Received: 1 August 2021 Revised: 20 April 2022 Accepted: 9 May 2022 The Journal of Engineering

DOI: 10.1049/tje2.12155

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

A new method to calculate corona losses for active conductors

considering real transmission line unbalance

Héctor Silvio Llamo-Laborí Ariel Santos-Fuentefria

Electrical Engineering Department, Technological Abstract

University of Havana Jose Antonio Echeverría
(CUJAE), 114 Street, # 11901 / Ciclovía y Rotonda
CP 19390, Marianao, Havana, Cuba
Correspondence
Ariel Santos-Fuentefria, Electrical Engineering
Department, Technological University of Havana
Jose Antonio Echeverría (CUJAE), 114 Street,
# 11901 / Ciclovía y Rotonda CP 19390, Marianao,
Havana, Cuba.
Email: asfuentefria@electrica.cujae.edu.cu
This paper shows the characteristics of an algorithm that calculates the corona losses of
transmission lines. The line can have up to four circuits, with any configuration, with sin-
gle or bundled conductors, and taking into account the line unbalance. This is achieved
by modelling the lines in phase quantities, for active conductor, and calculating the corona
losses for each one. The results are given per active conductor and average per bundle.
In lines with several conductors per phase the results are given per circuit and a total one.
These characteristics allow choosing the most convenient configuration and spacing for the
conductor bundles, which will reduce and balance corona losses. The results found with
this method show that the value of the losses calculated with the formulas with transmis-
sion lines symmetrically transposed is conservative. The configuration and the number of
conductors per phase have a noted influence in the value and the asymmetry of the corona
losses. In double circuit lines, corona losses can be reduced by changing the arrangement of
the phases of circuit two in reference to circuit one, with the advantage that, at the design
stage, those changes are costless.

1 INTRODUCTION corona. Corona effect, produces audible hissing in the vicinity

In a power transmission line, are two types of active power
losses: Transverse losses, due to corona effect [1, 2] and insu-
lator leakage, and longitudinal losses, due to the effective
resistance of the conductors. When the transmission line is
designed, corona losses are taken into account. If is necessary,
the design is modified to reduce it to about 0.65 kW/km under
fair weather conditions for lines at voltages higher than 138 kV
[3]. Losses due to leakage currents in insulators are generally
negligible.
If the conductors of a transmission line are subjected to
an increasing voltage, the potential gradient at the surface of
the conductor can reaches a value greater than the dielectric
strength of the air. At that point, energy losses occur due to
the current flowing through the air, that is, the air surround-
ing the conductor is ionized. Everything happens as if the air
had become a conductor, causing a leakage current. In over-
head conductors, the effect is visible in the darkness, being
possible to appreciate how they are surrounded by a luminous,
bluish, circular cross-section halo [1, 4, 5] in the form of a
of the transmission lines, power and energy losses, television
interference and corrosion in conductors and metal fitting of
lines [4, 6–12].
When a transmission line is modelled, through its π-
circuit, either Equivalent or Nominal, losses due to corona
effect and insulator leakage are neglected because in a well-
designed transmission line such losses are negligible [13, 14].
However, such losses significantly contribute to the reduc-
tion of the efficiency of the electrical energy transmission. In
overhead transmission lines at extra high voltages (345–750
kV), losses can reach 300 kW/km due to adverse weather
conditions [15].
The occurrence and intensity of corona discharges, and hence
their losses, is affected by the following factors: The electric field
gradient on the conductor surface [16, 17], the conductor sur-
face condition [6, 18], weather conditions [19–21], the relative
air density [22, 23], the effect of water on the conductor surface
[20, 22], the average operating voltage of the line [19, 24, 25],
the size of phase conductors [18, 26], bundled conductor lines
[5, 12, 16, 17], the existence or not of shield conductors [27],

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© 2022 The Authors. The Journal of Engineering published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of The Institution of Engineering and Technology.

