CIEN 30023

ENGR. MARRA DIADEM M. ANDAYA

ENGR. BAILEY JOHN E. BANDIOLA
 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING (LECTURE MANUAL)

THE OVERVIEW:

The engineering structures are composed of materials. These materials are known as the
engineering materials or building materials or materials of construction. It is necessary for the
civil engineer to become conversant with the properties of such materials. The service conditions
of buildings demand a wide range of materials and various properties such as water resistance,
strength, durability, temperature resistance, appearance, permeability, etc. Are to be properly
studied before making final selection of any building material for a particular use. Classification
of engineering material the factors which form the basis of various systems of classifications of
materials in material science and engineering are: (i) the chemical composition of the material ,
(ii) the mode of the occurrence of the material in the nature, (iii) the refining and the
manufacturing process to which the material is subjected prior it acquires the required
properties, (iv) the atomic and crystalline structure of material and (v) the industrial and technical
use of the material .

MODULE 1

Construction materials are used in Civil Engineering structures such as:

• Buildings
• Bridges
• Highways
• Railways
• Tunnels
• Dams
• Harbor structures
• Towers

Civil Engineering Materials

• Wood
• Cement and concrete
• Bitumens and bituminous materials
• Structural clay, masonry
• Reinforcing and structural steels

What is Concrete?

• Construction material
• Mixture of portland cement, water, aggregates, and in some cases, admixtures.
• The cement and water form a paste that hardens and bonds the aggregates together

Composition of Concrete
 • Water
• Aggregates
• Chemical admixtures
• Cement

Water
• Good water is essential for quality concrete
• Should be good enough to drink, free of trash, organic matter and excessive chemicals
and/or minerals.
• The strength and other properties of concrete are highly dependent on the amount of
water and the water-cement ratio

Aggregates
• Aggregates occupy 60 to 80 percent of the volume of concrete.
• Sand, gravel and crushed stone are the primary aggregates used.
• All aggregates must be essentially free of silt and/or organic matter.

Chemical Admixtures
• Materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added to the concrete to give it
certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete mixes
• In normal use, admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass of cement, and are added
to the concrete at the time of batching/mixing

The most common types of admixtures are:

• Accelerators: Speed up the hydration (hardening) of the concrete. Typical materials
used are CaCl2 and NaCl.
• Acrylic Retarders: Slow the hydration of concrete and are used in large or difficult pours.
Typical retarder is table sugar, or sucrose (C12H22O11)
• Air Entraining agents: The most commonly used admixtures for agricultural
concrete. Produce microscopic air bubbles throughout the concrete.
• Water-reducing admixtures: Increase the workability of plastic or "fresh" concrete,
allowing it to be placed more easily, with less consolidating effort. High-range water-
reducing admixtures are a class of water-reducing admixtures

Reinforcements
• Strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the compression load.
• Weak in tension as the cement holding the aggregate in place can crack, allowing the
structure to fail.
• Reinforced concrete solves these problems by adding either metal reinforcing bars, steel
fibers, glass fiber, or plastic fiber to carry tensile loads.

Cement
• Crystalline compound of calcium silicates and other calcium compounds having hydraulic
properties
 • Considered hydraulic because of their ability to set and harden under or with excess water
through the hydration of the cement’s chemical compounds or minerals
• Uses: Main use is in the fabrication of concrete and mortars
• Modern uses
o -Building (floors, beams, columns, roofing, piles, bricks, mortar, panels, plaster)
o -Transport (roads, pathways, crossings, bridges, viaducts, tunnels, parking, etc.)
o -Water (pipes, drains, canals, dams, tanks, pools, etc.)
o -Civil (piers, docks, retaining walls, silos, warehousing, poles, pylons, fencing)
o -Agriculture (buildings, processing, housing, irrigation)

Hydraulic Cements
• Hydraulic lime: Only used in specialized mortars. Made from calcination of clay-rich
limestones
• Natural cements: Misleadingly called Roman. It is made from argillaceous limestones or
interbedded limestone and clay or shale, with few raw materials. Because they were
found to be inferior to Portland, most plants switched
• Portland cement: Artificial cement. Made by the mixing clinker with gypsum in a 95:5 ratio
• Portland-limestone cements: Large amounts (6% to 35%) of ground limestone have been
added as a filler to a Portland cement base
• Blended cements: Mix of Portland cement with one or more SCM (supplementary
cementitious materials) like pozzolanic additives
• Pozzolan-lime cements: Original Roman cements. Only a small quantity is manufactured
in the U.S. Mix of pozzolans with lime
• Masonry cements: Portland cement where other materials have been added primarily to
impart plasticity
• Aluminous cements: Limestones and bauxite are the main raw materials. Used for
refractory applications (such as cementing furnace bricks) and certain applications where
rapid hardening is required. It is more expensive than Portland

Portland Cement
• Most active component of concrete
• The greatest unit cost in concrete
• Its selection and proper use are important in obtaining most economically the balance of
properties desired for any particular concrete mixture

The production process for portland cement first involves grinding limestone or chalk and
alumina and silica from shale or clay.
• Type I/II portland cements are the most popular cements used by concrete producers
-Type I cement is the general purpose cement and most common type. Unless an
alternative is specified, Type I is usually used.
-Type II cement releases less heat during hardening. It is more suitable for projects
involving large masses of concrete--heavy retaining walls

Concrete Testing
 • Compression testing of a concrete cylinder
• Same cylinder after failure

Standards
• PNS
• ASTM
• ISO
• EN
• DIN
• JIS

MODULE 2

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
• Mechanical properties
• Electrical properties
• Thermal properties
• Chemical properties
• Magnetic properties
• Physical properties

How does a particular material will behave under applied load?

Any material subjected to a load either deforms,

yield, or break, depending upon the magnitude of the load.
Tensile Strength
The maximum tensile load a body can withstand before failure divided by its cross-sectional area.

Compressive Strength
The maximum compressive load a body can bear prior to failure, divided by its cross-sectional
area.

Torsional Strength
The maximum amount of torsional stress a body can withstand before it fails, divided by its
cross-sectional area.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS
• Physical **
• Mechanical **
• Chemical
• Other
• Thermal, Acoustical, Optical, Electrical
** Most CE Applications focus on physical & mechanical properties

The response of a material to applied forces depends on the type and nature of the bond and
the structural arrangement of atoms, molecules or ions.

Basic deformation types for load carrying materials are:

• Elastic deformation (deformations are instantaneously recoverable)

ElasticMaterials return to the their original shape when the applied load is removed.
 • Plastic deformation (non-recoverable)

Plastic materials has no deformation is observed up to a certain limit. Once the load passes this
limit, permanent deformations are observed.

• Elastoplastic Material
Up to a limit shows elastic properties. Within this limit if the load is removed, returns to its
original shape. If the load passes the limit, plastic deformations are observed.
 • Viscoelastic Material
Deformations are time-dependent.

