63. Taxonomy here follows
Wilson, D.E. and Reeder, D.M. (2005) and Groves, C.P.
(2003), although other recent genetic work have granted C.
wallichii, the Central Asian Red Deer, a separate specific
status with three subspecies 64. The other two ssp. exist
outside India 65. Evaluated as C.e. hanglu and not as C.w.
hanglu and therefore the status will change to probably
endangered if thus estimated 66. Geist, V. (1998); Lydekker,
R. (1915) 67. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.)
(2011) 68. Further east of the Hangul’s range is found the
Sikkim Red Deer, locally called the Shou. The Shou (C.e.
wallichi) is thought to be extinct in Bhutan and is found in
small numbers in Tibet. There are unconfirmed reports of the
animal straying into India. It is larger than the Hangul, with
bigger antlers and a larger rump patch divided by a dark line.
The under parts, lips and chin are grey instead of white, as is
the tail 69. Lydekker, R. (1900) 70. Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011) 71. Sofi, M.N. et al. (2012)
72. Thus far kept in the Swamp Deer genera Rucervus
because of its unique molar teeth adapted to grazing.
However, taxonomists now feel that it needs a distinct genus
(Panolia?) and the debate continues. Also worth noting is that
it is only the Sangai in India that is adapted to swamps. The
Thamin in Myanmar and the south–east Asian subspecies are
hard ground dwellers and thus swamp dwelling by itself may
not be the basis for taxonomic inclusion 73. Named after
L.P.D. Eld who described the species first in 1838 when he
was Assistant to the Commissioner of Assam in British India
74. The other two subspecies are not found in India 75.
Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011) 76. First
described as Cervus duvauceli. Taxonomy follows Wilson,
D.E. and Reeder, D.M. (2005) 77. Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011) 78. In both antlers, total tips
reaching up to 12 and therefore the Hindi common name
Barasingha or twelve-tined 79. Ranjitsinh, M.K., pers.
comm. 80. Ranjitsinh, M.K. (1997) 81. Ranjitsinh, M.K.
(1997) 82. Monotypic, no subspecies. Taxonomy follows
Wilson, D.E. and Reeder, D.M. (2005) 83. Up to 500 seen in
the Kanha grasslands by Ranjitsinh, M.K. (1997) 84. Wilson,
D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011) 85 Ranjitsinh, M.K.
(1997) 86. Bucks of up to 110 kg and does of up to 70 kg also
known 87. Ranjitsinh, M.K. (1997) 88. Prater, S.H. (1948)
89. Ranjitsinh, M.K. (1997) 90. The other subspecies is
extralimital. Some taxonomists place the Hog Deer in a
separate genus Hyelaphus. Taxonomy here follows Wilson,
D.E. and Reeder, D.M. (2005) 91. Questionable status as the
Hog Deer is severely isolated to protected areas only in the
Terai and is rarely seen in most of its former range. It is
locally common where seen, but this may give a false lull of
security 92. Adult males have been known to weigh up to 95
kg. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011) 93.
Prater, S.H. (1948) 94. Wilson, D.E. and Reeder, D.M. treat it
as Bos frontalis. Taxonomy here follows Gentry, A. et al.
(2004) and Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R., Timmins, R.J.,
Pattanavibool, A., Than Zaw, Do Tuoc and Hedges, S.
(2008). Traditionally three subspecies recognized, but
Groves, C.P. and Grubb, P. (2003, 2005) conclude two
subspecies, one in India and Nepal and one in South East
Asia. An extinct form of Sri Lanka survived into the historic
period 95. Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz, R., Timmins, R.J.,
Pattanavibool, A., Than Zaw, Do Tuoc and Hedges, S. (2008)
96. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (2011); Animals in
the Nilgiris and Assam more massive with larger horns than
those in central India (Ranjitsinh, M.K., pers. comm.) 97.
Large male yaks can compete for this honour, but Wild Yaks
are rare in India and large Wild Yaks even more so 98.
Lydekker, R. (1900); Ranjitsinh M.K., pers. comm. 99.
Personal experience on a number of occasions 100.
Choudhury, A. (2002); Sahoo, D.P. and Das, S.K. (2010)
101. Ranjitsinh, M.K. (1997) 102. Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011); Duckworth, J.W., Steinmetz,
R., Timmins, R.J., Pattanavibool, A., Than Zaw, Do Tuoc and
Hedges, S. (2008) believe they prefer low altitudes and have
been driven to hill forests but Ranjitsinh, M.K. (1997) and my
own observations are that they prefer undulating, hilly
country with bamboo brakes even if low land is available
103. Wilson, D.E. and Reeder, D.M. (Year?) recognized
Bubalis bubalis with two subspecies but The International
Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (2003) has ruled
that Bubalus arnee is the Wild Buffalo, while domestic forms
are B. bubalis (Gentry et al., 2004) 104. Groves, C.P. (1996)
recognizes three subspecies, of which one B.a. therapati is in
South East Asia. Recently another B.a. migona has been
described by Groves, C.P. and Jeyawardane, J. (2009) from
Yala in Sri Lanka 105. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A.
(eds.) (2011) 106. Mathur, P.K., Malik, P.K. and Muley, P.D.
(1995); Choudhury, A. (2010) 107. Ranjitsinh M.K., pers.
comm. 108. Lydekker, R. (1926); Prater S.H. (1971);
Choudhury, A. (1994) 109. First described as Poephagus
mutus. Wilson, D.E. and Reeder, D.M. call it B. grunniens.
Leslie, D.M. and Schaller, G.B. (2009) and not Wilson, D.E.
and Reeder, D.M. as International Commission on Zoological
Nomenclature has retained B. mutus for the Wild Yak and B.
grunniens for the Domestic Yak 110. Sarkar, P. et al. (2008)
111. Schaller, G.B. and Liu, W. L. (1996); Ul-Haq, S. (2003)
112. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011) 113.
Schaller, G.B. (1998) 114. Schaller, G.B. (1998) 115. Cai Li
(1994) 116. Cai Li (1994) 117. Schaller, G.B. (1998) 118.
Wiener, G., Han, J. and Long, R. (eds.) (2003) 119.
Monotypic. Named as Antilope tragocamelus (Wilson, D.E.
and Reeder, D.M., 2013) 120. Qureshi, M.Q. (1992); Singh,
R.V. (1995) 121. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.)
(2011) 122. Lydekker, R. (1900) calls it “an unfortunate
circumstance for sportsmen that the largest of the Indian
antelopes is so poorly off in the matter of horns”! 123. Prater,
S.H. (1948) 124. It is one of the major raiders of crops, and
crop yields can be drastically low in areas where it is found in
large numbers. Despite the extensive damage done by this
animal, it is tolerated almost everywhere in India as its name
suggests “cow”, an animal venerated by Hindus 125.
Monotypic. Named as Cerocphorus qudricornis. Taxonomy
follows Wilson, D.E. and Reeder, D.M. (2005) 126. No
known English or common names for the subspecies 127.
Prater, S.H. (1948) 128. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A.
(2011) 129. Lydekker, R. (1900) 130. Prater, S.H. (1948)
131. Lydekker, R. (1900) also says some Kathiawar males
develop only two horns. This is unconfirmed 132. Prater,
S.H. (1948) 133. Wilson, D.E. and Reeder, D.M. (eds.)
(2011) 134. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011)
135. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011) 136.
Habitat more suitable for deer than antelopes. More the
ecological niche of the Duiker of Africa (Lydekker, R., 1900;
Prater, S.H., 1948) 137. Taxonomy follows Wilson, D.E. and
Reeder, D.M. (2005) 138. Lydekker, R. (1900); Prakash, I.
(1994) 139. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (2011); G.b.
bennetti horns average 27–31 cm (39.7 cm record). G.b.
christii horns average 24–28 cm (37.5 cm record). G.b.
salinarum horns average 24–27 cm (Rowland Ward, 1909)
140. Jakher, G.R. et al. (2002); Dookia, S. (2002)
141.Dookia, S., Rawat, M., Jakher, G.R. and Dookia, B.R.
(2002) 142. Alfred, J.R.B. et al. (2001) 143. Described as
Capra cervicapra. Wilson, D.E. and Reeder, D.M. (2005)
144. Groves, C.P. (1980) although Zukowsky (1927) had in
the early part of the century suggested four subspecies that
included Antilope hagenbecki for Nepal, Bihar and UP (later
called Antilope rupicapra by Ellerman, J.R. and Morrison-
Scott, T.C.S. (1951) and Antilope centralis for Odisha, M.P.
and Vidarbha. A. cervicapra remained for southern India and
A. rajputanae for western India 145. Broadly following
Ranjitsinh, M.K. (1989), although female groupings of one or
two young and those with more young, have been combined.
Solitary females are, according to him, those close to
parturition 146. Most measurements following Ranjitsinh,
M.K. (1989) except HBL following Wilson and Mittermeier
(2011). All measurements of Ranjitsinh, M.K. are for A.c.
rajputanae and he notes that A.c. cervicapra is slightly
smaller. HAS, according to other sources, may be as short as
60 cm and weight as low as 25 kg for the nominate
subspecies 147. Ranjitsinh, M.K. (pers. comm.) notes that
while A.c. cervicapra horns seldom diverge, the converse
may not be true, with A.c. rajputanae horns showing both
shapes of divergence and more V shapes 148. The skull of
the two also differs, with the north-western subspecies being
over 230 mm in males while the south-eastern one is smaller.
Groves, C.P. (1980) also talks of a grey sheen on the coat of
the adult male in the rut in the north western form that
Ranjitsinh, M.K (1989) has not observed 149. The Blackbuck
is not found through the Western or Eastern Ghats in the
south, nor through most of eastern India. It is absent in
Kerala, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Bihar,
Jharkhand, West Bengal and the north–east 150. Monotypic;
first described as Antilope hodgsonii. Wilson, D.E. and
Reeder, D.M. (2005) 151. Sarkar, P. et al. (2008) 152. Highly
dependent on seasons and individual herd dynamics Schaller,
G.B. (1998) 153. Schaller, G.B. (1998) 154. This has air sacs
inside that help warm and filter the cold Tibetan air during
inhalation 155. Its soft down hair is known as shahtoosh or
the “king of wools” and the antelope is hunted relentlessly for
this. Migratory in nature, it comes into Ladakh through the
Lanak La Pass from Tibet (Gopinath, R., Ahmed, R., Kumar,
A., Mookerjee, A., 2003) 156. At sixteen months it is 25–30
cm long and by two years the horns top 40 cm. These sub-
adult males start having a deeper grey on the face and front of
the legs that become pure black by 4 or 5 years of age. In
winter, these black markings are striking against the light
grey, almost white, coat 157. These calving grounds in India
are still improperly known and it is unclear whether they
calve within our territory at all 158. These seem based on
avoidance of deep snow, harassment by insects, predatory
pressures and food quality (Schaller, G.B., 1998) 159. Sarkar,
P. et al. (2008) 160. Schaller, G.B. (1998) 161. Monotypic.
Mallon, D.P. and Bhatnagar, Y.V. (2008) 162. Schaller, G.B.
et al (2007) 163. Schaller, G.B. (1998) 164. Shah, N. (1994);
Chanchani, P. pers. comm. (2012) 165. Described as Ibex
sibiricus. There is debate on the species status for the
Himalayan Ibex, taxonomy here follows Wilson, D.E. and
Reeder, D.M. (1993) who follow Geptner et al. (1961).
Shackleton 1997 still treats it as a subspecies of Capra ibex
166. Wilson, D.E. and Reeder, D.M. (1993) do not consider
subspecies. Fedosenko and Blank (2001) recognize four
subspecies, of which three are in Central Asia. Wang (1998),
and Smith, A. and Xie, Y. (2008) recognize another
subspecies in China; Reading, R. and Shank, C. (2008). 167.
Fox, J.L. et al. (1992) 168. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier,
R.A. (eds.) (2011) 169. Schaller, G.B. (1977) 170. Namgail,
T. (2006) 171. Fox, J.L. et al. (1992) 172. Fox, J.L. et al.
(1992) 173. Fox, J.L. et al. (1992) 174. Described as
Aegoceros (Capra) falconeri. Taxonomy here follows Wilson,
D.E. and Reeder, D.M. (2005) 175. Grubb, P. (2005)
recognizes three subspecies, two of which are extralimital to
India 176. Schaller, G.B. (1977); Roberts, T.J. (1997) 177.
Roberts, T.J. (1997) 178. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A.
(eds.) (2011) 179. The name “Markhor” is probably a
corruption of the Persian “mar-akhur” or “snake-horned”,
referring to the shape of the horns. However, it is often
mistakenly believed to mean “snake-eater” 180. Schaller,
G.B. (1977) 181. Schaller, G.B. (1977); Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011) 182. Ranjitsinh, M.K. et al.
(2007); This is in stark contrast to what Roberts, T.J. (1997)
says, where he feels that only a herd or two occurs in “Azad”
Kashmir (sic.) 183. Described as Ovis nayaur. Monotypic.
Later discovered to be closer related to Capra than Ovis.
Wilson, D.E. and Reeder, D.M. (2005) 184. Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011) 185. Ranjitsinh, M.K. pers.
comm. (2012) 186. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.)
(2011) 187. Schaller, G.B. (1977) 188. Monotypic.
Described first as Capra jemlahica; Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011); Wilson, D.E and Reeder,
D.M. (2005); female horn length from Sathyakumar, S.
(2002) 189. Sathyakumar, S. (2002) 190. Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011) 191. Reed and Schaffer
(1972) 192. Schaller, G.B. (1977) 193. Monotypic. Named
as Kemas hylocrius. Formerly classified as Hemitragus
(Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A., 2011), but Ropiquet, A.
and Hassanin, A. (2005) put it in the monotypic genus
Nilgiritragus, based on analyses of four molecular markers;
Alempath, M. and Rice, C. (2008) 194. Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011); HL female from Rice, C.
(1987) 195. Lydekker, R. (1900) 196. Rice, C. (1987) 197.
Alempath, M. and Rice, C. (2008)198. Rice, C. (1987) 199.
Taxonomy is controversial. Either several subspecies of O.
orientalisare recognized as followed here following Valdez,
R. (2008) and Shackleton (1997). Others consider orientalis a
hybrid, and suggest lifting to specific level i.e., Ovis vignei
(Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A., eds., 2011). Wilson
D.E. and Reeder, D.M. (2005) use Ovis aries, which has
since been restricted to use of domestic sheep 200.
Measurements follow Schaller, G.B. (1977), and Wilson, D.E.
and Mittermeier, R.A. (2011). Some are for the Punjab
subspecies wherever the Ladakh subspecies are not given
201. Schaller, G.B. (1977) 202. Wilson D.E. and Reeder,
D.M. (2005); Fedosenko, A.K. and Blank, D.A. (2005)
recognize nine subspecies. Geist, V. (1991), Shackleton, D.M.
and Lovari, S. (1997) Wang (2002), Tserenbataa, T. et al.
(2004) have all their own versions of number of subspecies.
There is no debate however that the Tibetan Argali is distinct
and should either be given a subspecific status O.a. hodgsoni
(Harris, R.B. and Reading, R., 2008) As given here or should
be elevated to a full species O. hodgsoni. 203. As O.ammon,
O.hodgsoni probably much more threatened, perhaps
endangered if evaluated at its own specific level 204. Spatio-
temporal separations are there between sexes. Mixed herds
are only during the breeding season (Schaller, G.B., 1998)
205. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (2011) 206.
Ranjitsinh, M.K. (pers. comm.) 207. Fox, J.L. and Johnsingh,
A.J.T. (1997; Schaller, G.B. (1998); Namgail, T. (2004) 208.
Shah, N. (1994); Sharma, T.R. and Lachungpa, U. (2003);
Pranav, C. pers. comms. (2012) 209. Stockley, C. (1928);
Pandey (2003) 210. Harris, R.B. and Reading, R. (2011) 211.
Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011); Schaller,
G.B. (1998) 212. Following Neas, J.F. and Hoffmann, R.S.
(1987) who recognized four subspecies: B.t. bedfordi, B.t.
taxicolor, B.t. tibetana, and B.t. whitei 213. Schaller, G.B. et
al. (1977); WTI Internal Report (2012) 214. Schaller, G.B.
(1977); Cooper, H.L. (1923) and Wallace, H.F. (1913).
However, very few (under five) animals have been sampled
and more studies are required to get more precise
measurements. Other measurements are Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011) also based more on the
Sichuan Takin studies 215. Schaller, G.B. (1977) 216. The
national animal of Bhutan. It may come in to Sikkim and
more surveys need to be done to see if it does so on a regular
basis 217. WTI Internal Report (2012) 218. WTI Internal
Report (2012) 219. Monotypic form described as Antilope
goral. Originally genus was spelt as Naemorhedus 220.
Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (2011) 221. Mishra, C.
and Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1996) on habitat selection by the goral
Nemorhaedus goral bedfordi. 222. Monotypic described as
Urotragus bedfordi 223. Monotypic. Previously classified as
N.goral cranbrooki and N.g. baileyi 224. Soma, H. et al.
(1987); Wang sun et al. (1997); Xie, Y. (2006); Zhang Cizu
(1987) 225. Described as Antilope sumatrensis. Monotypic.
Wilson D.E. and Reeder, D.M., 3rd edition, (2005); Wilson,
D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (2011); although the ‘Red Serow’
of the north–east needs more taxonomic and genetic study.
226 Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (2011) 227. Wilson,
D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (2011) 228. Ranjitsinh, M.K.
(pers. comm.) 229. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A.
(2011). 230. Duckworth, J.W and MacKinnon, J. (2008) 231.
Green, M.J.B. (1987) 232. Groves, C.P. (1981) recognized
16, possibly 17, subspecies, whilst also either synonymizing
or discounting many previously accepted subspecies. The
latter including various insular south-east Asian feral and/or
hybrid populations. This treatment was followed by Groves,
C.P. and Grubb, P. (1993) 233. In WPA (1972), Sus
andamenensis is listed in Appendix I. This is feral and
currently does not enjoy a specific status taxonomically 234.
Highly variable species. Females about 80 percent of males in
size and weight. S.s. affinis largest, S.s. cristatus a medium-
sized pig and S.s. davidi the smallest of the three. The
Andaman Feral Pig rarely exceeding 35–40 kg in size
(Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A., 2011); Oliver, W.L.R
(1992); Pigs, Peccaries and Hippos, IUCN SSC Pigs and
Peccaries Specialist Group, IUCN 235. India, for example,
has the same species of boar that is found in Europe. It looks
similar as well except for a thinner coat 236. Tusks in pigs
and female elephants are regionally referred to as ‘tushes’ in
India because of their relative small size. These tushes are
upper canines that grow outwards and up in many pig species
237. Groves, C.P. (1991) 238. Wilson, D.E and Reeder, D.M.
(eds.) (2005); Groves, C.P (2008) 239. Perhaps these were
taken to the islands as far back as 2,000 years (Oliver,
W.L.R., 1992) 240. Rosalind, L. and Oliver, W.L.R. (1999)
241. Monotypic. Was included in Sus for some years, but
then reverted back to genus Porcula (Funk, S.M., et al., 2007)
242. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (2011) 243. Oliver,
W.L.R. (1980) 244. Oliver, W.L.R. (1978, 1980); Narayan,
G. (2004) 245. Narayan, G., Deka, P.J., Oliver, W.L.R. and
Fa, J.E. (2010) 246. Narayan, G., Deka, P.J., Oliver, W.L.R.
and Fa, J.E. (2010)