J. Eng. 2022;2022:725–731. wileyonlinelibrary.com/iet-joe 725


726
the sag value of the phase and shield conductors [28], the line
unbalance and the type of structure.
Through empirical observations, Peek made the first
approach to the phenomenon of the corona effect, using for-
mulas for its quantitative study in the case of cylindrical, parallel
and smooth-surfaced conductors. The expression used by Peek
[29] depend, among other parameters, on the relative density
of the air, the frequency of the system, the radius of the con-
ductor, the effective distance between the phases, the voltage
between the phase and the neutral and the critical or disruptive
voltage. However, this expression is only valid for one conduc-
tor per phase and recommended for thin conductors, with less
than 25.4 mm in diameter, it is also not valid when the voltages
are similar. Peek also did not consider adverse weather con-
ditions in the proposed expression. For the calculation of the
critical voltage, the irregularities of the conductor are taken into
account, whether it is perfectly smooth, if it is rough or aged,
or if it is stranded, to give some examples. Peek’s formula has
been used by several authors for the analysis of corona losses
[30–32]. It has also been used as a basis for the development of
new calculation methods [22, 33, 34].
Another common approach is due to Peterson [35], who
proposed an expression for calculating corona losses that has
become a classic part of the literature on the subject. With
some differences regarding Peek, this formula appears in [9,
30, 34]. Peterson takes into account conductor irregularities and
the calculation is performed for good weather conditions and
assuming that the line is symmetrically transposed.
There are other methods for the calculation of corona losses
in transmission lines, such as Ryan and Henline [36], Carroll
and Cozzens [18, 37, 38] and others, using different approaches.
Peterson, in 1933, in a AIEEE discussion, proposed a formula
for fair weather corona loss which has been become a clas-
sic part of the literature on the subject [28, 39–41]. However,
these methods have two main disadvantages, the first one is that
they perform the calculations in good weather conditions and
the second is that they assume that the transmission lines are
symmetrically transposed.
In reference of the first issue, there are numerous research
that analyse corona losses taking into account different
approaches and different weather conditions; fog [42], frost [43,
44], rain [22, 45], ice [15], snow [22, 46], and sand [5], to give
some examples reported in literature.
Most of these studies assume that transmission lines are
symmetrically transposed, so it is necessary to investigate how
line unbalance influences on corona losses. In this work, an
algorithm is developed to calculate the corona losses taking
into account practically all the elements that modify it, without
assuming that the line is symmetrical. A 220 kV double circuit
transmission line is used as an example.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
The algorithm calculates the corona losses per active con-
ductor, for lines with more than one conductor per phase
(bundled conductors) and with more than one circuit, consider-
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LLAMO-LABORÍ AND SANTOS-FUENTEFRIA
ing the asymmetry of the line and its unbalance. The proposed
algorithm allows minimizing the losses due to corona effect,
although without an optimization process.
The line is modelled through a matrix calculation per active
conductor, with the following steps:
1. From the average line voltage at sending end, given as data,
a vector of an order equal to the number of active conduc-
tors of the line is formed with the line-to-neutral voltages,
considering that they are balanced because they are those
of a source of infinite capacity representing the power sys-
tem to which the line is connected. This vector, (Ue ), for a
double circuit line with two conductors per phase, and two
shield wires, initially, would be of order fourteen and the
corona would be calculated with an admittance matrix of
order twelve. This characteristic makes the normal unbalance
of the line be taken into account.
2. Next, the matrix of the potential coefficients due to Maxwell
(P’) is calculated, which is initially of an order equal to the
number of phase conductors plus the shield wires.
3. The next step is to incorporate the effect of the shield con-
ductors to the matrix (P’) by reducing their order to the
number of active conductors in the line, thus forming the
matrix (P). For a double circuit with two conductors per
phase, it would be of order twelve.
4. To continue, the matrix with the capacitive susceptances (B’)
per active conductor is calculated using the Equation (1).
(B′ ) = j 𝜔(P)−1 = j 𝜔(C) (1)
5. Now, it is possible to calculate the vector of capacitive
currents per active conductor through Equation (2). These
currents appear with the real unbalance of the line.
(I′ ) = (B′ )(Ue) (2)
6. Once the vector of capacitive currents per active con-
ductor has been calculated, the critical or disruptive cur-
rents per active conductor must be calculated from the
expression (3).
′
ICr−i = 1, 858 ⋅ 10−2 m1 m2 𝛿 2∕3 ⋅ f ⋅ ai (A∕km) (3)
where:
“i”: is the number of the active conductors.
m1 : Factor to take into account the irregularities of the
conductor.
m2 : Factor to take into account the irregularities of the
conductor according to the number of wires in the outer layer.
a: External radius of the conductor.
f: Frequency in Hertz.
d: Factor to take into account the air density, given by
Equation (4).
0, 386 ⋅ PB
𝛿= (4)
273 + t
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LLAMO-LABORÍ AND SANTOS-FUENTEFRIA 727