According to Their Phases

Phase Classification
a. Gases: Air, Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide
b. Liquids: Water, Chemical Admixtures
c. Semi-solids: Fresh pastes, Mortars, Asphalt
d. Solids: Metals, Hardened Concrete

ACCORDING TO THEIR INTERNAL STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

a. Metals : (formed by metallic bonds)
• Ferrous (iron, cast iron, steel)
• Non-ferrous (aluminum, copper, zinc, lead)
b. Polymers : (long chains having molecules of C, H, O, N which are formed by covalent
bonding. The chains are bound to each other either by covalent bonds or Van der Waals
forces.)
• Natural (rubber, asphalt, resins, wood)
• Artificial (plastics)

C. Ceramics : (mainly aluminosilicates formed by mixed bonding, covalent and ionic)

• Structural clay products (bricks, tiles, pipes)
• Porcelains
D. Composite Materials :
 • Natural (agglomerates)
• Artificial (Portland cement, concrete)
E. Reinforced Composite Materials : (reinforced concrete, reinforced plastics)

• One of the most important tasks of an engineer is to select the most suitable
material for a given civil engineering structure.

Factors Determining the Choice of Proper Material for a Structure

Strength, Rigidity & Durability Requirements

• Permanent loading → Creep Strength
• Repeated loading → Fatique Strength
• Impact loading → Toughness & Resilience
• Surface loading → Hardness & Resistance to abrasion

Environmental Requirements
• Temperature change → coefficient of thermal expansion
• Moisture movement → permeability
• Chemical effects → chemical composition

Economy. Choose the cheaper & available materials considering

• Initial cost
• Useful life
• Frequency of maintenance
• Cost of maintenance
• Salvage value
• etc.

A comprehensive study and tests of the physical and mechanical properties of construction
materials such as steels, metals, timber of concrete, asphalt, bricks, plastics including indigenous
materials, their proper selection and specifications.

MODULE 3

Aggregate is a combination of sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, or other material used in
combination with a binding medium to form such materials as bituminous and portland
cement concrete, mortar, and plaster, etc. or alone as in railroad ballast, filter beds, and
various manufacturing processes. [Derucher, et. al., 1998]

• Significance
o 30% of total cost of pavement
o 65-85% volume of concrete structures
o 92-96% volume of asphalt concrete
Aggregate Types
1. Natural – taken from natural deposits without altering the mineralogical nature during
processing
2. Artificial/Synthetic
a. byproducts: ex. blast furnace slag
b. manufactured: ex. expanded clay, shale, or slate used for lightweight aggregates
c. reclaimed or waste construction materials: ex. recycled portland cement
concrete
Definitions related to aggregate particles:
• Gravel = consists of naturally rounded particles resulting from natural disintegration
and abrasion of rock or a processing of weakly bonded conglomerate. (> 4.75 mm)
• Sand = consists of rock particles that have been disintegrated naturally; grains are
generally granular but have been subjected to weathering. (< 4.75 mm)
• Crushed stone = product of artificial crushing of rocks, boulders, or large cobblestones,
substantially all faces of which result from crushing operation
• Stone sand = crushed rock corresponding to sand in size

Aggregate for concrete:

• Fine aggregate = passing the 3/8” sieve, almost entirely passing the No. 4 Sieve (4.75
mm), and predominantly retained on the No. 200 Sieve (75 mm)
• Coarse aggregate = predominantly retained on the No. 4 Sieve

Sources of Aggregates
• Rocks as source of natural aggregates
• Single mineral (e.g. limestone) or contains several minerals (e.g. granite)
• 3 major types of rocks
o Igneous
o Sedimentary
o Metamorphic

The Rock Cycle

Processing of Aggregates
• Rule: obtain aggregates of the highest quality at the least cost
o Excavation (quarrying)
 § shovels, draglines, scrapers
o Transportation
§ rail, truck, conveyor belts
o Washing
§ removal of deleterious materials
o Crushing
§ jaw crusher, etc.
o Sizing
§ sieves or by hydraulic classification

Aggregate Beneficiation: processing of aggregate to meet or pass specifications.

• Washing – exposure to streams of water to remove fines
• Heavy Media Separation – specific gravity (SG) of deleterious materials are much lighter
than the SG of sound aggregate
- also known as the “sink-float” method
- utilizes a suspension of water and/or ferrosilicon of fixed SG such that
deleterious materials will float
• Elastic Fractionation – heavy but soft particles can be removed by letting the aggregate
fall on an inclined plane. Poor, soft, and friable aggregate rebound at short distances.
- advisable to be used with heavy media separation
• Jigging – SG method for removing light particles such as coal, lignite,
sticks.
- upward pulsations created by air tend to hinder settlement

Properties of Aggregates
1. Geometric Properties
a. Particle size and grading
b. Particle shape and surface texture
2. Physical Properties
a. Porosity and voids content
b. Absorption, Moisture content, and permeability
3. Strength and Toughness
4. Other Properties
a. Surface chemistry
b. Surface coatings
c. Durability
d. Deleterious substances

Particle Size and Grading

• Sieves
• “diameter” of aggregate particle
• Size fraction, di – di-1
 • MAS (maximum aggregate size) – smallest sieve opening through which the entire
aggregate sample passes
• Grading or gradation – distribution of particle sizes in an aggregate sample

Sieves

Example of Gradation Curve

Mechanical Sieve Analysis

• for samples with grains > 75 in diameter
• shaking the dried aggregate through a series of sieves
• weight of the aggregate retained in each sieve is expressed as a percentage of the total
dry weight of the sample
• grain size distribution is then plotted

Types of Gradation
• Continuous
 • Uniform
• Gap-graded

Grading Requirements for Fine Aggregates ASTM C33

Particle Shape and Surface Texture

• Not adequately defined qualitatively; effects cannot be evaluated precisely
• Both are result of processing operations, mineral composition and crystalline structure
• Particle shape: related to angularity, sphericity
o Angularity – relative sharpness of edges and corners
§ Rounded vs. angular
o Sphericity: ratio of surface area to volume
§ Equidimensional, flaky, elongated
• Particle surface: relative degree to which the surface is polished or dull, smooth or rough

Porosity and Voids Content

• Porosity, n: volume of pores in the aggregates divided by the total volume of the
aggregates
n=V /V
pores agg
• Void (Pore) Ratio, e: volume of pores divided by the volume of solids in the aggregates
 e=V
pores / Vs
• Void Content, v: volume of voids between aggregates in the sample divided by the
volume of sample including the voids
v=V
voids / Vtotal

Rocks

Absorption, Moisture Content, and Permeability

• Oven-dry (OD); Air-dry (AD); Saturated-surface-dry (SSD); wet
• Absorption capacity (%) = 100*(WSSD – WOD)/ WOD
• Effective absorption (%) = 100*(WSSD – WAD)/ WSSD
• Surface moisture (%) = 100*(WWET – WSSD)/ WSSD
• Moisture content (%) = 100*(WAGG – WOD)/ WOD
Normal-weight agg: 0.5 – 2.0% absorption capacities

Recommended minimum mass of moist test specimen for water content reported to ±0.1%