CARNIVORES
1. The Giant Panda is an example 2. Some plants, such as the
Venus flytrap are carnivorous too 3. Leopard Cats, Fishing
Cats, Golden Cats, Marbled Cats 4. Lynx, Caracal, Jungle
Cats 5. Mukherjee, S. (2012) 6. Although some like the
South American Maned Wolf are chiefly vegetarian 7.
Domestic dogs also belong to the same grouping 8. Both
Canids and Hyenas share a reputation bordering on the
negative, with successive governments in the past ordering
their extermination and giving rewards for their ears and tails
as proof of their having been killed. However, they are now
fully protected under law 9. They are the largest family of
carnivores globally 10. Yonzon, P. (1989); Pradhan, S. et al.
(2001) 11. Karanth, U. (2013) 12. Karanth, U. (2013);
Haywards, M.W. et al. (2006) 13. Mukherjee, S. et al. (2004)
14. Schaller, G.B. et al. (1994); Chundawat, R.S. and Rawat,
G.S. (1994); Jackson, R.M. (1996) 15. Especially in autumn
eating mulberry, cherry, peach and raspberry (Manjrekar, N.,
1999) 16. Schaller, G.B. (1969) 17. Manjrekar, N. and
Johnsingh, A.J.T. (2012) 18. Nawaz, M.A. (2008) 19.
Roberts, T.J. (2012) writing about the Deosai Conservation
Project 20. Yoganand, K. (2005); Joshi, A.R. et al. (1997) 21.
Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2012) 22. Vanak,
A.T. and Gomper, M.E. (2009) 23. Joslin (1973); Johnsingh,
A.J.T. (2013) 24. Joshi, A.R. et al. (1997); Laurie, A. and
Seidensticker, J. (1977) 25. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier,
R.A. (eds.) 26. Peters, G. (1980) 27. Kruuk, H. (1976);
Rieger, I. (1981); Wagner, A.P. pers. obs. 28. Wilson, D.E.
and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2013) 29. Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2013). 30. Johnsingh, A.J.T. (2013)
31. Jackson, R. and Ahlborn, G. (1988) 32. Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2013) 33. Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2012) 34. Jackson, R. and Ahlborn,
G. (1988, 1989) 35. Schaller, G.B. (1967); Sunquist, M.E.
(1981); Smith (1993); Karanth, U. (2013) 36. Crandall, L.S.
(1964) 37. Bailey, T.N. (1993) 38. Smith, J.L.D. (1993);
Bailey, T.N. (1993) 39. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A.
(eds.) (2012) 40. Of course, this is also dependent on food
abundance and environmental stress. Reproductive success
and larger litter sizes happen when prey or food is abundant
or temperature variations are not extreme. 41. Sillero-Zubiri,
C. et al. (2004) 42. Acharjyo, L.N. and Misra, R. (1976);
Johnsingh A.J.T. (1978); Manakadan, R. and Rahmani, A.R.
(2000); Prater, S.H. (1980) 43. Pocock, R.I. (1941);
Ronnefeld, U. (1969); Skinner, J.D. and Ilani, G. (1979);
Heptner, V.G. and Sludskii, A.A. (1980) 44. Skinner, J.D. and
Ilani, G. (1979); Rieger, I. (1981); Wagner, A.P. 45. Wilson,
D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (2011) 46. Roberts, T.J. (2012)
47. Laurie, A. and Seidensticker, J. (1977); Yoganand (2005)
48. Joshi et al. (1999); Yoganand (2005) 49. Manjrekar, N.
and Johnsingh, A.J.T. (2012) 50. First described as Felis
tigris. Other five subspecies exists outside India 51. Luo, S.,
Kim, J., Johnson, W.E., Wald, J., Martenson, J., Yuhki, N.,
Miguille, D.G., Uphyrkina, O., Goodrich, J.M., Quigley, H.P.,
Tillson, R., Brady, G., Martelli, P., Subramaniam, V.,
McDougal, C., Hean, S., Huang, S., Pan, W., Karanth, K.U.,
Sunquist, M.E., Smith, J.L.B. and O’Brien, S., (2004)
recognize six extant subspecies including P.t. altaica, P.t.
tigris, P.t. corbetti, P.t. jacksonii, and P.t. amoyensis. Three
other subspecies are considered extinct 52. Sunquist, M.E.
(1981), Karanth, U. (2013) 53. This has led to camera
trapping becoming the preferred way of estimating tiger
numbers instead of the traditional ‘pug mark’ census method.
Now, in several parks and sanctuaries, camera trapping has
led to the identification of individual tigers 54. 50–60 mm
long on upper jaw and 40–50 mm long on lower jaw
(Karanth, U., 2013) 55. The tiger has 30 teeth (Karanth, U.,
2013) 56. Karanth, U. (2013) 57. Kitchener, A.C (1999) 58.
This gene is SLC45A2 59. Seidensticker, J and Mcdougal, C.
(1993) 60. Karanth, U. (2013) 61. Karanth, U. (2013) 62.
First described as Felis leo 63. The other subspecies is
African in distribution 64. Chellam, R. (1993) 65. May have
to do with its being a social animal inhabiting plains. Is also
indicative of fitness (Schaller, G.B., 1972); Nowell, K. and
Jackson, P. (eds.) (1996) 66. Pocock, R.I. (1930) 67.
Berwick, S.H. (1974) 68. Chellam, R. and Johnsingh A.J.T.
(1993) 69. O’Brien, S.J., Joslin, P., Gel Smith III, Wolfe, R.,
Schaffer, N., Heath, E., Ott-Joslin, J., Wildt, D.E. and Bush,
M. (1987) 70. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.)
(2011) 71. Nine subspecies recognized, eight of which are
extralimital 72. Pocock, R.I. (1939); Karanth, U. (Johnsingh,
A.J.T. and Manjrekar, N., 2013) 73. Athreya, V.M., Odden,
M., Linnel, J.D.C. and Karanth, K.U. (2010) 74. First
described as Felis uncia. Till recently classified in the Uncia
genus 75. The other subspecies is in central Asia 76. Jackson,
R. and Ahlborn, G. (1989); Oli (1994) 77. Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) 78. Jackson, R.J. and Chundawat,
R.S. (Johnsingh, A.J.T. and Manjrekar, N., 2013) 79. Fox,
J.L. (1989); Hemmer, H. (1972) 80. Hemmer, H. (1972) 81.
Jackson, R. and Ahlborn, G. (1984). This is of course
supplemented by smaller animals 82. Chundawat, R.S. and
Rawat, G.S. (1994) 83. Jackson, R.J. and Chundawat, R.S.
(Johnsingh, A.J.T. and Manjrekar, N., 2013) 84. Schaller,
G.B. (1977); Fox, J.L. et al. (1991); Mallon, D. (1984) 85.
Fox, J.L. (1989) 86. Jackson, P. (1996); Chundawat, R.S.
(1992) 87. First described as Felis nebulosa 88. The other
subspecies is south–east Asian in distribution. A third
subspecies in Borneo and Sumatra has now been elevated to a
species 89. Wilson, D.E and Mittermeir R.A. (Eds) (2011)
90. Nowell K and Jackson P (1996) 91. There seems to be a
parallel evolution of the clouded leopard to approximate sabre
toothed tigers in this respect. Christiansen, P (2006) 92. First
described as Felis temminckii. Some scientists considers the
bay cat as a subspecies but currently considered to be separate
species. 93. The other two subspecies are extralimital 94.
Wilson, D.E and Mittermeir R.A. (Eds) (2011) 95. Wilson,
D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011) 96. First described
as Felis marmorata 97. The other subspecies is south–east
Asian in distribution 98. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A.
(eds.) (2011) 99. First described as Felis caracal 100. The
other eight subspecies are extralimital 101. Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011) 102. Mukherjee, S.
(Johnsingh, A.J.T. and Manjrekar, N., 2013) 103. The range
is at the western range limits of the species. It has not been
recorded in Punjab and Haryana for many years 104.
Mukherjee, S. (Johnsingh, A.J.T. and Manjrekar, N., 2013;
Prater, S.H., 1948) 105. Other subspecies are all extralimital
106. Mukherjee, S. (Johnsingh, A.J.T. and Manjrekar, N.,
2013) 107. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011);
Anatomically differs from domestic cats in the skull being
larger with a well-developed angular process on the mandible
and a different nasal shape 108. Mukherjee, S. (Johnsingh,
A.J.T. and Manjrekar, N., 2013) 109. First described as Felis
lynx 110. Other subspecies are extralimital. Indian subspecies
one of the southern-most of the range 111. The Indian
subspecies is threatened 112. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier,
R.A. (eds.) (2011) 113. Prater, S.H. (1948) 114. First
described as Felis manul 115. The other two subspecies are
extralimital 116. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.)
(2011) 117. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.)
(2011); Pocock, R.I. (1939) 118. Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011) 119. Mukherjee, S.
(Johnsingh, A.J.T. and Manjrekar, N., 2013) 120. Pocock,
R.I. (1931) (Roberts, T.J., 1997) 121. Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011). The Pokkan in Malayalam is
largely the melanstic form, which is hunted for superstition
and black magic purposes 122. Roberts, T.J. (1997) 123.
Ellerman, J.R. and Morrison-Scott, T.C.S. (1966) 124.
Roberts, T.J. (1997) 125. First described as Felis bengalensis
126. Needs more taxonomic work. Pocock, R.I. (1939);
Groves, C.P. (1997) recognizes several subspecies, in which
the former mentions several subspecies on the mainland while
the latter recognizes only one, the nominate form, on the
mainland 127. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.)
(2011) 128. Mukherjee, S. (Johnsingh A.J.T. and Manjrekar,
N., 2013) 129. Prater, S.H. (1948) 130. Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011) 131. Pocock, R.I. (1939).
132. Roberts, T.J. (1997) 133. Roberts, T.J. (1997) 134.
Roberts, T.J. (1997) 135. The separation of the Himalayan
forms need more field and genetic work 136. Pocock, R.I.
(1939) 137. Sanderson et al. (2008) 138. First described as
Felis viverrinus 139. The other subspecies extralimital in
Java 140. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011)
141. Mukherjee, S. (Johnsingh, A.J.T. and Manjrekar, N.,
2013) 142. Prater, S.H. (1948) 143. First described as Felis
rubiginosus 144. The other two subspecies are extralimital in
Sri Lanka 145. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.)
(2011) 146. Mukherjee, S. (Johnsingh, A.J.T. and Manjrekar,
N., 2013) 147. Prater, S.H. (1948); Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011) 148. The Linsangs were for
long considered viverrids although they lack metatarsal pads
and perianal scent glands, and have fully retractile claws and
grooved pads like felids. Recently considered a sister family
of felids. 149. The other subspecies is South-East Asian in
distribution 150. Mudappa, D. (2013) following Prater, S.H.
(1989), Corbett, G.B. and Hill, J.E. (1992), Van Romapey
(1993, 1995), Nowak, R.M. (1999), Mudappa, D. (2001),
Menon, V. (2003), and Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A.
(eds.) (2009) 151. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.)
152. First described as Gulo larvatus 153. Based on a
revision of the sixteen odd subspecies described to six
subspecies recognized by Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A.
(eds.) 154. Mudappa, D. (2013) following Prater, S.H.
(1989), Corbett, G.B. and Hill, J.E. (1992), Van Romapey
(1993, 1995), Nowak, R.M. (1999), Mudappa, D. (2001),
Menon, V. (2003), and Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A.
(eds.) (2009) 155. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.)
(2011) 156. First described as Viverra hermophrodita 157.
Eleven or more subspecies described by various authors.
Needs taxonomic revisiting 158. Mudappa, D. (2013)
following Prater, S.H. (1989), Corbett, G.B. and Hill, J.E.
(1992), Van Romapey (1993, 1995), Nowak, R.M. (1999),
Mudappa, D. (2001), Menon, V. (2003), and Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2009) 159. First described as
Viverra binturong (Raffles, 1822) 160. Between six and
eleven subspecies have been described and this requires more
taxonomic work 161. Mudappa, D. (2013) following Prater,
S.H. (1989), Corbett, G.B. and Hill, J.E. (1992), Van
Romapey (1993, 1995), Nowak, R.M. (1999), Mudappa, D.
(2001), Menon, V. (2003), and Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier,
R.A. (eds.) (2009) 162. It is only one of two carnivores with
a prehensile tail, the other is the Kinkanjou (Hunter, L., 2011)
163. San Diego Zoo Mammal:Binturong in Wikipedia 164.
First described as Paradaxorus trivirgatus 165. The other
two subspecies are extralimital. Taxanomic work is required
to be done in greater detail 166. Mudappa, D. (2013)
following Prater, S.H. (1989), Corbett, G.B. and Hill, J.E.
(1992), Van Romapey (1993, 1995), Nowak, R.M. (1999),
Mudappa, D. (2001), Menon, V. (2003), and Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2009) 167. Duckworth et al. (2008)
168. Mudappa, D. (2013) following Prater, S.H. (1989),
Corbett, G.B. and Hill, J.E. (1992), Van Romapey (1993,
1995), Nowak, R.M. (1999), Mudappa, D. (2001), Menon, V.
(2003), and Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2009)
169. Mudappa, D. (2013) 170. Mudappa, D. (2013) 171.
First described as Viverra indica. Has often been named V.
malaccensis, but this name is considered as invalid (Wilson,
D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A., eds.) 172. Up to 11 subspecies
described. Others are extralimital. However, taxonomy needs
more work to be precise for India 173. Mudappa, D. (2013)
following Prater, S.H. (1989), Corbett, G.B. and Hill, J.E.
(1992), Van Romapey (1993, 1995), Nowak, R.M. (1999),
Mudappa, D. (2001), Menon, V. (2003), and Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2009) 174. Prater, S.H. (1948) 175.
Mudappa, D. (2013) 176. Prater, S.H. (1948) 177. Other five
subspecies are extralimital, but V.z. surdaster of South-East
Asia has been introduced to the Andaman Islands 178.
Mudappa, D. (2013) following Prater, S.H. (1989), Corbett,
G.B. and Hill, J.E. (1992), Van Romapey (1993, 1995),
Nowak, R.M. (1999), Mudappa, D. (2001), Menon, V. (2003),
and Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2009) 179.
Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2008) 180.
Mudappa, D. (2013) following Prater, S.H. (1989), Corbett,
G.B. and Hill, J.E. (1992), Van Romapey (1993, 1995),
Nowak, R.M. (1999), Mudappa, D. (2001), Menon, V. (2003),
and Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2009) 181.
Nixon, A.M.A., Rao, S., Karthik, K., Ashraf, N.V.K. and
Menon, V. (2010) 182. First described as Icheumon edwardsii
183. Taxonomic work is needed. Up to 15 subspecies have
been described by various taxonomic authorities, of which
currently 5 are supposed to be valid. No work done on
taxonomy in India and therefore much of this is debatable
184. Mudappa, D. (2013) following Prater, S.H. (1989),
Corbett, G.B. and Hill, J.E. (1992), Van Romapey (1993,
1995), Nowak, R.M. (1999), Mudappa, D. (2001), Menon, V.
(2003), and Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2009)
185. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) 186. The
other subspecies H.smithii zeylanius is found in Sri Lanka
(Corbett, G.B. and Hill, J.E., 1992) 187. Mudappa, D. (2013)
following Prater, S.H. (1989), Corbett, G.B. and Hill, J.E.
(1992), Van Romapey (1993, 1995), Nowak, R.M. (1999),
Mudappa, D. (2001), Menon, V. (2003), and Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2009) 185. Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) 188. This differentiates it from the
Sri Lankan ssp which has a tail that is slightly smaller or
equal to HBL 189. Mudappa, D. (2013) 190. Wilson, D.E.
and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) 191. First described as
Mangusta auropuctatus (Hodgson, B.H., 1836). Later
described as Herpestes auropunctatus and then treated as
con-specific with H. javanicus (Wozencroft, 2005), but later
work, such as Veron G et. al. (2006) shows that they are
genetically distinct 192. Other four subspecies that have been
described are not found in India. See previous note for H.
palustris 193. This is based on H. javanicus introduced into
the Caribbean, but is shown here to show the sexual
dimorphism that is clearly seen in the species (Nellis, D.W.
and Everard, C.O.R., 1983) 194. Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. 195. Nellis, D. (1989) 196. Mudappa, D.
(2013) 197. Ghose, R.K. (1965) 198. Mulligan, B. E. and
Nellis, D.W. (1975) 199. First described as Gulo urva from
Nepal 200. Other three subspecies are extralimital 201.
Mudappa, D. (2013) following Prater, S.H. (1989), Corbett,
G.B. and Hill, J.E. (1992), Van Romapey (1993, 1995),
Nowak, R.M. (1999), Mudappa, D. (2001), Menon, V. (2003),
and Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2009) 202.
Duckworth, J.W. and Timmins, R.J. (2008) 203. Van
Rompaey, H. and Jayakumar, M.N. (2003) 204. Mudappa, D.
(2013) following Prater, S.H. (1989), Corbett, G.B. and Hill,
J.E. (1992), Van Romapey (1993, 1995), Nowak, R.M.
(1999), Mudappa, D. (2001), Menon, V. (2003), and Wilson,
D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2009) 205. Van Rompaey,
H. and Jayakumar, M.N. (2003) 206. Was earlier considered
conspecific with H. brachyurus, or the Short-tailed Mongoose
207. The other three subspecies H.f. phillipsi, H.f. rubidior
and H.f. siccatus are all distributed in Sri Lanka 208.
Mudappa, D. (2013) following Prater, S.H. (1989), Corbett,
G.B. and Hill, J.E. (1992), Van Romapey (1993, 1995),
Nowak, R.M. (1999), Mudappa, D. (2001), Menon, V. (2003),
and Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2009) 209.
Mudappa, D. (2013) 210. Mudappa, D. et al. (2008) 211.
First described as Canis hyaena. Some authorities think it to
be monotypic, others describe five subspecies 212. Pocock,
R.I. (1934a) 213. Wagner (2005); Jhala (2013); Groups of
related siblings and complex colonies of related females and
multiple cubs. Males are nomadic and single when not paired
214. Mostly from specimens in Israel and Kenya, Indian
measurements largely unknown Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011) 215. Pocock, R.I (1934);
Kruuk, H. (1976) 216. Pocock R.I. (1934); Rosevear, D.R.
(1974) 217. It is postulated that this is used in various social
gestures from directing bites during antagonistic fights as
well as for conciliatory gestures (Kingdon, J., 1977) 218.
Pocock, R.I. (1916) 219. Wagner, A.P. (2006) 220. Prater,
S.H. (1948) 221. Singh, P., Gopalaswamy, A.M. and Karanth,
U.K. (2010) 222. Prater, S.H., (1948) 223. Arumugam, R.,
Wagner, A. and Mills, G. (2008); Roberts, T.J. (1977) 224.
The taxonomy of Canis lupus is hotly contested. The current
description follows Wilson, D.E. and Reeder, D.M. (2005),
which describes 39 subspecies; Nowak, R.M. (1995)
describes 24 North American species into 5 and Wilson, D.E.
and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011) agrees with that and talks
of 11 subspecies. In this classification C.l. chanco is
described under C.l. lupus. Moreover, two genetic studies in
India Aggarwal, Ramadevi and Singh (2003) and Sharma et
al. (2004) now also propose that the two Indian wolves are an
older evolutionary stock and should be renamed as Canis
himalayensis and Canis indica respectively 225. Indian
populations probably endangered (Sillero-Zubiri, C., 2004)
226. Upto 30 is known for northern subspecies (Wilson, D.E.
and Mittermeier, R.A., eds.), but the Indian subspecies have
smaller group sizes 227. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A.
(eds.) 228. C.l. pallipes probably does not exceed 91 cm TBL
and 66 cm HAS (Sterndale, R.A., 1884) 229. Sillero-Zubiri,
C. et al. (2004) 230. Anatomically different from all dogs in
having an orbital angle of 40–45 degrees instead of 50–60
degrees (Iljin, N.A., 1941) 231. Singh, M. and Kumara, H.N.
232. Jhala and Giles (1991); L. David Mech and Luigi
Boitani (2001) 233. Jhala and Giles (1991) 234. Shahi, S.P.
(1982) 235. Jhala, Y.V. and Moehlman, P.D. (2008) 236.
Evolutionarily closer to jackals than wolves 237. Three
subspecies recognized of which two are extralimital. Recent
genetic studies have suggested at least two phylogenetic
clades in India for southern-central India and north-eastern
India (Iyengar et al., 2005) 238. Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011) 239. Venkataraman, A.B.
(1998) 240. The lower carnassials molar has a peculiar
cutting or shearing adaptation called the trenchant heel that it
shares with the African hunting dog and the bush dog
although this character could have evolved separately in
different species independent of the other (Wayne, R.K. et al.,
1997) 241. Fox, M.W. (1984) 242. Macdonald, D.W. (2001)
243. First described as Canis benghalensis. Monotypic 244.
Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011) 245.
Johnsingh and Jhala (2004) 246. In Rollapadu Wildlife
Sanctuary, a population of ca. 40–50 foxes declined in one
year to ca. 10 animals before recovering (Manakadan, R. and
Rahmani, A.R., 2000; Vanak, A.T., 2003) 247. Johnsingh,
A.J.T. and Jhala, Y. (2004); Roberts, T.J. (1997) 248.
Seidensticker, J. (1987) 249. Prater, S.H. (1948) 250.
Manakadan, R. and Rahmani, A.R. (2000); Vanak and
Gompper (in press) 251. Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1978) 252.
Monotypic. First described as Vulpes ferrilatus 253. Wilson,
D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011) 254. Schaller, G.B.
and Ginsberg, J.R. (2004) 255. Larivie’re, S. and M.
Pasitschniak-Arts (1996); Clark Jr., H.O., Newman, D.P.,
Murdoch, J.D., Tseng, J., Wang, Z.H. and Harris, R.B. (2008)
256. Nowak, R.M. (1999); Schaller, G.B. and Ginsberg
(2004) 257. First described as Canis vulpes 258. Wozencraft,
W. (2005) 259. Harris, S.; Yalden, D. (2008) 260. Heptner,
V. G.; Naumov, N.P. (1998) 261. Previously included in
genus Selenarctos 262. Seven subspecies recognized. Five
extralimital. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011)
263. Roberts, T.J. (1997) 264. Large variation in weight is
because of bears putting on weight before hibernation
(Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A., 2011) 265. While
normal fur is around 50 mm, neck hair can go up to 155 mm
(Roberts, T.J., 1997) 266. Lydekker, R. (1907) 267. Pocock,
R.I. (1941) 268. Prater, S.H., (1948); Pocock, R.I. (1941)
269. Sathyakumar, S. (2001) 270. Garshelis, D.L. and
Steinmetz, R. (2008) 271. First described as Bradypus
ursinus. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2009)
272. The other subspecies distributed in Sri Lanka 273.
Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2009) 274.
Fortunately a joint WTI-WSPA project has almost ended the
practice of dancing bears in India with the bear dancing
communities of Kalandars being rehabilitated and the bears
themselves rescued in a holistic project 275. Garshelis, D.L.,
Ratnayeke, S. and Chauhan, N.P.S. (2008) 276. Garshelis,
D.L., Joshi, A.R., Smith, J.L.D. and Rice, C.G.R., “Sloth
Bear Conservation Action Plan” 277. Johnsingh, A.J.T
(2003) 278. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2009)
279. Finn, F. (1929) 280. Finn, F. (1929) 281. Prater, S.H.
(1948) 282. Sathyakumar, S. (2001) 283. First described
orally in 1820 as Ursus malayanus 284. The other subspecies
distributed only in Borneo 285. Males larger and heavier, but
not by more than 10–20%, lesser than other ursine species
Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2009) 286.
Pocock, R.I. (1932) 287. Lydekker, R. (1907) 288. Yin, U.T.
(1967) 289. Chauhan, N.P.S. (2008); Datta, A., Naniwadekar,
R. and Anand, M.O. (2008); Karanth K.U. and Nichols J.D.
(2000); Kakati, K. (2012) 290. A.f. stanyi is the other
subspecies found in China (Glatston, 1994; Roberts and
Gittleman, 1984; Wei et al., 1999; Lia, M., Weia, F.,
Goossensb, B., Fenga, Z., Tamatec, H.B., Brufordb, M.W.,
Funkb, S.M. (2005) 291. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A.
(eds.) (2011) 292. Roberts, T.J. (1975); Roberts, M.S. and
Gittleman, J.L. (1984) 293. Pradhan, S. et al. (2001). Known
up to 4,389 m in Bhutan (Dorji, S., Vernes, K., Rajaratnam,
R., 2011) 294. Choudhury, A. (1997) 295. Malik, J.K. (2010)
296. Dorji, S., Vernes, K., Rajaratnam, R. (2011) 297. First
described as Helictis moschata 298. The other five
subspecies described are extralimital 299. Mudappa, D.
(2013) in Johnsingh, A.J.T. and Manjrekar, N. (2013) 300.
Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2011) 301. Other
two subspecies are extralimital 302. Mudappa, D. (2013)
(Johnsingh, A.J.T. and Manjrekar, N., 2013; Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A., eds., 2011) 303. Choudhury, A. (pers.
comm.) 304. Was considered monotypic, but recently three
species have been described, a Himalayan (probably non-
Indian) form and a south-east Asian form being extralimital
305. Mudappa, D. (2013) (Johnsingh, A.J.T. and Manjrekar,
N., 2013) 306. Prater, S.H. (1948) 307. Prater S.H. (1948)
308. First described as Viverra capensis 309. Ten subspecies
are recognized of which two are found in India. The
distribution limits of these two within India is unknown 310.
Mudappa, D. (2013) (Johnsingh, A.J.T. and Manjrekar, N.,
2013) 311. Roberts, T.J. (1997) 312. It tolerates wet areas
with more than 2,000 mm rain as well as arid areas with less
than 100 mm rain. 313. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A.
(eds.) 314. First described as Mustela foina 315. Up to
fifteen subspecies known to occur although further taxonomic
work is required. The western Himalayan form and the
Sikkim form seem very varied in colour and may represent
different subspecies 316. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A.
(eds.) (2011) 317. Heptner, V.G. and Sludskii, A.A. (2002)
318. Prater, S.H. (1948) 319. Prater, S.H. (1948) 320. Seven
subspecies recognized. Other six are extralimital 321.
Pocock, R.I. (1941); Prater, S.H. (1971); Sathyakumar, S.
(1999); Parr, J.W.K and Duckworth, J.W. (2007) 322.
Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) 323. It is possible
that the contrasting black and yellow markings are
individually different and form recognition patterns for other
martens 324 Pocock, R.I. (1941) 325. Proulx, G., Aubry, K.,
Birks, J., Buskirk, S., Fortin, C., Frost, H. et al. (2004) 326.
Abramov, A., Timmins, R.J., Roberton, S., Long, B., Than
Zaw and Duckworth, J.W. (2008) 327. Prater, S.H. (1948)
328. Monotypic. Some scientists consider it a subspecies of
M. flavigula 329. Prater, S.H. (1948); John, J. and
Madhukumar (2002) 330. All measurements for males.
Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeir, R.A. (eds.) (2011) 331.
Mudappa, D. (2001); Balakrishnan, P. (2005) 332.
Madhusudan, M.D. (1995); Mudappa, D. (1999); Mudappa,
D. (2002) 333. Balakrishnan, P. (2005) 334. Wozencraft
(2005) had split Mustelidae family into two sub-families,
Mustelinae and Lutrinae. The current classification followed
is of six sub-families in India including Mellivorinae,
Mellinae, Martinae, Lutrinae, Helictidinae and Mustelinae
while two sub-families are not found in India (Wilson, D.E.
and Mittermeier, R.A., 2012) 335. First described as Lutra
perspicillata 336. The other two subspecies are from outside
India. Although Pocock, R.I. (1941) describes L.p. sindica
from northern India, it is probably found in Pakistan. 337.
Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) 338. Hussain, S.A.
(1997); Anoop, K.R. and Hussain, S.A. (2004); Nawabb, A.
and Hussain, S.A. (2006) 339. First described as Mustela
lutra Linnaeus, C. (1758) 340. Wilson, D.E and Reeder,
D.M. (2005) 341. Kruuk, H. (1995) 342. Adult males 50%
larger than females (Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A., eds.,
2009) 343. Reuther, C. (1999) 344. Roberts, T.J. (1997) says
the Himalayan form is smaller than European forms 345.
Prater, S.H. (1971) 346. Prater, S.H. (1971) says that the
hairs of the muzzle terminate in a zigzag line above the nose
while that of the Smooth-coated Otter terminates in a straight
line 347. Roberts, T.J. (1997) says that L. perspicillata
females average more number 348. Pocock, R.I. (1941) 349.
Roberts, T.J. (1997) 350. IUCN reports L.l. monticola in
Himachal Pradesh and then disjunct in the north-east. This
needs confirmation and does not seem realistic. Ruiz-Olmo,
J., Loy, A., Cinafrani, C., Yoxon, P., Yoxon, G., De Silva,
P.K., Roos, A., Bisther, M., Hajkova, P. and Zemanova, B.
(2008). Also southern Indian population is suspect. May just
be L. perpicillata 351. Prater, S.H. (1971). In winters comes
down to lower altitudes 352. Favours freshwater presence
353. Described as Lutra cinerea. Also described as Amblonyx
cinerea 354. The other subspecies lies outside India 355.
Hussein, S.A. and De Silva, P.K. (2008) 356. Wilson, D.E.
and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2009) 357. Tracks in the field
do not show claw marks and may show incomplete webbing;
have long toes with middle digit being the longest (Lariviere,
S., 2003) 358. Pocock, R.I. (1941) 359. Foster-Turly, P.
(1992) 360. Hussein, S.A. and De Silva, P.K. (2008) 361.
Melisch, R., Kusumawardhani, L., Asmoro, P.B. and Lubis,
I.R. (1996) 362. Prater, S.H. (1971) 363. Erinchery, A.
(2008) 364. Currently considered to be monotypic (Wilson,
D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A., eds.) although was earlier
supposed to be M.a temmon (Hodgson, B.H., 1837; Prater,
S.H. (1958) 365. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.)
366. Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2009) 367.
Pocock, R.I. (1941) 368. Abramov et al. (2008) 369. Wilson,
D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) 370. Three of at least
eleven subspecies recognized by Wozencraft, W.C. (2005)
order Carnivora in Wilson, D.E. and Reeder, D.M. 371.
Varies among subspecies and even individuals from being
bright foxy red to brownish red 372. Its undersides, however,
are slightly lighter than its back 373. Pocock, R.I. (1941)
374. Pocock, R.I. (1941) 375. Altitude is from the Bhutan
Himalayas Thinley (2004) 376. Monotypic, although earlier
M.k. kathiah (Hodgson, B.H., 1835) and M.k. caporiaccoi (de
Baux, 1935) were thought to be present in India 377. Wilson,
D.E. and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) 378. Wilson, D.E. and
Mittermeier, R.A. (2009) 379. Monotypic 380. Wilson, D.E.
and Mittermeier, R.A. (eds.) (2009)
HARES AND PIKAS
1. Chapman, J.A. and Flux, J.E.C. (eds.) (1990) 2. Reese,
A.T., Lanier, H.C. and Sargis, E.J. (2013) 3. Fedosenko,
A.K., (1974); Formazov (1981) 4. Fedosenko, A.K. (1974);
Formozov, N.A. (1981) 5. Reese, A.T., Lanier, H.C. and
Sargis, E.J. (2013) 6. Flux, J.A.C. and Angermann, R. (1990)
7. Purohit, K.G. (1967) 8. Phillips, W.W.A. (1935) 9.
Prakash, I. and Taneja, G.C. (1969); Ghosh (1971); Brooks,
J.E., Ahmad, E. and Hussain, I. (1987) 10. Sabnis, J.H.
(1981) 11. Pfister, O. (2004) 12. Nath, N.K. (2009) 13. O.
roylei constructs only few hay piles and O. macrotis even
lesser so, and these species may forage even in winters by
digging under the snow 14. Holtscamp, W. (2010) 15. Joshi,
R. (2009) 16. Smith, A.T., Smith, H.J., Wang, X., Yin, X. and
Liang, J. (1986) 17. Pfister, O. (2004) 18. Smith, A. et al.
(1990); Smith, B.D. (1998) 19. Flux, J.E.C. and Angermann,
R. (1990) 20. 1-8 young are known in L.n. dayanaus
(Prakash, I. and Taneja, G.C., 1969) 21. Prakash, I. and
Taneja, G.C. (1969) 22. Pfister, O. (2004) 23. Smith, A. and
Xie, Y. (2008) 24. Nath, N.K. et al. (2009), They may have
an intermediate breeding strategy to the precocial one of
hares and the altricial one of rabbits 25. Pfister, O. (2004) 26.
Zheng, C. (1989) 27. Pfister, O. (2004) 28. Smith, A. et al.
(1990) 29. Some recommendation on grassland management
were made and carried out by the Assam and West Bengal
forest departments with respect to Hispid hare conservation
(Maheswaran, G., 2006) 30. Namgail, T., van Wieren, S.E.
and Prins Herbert, H.T. (2013) 31. Twelve subspecies were
described earlier (Flux, J.E.C. and Angermann, R., 1990);
Maheswaran, G., and Jordan, M. (2008); Lepus nigricollis in
IUCN 2012, lists 7 subspecies including L.n. aryabetensis,
L.n. sadiya, L.n. simcoxi and L.n. singhala. This book
however follows Hoffman, R.S. (1993) which recognizes
only three subspecies in India. There is taxonomic work to be
done on this species to further clarify number of subspecies
32. L. tibetanus or Desert Hare is called the Desert Hare so
perhaps the Indian Desert Hare now needs a different English
name. 33. Corbett, G.B. and Hill, J.E. (1992) 34. Bell, D.J.,
Oliver, W.L.R. and Ghose, R.K. (1990) 35. Flux, J.E.C. and
Angermann, R. (1990) 36. Prakash, I. and Taneja, G.C.
(1969) 37. Ghosh (1971) 38. Flux, J.E.C. and Angermann, R.
(1990) 39. Nath, N.K. et al. (2009) 40. Till the 1930s was
considered a species, but later put as a subspecies of L.
capensis by Ellerman, J.R. and Morrison-Scott, T.C.S (1951)
and Petter, F. et al. (1961); Hoffmann, R.S. and Smith, A.T.
(2005) considered this to be distinct from L. capensis and
thus the form described as L.capensis tibetanus in Jammu and
Kashmir is now being treated in this volume as L. tibetanus or
Desert Hare 41. One of five recognized subspecies, the other
four being extralimital 42. Smith, A. and Xie, Y. (2008) 43.
Smith, A. and Xie, Y. (2008) 44. Namgail, T., van Wieren,
S.E. and Prins Herbert, H.T. (2013) 45. Lepus pallipes and L.
hypsibius have been proposed as full species and as
synonyms, but this rendering treats them as subspecies
(Johnston, C.H., 2008) 46. Indian population was listed as
endangered by Chakraborty et al. (2005) 47. Smith, A. and
Xie, Y. (2008) 48. Flux, J.E.C. and Angermann, R. (1990)
49. Namgail, T., van Wieren, S.E. and Prins Herbert, H.T.
(2013) 50. First described as Lepus hispidus. Monotypic 51.
Bell, D.J. (1987) showed overlapping home ranges 52. Bell,
D.J. (1976). The 3.2 kg female was heavily pregnant (Bell,
D.J. et al., 1990); Maheswaran, 2006 53. Bell, D.J.
(1986,1987) 54. Srinivasulu, C., Srinivasulu, B.,
Chakraborty, S., Pradhan, M.S. and Nameer, P.O. (2004) 55.
Oliver, W.L.R. (1984) 56. Ghose, R.K (Bell et al., 1990) 57.
Oliver, W.L.R. (1984); Ghosh and Shoasi (1984);
Maheswaran (2002) 58. Bell, D.J. et al (1990); Nath, N.K.
(2009) reported it from D’ Ering in Arunachal as well.
Maheswaran, G. and Smith, A.T. (2011) 59. There is one
record of faecal pellets from Kanha NP, Madhya Pradesh
(Bell, D.J. et al., 1990). This is interesting because if
confirmed the distribution of the hispid hare would
correspond to the three subspecies of the swamp deer that is
distributed discontinuously in the Terai of Uttar Pradesh,
Assam and then Kanha in Madhya Pradesh 60. Bell, D.J. et
al. (1990); Nath Naba, K., Machary, K. and Sarkar, P.P.
(2010) 61. First described as Lagomys roylei 62. Currently
only two subspecies are recognized with the second one
distributed in Nepal. Earlier authors used to describe O.r.
wardi, a darker subspecies from Ladakh 63. Smith, A. and
Xie, Y. (2008) 64. Alfred, J.R.B. et al. (2006) 65.
Bhattacharya, S. et al. (2009); Haleem, A. et al. (2012) 66.
Formazov, N. pers. comm. 67. Ritesh, J. (2009) 68. This is a
good way of distinguishing O. macrotis and O. roylei when
overlapping as the former is diurnal and the latter crepuscular
(Pfister, O., 2004) 69. Pfister, O. (2004) 70. Haleem, A.,
Illyas, O., Syed, Z. and Arya, S.K. (2012) 71. Haleem, A. et
al. (2012) 72. First described as Lagomys macrotis. Gureev
(1964) and Corbett, G.B. (1978) listed it as a subspecies of O.
roylei, but Hoffman (1993) following Weston (1982) and
Feng et al. (1986) listed it as a separate species 73. Currently
there are five O. macrotis subspecies i.e. O.m. auritus, O.m.
chinensis, O.m. macrotis, O.m. sacana and O.m. wollastoni.
Four are considered extralimital 74. All sightings in Ladakh
is north of Indus river (Pfister, O., 2004) 75. Smith, A. and
Xie, Y. (2008) 76. Kawamichi, T. (1979) 77. Namgail, T.,
van Wieren, S.E. and Prins Herbert, H.T. (2013) 78.
Monotypic. First described as Lagomys curzoniae 79. Smith,
A. and Xie, Y. (2008) 80. Pfister, O. (2004) 81. Smith, A.,
Formazov, N.A., Hoffman, R.S., Changlin, Z. and Erbejeva,
M.A. (1990) 82. Pfister, O. (2004) 83. Namgail, T., van
Wieren, S.E. and Prins Herbert, H.T. (2013) 84. First
described as Lagomys ladacensis, Formerly included in O.
curzionae. A sister taxa of O. koslowi. Monotypic.
Srinivasulu et al. 85. Pfister, O. (2004) 86. Pfister, O. (2004)
87. Chapman, J.A. and Flux, J.E.C. (1990) 88. Pfister, O.
(2004) 89. Pfister, O. (2004) 90. Namgail, T., van Wieren,
S.E. and Prins Herbert, H.T. (2013) 91. First described as
Lagomys thibetanus 92. Formerly has been described under
O.forrestii and O.nubrica (Hoffman, 1993). The isolated
subspecies sikkimaria, was first considered to be a subspecies
of O.cansus by Feng and Kao (1974) and later transferred to
O.thibetana by (Smith et al., 1990). Has five recognized
subspecies of which four are extralimital 93. Smith, A. and
Xie, Y. (2008) 94. Baral, H.S. and Shah, K.B. (2008) 95.
Smith, A.T. and Boyer, A.F. (2008) 96. Monotypic. Earlier
was included in O.pusilla, O.roylei and O.thibetana (Hoffman
and Smith, 2005). Currently considered distinct but related to
O.gaoligongensis (Yu et al., 1992) 97. Smith, A. and Xie, Y.
(2008) 98. 70% of those examined (Feng and Zheng, 1985)
99. Known from Daphabum (one of the ranges within
Namdapha Tiger Reserve) 100. Feng, Cai and Zheng (1989);
Smith, A. and Xie, Y. (2008) 101. Ellerman, J.R. and
Morrison-Scott. T.C.S. (1951) treated this as a subspecies of
O.pusilla, but Hoffman (1993) following Smith et al. (1990)
listed it as a separate species 102. Includes O.n. aliensis
(Hoffmann, R.S. and Smith, A.T., 2005) 103. Pfister, O.
(2004) 104. Smith, A. and Xie, Y. (2008) 105. Pfister, O.
(2004) 106. Pfister, O. (2004) 107. Smith et al. (1990) 108.
Pfister, O. (2004) 109. Smith, A. and Xie, Y. (2008)110
Pfister, O. (2004) 111. Namgail, T., van Wieren, S.E. and
Prins Herbert, H.T. (2013)
PANGOLINS
1. Heath, M.E (1992) 2. Chao, J. (1989) 3. First described as
Manis crassicaudatus (Gray, 1827) 4. Molur, S. (2008) 5.
Pocock, R.I. (1924); Heath, M.E. (1995) 6. Heath, M.E.
(1992) 7. Molur, S. (2008) 8. Heath, M.E. (1992) 9. Heath,
M.E. (1992) 10. Heath, M.E. (1992) 11. Tikader, B.K. (1983)
12. Frick, F. (1968) 13. Duckworth, J.W, Steinmitz, R.,
Pattanaviboo, A.. Than Zaw, D.T. and Newton, P. (2008)