where:
PB : Barometric pressure in millimetres of mercury.
t: Average ambient temperature in degrees Celsius.
273: Temperature of absolute zero in degrees Celsius.
In the algorithm, the barometric pressure is calculated as a
function of the height of the line trace above sea level using
expression (5).
[ ]
H
PB = log−1 log760 −
18336
[ ]
H
= log−1 2, 881 − mm of mercury (5) FIGURE 1 Double circuit transmission line with two phase conductors
18336

where:
H: Height of the line trace above sea level in meters.
760: Barometric pressure at sea level in millimetres of
mercury.

7. With the capacitive currents per active conductor, and

the critical capacitive current, as many Ii ′/I ′CR ratios are
calculated as there are active conductors.
8. With the ratios Ii ′/I ′CR the described subroutine is accessed
and the coefficients kC-i are obtained for each active
conductor.
9. Since all the terms are now available, the corona losses are
calculated for each of the active conductors of the line by
means of Equation (6) due to Peterson, but for each active
conductor “i”.
FIGURE 2 220 kV double circuit tower with two conductors per phase
567 ′ 2
ΔPi−PETERSON = kC −i I (6)
f i accumulated water drops due to dew, when the conductors
operate cold during the hours of minimum demand. When
where i = 1, 2, 3 — Numbers of active conductors. there is dew, the critical voltage is reduced by 20% and the
I ′: Nominal capacitive current of the line calculated from the corona losses increase as when it rains, but in the whole line.
capacitive susceptances to the positive sequence B ′1 For example, in a double circuit transmission line at 220 kV
kC : Experimental quantity calculated using the method found with 24 km with 0 h of dew per year, the corona losses are
in (3), entered with the ratio I ′/I ′CR and taken the coefficient 0.2404 kW/km. If it is augmented to 360 h of dew per year
kC for each active conductor. the corona losses will be 0.2450 kW/km, a 1.91% bigger.

10. In [3] it is stated that the critical or disruptive voltage of

the corona effect is reduced by 20% when it rains, so that
corona losses increase. Relatively long transmission lines
are the ones with the highest corona losses. So that the
calculated losses in a year are not much higher than the
real losses, it is assumed that it does not rain over the
entire length of the line. Lizt and Pochop, in [3], propose
to assume that it rains on one third of the line while the
remaining two thirds are under good weather conditions,
but this relationship can be modified in the algorithm. To
calculate the maximum annual corona losses, in kilo Watt,
it is assumed that, when it rains, the critical or disruptive
corona voltage is reduced by 20% and it can be chosen the
percentage of the line in which it is raining.
11. Another option of the algorithm is that it is possible to
choose the number of hours per year that the bottom
surface of the conductors of the line is assumed to have
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
To show the data input and algorithm results, a 220 kV double
circuit transmission line with two phase conductors is used as
an example. The two conductors per phase of steel reinforced
aluminium with 400 mm2 , and steel shield wires with 70 mm2
and 24 km length (see Figure 1).
The algorithm allows creating a new project to calculate the
corona losses, read or modify a file already created, and it is also
possible to create a data file for the line structure. The algorithm
works with a series of stored structures, the corresponding
configuration of the selected line (see Figure 2).
Once the structure is selected, the database of stored conduc-
tors and shield wire is accessed. Two 400 mm2 steel-reinforced
aluminium conductors per phase and two 70 mm2 steel shield
wires were selected, whose data are shown in Table 1.
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728 LLAMO-LABORÍ AND SANTOS-FUENTEFRIA

TABLE 1 Data of phase conductors and protective cables of the

transmission line under study

Resistance in Geometric Mean

ohm per Diameter in Radius in
Conductor kilometre. millimetres millimetres.