ASTM Specifications Related to Aggregates

3 Test Categories
I. general quality of the aggregates
II. deleterious materials in aggregates
III. design of PC concrete and bituminous mix design
I. General quality of the aggregates
• ASTM C136: Resistance to Abrasion of Small Size Coarse Aggregate by the Use of the Los
Angeles Machine
• ASTM C88: Soundness of Aggregate by the Use of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate
• ASTM C666: Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing
• ASTM C215: Fundamental Transverse, Longitudinal and Torsional Frequencies of
Concrete Specimens
• ASTM C597: Pulse Velocity Through Concrete
• ASTM C671: Critical Dilation of Concrete Specimens Subjected to Freezing
• ASTM C682: Evaluation of Frost Resistance of Coarse Aggregate in Air- Entrained Concrete
by Critical Dilation Procedure
• ASTM C672: Scaling Resistance of Concrete Surface Exposed to Deicing Chemical
• ASTM C295: Petrographic Examination of Aggregates for Concrete
• ASTM D1075: Effects of Water on Cohesion of Compacted Bituminous Mixtures.
II. Deleterious materials in aggregates
• ASTM C235: Scratch Hardness of Coarse Aggregate Particles
• ASTM C33: Concrete Aggregates
• ASTM C142: Clay Lumps and Friable Particles in Aggregates
• ASTM C117: Materials Finer than No. 200 (75 micrometers) Sieve in Mineral Aggregates
by Washing
• ASTM C123: Lightweight Pieces in Aggregates
• ASTM C40: Organic Impurities in Sands for Concrete
• ASTM C227: Potential Alkali Reactivity of Cement Aggregate Combinations (Mortar-bar
Method)
• ASTM C289: Potential Reactivity of Aggregates (Chemical)
III. Design of PC concrete and bituminous mix design
• ASTM D75: Sampling of Aggregates
• ASTM C136: Sieve or Screen Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates
• ASTM C127: Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate
• ASTM C128: Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate
• ASTM C29: Unit Weight of Aggregate

References
Derucher, K.N, Korfiatis, G.P. and Ezeldin, A.S. (1998), “Materials for Civil and Highway
Engineers”, 4the ed., Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey.
Young, F.J., Mindess, S, Gray, R.J. and Bentur, A. (1998), “The Science and Technology of
Civil Engineering Materials”, Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey.
Mehta, P.K. and Monteiro, P.J.M (2006), “Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and
Materials”, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill.

MODULE 4

Cement
Cement = material that exhibit characteristic properties of setting and hardening when mixed
to a paste with water.

Two Classes of Cement

• Hydraulic = has the ability to set and harden under water.
• Non-hydraulic = does not have the ability to set and harden under water but requires air
to harden

Examples
• Portland Cements
• Hydraulic Lime
• Pozzolan Cements
• Slag Cements
• Natural Cements
• Portland-Pozzolan Cements
• Portland Blast-Furnace-Slag Cement
• Alumina Cements
• Expansive Cements
Special Portland Cements (for very specific purposes)
• White Portland Cement
• Colored Cements
• Oil-well Cements
• Regulated Cements
• Waterproofed Cements
• Hydrophobic Cements
• Antibacterial Cements
• Barium and Strontium Cements

Portland Cement
• one of the most widely used construction material and most important hydraulic cement
• Definition: (ASTM C150) = a hydraulic cement produced by pulverizing clinker consisting
essentially of hydraulic calcium silicates, usually containing one or more of the forms of
calcium sulfate as an interground addition.

Manufacture of Portland Cement

• PC is made by burning an intimate mixture composed mainly of calcareous,
argillocalcareous, argillaceous materials at a clinker temperature of 1550 ºC
Cement Manufacturing Process
• Quarrying
• Crushing
• Grinding
• Mixing
• Calcining (Clinkering)
• Grinding
• Addition of Retarder (usually 2~4% gypsum)
• Packing
The basic raw materials in the manufacture of Portland Cement are limestone, silica, shale and
iron pyrite. These raw materials are properly proportioned, pulverized and homogenized before
being fed in a cement rotary kiln up to a temperature of about 1,550 degrees centigrade to
produce Portland cement clinker.

Clinker is a semi-finished cement product. It is fed into a pulverizing mill mixed with about 3 –
5% gypsum to produce the final product, Portland cement. The Portland cement is then stored
at cement silos until they are either bagged or released in bulk through bulk lorries.

In the manufacture of blended cements, clinker is fed to the finish pulverizing mill and blended
or mixed with gypsum and either pozzolan or blast furnace slag materials to produce blended
cement either Portland-Pozzolan Cement or Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement.

Cement Composition
Types of Portland Cement (ASTM C150)

Properties of Portland Cement

• Fineness = affects the rate of hydration

• Soundness = (of hardened cement paste) = a measure of the potential expansion of the
several constituent parts and the ability to retain its volume after setting
• Time of setting = rate at which the cement hardens; depends on the chemical
composition, fineness, water content, and temperature
• Compressive strength = tested with uniform silica sand at standard testing age and
curing conditions
• Heat of hydration = depends of the chemical composition, fineness, temperature of
curing
• Loss on ignition (LOI) = heating to 900C until constant weight; indication of pre-
hydration and carbonation caused by improper and prolonged storage
• specific gravity = around 3.15
Testing of Cement
• Hydraulic cements are manufactured products that find their principal uses in concrete
and related construction materials.
• When cement and water are mixed, they undergo various chemical reactions that
gradually change the mixture from a plastic (or fluid), which can be molded or cast into
a rigid solid, capable of bearing substantial compressive loads.
• Thus cement and its reactions with water are largely responsible for most of the key
aspects of concrete.
• The difficulty of understanding it can only be lessened by ascertaining fully the chemical
compositions and all its physical properties.
• The quality of testing has a direct bearing on the reliability of such determinations,
specifically on quality control, and is therefore a key element in the construction
process.
• Cements are classified as a product under mandatory certification, under the Philippine
National Standard, ascertaining or characterizing them becomes mandatory.
• Cement is a binder and not an adhesive. Testing or characterizing cement is important
because we want to ensure that the cement we bought will serve its purpose or will do
its work for which it was produced.
• If not properly characterized, the health and safety of the consumers and the general
public is jeopardized.