TREE SHREWS
1. In fact, the form is that of a primitive mammalian
archetype 2. Prater, S.H. (1948) 3. This is similar to many
small mammals of rainforests although if the Nicobar Tree
Shrew is as obligatorily insectivorous and arboreal as is
suggested by Oomen, M.A. (2013), then it is one among very
few mammals that is so. 4. Nowak, R.M. (1999) 5. Emmons,
L.H. (1991); Emmons LH (2000) 6 Oomen, M.A. (2013) 7.
Binz, H. and Zimmermann, E. (1989) 8. Thenius, E. (1990);
Van Holst, D. (1974); Duckworth, Van Holst also records of
mothers mistakenly eating their own offspring during
conspecific aggression bouts if the scent is not applied before
hand! 9. Oomen, M.A. (2013) 10. Almost no conservation
activity has been undertaken for tree shrews and even in
research only one study on the island species and a couple of
historical ones on the peninsular species are available from
India. 11. Genus name derived from Tamil name moongil
annan or Bamboo Squirrel and the specific name after Sir
Walter Elliot of Indian Civil Service 12. First described as
Tupaia ellioti (Waterhouse, 1850). Monotypic 13. Lyon, M.
(1913) split the genus into three species; Ellerman, J.R. and
Morrison-Scott. T.C.S. (1951) recognized A.e. ellioti, A.e.
pallida and A.e. wroughtonii as subspecies. The former was
from the Eastern Ghats and Shevaroy Hills, pallida from
Central India, i.e, Raipur north-east to the Ganges and the
latter from the Dangs and Satpura ranges of western India.
Currently these are not recognized (Molur, S., 2008) 14. An
endemic and range restricted species in India and therefore its
status may need revision to a more threatened category 15.
These were the morphological differences used earlier to
separate subspecies 16. Roonwal, M.L. and Mohnot, S.M.
(1977) 17. Wagner (1841) 18. Oomen, M.A. (2013) 19. This
absentee parental system in tree shrews was reported by
Martin, R.D. (1968) 20. Can be found very far from forest
(Han, K.H., Duckworth, J.W. and Molur, S., 2008) 21. First
described as Cladobates nicobaricus (Zelebor, 1869) 22.
Miller, G.S. (1902) 23. Oomen, M.A. (2013) 24. Oomen,
M.A. (2013) 25. Oomen, M.A. and Shanker, K. (2010) 26.
Oomen, M.A. (2013)

SHREWS AND MOLES

1. Monotypic; Edwards, M. (1872) 2. Molur, S. et al. (2005)
3. Molur, S et al. (2005) 4. Pradhan, M.S., Sharma, R.M. and
Shanker, K. (1997) 5 Endemic to India 6. Molur, S. et al.
(2005) 7. Hutterer, R. (2005) 8. Das, I. (1999) 9. Known
from only its holotype on Middle Andaman Islands. Other
surverys including by Chakraborty et al. have not yielded this
species 10 Evergreen forest leaf litter Molur, S. et al. (2005)
11. Endemic to India 12. Nocturnal, semi-fossorial 13 Molur,
S. et al. (2005) 14. Endemic to India 15. Molur, S. et al.
(2005) 16. All individuals found in single location of less
than 100 km of Cambell Bay NP and Galathea NP in Great
Nicobar. Other surveys later (Chakraborty, S. et al., 2004)
have not found any specimens here 17. Endemic to India 18.
Hutterer, R. (2005) treats this as distinct from C. zardunyi 19.
Endemic to South Asia. Known only from type locality in
Pakistan occupied Kashmir at elevation of 2,900 m 20.
Endemic to South Asia 21. Hutterer, R. (2005); Molur, S. et
al. (2005) 22. Exact distribution unknown. Probably a
denizen of tropical moist forests 23. Several classification
occur with 15 subspecies listed by Ellerman, J.R. and
Morrison-Scott, T.C.S. (1951) and different authors proposing
several differing versions 24. Ellerman, J.R. and Morrison-
Scott. T.C.S. (1951) 25. Molur, S. et al. (2005) 26. Earlier
lumped with S. montanus of Sri Lanka. Recently separated
into a species (Megaskumbura and Schneider, 2008) 27. As
S. montanus by Pradhan, M.S. 28. Molur, S. et al. (2005) 29.
Dodson (1888); Type locality of Thrissur, Kerala may not be
correct 30. Montane grassland and sholas; Molur, S. et al.
(2005) 31. First described as Corsira nigresens; (Gray 1842)
32. Jian, X. and Hoffman, R. (2013) 33. Molur, S. et al.
(2005) 34. Molur, S. (2008) 35. Jian, X. and Hoffman, R.
(2013) 36. Molur, S. et al. (2005) 37. Smith, A. and Xie, Y.
(2008) 38. Molur, S. et al. (2005) 39. Recorded in India only
from Darjeeling but presumed to have a Northeastern
distribution. Thought to inhabit wet bamboo and temporate
forests 40. Recorded several times from Sikkim at altitudes
upto 2900 m (Molur, S. et al. (2005) 41. Molur, S. et al.
(2005) 42. Not in Jammu and Kashmir as reported by
Hutterrer (2005) Molur, S. (2008) IUCN 43. Clear streams in
temperate forests, Molur, S. et al. (2005) 44. A. assamensis
and A.schmidtii are not considered valid taxon now. Molur, S.
et al. (2005) 45. The altitude ranges are from Yunnan. None
kown from India. Jian, X. and Hoffman, R. (2013) 46.
Ellerman, J.R. and Morrison-Scott, T.C.S (1951), Corbett,
G.B. and Hill, J.E (1992) both treated it as Talpa micrura
Hodson (1841). Yates, T.L. Moore, D.W. (1990) and Hutterer,
R. (1993) treated it as Euroscaptor, a distinct genus.
Monotypic. 47. Jian, X. and Hoffman, R. (2013) 48. Molur,
S. et al. (2005). 49. Parascaptor earlier treated as a subgenus
of Talpa by Corbett (1991). Ellerman, J.R. and Morrison-
Scott, T.C.S. (1951) and Corbett, G.B. and Hill, J.E. (1992)
treated the species as a subspecies of Talpa micrura leucura.
Abe et al. (1991) and Hutterer, R. (1993) considered
Parascaptor as a distinct genus. Monotypic 50. Jian, X and
Hoffman, R. (2013) 51. Molur, S. et al. (2005) 52. Jian, X.
and Hoffman, R. (2013)