Significance of Test Method

1. Chemical Properties

• SILICA (SiO2)
o Silica is one of the four major oxides found in clinker and cement.
o This oxide is important in the formation of calcium silicates, C3S and C2S, the actual
compounds responsible for the strength development of cement.
• ALUMINA (Al2O3)
o Aluminum Oxide lowers the sintering point during clinker burning.
o It reacts with calcium oxide during burning to form calcium aluminate (C3A)
compound which also contributes to early strength of cement.
• FERRIC OXIDE (Fe2O3)
o Iron (III) Oxide also lowers the sintering point during clinker burning. It reacts with
lime and alumina to form tetra calcium aluminoferrite, (C4AF).
o The cement color is influenced by the composition and amount of the iron-
containing phase. The more iron concentration, the darker the color of cement.
• CALCIUM OXIDE (CaO)
o Lime is quantitatively one of the most important components of cement and is
normally introduced during cement making from limestone, principally calcite,
CaCO3, which decarbonates from about 680 OC.
o It reacts with SiO2 during burning to form calcium silicate, the compound
responsible for the strength of hardened cement.
• MAGNESIA (MgO)
o Magnesia is a minor component of cement found as an impurity in the
o limestone source or in clay or shale raw feed.
o MgO is being limited because of concern about expansion that can occur if free
MgO as periclase hydrates to form Mg(OH)2 at room temperature.
o Periclase is undesirable due to its slower hydration kinetics and subsequent
deleterious expansion in hardened paste inducing unsoundness, volume
instability and cracking.
• SULFUR TRIOXIDE (SO3)
o Sulfur trioxide is the amount of sulfate in the cement in the form of calcium
o sulfate, hemihydrate, anhydrite, and many other forms.
o SO3 from clinker is included in the measured SO3 level and will reduce the amount
of gypsum added.
o SO3 regulates the initial setting and hardening reactions that take place during
hydration.
o The amount of SO3 allowed is directly related to the fineness and composition
of the cement, particularly the C3A content.
o SO3 above a certain optimum % causes a decrease in strength and an increase in
expansion.
• LOSS ON IGNITION (LOI)
o Loss on ignition is the weight percentage lost when Portland cement is heated at
950 OC.
o LOI was added in cement specification to prevent the addition of carbonate
minerals such as limestone and dolomite.
o The main source of LOI is combined water of CaSO4.2H2O (Gypsum). Additional
source of LOI is moisture absorbed during storage. Another source of LOI is from
the CO2 gas liberated from CaCO3 if adulterated with carbonate materials.
• INSOLUBLE RESIDUE (IR)
o IR is usually a silicate or alumino-silicate material.
o IR comes from raw materials that did not combine completely in the burning
process and from contamination during retrieval of clinker.
 o All cements contain IR from silicate impurities of
gypsum
o (CaSO4.2H2O) added during the final grinding process.
o The test was added in order to prevent adulteration or contamination of cement
with siliceous and argillaceous components.

• FREE LIME, uncombined lime, (F-CaO)

o In fresh clinker, Free Lime, F-CaO, is entirely present as calcium oxide, but in
ground cement a considerable proportion of the total free lime is usually found
to be present as calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2.
o Free Lime in itself does not contribute to strength formation.
o Free Lime causes unsoundness in cement.
o Free Lime reacts with water to form calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2
• Ca(OH)2 reacts with CO2 to form CaCO3 lowering the ph from 12.5 to 7
• Ca(OH)2 is slightly soluble in water and can be leached out of concrete
structures causing increase porosity and reduces strength – avoid contact
with flowing water
• Ca(OH)2 is a strong base, ph is 12.5, prevents corrosion of steel bars
• Ca(OH)2 can react with finely dispersed siliceous and aluminous materials
forming insoluble compounds which contribute to strength formation
 • ALKALIS (Na2O and K2O)
o Alkali content in cement may react with certain aggregates with reactive
(amorphous) silica to form an alkali-silica gel which have a great affinity with
water (hydroscopic). The gel will absorb more water and swell. The swelling will
generate osmotic pressures in the concrete that can cause cracking.
o Alkalis accelerates the hydration of cement, increase early strength but reduces
28 day strength.
o To minimize alkali-silica reaction:
§ Limit the total alkali as Na2O equivalent to 0.6 % maximum;
§ Use aggregate with less reactive silica content
o To prevent alkali-silica reaction:
§ Add Pozzolanas or Blast-furnace Slag to your concrete, theycombined
rapidly with alkalis.
§ Use Blended cements as an alternative

Physical Properties
• Setting Time
• Consistency Test
• Autoclave Expansion
• Fineness, [ 45 Um (325 Mesh), 75 Um (200 Mesh) And (Blaine Test)]
• Compressive Strength
• Heat Of Hydration

• SETTING TIME
o The time elapsed when the cement paste gradually stiffens and loss its plasticity
o Setting times of concrete may be measured using cement paste or mortar
because it is controlled by the reactions of cement and water.
o The tests are used to ensure that the cement does not produce abnormal setting
times or to test the response of a particular combination of cement and chemical
admixture.
o The test is particularly important to detect premature stiffening:
§ False set – conversion of gypsum to monohydrate during grinding and
reconverted to gypsum when remixed during testing.
§ Quick set (flash set) – insufficient amount of gypsum or calcium sulfate di-
hydrate to retard hydration of C3A. Fluidity cannot be regained on
remixing.
o The tests for setting time rely on measuring penetration resistance of cement
paste or mortar. It is not only affected by the percentage and temperature of the
mixing water used, and the amount of kneading the paste received, but also by
the temperature and humidity of the air.

• CONSISTENCY TEST
o Refers to the flow behavior of a fresh mixture
 o The amount of water present in the mix that will give you the specified
consistency required for normal setting and hardening.
o There are two methods of test for consistency:
§ Penetration resistance test – using Vicat Apparatus
§ Flow test – using Flow Table
o Consistency is affected by fineness and the rate of hydration of cement.
o Cement consistency is generally assumed to affect concrete workability. Concrete
workability (slump) is assumed to correlate with paste consistency at the same
water-cement ratio and including the same mineral and chemical admixtures.
o Strength (for some cements), autoclave expansion, setting time, and premature
stiffening tests are measured using stipulated consistency.

Test Method Used: ASTM C187 - Standard Test for Normal Consistency
ASTM C1437 – Standard Test for Flow of Cement

• AUTOCLAVE EXPANSION
o Determines potential delayed expansion caused by the hydration of Free CaO, or
MgO, or both, when present in Portland cement
o Expansion may occur in Portland cement or in blended cement due to certain
hydration reactions after the cement has set
o Several reactions that cause expansion:
§ hydration of free lime (CaO) to form calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2],
§ the hydration of periclase (MgO) to form
magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2],
§ formation of excess ettringite (C3A-3CS-H32) through reaction of C3A or of
calcium aluminate hydrate (CA-CS-H12)with CSH2
o These reactions are slow, so they are accelerated in the laboratory by testing at
an elevated pressure and temperature.
o Test Method Used: ASTM C151 - Standard Test Method for Autoclave
Expansion of Portland Cement.

• FINENESS, [ 45 um (325 mesh), 75 um (200 mesh) and Specific Surface Area (Blaine test)]
o A very important physical property for cement because hydration rate of cement
is a function of fineness;
o Both strength and permeability are influenced by fineness. Increasing the fineness
substantially increases the rate of hydration.
o Cement with particles larger than 45 mm are difficult to hydrate and those with
particles larger than 75 mm may never hydrate completely.
o It is a common practice in the industry to obtain a relative measure of the particle
size distribution from specific surface area analysis of the cement.
Test Method Used:
o ASTM C204 - Standard Test Method for Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by Air-
Permeability
o ASTM C430 – Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by 45(No.325) sieve
 o ASTM C786 – Fineness of Hydraulic Cement by 75(No.200) sieve by Wet Methods

• COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
o Strength is the property of cement that is probably the most important to
engineers, both as general indicator of concrete quality and to assure that the
concrete will perform as intended during design of the structure.
o It also provides an excellent indication of the overall quality of hydrated cement.
o The strength of cement developed either when tested as a mortar or a concrete
is dependent on the following:
§ grading of the sand and aggregate
§ the proportion of water used
§ the degree of mixing
§ the temperature and humidity of the atmosphere in which it is conducted
§ the method by which the material is placed in the molds and the specimen
made
§ the curing condition
§ the method of testing
§ the age at which the tests are carried out

For testing purposes it is necessary to define all these conditions, and in all standards
specifications this is done as closely as possible.
Test Method Used: ASTM C109/109M - Standard Test Method for Compressive
Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars

• HEAT OF HYDRATION
o The quantity of heat that are liberated (exothermic) from the reaction of cement
with water.
o Concrete acts as an insulator due to low conductivity. When cement reacts with
water, heat is liberated producing large rise in temperature up to about 50OC.
Because this temperature rise is contained in the concrete, this may cause
cracking and deterioration.
o Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) has a heat of hydration at about 90 cal/g at 28
days, T-II & IV at 60 – 70 cal/g and T-III has about 100 cal/g also after 28 days.
o The rate at which the cement hydrates is the most important factor. The rate can
be changed by:
§ Adding Chemical Accelerators (increase Ca++ ion and increase solubility
of Aluminate ion) – accelerates hydration, setting & hardening
§ Adding Chemical Retarder (suppress Ca++ ion by precipitating as
insoluble compound) – retards hydration, setting and hardening
§ Changing the fineness of cement
§ Changing the composition of the cement

Test Method Used: ASTM C186 – Standard Test Method for the Heat of
Hydration of Hydraulic Cement
Cement Standards
References
Derucher, Kenneth N., “Materials for Civil and Highway Engineers”, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
Presentation prepared by Mr. Noel dela Cruz, Manager, Cement Testing Center

MODULE 5

Concrete Production
• This process develops physical and chemical properties like mechanical strength, low
moisture permeability, and chemical and volumetric stability
• A properly proportioned concrete mix will provide
• Mixing concrete
• Workability
• Curing

Mixing Concrete
• Essential for
I. The production of uniform concrete,
II. High quality concrete.
• Equipment and methods should be capable of effectively mixing

Workability
 • The ease with which freshly mixed concrete can be placed and finished without
segregation
• Difficult to measure but ready-mix companies usually have experience in determining the
proper mix
• Important to accurately describe what the concrete is to be used for, and how it will be
placed

Curing
• Concrete that has been specified, batched, mixed, placed, and finished "letter-perfect"
can still be a failure if improperly or inadequately cured
• Usually the last step in a concrete project and, unfortunately, is often neglected even by
professionals
• Curing has a major influence on the properties of hardened concrete such as durability,
strength, water-tightness, wear resistance, volume stability, and resistance to freezing
and thawing
• Proper concrete curing for agricultural and residential applications involves keeping
newly placed concrete moist and avoiding temperature extremes (above 90°F or below
50°F) for at least three days
• A seven-day (or longer) curing time is recommended
• The best curing method depends on:
• Cost
• Application equipment required
• Materials available
• Size and shape of the concrete surface
• Prevent the loss of the mixing water from concrete by sealing the surface.
• Can be done by:
• Covering the concrete with impervious paper or plastic sheets
• Applying membrane-forming curing compounds
• Begin the curing as soon as the concrete has hardened sufficiently to avoid erosion or
other damage to the freshly finished surface
• Usually within one to two hours after placement and finishing

Strength
Concrete has relatively:
• High compressive strength
• Low tensile strength
• Fair to assume that a concrete sample's tensile strength is about 10%-15% of its
compressive strength
• The ultimate strength of concrete is influenced by
- water-cementitious ratio
-the design constituents
- the mixing
-placement
-curing methods
Elasticity
• Function of the modulus of elasticity of the aggregates and the cement matrix and their
relative proportions

Cracking
• All concrete structures will crack to some extent.
• Cracks due to tensile stress induced by shrinkage or stresses occurring during setting or
use

Shrinkage Cracking
• Occur when concrete members undergo restrained volumetric changes (shrinkage) as a
result of either drying, autogenous shrinkage or thermal effects
• The number and width of shrinkage
cracks that develop are influenced by
-the amount of shrinkage that occurs
-the amount of restraint present
-the amount and spacing of reinforcement provided

Tension Cracking
• Most common in concrete beams where a transversely applied load will put one surface
into compression and the opposite surface into tension due to induced bending
• The size and length of cracks is dependent on
- The magnitude of the bending moment
- The design of the reinforcing in the beam at the point under consideration

Required Tests and Evaluation Criteria

• Fresh concrete
• Hardened concrete
• Acceptance of concrete

Mix design
• Concrete mix proportioning (ACI Method)
• Method of determining average compressive strength
• Mix proportioning example

Concrete – a three phase material

• Structure of concrete

ITZ (Interfacial Transition Zone)

• Strength of concrete
o ability to resist stress without failure
o in concrete, it is synonymous with the degree of failure at which the applied stress
reaches a maximum value
o standard uniaxial compressive strength = general index of concrete strength

Strength-Porosity Relationship
fundamental inverse relationship:
(for simple homogeneous material)
S = Soe-kp
where:
S = strength of material at a
given porosity p;
So = intrinsic strength at zero porosity
k = constant

Strength-porosity relationships:
o normally cured cements, etc.
o iron, steel, etc.,
o PC mortars with different mix proportions

Powers’ strength-porosity relation:

(obtained for compressive strengths of mortars at 28 days)
fc = ax3
where:
a = intrinsic strength at zero porosity (234 MPa)
x = solid/space ratio or the amount of solid fraction in the system (1-porosity)
 In concrete, the situation is not simple due to the existence of microcracks in ITZ

Factors Affecting Compressive Strength

• Characteristics and proportions of materials
o water/cement ratio
o air entrainment
o cement type
o aggregate
o mixing water
o admixtures
• Curing conditions
o time
o humidity
o temperature
• Testing parameters
o specimen parameters
o loading conditions

Characteristics and Proportions of Materials

water/cement ratio
Abram’s water/cement ratio rule:
fc = k1/(k2)w/c
where:
w/c = water/cement ratio k1 and k2= constants

Note: as the w/c increases, there is progressive weakening due to increase in porosity
Air Entrainment
Air is introduced through inadequate compaction or use of air-entraining agent at a
given w/c, increasing volume of air reduces the compressive strength.
Influence of W/C, moist curing age, cement type, and air entrainment on concrete
strength.