HEDGEHOGS
1. The split from Insectivora happened in 2005 (Hutterer, R.,
2005) 2. Prater, S.H. (1948) 3. Prakash, I. (1959) 4. First
described as Erinaceous micropus by Blyth (1846); Biswas,
B. and Ghose, R.K. (1970) considered it a subspecies
Hemiechinus micropus kutchicus. The sub-genus proposed by
Trouessart, E.L. (1879) of Paraechinus has now been
accepted as a valid genus. Monotypic 5. All other hedgehogs
have spines arranged in 19–30 compartments 6. First
described as Erinaceous collaris (Gray, J.E., 1830). Later
thought to be a subspecies of H. auritus (Corbett, G.B., 1978)
but considered a species based on its single rooted second
premolar in its upper jaw (Ellerman, J.R. and Morrison-Scott,
T.C.S., 1951); Roberts, T.J. (1977), which is currently
followed. Monotypic. 7. Molur, S. et al. (2005) 8. Molur, S.
et al. (2005); Roberts, T.J. (1997) 9. Formerly named
Erinaceous nudiventris, Hemiechinus nudiventris and a
subspecies of Paraechinus micropus by Ellerman, J.R. and
Morrison-Scott, T.C.S. (1951) and Corbett, G.B. and Hill, J.E.
(1992). Frost, D.R. et al. (1991), Hutterer, R. (1993) and
IUCN (1995) consider it a separate species. Monotypic. 10.
Was considered Vulnerable but new data from Molur, S. et al.
led to its being lowered in its threatened lisitng. It could have
been overlooked as it is not found in most protected areas.
However being a range restricted endemic, a proper
assessment is warranted. 11. Molur, S. et al. (2005) 12.
Molur, S. et al. (2005)
RODENTS
1. Djawdan, M. and Garland Jr., T. (1988) 2. Prater, S.H.
(1947) 3. Prater, S.H. (1947) 4. Thorington Jr., R.W., Darrow
K. and Anderson, C.G. (1998) 5. Scheibe, J.S., Smith, W.P.,
Bassham, J. and Magness, D. (2006) 6. Hafeez, S., Khan,
G.S., Ashfaq, M. and Khan, Z.H. (2011) 7. Nandini, R. and
Parthasarathy, N. (2008) 8. Prakash, I. (1959) 9. Jain, A.P.
(1984) 10. Prater, S.H. (1947) 11. Prater, S.H. (1947) 12.
Blumberg, M.S. (1992) 13. Schwagmeyer, P.L. and Wootner,
S.J. (1985) 14. Michener, G.R. (1983), Schwagmeyer, P.L.
(1990) 15. Waterman, J. (Wolff, J.O., Sherman, P.W., eds.,
2008) 16. Jain, A.P., Tripathi, R.S. and Rana, B.D. (1993) 17.
Roberts, T.J. (1977) 18. Lee Pei-Fen, Lin Yao-Sun and
Progulske, D.R. (1993) 19. Weir, B.J. (1974) 20. Prater, S.H.
(1947) 21. Roberts, T.J. (1977) 22. Roberts, T.J. (1977) 23.
Amori, G. and Gippltiti, S. (2003) 24. First described as
Hystrix cristata var indica (Kerr, 1792) 25. Aggarwal, V.C.
(2000) 26. Ellerman, J.R. (1947) 27. This is not a subspecies
and the quills may be red only because of diet or the soil type
in which it lives 28. Porcupines do not shoot quills at
animals, despite common belief 29. Gurung, K.K. and Singh,
R. (1996) 30. Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit,
N., Mitsain, G. and Palomo, L.J. (2008) 31. Ellerman, J.R.
(1947) 32. Molur, S. et al. (2005) 33. Lunde, D., Aplin, K.
and Molur, S. (2008) 34. First described as Hystrix macroura
(Linnaeus, C., 1758) 35. Aggarwal, V.C. (2000) 36. Francis,
C.M. (2008) 37. Molur, S. et al. 2005 38. Srinivasulu, C. and
Jordan, M.J.R. (2004) 39. Interestingly, the Brush-tailed
Porcupine has a distribution in West Africa (A. africanus) and
in peninsular Asia – perhaps indicative of a time when the
two continents were connected by an unbroken stretch of
forests 40. Lunde, D. and Molur, S. (2008) 41. First
described as Arctomys himalayanus (Hodgson, B.H., 1841)
42. Thorington Jr., R.W., Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A. and
Whatton, J.F. (2013) 43. The lower end is a summer weight
and the higher end can be in autumn. Thorington Jr., R.W.,
Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F. (2013) 44.
Armitage, K.B. (2009) 45. Thorington Jr., R.W., Koprowski,
J.L., Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F. (2013) 46. Himalayan
voices website 47. Molur, S. et al. (2005) 48. Molur, S. et al.
(2005); Smith, A. and Xie, Y. (2008) 49. First described as
Arctomys caudatus (Geoffroy, E., 1844) 50. The other two
subspecies are found in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Thorington
Jr., R.W., Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F.
(2013) 51. Blumstein, D.T. and Arnold, W. (1998) 52.
Thorington Jr., R.W., Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A. and
Whatton, J.F. (2013) 53. Thorington Jr., R.W., Koprowski,
J.L., Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F. (2013) 54. Thorington
Jr., R.W., Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F.
(2013) 55. Smith, A. and Xie, Y. (2008) 56. Molur, S. et al.
(2005) 57. First described as Sciurus indicus (Erxleben,
1777) 58. Abdulali, H. and Daniel, J.C. (1952) described 8
forms of colour; Ellerman, J.R. (1961) described five and
Corbett, G.B. and Hill, J.E. (1992), following Moore, J.C. and
Tate, G.H.H. (1965) describes four. This text follows the
latter retaining R.i. dealbata which maybe extinct but is valid
as a subpecies. 59. Kumara, H.N. and Singh, M. (2006) 60.
R.l. dealbata may well be extinct as several surveys have still
not turned up the species 61. Mean group size of 1.16
(Baskaran, N., Venkatesan, S., Mani, J., Srivastava, S.K. and
Desai, A.A., 2011) 62. Thorington Jr., R.W., Koprowski, J.L.,
Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F. (2013) 63. TThorington Jr.,
R.W., Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F. (2013)
64. Molur, S. et al. (2005) 65. First described as Sciurus
bicolor (Sparmann, 1778) 66. Eleven subspecies exist in
south-east Asia. India is at the westernmost part of the range
(Thorington Jr., R.W., Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A. and
Whatton, J.F., 2013); May be a complex of several similar
species (Walston, J., Duckworth, J.W. and Molur, S., 2008)
67. Thorington Jr., R.W., Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A. and
Whatton, J.F. (2013) 68. Thorington Jr., R.W., Koprowski,
J.L., Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F. (2013) 69. Thorington
Jr., R.W., Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F.
(2013) 70. Molur, S. et al., 2005; Thorington Jr., R.W.,
Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F. (2013) 71.
First described as Sciurus macrourus (Pennant, 1769) 72. The
other two subspecies exist in Sri Lanka 73. Kumara, H.N.
and Singh, M. (2006) 74. Nowak (1991) 75. Prater, S.H.
(1971); Thorington Jr., R.W., Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A.
and Whatton, J.F. (2013) 76. Nowak (1991) 77. Pallas
(1766); Thorington Jr., R.W., Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A.
and Whatton, J.F. (2013) 78. Thorington Jr., R.W.,
Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F. (2013) 79.
First described as Scirurus petaurista (Pallas, 1766) 80.
Kumara, H.N. and Singh, M. (2006) 81. Prater (1979) 82.
Allen, G.M. (1994); Oshida, T., Shafique, C.M., Barkati, S.,
Fujita, Y., Lin, L.K. and Masuda, R. (2004) 83. Verheugt et
al. (1995) 84. Prater, S.H. (1947) 85. Thorington Jr., R.W.,
Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F. (2013) 86.
Nandini, R. and Parthasarathy, N. (2008) 87. Koli, V.K.,
Bhatnagar, C. and Mali, D. (2011) 88. Could also be found in
the north -east. Not confirmed 89. Umapathy, G. and Kumar,
A. 90. Ashraf, N.V.K. et al. (1993) 91. First described as
Sciuropterus nobilis (Gray, 1842) 92. Choudhury, A. (2003)
93. Thorington Jr., R.W., Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A. and
Whatton, J.F. (2013) 94. Choudhury, A. (2003) 95. Thapa, J.,
Molur, S. and Nameer, P.O. (2010) 96. Choudhury, A. (2003)
97. Choudhury, A. (2003); Molur, S. et al. (2005) 98. Prater,
S.H. (1947) 99. Strongly hypsodont molars, borders of upper
molars sub-angulate and upper surfaces flat (Ellerman, J.R.,
1947) 100. Could be found in Arunachal Pradesh too but has
not been recorded so far (Choudhury, A., 2003) 101.
Thorington Jr., R.W., Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A. and
Whatton, J.F. (2013) 102. Ellerman, J.R. (1947) 103.
Perhaps P.e. sybilla but needs confirmation 104. Recorded
from Namdapha NP (Choudhury, A., 2003) 105. First
described as Sciruopterus caniceps (Gray, 1841). Ellerman,
J.R. (1961) and Ellerman, J.R. and Morrison-Scott, T.C.S.
(1931) treated is a subspecies of P. elegans (Spotted Flying
Squirrel) but Corbett, G.B. and Hill, J.E (1992) treated it as a
separate species. 106. Choudhury, A. (2003) 107. First
described as Sciuropterus fimbriatus (Gray, 1837) 108.
Prater, S.H. (1947) 109. Thorington Jr., R.W., Koprowski,
J.L., Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F. (2013) 110. First
described as Sciuropterus fuscocapillus (Jerdon, T.C., 1847)
111. Earlier two subspecies were described with the nominate
race in India and P.f. layardi in Sri Lanka Corbett, G.B. and
Hill, J.E. (1992) have synonimized the latter with the
nominate race 112. Kumara, H.N. and Singh, M. (2006) 113.
Thorington Jr., R.W., Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A. and
Whatton, J.F. (2013) 114. Thorington Jr., R.W., Koprowski,
J.L., Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F. (2013) 115. Rajamani,
N., Molur, S. and Nameer, P.O. (2008) 116. So far only
described from Yunnan and not considered by Corbett, G.B.
and Hill, J.E. to be valid but specimen from Assam shows
characteristics 117. Thorington Jr., R.W., Koprowski, J.L.,
Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F. (2013) 118. Thorington Jr.,
R.W., Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F. (2013)
119. Molur, S. et al. (2005) 120. Lots of rescue cases at the
Centre for Wildlife Rehabilitation and Conservation,
Kaziranga NP by WTI from in and around central Assam
121. Other three subspecies are south-east and east Asian in
distribution 122. Choudhury, A. (2003) 123. Thorington Jr.,
R.W., Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F. (2013)
124. First described as Sciurus pygerythrus I. Geoffroy Saint-
Hilaire (1831) 125. Three subspecies valid in India (Corbett,
G.B. and Hill, J.E., 1992) 126. Prater, S.H. (1947) 127. This
is one of the diagnostic features of Callosciurus 128.
Choudhury, A. (2003) 129. Usually below 1,700 m
(Choudhury, A., 2003) 130. First described as Sciurus
erythraeus (Pallas, 1799) 131. Thorington Jr., R.W.,
Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F. (2013) 132.
Whatever the sub-specific variations, the venter is distinctly
brightly coloured as compared to the dull dorsal olive colour
133. Setoguchi, Y. (1990, 1991); Tamura, A. et al. (1998)
134. In Arunachal Pradesh (Choudhury, A., 2003) 135. First
described as Sciurus maclellandi (Horsefield, 1840) 136.
Thorington Jr., R.W., Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A. and
Whatton, J.F. (2013) 137. Choudhury, A. (2003) 138.
Duckworth, J.W., Lunde, D. and Molur, S. (2008) 139. First
described as Sciurus lokriah (Hodgson, B.H., 1836) 140.
This follows Agrawal, V.C. and Chakraborty, S. (1979) and
Corbett, G.B. and Hill, J.E. (1992); D.l. garonum proposed by
Moore, J.C. and Tate, G.H.H. (1965) is not considered valid
here 141. Not reported from India before, except in
photograph in this book. Range formerly supposed to be
south-eastern Tibet, which could range to the western range
of the species in India 142. Thorington Jr., R.W., Koprowski,
J.L., Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F. (2013) 143. Ellerman,
J.R. (1961) 144. This is a diagnostic feature of Dremomys
145. Choudhury, A. (2003) 146. Molur, S. et al. (2005) 147.
The subspecies in India could be D.p. pernyii or D.p. howelli
(Thomas, 1922); The first suggested by Ellerman, J.R. and
Morrison-Scott. T.C.S. (1951) and the latter by Corbett, G.B.
and Hill, J.E. (1992) 148. Choudhury, A. (2003) 149.
Recorded in Namdapha NP 150. First described as Sciurus
palmarum (Linnaeus, C., 1766) 151. Between four and six
subspecies listed. Others extralimital Corbett, G.B. and Hill,
J.E. (1992) and Ellerman, J.R. (1916) 152. Kurup, G.U.
(1968); Saha, S.S. (1980) 153. First described as Sciurus
sublineatus (Waterhouse, 1838) 154. The other subspecies is
distributed in Sri Lanka 155. Thorington Jr., R.W.,
Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F. (2013) 156.
Thorington Jr., R.W., Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A. and
Whatton, J.F. (2013) 157. Thorington Jr., R.W., Koprowski,
J.L., Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F. (2013) 158. Molur, S. et
al. (2005); Rajamani, N. pers. comm. In Rajamani, N., Molur,
S. and Nameer, P.O. (2008) 159. First described as Sciurus
tristriatus (Waterhouse, 1837) 160. This follows Thorington
Jr., R.W., Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F.
(2013); Corbett, G.B. and Hill, J.E. (1992) in retaining F.t.
numarius, but Ellerman, J.R. (1961) in retaining F.t.
tristriatus. The former actually describes F.t. annandalei
(Robinson, H.C., 1917) as a subspecies and the latter F.t.
wroughtoni (Ryley, 1913) as another. All agree that the
species is endemic to India and two subspecies occur 161.
Molur, S. et al. (2005) 162. Thorington Jr., R.W., Koprowski,
J.L., Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F. (2013) 163. Thorington
Jr., R.W., Koprowski, J.L., Steele, M.A. and Whatton, J.F.
(2013) 164. First described as Alticola argentata (Severtzov,
1879) 165. All Alticola voles have large bullae, their lower
cheekteeth have closed triangles and superorbital ridges are
not fused as opposed to Hyperacrius, which has small bullae,
lower cheekteeth do not have closed triangles and the
superorbital ridges fuse to form an interorbital ridge
(Ellerman, J.R., 1941) 166. Molur, S. et al. (2005) 167.
Smith, A. and Xie, Y. (2008) 168. Only one record of this
species from Gilgit 169. The cheek pouches can distend
several times when filled with food 170. Molur, S. et al.
(2005) 171. First described as Gerbillus hurrianae (Jerdon,
T.C., 1867) 172. Molur, S. et al. (2005) 173. Monotypic 174.
Monotypic 175. First described as Mus oleraceus (Bennett,
1832) 176. First described as Mus sylvaticus (Linnaeus, C.,
1758) 177. Molur, S. et al (2005) 178. First described as Mus
sylvaticus draco (Barrett-Hamilton, 1900) 179. In M.
terricolor, the burrows are on mounds, about 20 cm deep and
air exchange is from all three sides (Singh, S., Cheong, N.,
Narayan, G. and Sharma, T., 2009) 180. Molur, S. et al.
(2005) 181. First described as Rhizomys badius (Hodgson,
B.H., 1841); Monotypic 182. Agrawal, V.C. (2000)
synonymized all the three subspecies, namely Cannomys
badius castaneus (Blyth, E., 1843); Cannomys badius
plumbescens (Thomas, O., 1915) and Cannomys badius pater
(Thomas, O., 1911) with the nominate subspecies 183.
Molur, S. et al. (2005) 184. Molur, S. et al. (2005) 185.
Recorded and photographed in Valmiki TR by WTI 186.
Monotypic 187. Molur, S. et al. (2005) 188. First described
as Golunda meltada (Gray, 1837) 189. M.m. singuri has been
treated as a valid subspecies by Mandal and Ghosh (1991);
The version here follows Wilson, D.E. and Reeder, D.M.
(2011) 190. Molur, S. et al. (2005) 191. Musser, G., Lunde
Daplin, K. and Molur, S. (2008) 192. First described as Mus
bandicota Bechstein (1800) 193. Chakraborty, A.K. (1991);
Agrawal, V.C. (2000) 194. Pradhan, M.S. et al. (1993) 195.
First described as Arvicola bengalensis (Gray and Hardwicke,
1833) 196. Corbet and Hill (1992) quoting Agrawal and
Chakraborty (1976) 197. Molur, S. et al. (2005) 198. Molur,
S. et al. (2005) 199. Inglis, I.R., Shepherd, D.S., Smith, P.,
Haynes, P.J., Bull, D.S., Cowan, D.P. and Whitehead, D.
(1996) 200. Formerly lists as Rattus turkestanicus or Rattus
ratoides (Musser, G.G. and Carleton, M.D. (2005) 201. This
and R. palmarum are the only two rats found on Car Nicobar
Islands 202. Musser, G.G. and Carleton, M.D. 2005) in
Wilson, D.E. and Reeder, D.M. (2011) 203. Musser, G.G. and
Carleton, M.D. (2005) 204. Musser, G.G. and Carleton, M.D.
(2005).
BATS
1. Molur, S. et al. (2008) 2. Goveas, S.W, Miranda, E.C.,
Sahadevan, S. and Sridhar, K.R. (2006) 3. Bates, P.J.J. (2013)
4. Ghosh and Ghosal (1984) 5. Koilraj, J.B., Agaramoorthy,
G., and Marimuthu, G. (2001) 6. Bates and Harrison 7. Bhat,
H.R. and Kunz, T.H. (1995); Sandhu, S. (1998) 8. Bates,
P.J.J. (2013); Sandhu, S. and Gopalakrishna, A. (1984) 9.
Bates, P.J.J. (2013) 10. In Malaysia Durian is a commercial
fruit crop that is known to be bat pollinated 11. Bates, P.J.J.
(2013) 12. First described as Vespertilio gigantean. Listed
later as Pteropus vampyrus, Pteropus intermedius etc.
(Linnaeus, C., 1758; Anderson, 1908) 13. At least P.g.
giganteus. Himalayan ssp. not ascertained 14. Molur, S.,
Srinivasulu, C., Bates, P. and Francis, C. (2008) 15. Koilraj,
J.B., Agaramoorthy, G. and Marimuthu, G, (2001) 16. Bates,
P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 17. Belly colour varies
individually and is not dependent on sex, age or season
(Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L., 1997) 18. Goveas, S.W.,
Miranda, E.C., Sahadevan, S. and Sridhar, K.R. (2006) 19.
Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 20. Unfortunately, all
fruit bats are classified as vermin or Schedule V due to a
‘lumping’ issue. This needs rectification 21. Atul and
Vijaykumar (2003) 22. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L.
(1997) 23. Anderson (1912) 24. Mel et al. (2012) 25. Aul, B.
et al. (2012) 26. Corbett, G.B. and Hill, J.E. (1992) and
Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) show it as a seasonal
visitor to the Andamans; Simmons, N.B. (2005) leaves it out.
Confirmation required for what, if present, is India’s largest
bat! 27. Aul, B. et al. (2012) 28. First described as Pteropus
leschenaultii. Prakash, I. (1963) had noted Rousettus
aegyptiacus arabicus from Rajasthan. But there are no
records of collection and later authors have mostly left it out
of the Indian chiroptero fauna. Similarly Agrawal, V.C. and
Sinha, Y.P. (1973) reported Rousettus amplexicaudatus from
Tripura and Arunachal Pradesh. This book follows
Rookmaker, L.C. and Bergmans, W. (1981) who considered
the specimens as R. leschenaultii. Both these species are
therefore not dealt with in this book 29. Cave in Muroor in
Karnataka (Sreenivasan, M.A., Bhat, H.R. and Geevarghese,
G., 1974) 30. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 31.
Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 32. Mahabaleswar.
Brosett, A. (1962a) 33. Philips, W.W.A. (1980) 34. First
described as Vespertilio sphinx (Vahl, M., 1797) 35. Various
authors have suggested C.s. gangeticus from northern India.
C.s. andamenensis from Andamans etc., which are currently
not valid (Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L., 1997) 36. Very
different looking animal from mainland form and may
deserve a species status. Needs more taxonomic work 37.
Vasishta, S.G. and Badwaik (1994) 38. Bates, P.J.J. and
Harrison, D.L. (1997) 39. Andersen, K. (1912) 40. Bates,
P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 41. Simmons, N.B. (2005)
42. Molur, S. et al. (2002) 43. Favours palm, Asoka and
Ficus trees 44. First described as Pachysoma brachyotis.
Taxonomic confusions between C. sphinx and C. brachyotis
necessitates more work. Some such research is being
conducted in Sri Lanka currently 45. There is considerable
confusion at sub-specific level as well including as to whether
C.b. brachysoma should not be a C. sphinx sub-species
(Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L., 1997) 46. Commoner in
north-east than in southern India; nowhere is it as common as
C. sphinx 47. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 48.
Molur, S. et al. (2002) 49. Simmons, N.B. (2005); Aul, B. et
al. (2012) 50. Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates,
P.J.J., Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Molur, S. and Srinivasulu, C.
(2008) 51. First described as Macroglossus spelaeus
(Dobson, 1871) 52. Extralimitally in Thailand known to go
up to 4,000 individuals 53. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L.
(1997) 54. With which it shares roosts in the north-east 55.
This is a character of the sub family Macroglossinae 56.
Gould, E. (1988) 57. Molur, S. et.al (2002) and Vanitharani,
J. et al. (2005) 58. Francis, C., Rosell-Ambal, G., Tabaranza,
B., Carino, P., Helgen, K., Molur, S. and Srinivasulu, C.
(2008). 59. Monotypic 60. Agoramoorthy (2000);
Singaravelan and Marimuthu (2003) 61. Bates, P.J.J. and
Harrison, D.L. (1997) 62. Vanitharani, J. et al. (2005) 63.
Molur, S. et al. (2002); Vanitharani, J. et al. (2005) 64.
Species collected first at 770 m and later at 460 m Hutton,
A.F. (1949a) and Bates, P.J.J. et al. (1994d) 65. First
described as Cyanopterus blanfordi (Thomas, O., 1891) 66.
Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 67. Molur, S. et al.
(2002) 68. Monotypic 69. First described as Vespertilio
microphyllus 70. Larger subspecies found in India (Hill, J.E.,
1977); Slightly smaller subspecies in Pakistan 71. Bates,
P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 72. Hill, J.E. (1977) 73. This
is a desert adaptation. Sharifi, M. pers. comm. (Aulagnier, S.
and Palmeirim, P., 2008); Rhinopoma microphyllum 74. The
latter is a doubtful record from Chennai 75. Bates, P.J.J. and
Harrison, D.L. (1997) 76. British Museum of Natural History
77. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1977) 78. Bates, P.J.J.
and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 79. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L.
(1997) 80. BMNH 81. First described as Nyctinomus
aegyptiacus (Geoffroy. E., 1818) 82. Bates, P.J.J. and
Harrison, D.L. (1997) 83. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L.
(1997) 84. First described as espertilio plicatus (Buchannan,
F., 1800) 85 Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 86.
Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Ong, P.,
Gumal, M., Kingston, T., Heaney, L., Balete, D., Molur, S.
and Srinivasulu, C. (2008). 87. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison,
D.L. (1997) 88. First described as Nyctinomus wroughtoni.
Monotypic 89. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997);
Alfred, J.R.B. et al. (2006) 90. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison,
D.L. (1997) 91. Thabah and Bates (2002) 92. T.l. fulvidus,
brevicaudus and cantori described by various authors are not
considered valid (Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L., 1997) 93.
Bates, P., Francis, C., Kingston, T., Gumal, M. and Walston,
J. (2008) 94. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 95. The
long, blackish-brown ears are widely separated and the tragus
is club shaped. 96. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 97.
Recorded from Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Assam, Nagaland and
Tripura (Bates, P., Francis, C., Kingston, T., Gumal, M. and
Walston, J., 2008) 98. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997)
99. Recorded from Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Sikkim, West
Bengal, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka (Bates, P.,
Benda, P., Aulagnier, S., Palmeirim, J., Bergmans, W., Fahr,
J., Hutson, A.M., Amr, Z. and Kock, D., 2008) 100. First
described as Taphozous bicolor 101. Recorded from
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar,
Chhattisgarh, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu
(Molur, S. et al., 2002) 102. Csorba, G., Bumrungsri, S.,
Helgen, K., Francis, C., Bates, P., Gumal, M., Balete, D.,
Heaney, L., Molur, S. and Srinivasulu, C., 2008) 103. The
view that some from south-western India should be referred
to as M.l. caurina (Andersen, K. and Wroughton, R.C., 1907)
is not followed here 104. Brosset, A. (1962) describes the
largest colony of 1,500–2,000 individuals near Aurangabad
105. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 106. Phillips
(1980) 107. First listed as Vespertilios pasma (Linnaeus, C.,
1758) 108. However difficult to see; secretive 109.
Wroughton, R.C. (1915); Brosset, A. (1926) 110. Bates, P.J.J.
and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 111. Brosset, A. (1962) 112.
Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 113. This may be its
natural habitat; adapting to others Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison,
D.L. (1997) 114. First described as Verspertilio ferrum-
equinum (Schreber, J.C.D., 1774) 115. Bates, P.J.J. and
Harrison, D.L. (1997) 116. This bat has a short 3rd
metacarpal with its 1st phalanx being very long; R. affinis has
a longer 3rd metacarpal and while its 1st phalanx is short, the
2nd phalanx is long; R. rouxii is similar to the Intermediate
except that the 2nd phalanx is slightly shorter in the
peninsular form 117. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997)
118. Mirza, A.B. (1965) in Baluchistan 119. HNHM in
Nepal Annapurna 120. Chakraborty, S. (1983) 121.
Peninsular subspecies. May not apply to Himalayan sub-
species 122. Brossett (1962) 123. Sreenivasan, M.A. et al.
(1973) 124. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 125.
Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 126. Triangular at
times and with concave sides at other times. Tip is pointed.
127. Observed in Sri Lanka (Neuweiler, G. et al., 1987) 128.
Brosset (1962b) 129. Wroughton, R.C. (1912c) 130. Bates,
P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 131. Formerly Rhinolophus
rouxiisinicus132. First described as Vespertilio hipposideros
(Bechstein, J.M., 1800) 133. Common in Gilgit during the
summer months134. Scully in Blanford, W.T (1888–91) 135.
Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 136. Scully, J.
(Blanford, W.T., 1888–91) 137. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison,
D.L. (1997) 138. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 139.
Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 140. Lal, J.P. and
Biswas, D.K. (1985b) 141. Molur, S. et al. (2002) 142.
Wroughton, R.C. (1914) 143. Brosset, A. (1962b); Sinha,
Y.P. (1986a), Lal, J.P. and Biswas, D.K. (1985b) 144.
Prakash, I. (1961) found it in Bikaner albeit in low numbers
145. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 146. Blanford,
W.T. (1888–91) 147. Molur, S. et al. (2002) 148. Csorba, G.
and Bates, P.J.J. (1995) 149. Formerly included as a
subspecies of the more widespread taxon R. macrotis (Ruedi,
M., 2012); Ruedi, M. et al. (2012) 150. Bates, P.J.J. and
Harrison, D.L. (1997) 151. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L.
(1997) 152. Was once considered a subspecies of R. luctus
(Andersen, K., 1905) 153. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L.
(1997) 154. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 155.
Black hairs with pale tips 156. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison,
D.L. (1997) 157. Srinivasulu, C. and Molur, S. (2008) 158.
Phillips, W.W.A. (1980); Brosset (1962b); Wroughton, R.C.
(1913); Srinivasulu, C. and Molur, S. (2008) 159. Bates,
P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 160. Bates, P.J.J. and
Harrison, D.L. (1997) 161. Molur, S. et.al (2002) 162. Bhat
(1974) 163. Wroughton, R.C. (1914) 164. Molur, S. et al.
(2002) 165. Once thought to be a subspecies of R. pearsonii.
Now considered distinct 166. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L.
(1997) 167. Manish Chandy pers. comm. 168. One possibly
erroneous record from Kolkata (may not be place of actual
collection) 169. One record in Madhya Pradesh 170. Known
only from one specimen from Chaibasa in Bihar 171. Till
recently considered a synonym of R. lepidus 172. First
described as H. bicolor (Templeton, 1848) 173. Molur, S. et
al. (2002) 174. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 175.
Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 176. Bates, P.J.J. and
Harrison, D.L. (1997) 177. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L.
(1997) 178. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 179. Low
Himalayan foothills 180. Endemic species found in the caves
of Jabalpur 181. Endemic 182. Monotypic 183. Molur, S. et
al. (2002) 184. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 185. 2
mm186. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 187. Molur,
S, et al. (2002) 188. First described as Vespertiliospeoris
(Schneider, G.B., 1800) 189. Includes H.s. pulchellus from
Karnataka described by Andersen, K. (1918) 190. Molur, S.,
Yapa, W. and Srinivasulu, C. (2008) 191. Bates, P.J.J. and
Harrison, D.L. (1997) 192. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L.
(1997) 193. Senacha, K.R. and Dookia, S. (2013) 194. From
the one measurement in Senacha, K.R. and Dookia, S. (2013)
195. Aul, B. et al. (2012) 196. First described as
Rhinolophus armiger (Hodgson, B.H., 1835) 197. Molur, S.
et al. (2002) 198. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 199.
Molur, S. et al. (2002) 200. Mistry, S. (1985) 201. Includes
earlier species H. schistaceeous and two former subspecies
H.l. mixtus and H.l. unitus as described by Andersen, K.
(1918). This rendering follows Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison,
D.L. (1997) 202. To the subcontinent 203. First described as
Rhinolophus diadema 204. Aul, B. et al. (2012) 205. First
described as Vespertilio formosa (Hodgson, B.H., 1835) 206.
Normally, but up to 40 or 50 individuals recorded in some
caves (Francis, C., Bates, P., Csorba, G., Molur, S. and
Srinivasulu, C., 2008) 207. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L.
(1997) 208. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 209. First
described as Vespertilio muricola (Gray, J.E., 1846) 210.
First described as Scotophilus coromandra (Gray, J.E., 1838)
211. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 212. Bates, P.J.J.
and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 213. Molur, S. et al. (2002) 214.
First described as Vespertilio tenisis (Temminck, C.J., 1840)
215. Following Sinha, Y.P. (1980) is not treating P.t.
glaucillus as separate subspecies 216. Bates, P.J.J. and
Harrison, D.L. (1997) 217. Prakash, I. (1962) 218. Roberts,
T.J. (1977) 219. Molur, S. et al. (2002) 220. First described
as Scotophilus javanicus (Gray, J.E., 1838) 221. Bates and
Harrison (1997) 222. Molur, S. et al. (2002) 223. Bates, P.J.J.
and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 224. Srinivasulu, C. (pers. comm.)
in Francis, C., Roseli-Ambal, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L.,
Molur, S., Srinivasulu, C. (2008) 225. Bates, P.J.J. and
Harrison, D.L. (1997) 226. First described as Scotophilus
ceylonicus (Kelaart, E.F., 1852) 227. Gopalakrishna, A. and
Madhavan, A. (1971) 228. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L.
(1997) 229. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 230.
Bates, P., Hutson, A.M., Schitter, D., Molur, S. and
Srinivasulu, C. (2008) 231. Monotypic 232. Agrawal, V.C.
(1973) 233. Sinha, Y.P. (1981a) 234. Bates, P.J.J. and
Harrison, D.L. (1997) 235. Ellerman, J.R. and Morrison-
Scott, T.C.S. (1951) considered it to be a sub-genus of
Pipistrellus while Menu, H. (1987) thought it was a synonym
of Epistecus. Monotypic 236. In China 55 bats were collected
from one cave (Csorba, G., 1998) 237. Bates, P.J.J. and
Harrison, D.L. (1997) 238. Madhavan, A. (1980) 239. Bates,
P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 240. Madhavan, A. (1980)
241. First described as Nycticejus ornatus (Blyth, E., 1851).
Taxons emarginatus and imbriensis are included in this. 242.
Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 243. Wroughton, R.C.
(1916b) 244. Recorded in Sikkim, northern West Bengal,
Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Manipur and
Nagaland (Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L., 1997) 245.
Collected from 689–1,384 m in India (Bates, P.J.J. and
Harrison, D.L., 1997) 246. First described as Nycticejus
tickelli (Blyth, 1851) 247. However rare to see 248. Bates,
P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 249. Csorba, G.,
Bumrungsri, S., Francis, C., Bates, P., Ong, P., Gumal, M.,
Kingston, T., Molur, S. and Srinivasulu, C. (2008) 250.
Molur, S. et al. (2012) 251. First described as Vespertilio
pictus (Pallas, P.S., 1767) 252. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison,
D.L. (1997) 253. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 254.
Hutson, A.M., Francis, C., Molur, S. and Srinivasulu, C.
(2008) 255. Molur, S. et al. (2002) 256. Recorded only by
Vanitaharani et al. (2003) 257. Aul, B. et al. (2013) 258.
Could be a complex of two species (Bates, P., Francis, C.,
Rosell-Ambell, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney, L., Molur, S. and
Srinivasulu, C., 2008) 259. Molur, S. et al. (2002) 260. Bates
and Harrison, 1997 261. Molur, S. et al. (2002) 262. Bates,
P.J.J., Francis, C., Rosell-Ambell, G., Tabaranza, B., Heaney,
L., Molur, S. and Srinivasulu, C. (2008) 263. Estimated in
the 60s to be more than 100,000 individuals (Brosset, A.,
1962c) 264. Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L. (1997) 265.
Csorba, G. et al. (2011) propose that only northwestern
Himalayas have M. tubinaris and eastwards it should be split
and known as M.cineracea and M.jaintiana 266. Single
female specimen (Ruedi, M., Biswas, J. and Csorba, G.,
2012) 267. Single specimen 268. Jeripanee in Kumaon at
1,692 m (Bates, P.J.J. and Harrison, D.L., 1997)