aggregate
Ø in normal concrete, usually not a factor in strength
Ø size, shape, surface texture, grading (particle size distribution), mineralogy affects
strength
grading - affects the consistency of the mix; more fines à lower consistency à
greater water req’t à lower stregth
rough texture - opposing effects ( greater physical bonding but greater water req’t)
mineralogy - aggregate-hcp interaction (ex. siliceous aggregates aggregates may
increase strength)
aggregate
Ø in normal concrete, usually not a factor in strength
Ø size, shape, surface texture, grading (particle size distribution), mineralogy affects
strength
grading - affects the consistency of the mix; more fines à lower consistency à
greater water req’t à lower stregth
rough texture - opposing effects ( greater physical bonding but greater water req’t)
mineralogy - aggregate-hcp interaction (ex. siliceous aggregates aggregates may
increase strength)
Aggregate
o in normal concrete, usually not a factor in strength
o size, shape, surface texture, grading (particle size distribution), mineralogy affects
strength
o W/C and MAS vs. strength
Slump vs strength and cost: Target slump should be the stiffest consistency

MAS and mineralogy vs. strength

Mixing Water
indirect effect on strength
impurities may:
o affect time of setting
o cause efflorescence (deposition of white salts on the concrete surface)
o cause corrosion of rebar

As a rule, use drinking-quality water. To determine suitability of water, compare it with

clean water in terms of: setting time of concrete and 7 & 28-day concrete strength (=>
90%)
seawater : contains ~35,000 ppm dissolved salts à not harmful to
strength of plain concrete but may cause corrosion of rebars

Admixtures
o can accelerate or retard the cement hydration and strength development
o use of pozzolanic and cementitious by-products can densify both the matrix and the
ITZ
o mineral admixtures may increase tensile strength of concrete

Curing Conditions
Curing = procedures that promote cement hydration

Time: the longer the time is, the higher is the strength assuming moist conditions and
normal temperature
ACI Committee 209 (for moist cured concrete, Type I OPC):
Strength vs. age at various moisture conditions

Humidity: minimum period of 7 days moist curing is recommended

Temperature
o depends on the time-temperature history of casting and curing
o low temperature curing à more uniform microstructure à higher strength

Influence of casting and curing temperatures on strength

Testing Parameters

Specimen parameters
o specimen configuration: usually, height = 2xdiameter
o larger diameter à higher strength
o lower H/D à higher strength
o testing should be in moist condition: dried specimens show higher strengths
Loading conditions (see ASTM C469)
o testing time within 2 to 3 min
o faster testing time, higher strength reading

Strength vs. specimen diameter (H/D = 2)

Strength vs. H/D

 Interplay of factors influencing concrete strength

• Elastic properties of concrete

 Non-linearity of the stress-strain relationship

Types of Elastic Moduli

1. static modulus of elasticity - slope of the stress- strain curve under uniaxial loading
tangent modulus
secant modulus chord modulus
2. dynamic modulus of elasticity - corresponding to very small instantaneous strain, is
approximated by the initial tangent modulus (tangent modulus of a line drawn at the
origin)
3. flexural modulus of elasticity* – determined from deflection test on a loaded beam.
For simply supported and midspan loaded beam:
E = PL3/48Iy
where: P = load
L = span length
I = moment of inertia
y = midspan deflection
* commonly used for the design of pavements

Factors Affecting Modulus of Elasticity

o in homogeneous materials: density is directly related to modulus of elasticity, E
o in heterogeneous materials: E is determined by the volume fraction, density, and
elastic modulus of the components

Aggregate: aggregate porosity à stiffness à ability to restrain matrix strains

Cement Paste Matrix

Ematrix determined by porosity

ITZ: affects the stress-strain relation due to its porosity and microcracks

Crack Propagation effects on fc and E

Required Tests and Evaluation Criteria

Materials
Material properties are needed design of mixes:
o Specific gravity or density of materials
o Unit weight, absorption of aggregates
o Grain size analysis of aggregates, including the determination of the fineness modulus
of sand
o Surface moisture of aggregates

Workability (Slump) test

Fresh Concrete Test
— Other tests:
o Setting time: the time elapsed at which concrete begins to solidify/harden
o Bleeding rate: measure of the amount of water rising to the surface of the concrete
o Segregation: measure of the degree of separation of the coarse aggregates from the
mortar

Hardened Concrete Tests

Compressive strength test

o Uniaxial compressive strength is the most common parameter for concrete
o Regarded as the general index of concrete quality
Determining the Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens (ASTM C39)
o a compressive uniaxial load is applied to molded cylinders or cores at a rate within
the prescribed range until failure occurs
Rate of loading:
a. For screw type machine à 0.05 in (1.3 mm)/ min when the machine is running idle
b. For hydraulically operated machine à 20 to 50 psi/s (0.14 to 0.34 MPa/s)
o compressive strength is Pmax/A expressed to the nearest 10 psi (69 kPa)

Tolerance Limits
Tolerance for Time

o if L/D < 1.8, correct the value using:

o Acceptance of concrete (DPWH)

§ Average of 3 consecutive strength test results is equal to or greater than

the specified strength and no individual test result falls below the specified
strength by 15%
§ In case of failure:
§ Three cores shall be obtained from the affected area and cured and tested
§ Acceptable if the average of the cores is equal to or at least 85% and no
sample core is less than 75% of the specified strength. Otherwise, it shall
be rejected.
Acceptance of Concrete (ACI)
Strength test based on average of 2 cylinders made from the same sample of concrete, tested
at 28 days. Must satisfy both:
o average of all sets of 3 consecutive tests is at least equal to the specified design
strength
o no individual test falls below the specified design strength by more than 3.5 MPa (500
psi)
o non-compliance does not automatically mean rejection - a warning that further
investigation is needed
 o Investigate validity of result, effects on structural integrity, serviceability, and
durability

In case of non-compliance:
o non-destructive tests
o testing of cores
o load tests on the structures
Possible actions:
o strengthening
o demolition

Mix design

Selection of suitable ingredients and determining their relative quantities to produce economical
concrete with certain minimum properties, notable workability, strength, and durability

Design mixes vs. prescribed mixes

Limiting values:
o max W/C ratio
o min cement content
o min workability
o max size of aggregate
o air content limits

Concrete mix proportioning (ACI Method)

Background data required:

o Sieve analysis of fine and coarse aggregates;
fineness modulus
o Dry-rodded unit weight of coarse aggregate
o Bulk specific gravity of materials
o Absorption capacity, or free moisture in aggregate
o Job specifications
max W/C, min air content, min slump
max aggregate size (MAS), required strength, etc.

9-step mix proportioning procedure

1. Choice of slump (see Table M1)
Stiffest consistency that can be placed and compacted without segregation

Other factors:
§ Size of the section to be concreted
§ Amount and spacing of reinforcement
 § Method of compaction
§ Cost of labor

Table M1.Recommended values of slump for various type of construction as given by ACI 211.1

2. Choice of maximum aggregate size (MAS)

o <1/5 of narrowest dimension between the sides of the form
o < 1/3 of depth of slabs
o <3/4 of clear spacing between rebars
Factors to consider:
o economy
o availability of material
o grading requirement

3. Estimate of Water and Air content (see Table M2) water content depends on workability
requirements
4. Selection of W/C (see Tables M3, M4)

W/C requirement to produce a given compressive strength can be determined by:

o previously established relations (for mixes made with similar ingredients)
o carrying out tests
Table M3. Relationship between W/C ratio and Ave. Comp. Strength Accdg. to ACI 211.1

Table M4. Requirements of ACI 318-83 for concrete exposed to sulphate attack
5. Calculation of cement content, C
o governed by mixing water requirement and W/C ratio
o at least equal to specs from durability considerations
o a good focus of mix design due to economic considerations
o affects cracking, shrinkage, and durability of concrete

6. Estimate of gravel content, G (see Table M5)

o dry bulk volume of coarse aggregate per unit volume of concrete
= f( FM, MAS)

Table M5. Dry bulk volume of coarse agg. per unit volume of concrete as given by ACI 211.1
 7. Estimation of sand content, S
a. Weight method (see Table M6)
b. Absolute volume method

8. Adjustment for aggregate moisture

In the calculations, it is assumed that the aggregates are in SSD condition.

Table M6. First estimate of density of fresh concrete as given by ACI 211.1

9. Trial mix

Indispensable for testing/checking proportions of the mix

Should be tested for:

o Workability (slump cone test)
o Cohesiveness
o Finishing properties air content
o Yield and density

Method of determining average compressive strength

1. If data on consecutive strength test is available, use whichever of the following is
greater:
f’cr = f’c + 1.34S
f’cr = f’c + 2.33S – 500

(f’cr = f’c + 2.33S - 3.5 if S and f’ are in MPa)

where:
 f’cr = ave. compressive strength (psi)
f’c = specified compressive strength (psi)
S = standard deviation (psi)

Method of determining average compressive strength

2. If data on standard deviation is not available:

Conclusion

Concrete is a complex material with time and environment-dependent characteristics. To assure

quality, the quality of the raw materials for concrete production must be checked and a
systematic mix design procedure must be followed.
 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING (LABORATORY MANUAL)

OBJECTIVE:
• Know how to obtain field samples and reduce it to test sample
o A1-Reducing field sample of aggregate to test sample (ASTM C702, D75)
• Determine properties of aggregates through laboratory tests
o A2-Sieve analysis of coarse aggregate (ASTM C136)
o A3-Sieve analysis of fine aggregate (ASTM C136)
o A4-Specific gravity and absorption of coarse aggregate (ASTM C127)
o A5-Specific gravity and absorption of fine aggregate (ASTM C128)
o A6-Unit weight and voids in aggregate (ASTM C29, C127, C128)
o A7-Total moisture content and surface moisture content of aggregate (ASTM
C566, C127, C128)
Reduce Field Samples
• ASTM C702-98 (reapproved 2003)
o Standard Practice for Reducing Samples of Aggregate to Testing Size
• Method A: Mechanical splitter (samples must be dried to at least SSD condition)
• Method B: Quartering
• Method C: Miniature Stockpile ( for damp fine aggregate only)
ACTIVITY 1: Reducing field sample of aggregate to test sample
• PURPOSE: To obtain laboratory samples from stockpiles
• STANDARD/S: ASTM C702, D75
• EQUIPMENT: shovel, scoop, broom
 • PROCEDURE:
o Obtain a sample of aggregate (about 50 kg) from three places in the stockpile:
from the top third, at the midpoint, and from the bottom third of the volume of
the pile.
o Place the field sample on a hard, clean level surface.
o Mix the material thoroughly by turning the entire sample three times.
o Shovel the entire sample into a conical pile.
o Carefully flatten the conical pile to a uniform thickness and diameter by pressing
down the apex with a shovel. (The diameter should be approximately four to
eight times the thickness).
o Divide the flattened mass into four equal quarters with a shovel.
o Remove two diagonally opposite quarters. Brush the cleared spaces clean.
o Mix and quarter the remaining material until the sample is reduced to the desired
size.

ACTIVITY 2: Sieve analysis of coarse aggregate (ASTM C136)

• PURPOSE: To determine the particle size distribution and fineness modulus of coarse
aggregate by sieving
• STANDARD/S: ASTM C136
• EQUIPMENT: balance, sieves, mechanical shaker, oven
• SAMPLE: Dry coarse aggregate

FINENESS MODULUS is the sum of the total percentages of material in the sample that is coarser
than (cumulative percentages retained) each of the following sieves and divided by 100: No. 8,
No. 4, 3/8 n., 1 ½ in. and larger, increasing in the ratio 2:1.

• PROCEDURE:
o Dry the sample to constant weight at a temperature of 110 oC if the sample is
lightweight or is suspected of containing appreciable amount of material finer
that No. 4 sieve.
o Weigh the dry sample accurately.
o Weigh each empty sieve and the pan.
o Nest the suitable sieves in order of decreasing size of opening from the top to
bottom. Place the pan at the bottom of the set. Sieves: No. 8, No. 4, 3/8 in., ½ in.,
¾ in., 1 in. and higher if needed.
o Place the sample on the top sieve.
 o Place the lid, and agitate the sieves in the mechanical shaker for about 10
minutes.
o Weigh the sieves with the material retained.
o Determine the weight in each sieve. The total weight of the material after sieving
should check closely with the original weight of the sample. If the amount differs
by more than 0.3 percent based on the original weight, the results should not be
used.
o Calculate the percentage coarser than and the percentage passing.
o Draw the particle distribution curve and calculate the fineness modulus of the
average size of the sample.

• REPORT:
Draw the particle size distribution. Indicate on the plot the applicable ASTM C33
gradation limits. Report the fineness modulus and calculate the effective size, coefficient
of gradation, and uniformity coefficient.

ACTIVITY 3: Sieve analysis of fine aggregate (ASTM C136)

• PURPOSE: To determine the particle size distribution and fineness modulus of fine
aggregate by sieving
• STANDARD/S: ASTM C136
• EQUIPMENT: balance, sieves, mechanical shaker, oven
 • SAMPLE: 500 g of dry fine aggregate
• PROCEDURE:
o Dry the sample to constant weight at a temperature of 110
o OC.
o Weigh the dry sample, the empty sieves and the pan.
o Nest the suitable sieves in order of decreasing size of opening from the top to
bottom. Place the pan at the bottom of the set. Sieves: No. 100, No. 50, No. 30,
No. 16. No. 8, and No. 4.
o Place the sample on the top sieve.
o Place the lid, and agitate the sieves in the mechanical shaker for about 10
minutes.
o Weigh the sieves with the material retained. Determine the weight in each sieve.
The total weight of the material after sieving should check closely with the
original weight of the sample. If the amount differs by more than 0.3 percent
based on the original weight, the results should not be used.
o Calculate the percentage coarser than and the percentage passing.
o Draw the particle distribution curve and calculate the fineness modulus of the
average size of the sample.
o
• REPORT:
o Draw the particle size distribution. Indicate on the plot the ASTM C33 gradation
limit. Report the fineness modulus and calculate the effective size, coefficient of
gradation, and uniformity coefficient.
• ASTM C33: Grading requirements for fine aggregates