WHALES AND DOLPHINS

1. Berta, A. and Sumich, J.L. (1999) 2. Fish, F.E., Nusbaum,
M.K., Beneski, J.T. and Ketten, D.R. (2006) 3. Edel, R.K.
and Winn, H.E. (1978) 4. Jefferson, T.A. and Hung, S.K.
(2004) 5. Smith (1986) 6. Au (1993) 7. Satigh, et al. (1995)
8. Tyack (1981) 9. Rahman (2000); Islam (2003); Smith et al.
(2006) 10. Wang, J.Y. and Reeves, R. (2012) 11. Prideaux,
M. (2003) 12. When first described it was thought to be a
single species, then in the early 1970s was split into two
(Pilleri, G., Marcuzzi, G. and Pilleri, O., 1982) and then
recombined into one with two subspecies (Rice, D.W., 1998)
13. Shirihai, H. and Jarett, B. (2007) 14. Shirihai, H. and
Jarett, B. (2007) 15. Carwardine, M. and Camm, M. (1995)
16. The former is taxonomically distinct only by more
prominent nasal and maxillary crests and some difference in
blood protein 17. Smith et al. (2006) 18. Extralimitally found
in Nepal and Bangladesh 19. Behera, S.K., Nawab, A. and
Rajkumar, B. (2008) 20. These are possibly accidentally
dispersed. Kasuya, T. and Haque, A.K.M. (1972); Smith,
B.D., Aminul Haque, A.K.M, Hossein, M.S. and Khan, A.
(1998) 21. Their salinity tolerance is probably less than 10
ppt. 22. Currently considered a single species that is highly
variable (Reeves, R.R., Dalebout M.L., Jefferson, T.A.,
Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-
Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang J.Y.
and Zhou, K. (2008) although others consider S. plumbea to
be different. If so the Indian species would be changed to the
latter 23. Scientists are unsure whether S. chinensis is one
species with variation, one species with two subspecies S.
chinensis chinensis and S.chinensis plumbea or they are two
species (Reeves, R.R., Dalebout M.L., Jefferson, T.A.,
Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-
Bracho, L., Secchi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang J.Y.
and Zhou, K., 2008) 24. Carwardine, M. and Camm, M.
(1995) 25. Shirihai, H. and Jarett, B. (2007) 26. Populations
of dolphins without hump have been observed in
Parangipattinam (Sathasivam, K., 2004) 27. De Silva,
P.H.D.H. (1987) 28. James, P.S.B.R., Rajagopalan, M., Dan,
S.S., Bastian Fernando, A. and Selvaraj, V. (1989) (1, 2, and
17 records from Kerala, 5 from Odisha, 1 from Karnataka, 10
from Tamil Nadu, 1 from Andaman Islands, 1 from Gujarat, 4
from Andhra Pradesh, 2 from unknown locations and 3 from
Maharashtra) 29. Ross, G.J.B., Heinsohn, G.E. and
Cockcroft, V.G. (1994) 30. Karczmarski, L., Cockcroft, V.G.
and McLaachlan, A. (2000) 31. Has been recently split away
from N. asiaeorientalis, which was considered the same as N.
phocaenoides. However external morphologies differ and
there are no reports of intermediates (Wang, J.Y., Frasier,
T.R., Yang, S.C. and White, B.N., 2008; Wang, J.Y., Yang
S.C., Wang, B.J. and Wang, L.S., 2010) 32. Formerly was
known as N. phocaenoides phocaenoides when three
subspecies were known. Now they have been lumped into
two species and N. phocaenoides does not have subspecies.
However there is evidence of some subpopulation differences
(Jefferson, T.A., 2002) 33. Sathasivam, K. (2004) 34.
Shirihai, H. and Jarett, B. (2007) 35. De Silva, P.H.D.H
(1987) 36. James, P.S.B.R., Rajagopalan, M., Dan, S.S.,
Bastian Fernando, A., and Selvaraj, V. (1989) 37. WTI field
observation, in prep. 38 Jefferson, T.A. and Hung, S.K.
(2004) 39 Wang, J.Y. and Reeves, R. (2012) 40. Split only in
2005 and the Australian Snub-nosed Dolphin separated from
O. brevirostris into a separate species (Beaseley, I.,
Robertson, K.M. and Arnold, P., 2005) 41. Monotypic but
variations occur and at least four clear sub-populations,
Ayeyarwady, Songhkia Lake, Mekong Valley and Malampaya
sound are recognized and assessed (Reeves, R.R., Jefferson,
R.R.A., Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G.,
Rojas-Bracho, L., Sechi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D.,
Wang, J.Y. and Zhou, K., 2008) 42. Shirihai, H. and Jarett, B.
(2007) 43. Shirihai, H. and Jarett, B. (2007) 44. Carwardine,
M. and Camm, M. (1995) 45. This may be a vagrant blown
up by a cyclone. Miller, H. (1997) 46. 70 m upstream the
Ganges from the Bay of Bengal (De Silva, P.H.D.H., 1987)
47. Smith et al. (2006) 48. Reeves, R.R., Jefferson, R.R.A.,
Karczmarski, L., Laidre, K., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Rojas-
Bracho, L., Sechi, E.R., Slooten, E., Smith, B.D., Wang, J.Y.
and Zhou, K. (2008) 49. Till recently the Bottlenose was
considered one species. Rice (1998) split this from Tursiops
truncates based on genetics, osteology and external
morphology (Wang, J.Y., Chou, L.S. and White, B.N., 1999;
Wang, J.Y., Chou, L.S. and White, B.N., 2000) 50 Shirihai,
H. and Jarett, B. (2007) 51. Shirihai, H. and Jarett, B. (2007)
52. Lal Mohan, R.S. (1982) 53 Kar, S.K. (1996) 54.
Hammond, P.D., Bearzi, G., Bjornge, A., Forney, K.A.,
Karkzmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang,
J.Y., Wells, R.S. and Wilson, B. (2012) 55. Currently
considered a subspecies that is distinct from the Atlantic and
Pacific subspecies D.c. capensis. (Jefferson, T.A. and Van
Waerebeek, K., 2002) while others consider it a distinct
species (Van Bree, P.J.H. and Gallagher, M.D., 1978) 56.
Shirihai, H. and Jarett, B. (2007) 57. Shirihai, H. and Jarett,
B. (2007) 58. Carwardine, M. and Camm, M. (1995) 59.
Shirihai, H. and Jarett, B. (2007) 60. De Silva, P.H.D.H.
(1987) 61. Jayaprakash, A.A., Nammalwar, P., Krishna Pillai,
S. and Elayath, M.N.K. (1995) 62. Jefferson, T.A. and Van
Waerebeek, K. (2002) 63. Currently undergoing taxonomic
work that may place it in a different genus 64. Three to four
other subspecies are extralimital 65. Carwardine, M. and
Camm, M. (1995) 66. Shirihai, H. and Jarett, B. (2007) 67.
Karbhari, J.P., Aravindakshan, M., Wagmare, K.B. and
Gandhi, R. (1985) 68. Rao Sheshagiri, C.V. and Rao
Narayan, N.K. (1992) and 4 records from Lakshadweep
Islands, 4 from Maharashtra, 3 from the Bay of Bengal, 7
from Kerala, 1 from Pondicherry, 8 from Tamil Nadu, 3 from
Karnataka and 1 from Andhra Pradesh (Sathhasivam, K. in
litt, 2013) 69. Bearzi, G., Bjorge, A., Forney, K.,
Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang,
J.Y., Wells, R.S. and Wislon, B. (2008) 70. Reyes, J.C. (1991)
71. Stenella is now considered paraphyletic and the genus
could be changed (Le Duc, G., Perrin, W.F. and Dizon, A.E.,
1999) 72. Other subspecies is extralimital 73. Carwardine,
M. and Camm, M. (1995) 74. Shirihai, H. and Jarett, B.
(2007) 75. De Silva P.H.D.H. (1987) 76. 2 records from
Lakshadweep Islands, 4 from the Bay of Bengal, 1 from the
Arabian Sea, 1 from West Bengal and 1 from an unknown
location (Sathasivam, K., 2004) 77. Hammond, P.S., Bearzi,
G., Bjorge, A., Forney, K., Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T.,
Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang, J.Y., Wells, R.S. and Wislon,
B. (2008) 78. Current genetics may change the genus of this
species as it is considered closer to the Indo-pacific
Bottlenose Dolphin than to some other Stenella species. 79.
Hammond, P.S., Bearzi, G., Bjorge, A., Forney, K.,
Karczmarski, L., Kasuya, T., Perrin, W.F., Scott, M.D., Wang,
J.Y., Wells, R.S. and Wislon, B. (2008) 80. Shirihai, H. and
Jarett, B. (2007) 81. Shirihai, H. and Jarett, B. (2007) 82.
Shirihai, H. and Jarett, B. (2007) 83. Sathasivam, K. (2004)
and 1 record each from Tamil Nadu, Gujarat 84. Maigret, J.
(1994) 85. Shirihai, H. and Jarett B. (2007) 86. Shirihai, H.
and Jarett, B. (2007) 87. 3 records from Tamil Nadu, 1 from
Kerala, 1 from Nicobars and 2 from Lakshadweep Islands
(Sathasivam, K., 2004; Sathasivam, K., 2013) 88. Baird,
R.W. (2002) 89. Can come closer to shore if waters are deep
(Perrin, F., Leatherwood, S. and Collet, A., 1994) 90. There
is some variation of forms off Japan differing in cranial
morphology. Has not been yet described as subspecies (Rice,
1998) 91. Shirihai, H. and Jarett, B. (2007) 92. 147 whales
stranded on a three-kilometre stretch between
Kulasekharapattinam and Manapad (Alagaraswami, K.,
Bensam, P., Rajapandian, M.E. and Bastian Fernando, A.,
1973) 93. Leatherwood, S., Macdonald, D., Prematunga,
W.P., Girton, P., Ilangovan, A. and McNrearty, D. (1991) and
3 records from Lakshadweep Islands, 1 from Andaman
Islands, 1 from the Bay of Bengal, 2 from Tamil Nadu, 2
from unknown locations, 3 from West Bengal and 1 from
Maharashtra (Sathasivam, K. in litt., 2013) 94. Taylor, B.L.,
Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G.,
Notobartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. and Pitman, R.L. (2008)
95. First described as Electra electra (Gray, 1846) 96.
Shirihai, H. and Jarett, B. (2007) 97. Leatherwood, S.,
Macdonald, D., Prematunga W.P., Girton, P., Ilangovan, A.
and McNrearty, D. (1991) and 2 records from Andhra
Pradesh, 1 from Tamil Nadu, 1 from Nicobar Islands
(Sathasivam, K. in litt, 2013) 98. Taylor, B.L., Baird, R.,
Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notobartolo
di Sciara, G., Wade, P. and Pitman, R.L. (2008) 99. Marine
mammal conservation network of India, e-site 100. Taylor,
B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead,
J.G., Notobartolo di Sciara. G., Wade, P. and Pitman, R.L.
(2008) 101. Currently there is a debate on whether it should
be split into several subspecies or even species but it is not
resolved (Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M.,
Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notobartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. and
Pitman, R.L., 2008) 102. Shirihai, H. and Jarett, B. (2007)
103. Shirihai, H. and Jarett, B. (2007) 104. De Silva,
P.H.D.H. (1987) 1 record from Karnataka, 1 from Goa, 2
from Andamans, 1 from Nicobars, 1 from Tamil Nadu, 1
from Gujarat (Sathasivam, K. in litt., 2013) 105. Arthur, R.
pers. comm. to Sathasivam, Kumaran (2004) 106. Taylor,
B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead,
J.G., Notobartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. and Pitman, R.L.
(2008) 107. 10 records from Kerala, 4 from Tamil Nadu, 2
from Andamans, 1 from Maharashtra (Sathasivam, 2004;
Sathasivam in litt., 2013) 108. Taylor, B.L., Baird, R.,
Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notobartolo
di Sciara, G., Wade, P. and Pitman, R.L. (2008) 109. First
described as Physeter catadon 110. A female Sperm Whale
stranded at Karwar had a HBL of 10 m (Naik, U.G., Rathod,
J.L. and Haragi, S.B., 2010) 111. Tiwari, J.K. and Varu, S.N.
(2001) 112. Naik, U.G., Rathod, J.L. and Haragi, S.B. (2010)
113. 15 records from Tamil Nadu, 3 from Pondicherry, 3
from Karnataka, 2 from Nicobar Islands,, 7 from
Lakshadweep Islands, 2 from unknown locations, 2 from
Kerala, 1 from Maharashtra, 1 from Andamans Sathasivam
2004 114. Rice (1998); Jacquet, N., Whitehead, H. and
Lewis, M. (1996) 115. Both Pygmy and Dwarf Sperm
Whales were thought to be the same till 1966 (Handley, 1966;
Chivers et al., 2005) 116. Mosses, S.T. (1947), Pilllai, N.G.
(1926) and Chantrapornysl, S., Kinze, C.C., Leatherwood, S.
and Prematunga, W.P. (1991) 1 record from Kerala, 1 from
Tamil Nadu, 1 from Andhra Pradesh (Sathasivam, K. in litt.,
2013) 117. Macalpine (2002) 118. Was earlier Kogia simus
but changed to sima recently to correct the gender 119.
Currently thought to be monotypic although two separate
subspecies or even species may be known, one in the Atlantic
and one in the Indo-Pacific (Chiver, S.J., Leduc, A.E.,
Robertson, K.M., Barros, N.B. and Dizon, A.E. (2005) 120.
De Silva (1987). May be confused with K. breviceps as the
two were split only recently Sathasivam, K. (2004) and 1
record from Andhra Pradesh, 1 from Tamil Nadu, 1 from the
Bay of Bengal, 1 from an unknown location (Sathasivam, K.
in litt., 2013) 121. Taylor, B.L., Baird, R., Barlow, J.,
Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G., Notobartolo di Sciara,
G., Wade, P. and Pitman, R.L. (2008) 122. Monotypic.
Dalebout, M.L., Robertson, K.M., Frantiz, A., Engelhaupt,
D., Mignucci-Giannoni, A.A., Rosario-Delestre, R.J. and
Baker, C.S. (2005) 123. Sathasivam, K. (2004) 124.
Houston, J. (1991) 125. Sathashivam, K. (2004) 126.
Macleod, C.D. and Zuur, A.F. (2005) 127. Taylor, B.L.,
Baird, R., Barlow, J., Dawson, S.M., Ford, J., Mead, J.G.,
Notobartolo di Sciara, G., Wade, P. and Pitman, R.L. (2008)
128. MMCNI 129. Sathashivam, K. (2004) 130. November
2010 saw stranding of Minkes on Kadmat Island,
Lakshadweep 131.Monotypic. Several populations described.
Indian forms unknown 132. MMCNI 133. 2 records from
Maharashtra, 1 record from Gujarat, 1 from Tamil Nadu, 3
from Kerala (Sadhashivam, 2004; Sathashivam K. in litt.,
2013) 134. Tomlin (1957) described two subspecies which
would make the northern hemisphere one as B.b. borealis;
others think that it is B.b.s chlegelli (Flowers, 1865) but
neither is recognized widely (Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L.,
Best, P.B., Brown, M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S.,
Clapham, P.J., Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urban, J. and
Zerbini, A.N. (2008) 135. Shirihai, H. and Jarett, B. (2007)
136. Shirihai, H. and Jarett, B. (2007) 137. MMCNI 138. 8
records from Tamil Nadu (all Palk Bay and south), 2 records
from Gujarat and 1 from Kerala (Vypeen Island, Cochin)
(Sathashivam, K., 2004; in litt. 2013) 139. There is
considerable taxonomic confusion between B. brydei, B.
edeni and B. omurai. More work needs to be done to answer
whether all three constitute different species or subspecies of
each other. (Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown,
M., Brownell Jr., R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J.,
Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urban, J. and Zerbini, A.N. (2008)
140. Shirihai, H. and Jarett, B. (2007) 141. MMCNI 142. 2
records from Lakshadweep Islands, 5 from Tamil Nadu, 4
from Kerala, 1 from an unknown location and 1 from Odisha,
Sathashivam, K. 2004 and in. litt. 2013 143. Larger southern
hemisphere populations named B.p. quoyi 144. MMCNI
145. 3 from Tamil Nadu, 1 from Gujarat, 1 from Goa, 2 from
Maharashtra and 1 from an unknown location (Sathashivam,
K., 2004) 146. All indications are that this is the same as
B.m. brevicauda (Ichihara, 1966) or the Pygmy Blue Whale.
B.m. indica has priority in name. If this is correct, the
common name though would change to Pygmy Blue Whale
(Shirihai, H. and Jarett, B., 2006) 147. Maximum weight
recorded: 20,000 kg. 148. Found abundantly near Sri Lanka
and Maldives (Reilly, S.B., Bannister, J.L., Best, P.B., Brown,
M., Brownell Jr. R.L., Butterworth, D.S., Clapham, P.J.,
Cooke, J., Donovan, G.P., Urban, J. and Zerbini, A.N. (2008)
149. Moses, S.T. (1940) and Mohanraj, G., Somaraju, M.V.
and Seshagiri Rao, C.V. (1995)

DUGONGS
1. Nair, R.V., Lal Mohan, R.S. and Rao, K.S. (1975) 2.
D’Souza, E. and Patankar, V. (2011) 3. Aragones, L. (1996).
4. Marsh, H. (1999) 5. UNEP (2002) 6. Silas, E.G. and
Fernando, A.B. (1985) 7. D’Souza, E. and Patankar, V. (2011)
8. Red Sea and Australian populations are considered
separate subspecies, i.e. D.d. hemprichii and D.d. australis
(Shirihai, H. and Jarett, B., 2007) 9. Although they are
normally found in small groups or in mother-calf pairs, herds
of over 100 have been recorded in Australia where sea-grass
beds are profuse. Such numbers are not seen in Indian waters
of late 10. Shirihai, H. and Jarett, B. (2007) 11. Nair, R.V.,
Lal Mohan, R.S. and Rao, K.S. (1975) 12. Shirihai, H. and
Jarett, B. (2007) 13. No recent records of Karnataka or
Kerala (Sathasivam, K. in litt., 2013) (1975)
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Sciara, G., Wade, P. and Pitman, R.L. Peoponocephala electra (2008), IUCN Red
List of Threatened Species, Version 2012.2.
Thapa, J., Molur, S. and Nameer, P.O., Petaurista nobilis (2010), IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species, Version 2013.1.
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World, Baltimore: John Hopkins Universities Press, 2013.
Timmins, R.J. and Duckworth, J.W., Moschus leucogaster (2008), IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species, Version 2011.2.
Timmins, R.J., Duckworth, J.W., Hedges, S., Pattanavibool, A., Steinmetz, R.,
Semiadi, G., Tyson, M. and Boeadi, Muntiacus muntjak (2008), IUCN Red List
of Threatened Species, Version 2013.2.
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Wagner, A.P. Behavioral ecology of the striped hyaena (Hyaena hyaena), PhD Thesis,
Montana State University, 2006.
Walston, J., Duckworth, J.W. and Molur, S., Ratufa bicolor (2008), IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species, Version 2013.1.
Wang, J.Y. and Reeves, R., Neophocaena phocaenoides (2012), IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species, Version 2012.2.
Wang, J.Y., Frasier, T.R., Yang, S.C. and White, B.N., “Detecting recent speciation
events: the case of the finless porpoise (genus Neophocaena)”, Heredity, 101(2)
(2008): 145-155.
Wilson, D.E. and Reeder, D.M. (Eds.), Mammal Species of the World, a Taxonomic and
Geographic Reference, Third Edition, Vol 1 and 2, Baltimore: John Hopkins
University Press, 2005.
Wilson, D.E. and Mittermeir, R.A. (Eds.), Handbook of the Mammals of the World, Vol
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Mammal Species of the World: A taxonomic and geographic reference, Third
Edition, Smithsonian Institution Press, 532-628.

NOTE: In order to make this book easy to carry in the

field, only a select bibliography is included here. You can
access the complete list of references online at:
* http://hachetteindia.com/PDF/IndianMammalsRef.pdf
and at
* http://www.wti.org.in/book/IndianMammalsRef.pdf
CONTRIBUTORS AND
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

GENERAL REVIEWERS

Ajith Kumar
Course Director, PG Prog. in Wildlife Biology and
Conservation Wildlife, NCBS; ajith@ncbs.res.in

P.O. Nameer
Associate Professor (W) and Head, CWS, College of
Forestry, Kerala Agri. University; nameerpo@gmail.com

SUBJECT REVIEWERS
Gabor Csorba
Deputy Head, Dept. of Zoology, and Curator of Mammals,
HNHM, Hungary; csorba@nhmus.hu

Goutam Narayan
EcoSystems-India; gn@ecosystems-india.org

Gopinathan Maheswaran
ZSI (Zoological Survey of India) – Birds Section;
gmaheswaran@yahoo.com
Kumaran Sathasivam
Naturalist and author; kumaran.sathasivam@gmail.com

Nikolai Formozov
Prof., Moscow State University, Russia; formozov@list.ru

Nita Shah
Conservation biologist; nitashah.india@gmail.com
Paul Bates
Director, Harrison Institute, UK; pjjbates2@hotmail.com

Raman Sukumar
Professor, IISc (Indian Institute of Science) – CES;
rsuku@ces.iisc.ernet.in

M.K. Ranjitsinh
IAS (Retd) Former Chairman, WTI;
mkranjitsinh@gmail.com
Surendra Varma
Scientist, ANCF (Asian Nature Conservation Foundation;
varma@ces.iisc.ernet.in

Yash Veer Bhatnagar

Sr. Scientist, NCF (Nature Conservation Foundation);
yash@ncf-india.org

S. Sathyakumar
Scientist - G, WII (Wildlife Institute of India);
ssk@wii.gov.in

RESEARCH AND PRODUCTION TEAM

Amrit Menon
Project Officer, WTI; amrit@wti.org.in

John Kunjukunju
Sr. Executive Assistant, WTI; johnkunju@gmail.com

Mayukh Chatterjee
Manager, WTI; mayukh@wti.org.in
Radhika Bhagat
Manager – Wild Aid, WTI; radhika@wti.org.in

Sharada Annamaraju
Freelance writer and editor; sharada.annamaraju@gmail.com

Sheetal P. Navgire
Wildlife Conservation Trust; bluefalcon.28@gmail.com
Smita Bodhankar Warnekar
Project Officer, WTI; smita@wti.org.in

Sujai Veeramachaneni
Ecologist; Formerly with WTI; vsujai80@gmail.com

Vasundhara Kandpal
Formerly Project Officer, WTI; vmisanthrope@gmail.com

PHOTOGRAPHERS AND CONTRIBUTORS

A.M.A Nixon
Manager, WTI; nixon@wti.org.in

Aamir Amir
Student and photographer; aamirktw11@gmail.com

Aditya Joshi
Field biologist; aditya4wildlife@gmail.com
Aishwarya Maheshwari
Mountain ecologist, WWF;
aishwaryamaheshwari@gmail.com

Ajith Kumar
Course Director, NCBS; ajith@ncbs.res.in

Amit Verma
Indian Forest Service, Uttarakhand; amitneha@yahoo.com
Anand Kumar Narayanan
PhD student; anandkumar.n@gmail.com

Amrit Menon
Project Officer, WTI; amrit@wti.org.in

Anil Kumar Chhangani

Assoc. Professor, MGS University, Rajasthan;
chhanganiak@yahoo.com
Aniruddha Mookerjee
Wildlife Conservationist; jhampanm@gmail.com

Anish Andheria
President, WCT (Wildlife Conservation Trust);
anish.andheria@gmail.com

Anjan Sangma
Field Officer, WTI; anjansangma@wti.org.in
Anjan Talukdar
Manager and Veterinarian, WTI; anjan@wti.org.in

Anoop K.R.
Deputy Conservator of Forests, Bharatpur, Rajasthan;
dullforester@gmail.com

Ansar Khan & Bholu Khan

Wildlife photographer & Range Officer; Keoladeo Ghana NP,
Bharatpur; ansarknp@gmail.com
Anwaruddin Choudhury
Naturalist, civil servant and author; acbadru56@gmail.com

Aparajita Datta
Senior Scientist, NCF; aparajita@ncf-india.org

Arpit Deomurari
Deputy Manager (GIS), FES (Foundation for Ecological
Security); deomurari@gmail.com
Arup Ballav Goswami
Honorary Wildlife Warden, Assam

Ashok Kumar
Chairman, WTI; ashok@wti.org.in

Bandana Aul
BNHS, Mumbai; bandana_aul@rediffmail.com
Betsy Yaap
PhD student, Marine and Tropical Biology, James Cook
University, Australia; betsy.yaap@gmail.com

Bhaskar Choudhury
Coordinator and Regional Head, WTI; bhaskar@wti.org.in

Bindu Raghavan
PhD student; bindugnape@gmail.com
Bipan Chand Rathore
Associate Professor, Govt. PG College, Chamba, Himachal
Pradesh; bipancrathore@gmail.com

Biswapriya Rahut
Passionate wildlifer; bishwapriya@gmail.com

Brij Kishor Gupta

Evaluation and Monitoring Officer, CZA (Central Zoo
Authority); brijkishor68@yahoo.com
Charudutt Mishra
Trustee, NCF; charu@ncf-india.org

Chetan Nag
Instructor, IISI, Bengaluru; chethology@gmail.com

Dhritiman Mukherjee
Wildlife photographer; dhritiman2000@yahoo.com
Dilan Mandanna
Wildlife photographer; mandil47@gmail.com

Dilip Chetry
Executive Director, Gibbon Conservation Centre;
dilip@aaranyak.org

Dipani Nitin Sutaria

Freelance ecologist; dipani.sutaria@gmail.com
Divya Mudappa
Senior Scientist, NCF; divya@ncf-india.org

Divya Panicker
Marine biologist; divya145@gmail.com

Dushyant Parasher
Wildlife photographer; dushyantparasher@yahoo.com
Erach Bharucha
Director, BVIEER; bvieer@bsnl.com

G.S. Bhardwaj
CCF-Wildlife, Jodhpur; gobindsagarbhardwaj@gmail.com

Gabor Csorba
Dy. HoD., and Curator of Mammals, HNHM;
csorba@nhmus.hu
Gautam Shah
Wildlife enthusiast; mygshah@gmail.com

George B. Schaller
Eminent wildlife biologist and author; gbs.kms@att.net

Girish Kumar
Naturalist, Spice Village, Kerala; girishnature@yahoo.co.in
Gopinathan Maheswaran
ZSI (Birds Section); gmaheswaran@yahoo.com

Goutam Narayan
EcoSystems-India; gn@ecosystems-india.org

Imre Dombi
Duna-Drava National Park Directorate, Hungary;
imreka@freemail.hu
Intesar Suhail
Wildlife Warden, Jammu & Kashmir; n.suhail@yahoo.com

James Zacharias
Former Forest Officer; james.zacharias@gmail.com

Jihosuo Biswas
Primate Research Centre, North–east Centre;
jihosuo@yahoo.com
Jose Louies
Manager and Regional Head, WTI; jose@wti.org.in

Joydeep Bose
Senior Coordinator (S&L) WWF; jbose100@gmail.com

Jugal Kishor Tiwari

CEDO (Centre for Desert and Ocean); cedoindia@yahoo.com
Joya Thapa
joyathapa@gmail.com

Jyoti P. Das,
Wildlife Researcher, Aaranyak; jyoti@aaranyak.org

K.M.B. Prasad
Deputy Conservator of Forests (Retd), Bengaluru, and
wildlife photographer; kmb.prasad@gmail.com
K.R. Senacha
Scientist, Bat Conservation International;
senacha@gmail.com

Kalyan Varma
Conservation photographer; kalyanvarma.net;
kalyan@rtns.org

Kamolika Roy Chowdhury

Wildlife enthusiast; kamolika76@gmail.com
Karma Sonam
Field Coordinator, NCF; karma@ncf-india.org

Kartik Shanker
Assoc. Professor, IISc – CES; kshanker@gmail.com

Koushik
Wildlife photographer and author; kounilshik@gmail.com
Kripaljyoti Mazumdar
Project Officer – Response ASDMA; kripaljyoti@gmail.com

Krishnapriya Tamma
PhD student; priya.tamma@gmail.com

Kuladeep Roy
Asst. Manager, WTI; kuladeeproy@gmail.com
Kulbhushansingh R. Suryawanshi
Regional Ecologist, Snow Leopard Trust & NCF;
kulbhushansinghs@gmail.com

M. Firoz Ahmed
Aaranyak; firoz@aaranyak.org

M.K. Ranjitsinh
IAS (Retd) Former Chairman, WTI;
mkranjitsinh@gmail.com
M. Kamalakannan
Scientific Assistant, ZSI; kamalakannanm1@gmail.com

Manish Chandi
Research Associate, NCF; manishchandi@yahoo.com

Manoj Dholakia
Pugmark Qmulus Consortium; pqcindia@gmail.com
Manoj P.
Sr. Naturalist, Coconut Lagoon Heritage Resort;
manojp_iv@yahoo.co.in

Mansoor Nabi Sofi

Assistant Manager, WTI; mansoor@wti.org.in

Manuel Ruedi
Natural History Museum of Geneva, Switzerland;
manuel.ruedi@ville-ge.ch
Mark Bibby
UK
mbibby255@aol.com

Mayukh Chatterjee
Manager, WTI; mayukh@wti.org.in

Mohit Aggarwal
Founder, Asian Adventures;
mohit.aggarwal@asianadventures.in
Mousumi Dutta
Member, Society for Preservation and Awareness of Wildlife
and Nature; duttamousumi@gmail.com

Murali Sreekantan
murali.sreekantan@gmail.com

N.A. Naseer
Wildlife photographer; naseerart@gmail.com
Nandini Velho
PhD student; nandinivelho@gmail.com

Narayan Sharma
Research Associate, NCF; narayansharma77@gmail.com

Nazir Ahmad Mir

Neeraj Mahar
Researcher, WII (Wildlife Institute of India);
neeraj.mahar88@gmail.com

Nicole Duplaix
Ex-Chair, Otter Specialist Group, IUCN

Nikolai Formozov
Prof., Moscow State University, Russia; formozov@list.ru
Nirav Bhatt
CEO, Indiana Ophthalmics; birdwatchernrb@gmail.com

Nita Shah
Conservation biologist; nitashah.india@gmail.com

Otto Pfister
Nature and wildlife photographer; otto_pfister@hotmail.com
P.O. Nameer
Associate Professor, Kerala Agricultural University;
nameerpo@gmail.com

Panjit Basumatary
Veterinary Officer, WTI; panjit@wti.org.in

Paul Bates
Director, Harrison Institute; pjjbates2@hotmail.com
Philip Moore
philip.moore541@btinternet.com

Pipat Soisook
Researcher and Curator of Mammal Section, PMCSNH
Museum, Thailand; pipat66@gmail.com

Prabal Sarkar
Assistant Professor, Guru Ghasidas University;
prabalsarkarindia@gmail.com
Pranav Chanchani
PhD student; chanchanipranav@gmail.com

Pranav Trivedi
Director of Conservation, NCF; pranav@ncf-india.org

Prasanta Kumar Bordoloi

Wildlife documentary film-maker pra_loi@yahoo.in
Praveen Mohandas
Architect and nature photographer;
praveen.p.mohandas@gmail.com

Priya Singh
Research Associate; Alumnus, WCS-NCBS PG Prog. in
Wildlife Biology and Conservation; karnisar@gmail.com

Punnen Kurian Venkadathu

Professor (Zoology), St. Mary’s College, Manarcadu;
pkvenkadath@gmail.com
Rahul Rao
Director, Foliage Outdoors; rahulrao79@gmail.com

Rajan S.V.
Banker; rajan.erode@yahoo.co.in.