ACTIVITY 4: Specific gravity and absorption of coarse aggregate

• PURPOSE: To determine the specific gravity (bulk and apparent) and absorption capacity
of coarse aggregate.
• STANDARD/S: ASTM C127
• EQUIPMENT: balance, wire basket (of 3.35 mm or finer wire mesh), water tank, oven
• SAMPLE: Minimum of 4,000 g test sample for aggregate of maximum nominal size of 1
in. The sample should not have particles of size less than 4.75 mm (No. 4)

DEFINITIONS:
• Specific gravity is the ratio of weight in air of a unit volume of a material to the weight
of an equal volume of water.
 • Bulk specific gravity is the ratio of the weight in air of a unit volume of aggregate
(including the permeable and impermeable voids in the particles, but not including the
voids between the particles) to the weight of an equal amount of water.
• Apparent specific gravity is the ratio of the weight in air of a unit volume of the
impermeable portion of the aggregate to the weight of an equal volume of water.
• Absorption is the increase in weight of aggregate due to water in the pores but not
including water adhering to the outside surface of the particles expressed as a percentage
of dry weight.

• PROCEDURE:
o Weigh the test sample: A (g).
o Immerse the aggregate in water at room temperature for a period of 24
o +/- 4 h .
o Remove the sample from the water. Roll it in a large absorbent cloth until all
visible films of water are removed. The sample is now in saturated surface dry
(SSD) condition.
o Weigh the sample to obtain it saturated surface dry weight: B (g).
o Place the SSD sample in the wire basket and determine the weight in water: C (g).
Note that the wire basket should be immersed to a depth sufficient to cover it
and the test sample during weighing.
o Remove the sample from the wire basket
o Dry the sample to constant weight at a temperature of 110 +/- 5 oC (approximately
24 h ), and weigh: D (g).
o Calculate the specific gravity and absorption.

Bulk specific gravity, dry = A / (B-C)

Bulk specific gravity, SSD = B / (B-C) Apparent specific gravity = D / (D-C)
Absorption = 100 x (B –D) / D

• REPORT:
• Report the specific gravity to the nearest 0.01 and absorption values to the nearest 0.1%.

ACTIVITY 5: Specific gravity and absorption of fine aggregate

• PURPOSE: To determine the specific gravity (bulk and apparent) and absorption capacity
of fine aggregate.
• STANDARD/S: ASTM C128
• EQUIPMENT: balance, pycnometer (or a volumetric flask of 500 cm3 capacity or a fruit jar
fitted with a pycnometer top), oven
• SAMPLE: About 500 g of fine aggregate
• PROCEDURE:
o Weigh the test sample: A (g).
o Cover the test sample with water, either by immersion or by the addition of a
least 6% moisture to the sample, and permit to stand for 24 +/- 4 h .
 o Decant excess water with care to avoid loss of fines. Spread the sample on a flat
non-absorbent surface exposed to a gently moving current of warm air, and stir
frequently to secure homogeneous drying. Continue until the sample approaches
a free-flowing condition. When the specimen has reached a surface dry condition,
it is called saturated surface dry (SSD).
o Weigh the SSD sample: B (g).
o Fill the pycnometer with water to the top and weigh: C (g).
o Remove part of the water, and introduce the SSD sample into the pycnometer.
o Fill with additional water to approximately 90% of its capacity
o Roll, invert, and agitate the pycnometer to eliminate all air bubbles.
o Bring the water level in the pycnometer to its calibrated capacity.
o Determine the total weight of the pycnometer, specimen, and water: D (g).
o Remove the sample from the pycnometer, dry to constant weight at a
temperature of 110 +/- 5 oC (approximately 24 h ), cool and weigh: E (g).
o Calculate the specific gravity and absorption.

Bulk specific gravity, dry = A / (C+B-D)

Bulk specific gravity, SSD = B / (C+B-D)
Apparent specific gravity = E / (C+E-D)
Absorption = 100 x (B –E) / E

• REPORT:
• Report the specific gravity to the nearest 0.01 and absorption values to the nearest
0.1%.

ACTIVITY 6: Unit weight and voids in aggregate

• PURPOSE: To determine unit weights of and voids in a sample of fine, coarse, or mixed
aggregates
• STANDARD/S: ASTM C 29, 127, 128
• EQUIPMENT: balance, 5/8-in-diameter tamping rod (24 in. long), cylindrical metal
measure (minimum capacity of ½ ft3 for coarse aggregate of size not larger than 1 ½ in.
and of 1/10 ft3 for fine aggregate)
• SAMPLE: Aggregate dried to constant weight, preferably in an oven at 110 +/- 5oC

DEFINITIONS:
— Air void is a space filled with air.
— Unit weight or bulk density is the weight in air of a unit volume of a permeable material
(including both permeable and impermeable voids)

• PROCEDURE:
o Find the empty weight of the metal measure.
o Fill the measure one-third full with the dry sample.
 o Rod the layer of aggregate with 25 strokes (Do not allow the rod to strike the
bottom of the measure).
o Fill the measure two-thirds full, level and rod as in step 3.
o Fill the measure overflowing and rod as in step 3.
o Level the surface of the aggregate with a finger and tamping rod such that any
slight projection of the larger pieces of coarse aggregate approximately balances
the larger voids in the surface below the top of the measure.
o Weigh the measure with the aggregate and find the net weight of the aggregate:
A.
o Calculate the unit weight: B.

Unit weight or bulk density, B = (A/V) lb/ft3 or kg/m3

where V is the volume of the measure.
o Calculate the void content or percent void

Void (%) = 100 x ( S x W - B) / ( S x W )

where S is the bulk specific gravity (dry basis) from Activity 4 or 5 and W is the
unit weight of water (62.4 pcf or 999 kg/m3).
• REPORT: Calculate unit weight and void for coarse aggregate and find aggregate
samples. Comment on the results.

ACTIVITY 7: Total moisture content and surface moisture content of aggregate

• PURPOSE: To determine the percentage of total moisture and surface moisture in a
sample of aggregate.
• STANDARD/S: ASTM C 566, 127, 128
• EQUIPMENT: balance, oven
• SAMPLE: A minimum of 4,000 g of coarse aggregate (1 in. maximum size) or 500 g of fine
aggregate

DEFINITIONS:
— Moisture content (total) is the weight of water in the particles expressed as a percentage
of the dry weight of the particles.
— Absorption is the increase of weight of aggregate due to water in the pores but not
including the water adhering to the outside surface of the particles expressed as a
percentage of the dry weight.
— Surface moisture is equal to the difference between the total moisture content and the
absorption.

• PROCEDURE:
o Weigh the sample: A (g).
o Dry the sample to constant weight in an oven at 110 +/- 5 oC for approximately
24 h and cool.
o Weigh the dried sample: B (g).
 o Calculate the moisture content.

Total moisture content = 100 x ( A – B) / B

Surface moisture content = total moisture content – absorption
Absorption is calculated in Activity 4 or 5

• REPORT: Report the total moisture content and surface moisture content to the nearest
0.1%.