Rajendra Prasad Mishra

Manager and Regional Head, WTI; rajendra@wti.org.in
Rajesh Puttaswamaiah and Chaitra Ramaiah,
Naturalists; chaitra.mr@gmail.com rajesh.bp@hotmail.com

Rajesh Sharma

Rajiv Bhartari
CCF (Ecotourism); rajivbhartari@gmail.com
Rakesh Chakraborty
Block Medical Officer of Health, Kalchini, W. Bengal;
rakzworld@gmail.com

Ramakrishnan A.
Wildlife photographer; ram.wildlifer@gmail.com

Raman Sukumar
Professor, IISc – CES, Bengaluru; rsuku@ces.iisc.ernet.in
Ramith M.
Field Officer, WTI ramith@wti.org.in

Ramki Sreenivasan
Founder, Conservation India; Wildlife photographer;
frogmouth@gmail.com

Ranil P. Nayanakkara
Co-founder, BEAR, Sri Lanka; ranil_n@hotmail.com
Rashid Yahya Naqash
DFO/Agrostologist; hangulnaqash@yahoo.com

Rathin Barman
Biologist; Deputy Director, WTI; rathinbarman@yahoo.com

Rinku Gohain
Veterinarian; rinku.gohain@gmail.com
Riyaz Ahmed
Manager, WTI; riyaz@wti.org.in

Rohan Pandit
Research Scholar, IISER, Pune; rohanpandit87@gmail.com

Rohit Chakravorty
PG student, Wildlife Biology, NCBS;
rohitchak77@gmail.com
Rohit Naniwadekar
Research Scholar, NCF; rohit@ncf-india.org

S. Goutham
Field Officer, WTI; goutham@wti.org.in

Sachin Rai
Professional nature photographer; sachin@landofthewild.com
Sandeep Kumar Tiwari
Deputy Director, WTI; sandeep@wti.org.in

Sandesh Kadur
Film-maker and photographer; sandesh@felis.in

Sanjayan Kumar
Deputy Director, Pench TR, Madhya Pradesh;
sanjayankumarifs@gmail.com
Sanjay Molur
Executive Director, Zoo Outreach Organization;
herpinvert@gmail.com

Sartaj Ghuman
Wildlife biologist; batalaland@gmail.com

S. Sathyakumar
Scientist - G, WII; ssk@wii.gov.in
Sashanka Barbaruah
Creative Head, Priya Communications, Guwahati, Assam;
sashb@hotmail.com

Shibani Chaudhury
Executive Director, SRUTI; shibani.chaudhury@gmail.com

Siddharth Rao
Conservation biologist; sidsrao@gmail.com
Som B. Ale
Lecturer, Biological Sciences, Univ. of Illinois (Chicago),
USA; sale1@uic.edu

Stephen Alter
Writer and naturalist; salter5833@hotmail.com

Sudheer K. Shankar
Wildlife lawyer; co-founder, Voice for Wildlife;
sudheer.k.shankar@gmail.com
Sumanta Kundu
Field Officer, WTI; sumanta1979@gmail.com

Sunil Kyarong
Deputy Director, WTI; sunil@wti.org.in

Sunita Khatiwara
Senior Research Fellow, NCBS (National Centre for
Biological Sciences); sunitak@ncbs.res.in
Surendra Varma
Scientist, ANCF (Asian Nature Conservation Foundation);
varma@ces.iisc.ernet.in

Suresh Elamon
Wildlife film-maker and photographer;
yeselamon@gmail.com

Sushovan Roy
Sociologist; formerly Field officer, WTI
Sumit Sen
Naturalist and photographer; sumitsen@gmail.com

Swati Siddhu
Phd student, NCF; swati@ncf-india.org

T.G. Tharaka Kusuminda

Field Biologist, Biodiversity Education and Research, Sri
Lanka; t.kusuminda@gmail.com
Tamo Dadda
Circle Office, Seppa, Assam; tamodadda@gmail.com

T. Shivanandappa
CSIR-Emeritus Scientist; tshivanandappa@yahoo.com

Tanushree Srivastava
Senior Research Fellow, NCBS; tanushrees@ncbs.res.in
Tara Gandhi
Vice chair, WTI; tara_gandhi@yahoo.com

Tarun Chhabra
Founder and Managing Trustee, Edhkwehlynawd Botanical
Refuge (EBR); kwattein@bsnl.in

Tenzin Norsang
Field Officer, WTI; norsang@wti.org.in
Ujjal Ghosh
Conservator of Forests, North–West Circle, Siliguri, West
Bengal; ghosh.u@gmail.com

Ullas Karanth
Director, Science-Asia Aildlife Conservation Society;
ukaranth@gmail.com

Ulrike Streicher
Wildlife veterinarian, Vietnam; u.streicher@hust.vn
Uraiporn Pimsai
Scientist, Prince of Songkla University; u.pimsai@gmail.com

Vardhan Patankar
Research Fellow, NCF; vardhan@ncf-india.org

Vijay Kumar
Wildlife enthusiast; vykumar@gmail.com
Vivek R. Sinha (and wife Arati)
Addl. Secretary(Retd), Gol; vivarati@gmail.com

Yash Veer Bhatnagar

Senior Scientist, NCF; yash@ncf-india.org

Yathin S. Krishnappa
Research Associate, university of Oslo, Norway;
yathin@gmail.com

Many thanks to the following:

CAMERA TRAP TEAMS:
* Aaranyak – Panthera/Forest Dept. – Arunachal Pradesh, by courtesy of M.
Firoz Ahmed (www.aaranyak.org; www.panthera.org;
arunachalforests.gov.in)
* Department of Forest & Park Services, Bhutan, by courtesy of Sonam
Wangchuk
* Nature Conservation Foundation (NCF) – Himachal Pradesh Forest Dept. –
Snow Leopard Trust, by courtesy of Yash Veer Bhatnagar (www.ncf-
india.org; hpforest.nic.in; www.snowleopard.org;)
* REA Kon, by courtesy of Sophie Persey, UK
* Wildlife Institute of India (WII), by courtesy of S. Sathyakumar
(www.wii.gov.in)

FOR COLOUR PLATES:

Zoological Survey of India (ZSI), by courtesy of Venkataraman
Krishnamoorthy (zsi.gov.in)

FOR MAPS:
Distribution maps: Vasundhara Kandpal, Sujai Veeramachaneni and John
Kunjukunju;
* Map of India – Biogeography: Smita Bodhankar Warnekar

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There are many mammals who helped this book take
shape – from a second edition of my former field guide to
a brand-new version of the same theme.
First, my publishers at Hachette India deserve thanks
for wanting to do this book (for this sort of book is a niche
labour of love) and, there, Thomas Abraham for giving
the go-ahead and Vatsala Kaul Banerjee for slaving away
day after day, month after month, with me over minutiae;
thank you. I hope that the nose leaves of the horseshoe
bats and the tail lengths of the rodents remain forever
etched in your fond memories.
Then, the internal team at WTI: most of all, my
executive assistant, John Kunjukunju, for working
weekends, late nights and all days on it, bolstered by
Mayukh, Amrit, Radhika, Vasundhara, Sheetal, Sujai,
Sharada and Smita at various times. Many, many thanks.
Finally, the photographers – more than 150 of them – who
brought the book to life with their generous, pro bono
photographs, and the various subject experts who
reviewed and commented incisively on the text; without
you all the book would not have been done.
Of the reviewers, I want to pick out Dr Ajith Kumar
and P.O. Nameer for having gone through almost the
entire text and for offering comments. I don’t dare pick
out from among the photographers, so brilliant were all
their offerings. I am grateful to all of you from the bottom
of my heart and I hope several youngsters, when they use
this book and feel happy, will thank you just as much.
INDEX OF COMMON NAMES

Antelope
Blackbuck, see Blackbuck 180
Four-horned 176
Indian Gazelle, see Gazelle 178
Nilgai, see Blue Bull 174
Tibetan 182
Tibetan Gazelle182
Argali 196

Badger
Hog 294
Honey 296
Large-toothed Ferret 294
Small-toothed Ferret 294
Barasingha, see Deer, Swamp 162
Bat
Andaman Horseshoe 433
Andersen’s Leaf-nosed 437
Asiatic Greater Yellow House 448
Big-eared Horseshoe 432
Black-bearded Tomb 426
Black-eared/Blyth’s Flying Fox 416
Black Gilded Pipistrelle 447
Blanford’s Fruit 420
Blyth’s Horseshoe 432
Bobrinskii’s Serotine 449
Bottae’s Serotine 449
Brown Long-eared 453
Cantor’s Leaf-nosed 438
Chinese Rufous Horseshoe 431
Chocolate Pipistrelle 447
Common Noctule 452
Common Pipistrelle 445
Common Serotine 448
Diadem Leaf-nosed 440
Dobson’s Horseshoe 434
Dormer’s 446
Dusky Leaf-nosed 436
Eastern Barbastelle 451
Egyptian Free-tailed 424
Egyptian Tomb 427
European Free-tailed 425
Flat-headed 452
Fulvous Fruit 418
Fulvous Leaf-nosed 436
Geoffroy’s Trident 438
Greater False Vampire 428
Greater Flat-headed 453
Greater Horseshoe 430
Greater Long-nosed/Hill Fruit 421
Greater Mouse-tailed 422
Greater Short-nosed Fruit 418
Greater Tube-nosed 455
Great Evening 446
Great Himalayan Leaf-nosed 440
Grey Long-eared 452
Hairy-faced 443
Hairy-winged 449
Hardwicke’s Forest 451
Harlequin 450
Hasselt’s 443
Hemprich’s Long-eared 453
Hodgson’s 442
Horsfield’s 443
Horsfield’s Leaf-nosed 438
Hutton’s Tube-nosed 455
Indian Flying Fox 416
Indian Pipistrelle 444
Indian Pygmy 444
Intermediate Horseshoe 431
Island Flying Fox 417
Jaintia Tube-nosed 455
Japanese Pipistrelle 445
Javan Pipistrelle 444
Kachin Woolly 451
Kashmir Cave 443
Kelaart’s Leaf-nosed 440
Kelaart’s Pipistrelle 446
Khajuria’s Leaf-nosed 437
Kolar Leaf-nosed 437
Kuhl’s Pipistrelle 445
Large Flying Fox 417
Least Horseshoe 433
Least Leaf-nosed 437
Leisler’s 453
Lenis Woolly 451
Lesser Dawn 420
Lesser False Vampire 428
Lesser Horseshoe Bat 432
Lesser Mouse-eared 443
Lesser Mouse-tailed 422
Lesser Short-nosed Fruit 418
Lesser Woolly Horseshoe 434
Lesser Yellow House 449
Little Nepalese Horseshoe 433
Little Tube-nosed 455
Long-winged Tomb 426
Mandelli’s Mouse-eared 443
Mitred Horseshoe 435
Mountain Noctule 453
Mount Popa Pipistrelle 445
Naked-rumped Tomb 426
Nepalese Whiskered 442
Nicobar Flying Fox 417
Nicobar Leaf-nosed 437
Nicobar Long-fingered 455
Painted 450
Papillose 451
Parti-coloured 449
Pearson’s Horshoe 434
Peter’s Tube-nosed 455
Peyton’s Whiskered 443
Pouch-bearing Tomb 427
Rainforest Tube-nosed 455
Ratnaworabhan’s Fruit 421
Round-eared Tube-nosed 454
Rufous Horseshoe 430
Salim Ali’s Fruit 420
Sanborn’s Long-fingered 455
Savi’s Pipistrelle 447
Schneider’s Leaf-nosed 438
Schreiber’s Long-fingered 454
Schreiber’s Tube-nosed 454
Scully’s Tube-nosed 455
Shortridge’s Horseshoe 435
Siliguri 443
Small Mouse-tailed 422
Sombre 449
Tailless Leaf-nosed 438
Thai Horseshoe 433
Theobald’s Tomb 427
Thick-eared 449
Thomas’s Pipistrelle 447
Tickell’s 450
Trefoil Horseshoe 435
Water 443
Whiskered 443
Woolly Horseshoe 435
Wrinkle-lipped Free-tailed 424
Wroughton’s Free-tailed 424
Yellow Desert 449
Bear
Asiatic Black 286
Himalayan Brown 290
Sloth 288
Sun 290
Bharal, see Sheep, Greater Blue 188
Binturong 262
Blackbuck
North-western 180
South-eastern 180
Blue Bull 174

Camel, Two-humped 172

Cat
Asian Golden 246
Asian Wildcat 248
Asiatic Lion 236
Caracal 248
Cheetah 240
Common Leopard 238
Desert 248
Eurasian Lynx 250
Fishing 256
Indo-Chinese Clouded Leopard 244
Jungle 252
Leopard 254
Marbled 246
Pallas’s 250
Rusty Spotted 256
Snow Leopard 242
Tiger, see Tiger 232
Chevrotain, Indian 150
Chinkara, see Gazelle, Indian 178
Chiru, see Antelope, Tibetan 182
Chousingha, see Antelope, Four-horned 176
Civet
Brown Palm 266
 Common Palm 260
Himalayan/Masked Palm 258
Large Indian 266
Malabar 266
Small Indian 264
Small-toothed Palm 262

Deer
Barking, see Muntjac, Indian 156
Brow-antlered 160
Hog 166
Kashmir Red 160
Mouse, see Chevrotain, Indian 150
Musk Deer
Alpine 154
Black 154
Himalayan/White-bellied 152
Kashmir Musk 152
Sambar 158
Spotted 164
Swamp
Eastern 162
Hard-Ground 162
Northern 162
Dolphin
Fraser’s 472
Grey/Risso’s 472
Indian/Indo-Pacific Humpback 464
Indo-Pacific Bottlenose 468
Irrawaddy 466
Long-beaked Common 468
Long-snouted Spinner 470
Pan-tropical Spotted 470
Rough-toothed 472
South Asian River 464
Ganges River 464
Indus River 464
 Striped 470
Dormouse, Malabar Spiny 392
Dugong 492

Elephant, Asian 110

Ermine 304

Fox
Bengal/Indian 282
Red 284
Desert 284
Himalayan 284
Kashmir 284
Tibetan Sand 282

Gaur 168
Gazelle
Indian 178
Deccan 178
Gujarat or Desert 178
Salt Range 178
Tibetan 182
Gerbil
Desert, see Jird, Indian Desert 390
Indian 390
Little Indian
Hairy-footed 390
Pygmy 391
Gibbon
Eastern Hoolock 66
Western Hoolock 66
Goral
Himalayan Brown 200
Himalayan Grey 200
Long-tailed 201
Red 200

Hamster
 Grey 389
Ladakh 389
Hangul, see Deer, Kashmir Red 160
Hare
Desert 322
Hispid 322
Indian 320
Black-naped 320
Desert 320
Rufous-tailed 320
Woolly 322
Hedgehog
Bare-Bellied/Madras 358
Collared/Desert/Long-eared 358
Indian/Pale 358
Hog, Pygmy 206
Horse, Feral 116
Hyaena, Striped 274

Ibex
Asiatic/Himalayan 184

Jackal, Golden 278

Common Jackal 278
Indian Jackal 278
Siamese Jackal
Sri Lankan Jackal 278
Jird
Indian Desert, see Gerbil 390

Khur, see Wild Ass, Indian 124

Kiang, see Wild Ass, Tibetan 126

Langur
Capped 90
Blond-bellied 90
Buff-bellied 90
Orange-bellied 90
 Tenebrous 90
Chamba/Kashmir 88
Golden 92
Himalayan 88
Nilgiri 80
Northern Plains 82
Phayre’s, see Monkey, Phayre’s Leaf 92
South–eastern 86
Deccan 86
Pale-pawed Crested 86
South–western 84
Konkan 84
Malabar 84
Southern Plains 84
Terai 88
Leopard
Common 238
Indo-Chinese Clouded 244
Snow 242
Linsang, Spotted 258
Lion, Asiatic 236
Loris
Bengal Slow 68
Grey Slender 68
Malabar Slender 68
Mysore Slender 68
Lynx, Eurasian 250

Macaque
Arunachal 76
Assamese 74
Eastern 74
Western 74
Bonnet 72
Dark-bellied 72
Pale-bellied 72
Crab-eating/Long-tailed 76
 Lion-tailed 80
Northern Pig-tailed 78
Rhesus 70
Stump-tailed 78
Markhor, Flare-horned 186
Marmot
Himalayan 370
Long-tailed 370
Marten
Beech/Stone 296
Nilgiri 298
Yellow-throated 298
Mithun 176
Mole
Short-tailed 356
White-tailed 356
Mongoose
Brown 272
Crab-eating 270
Grey 268
Ruddy 268
Small Indian 270
Stripe-necked 272
Monkey, Phayre’s Leaf 92
Mouse
Bonhote’s 395
Cooke’s 395
Crump’s 395
Elliot’s Brown Spiny 395
European Wood/Long-tailed Field 392
Fawn-Coloured 395
Fukien Wood/South China 393
Harvest 395
House 394
Indian Long-tailed Tree/Palm 392
Kashmir Birch 395
Little Indian Field 394
 Miller’s Wood 393
Nilgiri Long-tailed 393
Pencil-tailed Tree 393
Pygmy Field 395
Sikkim 395
Spiny Field 395
Wroughton’s Wood 393
Muntjac
Black/Gongshan 156
Indian/Red 156
Leaf 156

Nilgai, see Blue Bull 174

Otter
Asian/Oriental Small-clawed 302
Eastern Small-clawed 302
Southern Small-clawed 302
Eurasian 302
Smooth-coated 300

Panda, Red 296

Pangolin
Chinese 334
Indian 334
Pika
Forrest’s 328
Indian/Royle’s 324
Ladakh 326
Large-eared 324
Moupin’s 328
Nubra 328
Plateau 326
Porcupine
Asiatic Brush-tailed 368
Himalayan Crestless/Hodgson’s 368
Indian Crested 368
Porpoise
Finless 466

Rat
Andamans Archipelago 405
Bay Bamboo 396
Black/House Rat 404
Bower’s 401
Brown 404
Car Nicobar 405
Chestnut 400
Confucian White-bellied/Chinese 401
Edward’s Noisy 401
Ellerman’s 398
Himalayan 405
Himalayan Niviventer/White-bellied 401
Hoary Bamboo 396
Hume’s Manipur Bush 401
Indian Bush 398
Indian Mole/Lesser Bandicoot 402
Indo-Chinese Forest 405
Kenneth’s White-toothed 401
Kondana 397
Kutch Rock 398
Lang Bian 401
Large Bandicoot 402
Manipur 400
Millard’s Large-toothed 401
Miller’s Nicobar 405
Mishmi 401
Oriental House 405
Ranjini’s 405
Sahyadris Forest 405
Sand-coloured 397
Short-tailed Bandicoot 402
Smoke-bellied 401
Soft-furred Field 396
 Tennaserim 401
White-footed Himalayan 405
White-tailed Wood 398
Rhinoceros, Greater One-horned 128

Sambar, see Deer 158

Sangai, see Brow-antlered Deer 160
Serow, Himalayan 202
Sheep
Argali 196
Greater Blue 188
Urial 194
Shrew
Andaman Spiny 347
Andaman White-toothed 346
Anderson’s/Yellow-throated 349
Arboreal Brown-toothed/Blanford’s Long-tailed 350
Asian Grey/Grey Woodland 346
Assam Mole 352
Day’s 349
Dusky/Kashmir White-toothed 349
Eastern 352
Elegant Water 350
Eurasian Pygmy/Tiny 350
Flat-headed Kashmir 350
Gueldenstaedt’s White-toothed 347
Highland/Hill 348
Himalayan Water 351
Hodgson’s Brown-toothed 351
Horsfield’s 347
House 348
Indian Long-tailed 351
Jenkin’s Andaman Spiny 346
Kelaart’s Long-clawed 346
Miller’s Andaman 347
Nicobar Spiny 347
Pale Grey 347
 Pygmy White-toothed 348
Sikkim Large-Clawed/Himalayan 350
South–East Asian 347
Tibetan 350
Squirrel
Asian Red-cheeked 385
Bhutan/Grey’s Giant Flying, 378
Black Giant 374
Dusky-striped 386
Five-striped/Northern Palm 386
Grey-headed Flying 379
Grizzled Giant 374
Hairy-footed Flying 381
Himalayan Striped 384
Hoary-bellied/Irrawaddy 382
Hodgson’s Flying 379
Indian Giant 372
Indian Giant Flying 376
Jungle Striped 387
Kashmir Flying 380
Namdapha Flying 379
Orange-bellied Himalayan 384
Pallas’s 382
Parti-coloured Flying 380
Perny’s Long-nosed 385
Red Giant Flying 376
Spotted Giant Flying 379
Three-Striped Palm 386
Travancore Flying 380
Woolly Flying 378
Stoat, Himalayan, see Ermine 304

Tahr
Himalayan 190
Nilgiri 192
Takin
Bhutan 198
 Mishmi 198
Tiger, Bengal 232
Tree Shrews
Madras/Southern 340
Malay/Northern 340
Nicobar 340

Urial, Ladakh 194

Vole
Blyth’s Mountain 389
Coniferous Kashmir/Muree 389
Kashmir Mountain 389
Pere David’s Red-backed 389
Royle’s Mountain 389
Scully’s Mountain 389
Sikkim Mountain 389
Silvery Mountain 388
Stoliczka’s Mountain 388
Thomas’s Short-tailed 389
True’s/Sub-alpine 389
White-tailed Mountain 389

Weasel
Back-striped 306
Himalayan Stoat/Ermine 304
Pale/Altai/Mountain 304
Siberian 306
Himalayan 306
Hodgson’s 306
Tibetan Mountain 306
Yellow-bellied 306
Whale
Blainville’s Beaked 480
Blue, Northern Indian Ocean 486
Bryde’s 484
Cuvier’s Beaked 480
 Dwarf Sperm 478
False Killer 476
Fin 486
Gingko-Toothed 480
Humpback 482
Killer 476
Melon-headed 474
Minke 482
Pygmy Killer 474
Pygmy Sperm 478
Sei 484
Short-finned Pilot 474
Sperm 478
Wild Ass
Asiatic, Indian 124
Tibetan 126
Southern Kiang 126
Western Kiang 126
Wild Dog 280
Wild Pig
Indian 204
Pygmy Hog 206
Wild Buffalo
Central Indian 170
North-eastern 170
Wild Yak 172
Wolf, Grey 276
Indian 276
Tibetan 276
INDEX OF COMMON NAMES
Acinonyx jubatus 240
Ailurus fulgens 292
Ailurus fulgens fulgens 292
Alticola albicauda 389
Alticola argentatus 388
Alticola blanfordi 389
Alticola montosa 389
Alticola roylei 389
Alticola stoliczkanus 388
Alticola stracheyi 389
Anathana ellioti 340
Anourosorex squamipes 352
Antilope cervicapra 180
Antilope cervicapra cervicapra 180
Antilope cervicapra rajputanae 180
Aonyx cinerea 302
Aonyx cinerea concolor 302
Aonyx cinerea nirnai 302
Apodemus draco 393
Apodemus rusiges 393
Apodemus sylvaticus 392
Apodemus sylvaticus rusiges 392
Apodemus sylvaticus wardi 392
Apodemus wardi 393
Arctictis binturong 262
Arctictis binturong albifrons 262
Arctogalidia trivirgata 262
Arctogalidia trivirgata leucotis 262
Arctonyx collaris 294
Asellia tridens murraiana 438
Atherurus macrourus 368
Axis axis 164
Axis porcinus 166
Axis porcinus porcinus 166

Balaenoptera acutorostrata 482

Balaenoptera acutorostrata thalmaha 482
Balaenoptera borealis 484
Balaenoptera edeni 484
Balaenoptera musculus 486
Balaenoptera musculus indica 486
Balaenoptera physalus 486
Balaenoptera physalus physalus 486
Bandicota bengalensis 402
Bandicota bengalensis bengalensis 402
Bandicota bengalensis wardi 402
Bandicota indica 402
Bandicota indica indica 402
Bandicota indica malabarica 402
Bandicota indica nemorivaga 402
Barbastella leucomelas 451
Belomys pearsonii pearsonii 381
Berylmys bowersi 401
Berylmys mackenziei 401
Berylmys manipulus 400
Berylmys manipulus manipulus 400
Biswamoyopterus biswasi 379
Bos frontalis 172
Bos gaurus 168
Bos grunniens 172
Bos mutus 172
Boselaphus tragocamelus 174
Bubalus arnee 170
Bubalus arnee arnee 170
Bubalus arnee fulvus 170
Budorcas taxicolor 198
Budorcas taxicolor taxicolor 198
Budorcas taxicolor whitei 198

Callosciurus erythraeus 382

Callosciurus erythraeus erythrogaster 382
Callosciurus eythraeus eythraeus 382
Callosciurus eythraeus intermedia 382
Callosciurus pygerythrus 382
Callosciurus pygerythrus blythi 382
Callosciurus pygerythrus lokroides 382
Callosciurus pygerythrus stevensi 382
Camelus bactrianus 172
Canis aureus 278
Canis aureus aureus 278
Canis aureus cruesemanni 278
Canis aureus indicus 278
Canis aureus naria 278
Canis lupus 276
Canis lupus chanco 276
Canis lupus pallipes 276
Cannomys badius 396
Cannomys badius badius 396
Capra falconeri 186
Capra falconeri falconeri 186
Capra sibirica 184
Capra sibirica sakeen 184
Capricornis thar 202
Caprolagus hispidus 322
Caracal caracal 248
Caracal caracal schmitzii 248
Catopuma temmincki 246
Catopuma temmincki temmincki 246
Cervus elaphus 160
Cervus elaphus hanglu 160
Chaerephon plicata 424
Chaerephon plicata plicata 424
Chimarrogale himalayica 351
Chiropodomys gliroides 393
Coelops frithii 438
Cremnomys cutchicus 398
Cremnomys cutchicus elvira 398
Cricetulus alticola 389
Cricetulus migratorius 389
Crocidura andamanensis 347
Crocidura attenuata 346
Crocidura fuliginosa 347
Crocidura gueldenstaedti 347
Crocidura hispida 347
Crocidura horsfieldi 347
Crocidura jenkinsii 347
Crocidura nicobarica 347
Crocidura perigrisea 347
Crocidura pullata 347
Crocidura suaveolens 347
Cuon alpinus 280
Cuon alpinus alpinus 280
Cynopterus brachyotis 418
Cynopterus brachyotis brachyotis 418
Cynopterus brachyotis brachysoma 418
Cynopterus sphinx 418
Cynopterus sphinx scherzeri 418
Cynopterus sphinx sphinx 418

Dacnomys millardi 401

Delphinus capensis 468
Delphinus capensis tropicalis 468
Diomys crumpi 395
Dremomys lokriah 384
Dremomys lokriah lokriah 384
Dremomys lokriah macmillani 384
Dremomys lokriah motuoensis 384
Dremomys lokriah pagus 384
Dremomys pernyi 385
Dremomys rufigenis rufigenis 385
Dugong dugon 492
Dugong dugon dugon 492

Elephas maximus 110

Elephas maximus indicus 110
Eoglaucomys fimbriatus 380
Eoglaucomys fimbriatus baberi 380
Eoglaucomys fimbriatus fimbriatus 380
Eonycteris spelaea 420
Eonycteris spelaea spelaea 420
Eothenomys melanogaster 389
Eptesicus bottae 449
Eptesicus gobiensis 449
Eptesicus pachyotis pachyotis 449
Eptesicus serotinus 448
Eptesicus serotinus pachyomus 448
Eptesicus tatei 449
Equus feral caballus 124
Equus hemionus 124
Equus hemionus khur 124
Equus kiang 126
Equus kiang kiang 126
Equus kiang polyodon 126
Eupetaurus cinereus 378
Euroscaptor micrura 352

Falsistrellus affinis mordax 447

Felis chaus 252
Felis chaus affinis 252
Felis chaus kelaarti 252
Felis chaus kutas 252
Felis chaus prateri 252
Felis sylvestris 248
Felis sylvestris ornata 248
Feresa attenuata 474
Feroculus feroculus 346
Funambulus palmarum 386
Funambulus palmarum bellaricus 386
Funambulus palmarum palmarum 386
Funambulus pennantii 386
Funambulus pennantii pennantii 386
Funambulus sublineatus 386
Funambulus sublineatus sublineatus 386
Funambulus tristriatus 387
Funambulus tristriatus numarius 387
Funambulus tristriatus tristriatus 387

Gazella bennettii 178

Gazella bennettii bennettii 178
Gazella bennettii christii 178
Gazella bennettii salinarum 178
Gerbillus gleadowi 390
Gerbillus nanus 391
Globicephala macrorhynchus 474
Golunda ellioti 398
Grampus griseus 472

Hadromys humei 401

Harpiocephalus harpia 449
Helarctos malayanus 290
Helarctos malayanus malayanus 290
Hemiechinus collaris 358
Hemitragus jemlahicus 190
Herpestes auropunctatus 270
Herpestes auropunctatus auropunctatus 270
Herpestes edwardsii 268
Herpestes edwardsii carnaticus 268
Herpestes edwardsii edwardsi 268
Herpestes edwardsii moerens 268
Herpestes edwardsii montanus 268
Herpestes edwardsii pallens 268
Herpestes fuscus 272
Herpestes fuscus fuscus 272
Herpestes smithii 268
Herpestes smithii smithii 268
Herpestes urva 270
Herpestes urva urva 270
Herpestes vitticollis 272
Herpestes vitticollis inornatus 272
Herpestes vitticollis vitticollis 272
Hesperoptenus tickelli 450
Hesperoptenus tickelli tickelli 450
Hipposideros armiger 440
Hipposideros armiger armiger 440
Hipposideros ater 436
Hipposideros ater ater 436
Hipposideros cineraceus 437
Hipposideros diadema nicobarensis 440
Hipposideros durgadasi 437
Hipposideros fulvus 436
Hipposideros fulvus fulvus 436
Hipposideros fulvus pallidus 436
Hipposideros galeritus brachyotis 438
Hipposideros hypophyllus 437
Hipposideros lankadiva 440
Hipposideros lankadiva indus 440
Hipposideros larvatus leptophyllus 438
Hipposideros nicobarule 437
Hipposideros pomona 437
Hipposideros speoris 438
Hipposideros speoris speoris 438
Hoolock hoolock 66
Hoolock leuconedys 66
Hyaena hyaena 274
Hyaena hyaena hyaena 274
Hylopetes alboniger 380
Hylopetes alboniger alboniger 380
Hylopetes alboniger leonardi 380
Hyperacrius fertilis 389
Hyperacrius wynnei 389
Hypsugo cadornae 447
Hypsugo savii austenianus 447
Hystrix brachyura 368
Hystrix brachyura hodgsonii 368
Hystrix brachyura subcristata 368
Hystrix indica 368

Ia io 446
Ia io io 446

Kerivoula hardwickii 451

Kerivoula kachinensis 451
Kerivoula lenis 451
Kerivoula papillosa 451
Kerivoula picta 450
Kerivoula picta picta 450
Kogia breviceps 478
Kogia sima 478

Lagenodelphis hosei 472

Latidens salimalii 420
Leopoldamys edwardsi 401
Lepus nigricollis 320
Lepus nigricollis dayanus 320
Lepus nigricollis nigricollis 320
Lepus nigricollis ruficaudatus 320
Lepus oiostolus 322
Lepus oiostolus hypsibius 322
Lepus pallipes 322
Lepus tibetanus 322
Lepus tibetanus tibetanus 322
Loris lydekkerianus 68
Loris lydekkerianus lydekkerianus 68
Loris lydekkerianus malabaricus 68
Lutra lutra 302
Lutra lutra aurobrunnea 302
Lutra lutra kutub 302
Lutra lutra monticola 302
Lutra lutra nair 302
Lutrogale perpicillata 300
Lutrogale perpicillata perpicillata 300
Lynx lynx 250
Lynx lynx isabellinus 250

Macaca arctoides 78
Macaca assamensis 70, 74
Macaca assamensis assamensis 74
Macaca assamensis pelops 74
Macaca assamensis spp, see Macaca munzala 76
Macaca fascicularis 76
Macaca fascicularis umbrosa 76
Macaca leonina 78
Macaca mulatta 70
Macaca munzala 76
Macaca radiata 72
Macaca radiata diluta 72
Macaca radiata radiata 72
Macaca silenus 80
Macroglossus sobrinus 421
Madromys blanfordi 398
Manis crassicaudata 334
Manis pentadactyla 334
Marmota caudata 370
Marmota caudata caudata 370
Marmota himalayana 370
Martes flavigula 298
Martes flavigula flavigula 298
Martes foina 296
Martes foina intermedia 296
Martes gwatkinsii 298
Megaderma lyra 428
Megaderma lyra lyra 428
Megaderma spasma 428
Megaderma spasma horsfieldii 428
Megaerops niphanae 421
Megaptera novaeangliae 482
Mellivora capensis 296
Mellivora capensis inaurita 296
Mellivora capensis indica 296
Melogale moschata 294
Melogale moschata millsi 294
Melogale personata 294
Melogale personata personata 298
Melursus ursinus 288
Melursus ursinus ursinus 288
Meriones hurrianae 390
Mesoplodon densirostris 480
Mesoplodon gingkodens 480
Micromys minutus 395
Microtus leucurus 389
Microtus sikimensis 389
Millardia gleadowi 397
Millardia kondana 397
Millardia meltada 396
Miniopterus magnater 455
Miniopterus pusillus 455
Miniopterus schreibersii 454
Miniopterus schreibersii fuliginosus 454
Moschiola indica 150
Moschus chrysogaster 154
Moschus chrysogaster chrysogaster 154
Moschus cupreus 152
Moschus fuscus 154
Moschus leucogaster 152
Muntiacus gongshanensis crinifrons 156
Muntiacus muntjak 156
Muntiacus muntjak aureus 156
Muntiacus muntjak malabaricus 156
Muntiacus muntjak putaoenis 156
Muntiacus muntjak vaginalis 156
Murina aurata 455
Murina cyclotis 454
Murina cyclotis cyclotis 454
Murina grisea 455
Murina huttonii huttonii 455
Murina jaiantiana 455
Murina leucogaster 455
Murina pluvialis 455
Murina tubinaris 455
Mus booduga 394
Mus cervicolor 395
Mus cookii cookii 395
Mus cookii nagarum 395
Mus famulus 395
Mus musculus 394
Mus musculus bactrianus 394
Mus musculus castaneus 394
Mus pahari 395
Mus phillipsi 395
Mus platythrix 395
Mus saxicola gurkha 395
Mus saxicola sadhu 395
Mus saxicola saxicola 395
Mus terricolor 395
Mustela altaica 304
Mustela canigula 306
Mustela erminea 304
Mustela erminea ferghanae 304
Mustela kathiah 306
Mustela sibirica 306
Mustela sibirica hodgsoni 306
Mustela sibirica subhemachalana 306
Mustela strigidorsa 306
Myotis annectans 443
Myotis blythii 443
Myotis daubentonii 443
Myotis formosus 442
Myotis formosus auratus 442
Myotis hasseltii 443
Myotis horsfieldii 443
Myotis longipes 443
Myotis muricola 442
Myotis muricola caliginosus 442
Myotis muricola muricola 442
Myotis mystacinus 443
Myotis peytoni 443
Myotis sicarius 443
Myotis siligorensis 443

Nectogale elegans 350

Nemorhaedus baileyi 200
Nemorhaedus bedfordi 200
Nemorhaedus caudatus 201
Nemorhaedus goral 200
Neofelis nebulosa 244
Neofelis nebulosa macrosceloides 244
Neophocaena phocaenoides 466
Nesokia indica 402
Nesokia indica indica 402
Nilgiritragus hylocrius 192
Niviventer brahma 401
Niviventer confucianus 401
Niviventer eha 401
Niviventer fulvescens 400
Niviventer langbianis 401
Niviventer niviventer 401
Niviventer niviventer lepcha 401
Niviventer tenaster 401
Nyctalus leisleri 453
Nyctalus montanus 453
Nyctalus noctula 452
Nyctalus noctula labiata 452
Nycticebus bengalensis 68

Ochotona curzoniae 326

Ochotona forresti 328
Ochotona ladacensis 326
Ochotona macrotis 324
Ochotona macrotis macrotis 324
Ochotona nubrica 328
Ochotona nubrica nubrica 328
Ochotona roylei 324
Ochotona roylei roylei 324
Ochotona thibetana 328
Ochotona thibetana sikimaria 328
Octolobus manul 250
Octolobus manul nigripectus 250
Orcaella brevirostris 466
Orcinus orca 476
Otonycteris hemprichii 453
Otomops wroughtoni 424
Ovis ammon 196
Ovis ammon hodgsoni 196
Ovis orientalis 194
Ovis orientalis vignei 194

Paguma larvata 258

Paguma larvata grayi 258
Paguma larvata tytleri 258
Panthalops hodgsoni 182
Panthera leo 236
Panthera leo persica 236
Panthera pardus 238
Panthera pardus fusca 238
Panthera tigris 232
Panthera tigris tigris 232
Panthera uncia 242
Panthera uncia uncioides 242
Paradoxurus hemaphroditus 260
Paradoxurus hemaphroditus hemaphroditus 260
Paradoxurus hemaphroditus laneus 260
Paradoxurus hemaphroditus nictitans 260
Paradoxurus hemaphroditus pallasi 260
Paradoxurus hemaphroditus scindiae 260
Paradoxurus hemaphroditus vellerosus 260
Paradoxurus jerdoni 262
Paradoxurus jerdoni caniscus 262
Paradoxurus jerdoni jerdoni 262
Paraechinus micropus 358
Paraechinus nudiventris 358
Parascaptor leucura 356
Pardofelis marmorata 246
Pardofelis marmorata charltoni 246
Peponocephala electra 474
Petaurista caniceps 379
Petaurista elegans 379
Petaurista magnificus hodgsoni 379
Petaurista nobilis 378
Petaurista nobilis nobilis 378
Petaurista nobilis singhei 378
Petaurista petaurista 376
Petaurista petaurista albiventer 376
Petaurista petaurista candidula 376
Petaurista philippensis 376
Petaurista philippensis philippensis 376
Petinomys fuscocapillus 380
Physeter macrocephalus 478
Pipistrellus abramus 445
Pipistrellus ceylonicus 446
Pipistrellus ceylonicus circumdatus 447
Pipistrellus ceylonicus indicus 446
Pipistrellus coromandra 444
Pipistrellus coromandra coromandra 444
Pipistrellus javanicus 444
Pipistrellus javanicus babu 444
Pipistrellus javanicus camortae 444
Pipistrellus kuhlii 445
Pipistrellus pipistrellus aladdin 445
Pipistrellus pipistrellus paterculus 445
Pipistrellus tenuis 444
Pipistrellus tenuis mimus 444
Platacanthomys lasiurus 392
Platanista gangetica 464
Platanista gangetica gangetica 464
Platanista gangetica minor 464
Plecotus auritus 453
Plecotus austriacus 452
Porcula salvania 206
Prionailurus bengalensis 254
Prionailurus bengalensis bengalensis 254
Prionailurus bengalensis horsfieldii 254
Prionailurus bengalensis trevelyani 254
Prionailurus rubiginosus 256
Prionailurus rubiginosus rubiginosus 256
Prionailurus viverrinus 256
Prionailurus viverrinus viverrinus 256
Prionodon pardicolor 258
Prionodon pardicolor pardicolor 258
Procapra picticaudata 182
Pseudorca crassidens 476
Psuedois nayaur 188
Pteropus faunulus 417
Pteropus giganteus 416
Pteropus giganteus giganteus 416
Pteropus giganteus leucocephalus 416
Pteropus hypomelanus 417
Pteropus melanotus 416
Pteropus melanotus melanotus 416
Pteropus melanotus tytleri 416
Pteropus vampyrus 417

Rattus andamenensis 405

Rattus burrus 405
Rattus nitidus 405
Rattus norvegicus 404
Rattus palmarum 405
Rattus pyctoris 405
Rattus ranjiniae 405
Rattus rattus 404
Rattus rattus arboreus 404
Rattus rattus bhotia 404
Rattus rattus brunneusculus 404
Rattus rattus bullocki 404
Rattus rattus gangutrianus 404
Rattus rattus narbadae 404
Rattus rattus rattus 404
Rattus rattus rufescens 404
Rattus rattus tistae 404
Rattus rattus vicerex 404
Rattus rattus wroughtoni 404
Rattus satarae 405
Rattus stoicus 405
Rattus tanezumi 405
Ratufa bicolor 374
Ratufa bicolor gigantea 374
Ratufa indica 372
Ratufa indica centralis 372
Ratufa indica dealbata 372
Ratufa indica indica 372
Ratufa indica maxima 372
Ratufa macroura 374
Ratufa macroura dandolena 374
Rhinoceros unicornis 128
Rhinolophus affinis 431
Rhinolophus beddomei 434
Rhinolophus beddomei beddomei 434
Rhinolophus cognatus 433
Rhinolophus ferrumequinum 430
Rhinolophus ferrumequinum proximus 430
Rhinolophus ferrumequinum tragatus 430
Rhinolophus hipposideros 432
Rhinolophus hipposideros midas 432
Rhinolophus lepidus 432
Rhinolophus lepidus lepidus 432
Rhinolophus lepidus monticola 432
Rhinolophus luctus 435
Rhinolophus luctus perniger 435
Rhinolophus macrotis 432
Rhinolophus macrotis macrotis 432
Rhinolophus mitratus 435
Rhinolophus pearsonii 434
Rhinolophus pearsonii pearsonii 434
Rhinolophus pusillus 433
Rhinolophus rouxii 430
Rhinolophus rouxii rouxii 430
Rhinolophus shortridgei 435
Rhinolophus siamensis 433
Rhinolophus sinicus 431
Rhinolophus subbadius 433
Rhinolophus trifoliatus 435
Rhinolophus yunanensis 434
Rhinolophus yunanensis yunanensis 434
Rhinopoma hardwickii 422
Rhinopoma hardwickii hardwickii 422
Rhinopoma microphyllum 422
Rhinopoma microphyllum kinneari 422
Rhinopoma muscatellum 422
Rhizomys pruinosus 396
Rousettus leschenaultii 418
Rousettus leschenaultii leschenaultii 418
Rucervus duvaucelii 162
Rucervus duvaucelii branderi 162
Rucervus duvaucelii duvaucelii 162
Rucervus duvaucelii ranjitsinhii 162
Rucervus eldii 160
Rucervus eldii eldii 160
Rusa unicolor 158
Rusa unicolor unicolor 158

Saccolaimus saccolaimus 427

Scotoecus pallidus 449
Scotomanes ornatus 450
Scotophilus heathii 448
Scotophilus heathii heathii 448
Scotophilus kuhlii 449
Scotozous dormeri 446
Scotozous dormeri dormeri 446
Semnopithecus ajax 88
Semnopithecus entellus 82
Semnopithecus hector 88
Semnopithecus hypoleucos 84
Semnopithecus hypoleucos achates 84
Semnopithecus hypoleucos aenas 84
Semnopithecus hypoleucos hypoleucos 84
Semnopithecus hypoleucos iulus 84
Semnopithecus johnii 80
Semnopithecus priam 86
Semnopithecus priam anchises 86
Semnopithecus priam priam 86
Semnopithecus priam priamellus 86
Semnopithecus schistaceus 88
Sicista concolor 395
Sorex minutus 350
Sorex planiceps 350
Sorex thibetanus 350
Soriculus caudatus 351
Soriculus leucops 351
Soriculus macrurus 350
Soriculus nigrescens 350
Sousa chinensis 464
Sphaerias blanfordi 420
Sphaerias blanfordi blanfordi 420
Stenella attenuata 470
Stenella attenuata attenuata 470
Stenella coeruleoalba 470
Stenella longirostris 470
Stenella longirostris longirostris 470
Steno bredanensis 472
Suncus dayii 349
Suncus etruscus 348
Suncus etruscus micronyx 348
Suncus etruscus nitidofulva 348
Suncus etruscus nudipes 348
Suncus etruscus perrotteti 348
Suncus etruscus pygmaeoides 348
Suncus murinus 348
Suncus murinus caeruluscens 348
Suncus murinus murinus 348
Suncus murinus nemorivagus 348
Suncus murinus sindensis 348
Suncus murinus viredescens 348
Suncus niger 348
Suncus stoliczkanus 349
Sus scrofa 204
Sus scrofa affinis 204
Sus scrofa cristatus 204
Sus scrofa davidi 204

Tadarida aegyptiaca 424

Tadarida aegyptiaca thomasi 424
Tadarida teniotis 425
Tamiops macclellandi 384
Tamiops macclellandi macclellandi 384
Taphozous longimanus 426
Taphozous longimanus longimanus 426
Taphozous melanopogon 426
Taphozous melanopogon melanopogon 426
Taphozous nudiventris 426
Taphozous nudiventris kachensis 426
Taphozous perforatus 427
Taphozous theobaldii 427
Tatera indica 390
Tetracerus quadricornis 176
Tetracerus quadricornis iodes 176
Tetracerus quadricornis quadricornis 176
Tetracerus quadricornis subquadricornis 176
Trachypithecus geei 92
Trachypithecus geei geei 92
Trachypithecus phayrei 92
Trachypithecus phayrei phayrei 92
Trachypithecus pileatus 90
Trachypithecus pileatus brahma 90
Trachypithecus pileatus durga 90
Trachypithecus pileatus pileatus 90
Trachypithecus pileatus tenebricus 90
Tupaia belangeri 340
Tupaia belangeri belangeri 340
Tupaia nicobarica 340
Tupaia nicobarica nicobarica 340
Tupaia nicobarica surda 340
Tursiops aduncus 468
Tylonycteris pachypus 452
Tylonycteris pachypus aurus 452
Tylonycteris pachypus fulvidus 452
Tylonycteris robustula 453

Ursus arctos 290

Ursus arctos isabellinus 290
Ursus thibetanus 286
Ursus thibetanus laniger 286

Vandeleuria nilagirica 393

Vandeleuria oleracea 392
Vandeleuria oleracea dumeticola 392
Vandeleuria oleracea oleracea 392
Vespertilio murinus 449
Viverra civettina 266
Viverra zibetha 266
Viverra zibetha zibetha 266
Viverricula indica 264
Viverricula indica baptistae 264
Viverricula indica deserti 264
Viverricula indica indica 264
Viverricula indica wellsi 264
Vulpes bengalensis 282
Vulpes ferrilata 282
Vulpes vulpes 284
Vulpes vulpes griffithi 284
Vulpes vulpes montana 284
Vulpes vulpes pusilla 284

Ziphius cavirostris 480

Vivek Menon is a wildlife conservationist, author and photographer with a
passion for elephants. He is the Founder and Executive Director of Wildlife
Trust of India (WTI), an Advisor to the International Fund for Animal
Welfare (IFAW) and its Regional Director (South Asia). He is the author of
eight bestselling books on Indian wildlife.
 INDIAN MAMMALS: A FIELD GUIDE
An invaluable reference and exceptionally usable guide to the mammals
of India

Covering the rich diversity of mammal species in India, from tigers,

elephants, rhinos and whales to primates, rodents and bats, Indian Mammals
is a comprehensive, field-ready and illustrated guide.

Accompanied by superb full-colour photographs, supplementary

illustrations and distribution maps, and based on impeccable scientific
research reviewed by experts, Indian Mammals records details of virtually
every mammal known to exist in India. The in-depth, up-to-date text by
Vivek Menon, one of India’s leading naturalists and an authority on Indian
wildlife, describes key identification features, biometrics, behaviour, social
strategies, habitat and distribution.

Encyclopaedic in sweep yet accessible in approach, Indian Mammals

includes the majestic and most sought after as well as the extraordinary and
elusive mammals. Passionate wildlife watchers will appreciate the range of
coverage and tips on identifying mammals, while naturalists will value the
exacting detail needed to distinguish similar species in the field. Planned for
easy reference, this compact guide is the essential resource for wildlifers of
any age, from animal watchers and eco-tourists to active conservationists.

More than 400 species of both land and water mammals with
introductory pages on each order

Over 1,000 carefully curated photographs

Nearly 150 distribution maps

Colour tabs for sections to facilitate ease of use

The full index doubles up as a life-list

Field notes reveal uncommon on-site experiences
www.hachetteindia.com