Phase 0.08 27.5 11.110

Shield wire 2.00 11.0 0.00015

TABLE 2 Additional data required for calculating corona losses FIGURE 3 Sectional section of the phase conductors of the transmission
line
Parameter Value

Type of curve described Parabole

TABLE 3 Capacitive currents per active conductor of the line under good
Average or nominal operating voltage of the line (kV of 245
weather conditions
L-L)
Height of the line trace in reference to the sea level (m) 0 Critical
Current capacitive
Average ambient temperature (Degrees Celsius) 26 Conductor Module current
Power system frequency (Hz) 60 number Abscissa (m) Ordered (m) (A RMS/km) (A RMS/km)
Reduction of critical corona voltage due to rainfall (%) 20 1 –5.9 25.27 0.305 0.5
Length of the line (km) 24 7 –5.5 25.27 0.303 0.5
Spacing between the bundle conductors (m) 0.4 2 –5.9 19.27 0.344 0.5
Factor to take into account conductor irregularities (From 0.83 8 –5.5 19.27 0.343 0.5
0.85 to 0.98)
3 –5.9 13.27 0.316 0.5
Factor to take into account conductor strands (From 0.74 0.74
9 –5.5 13.27 0.313 0.5
to 0.77)
4 5.5 25.27 0.303 0.5
10 5.9 25.27 0.305 0.5
5 5.5 19.27 0.343 0.5
The program performs an additional check to knowing if
there are no errors in the data of the conductors and shield 11 5.9 19.27 0.344 0.5
wires, and if there is no error, and additional data is added, for 6 5.5 13.27 0.313 0.5
example, these data are shown in Table 2. 12 5.9 13.27 0.316 0.5
The algorithm allows to change all these parameters, to
know what happens, for example, if the spacing between the
conductors is increased and compare the results.
The sag is chosen according to the weight of the conductors (see Figure 3). Table 3 shows the capacitive currents per active
and the length of the average span considered. When the ele- conductor.
ments of the admittance matrix that is initially formed by means In Figure 3, to facilitate the calculations and analysis, the main
of the potential coefficients due to Maxwell are calculated, then conductors are numbered from 1 to 6, while the sub conduc-
the average heights of the conductors that form the line from tors are numbered from 7 to 12. It can be seen that, although
its sags are calculated. the capacitive currents per active conductor are unequal to each
Once all the data has been entered, the program calculates the other, there is certain symmetry given by the configuration of
maximum operating voltage of the line which, in this example, the tower in reference to its Y axis. In the Table 3, can be seen
was 205.63 kV line to line. The critical or disruptive voltage per that the maximum difference, 13.53%, is between the capacitive
corona is 45.37% higher than the maximum operating voltage, currents of active conductors 2 and 11, with 0.344 A/km and 7
which is also much higher than the 12% recommended in [3]. and 4, with 0.303 A/km. All the values are beyond the critical
Once all the data has been entered, the program calculates the value (0.5 A RMS/km).
maximum operating voltage of the line which, in this example, Table 4 shows the abscissa and ordinates of the twelve active
was 205.63 kV line to line. The critical or disruptive voltage per conductors of the line, allowing to see in which active conductor
corona is 45.37% higher than the maximum operating voltage, the maximum and minimum electric field surface appear.
which is also much higher than the 12% recommended in [3]. Table 4 show the surface gradient of the critical electric field,
This result is due to the fact that the line has two conductors which does not depend on the location of the conductor in
per phase with a relatively high calibre. space, so that it can be known whether the calculated ones are
It shows the sectional section of the phase conductors of the greater or less. In this line, the calculate gradients are much
line under study, with mirror symmetry, in order to know how smaller compare with the critical value (24.832 kV RMS/cm),
the capacitive currents are distributed, in ampere per kilometre due to the use of multiple conductors.
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LLAMO-LABORÍ AND SANTOS-FUENTEFRIA 729

TABLE 4 Surface electric field gradient per active conductor of the line TABLE 5 Capacitive currents per active conductor of the line when it
rains
Critical surface
Surface electric Surface electric electric field Critical
Conductor field gradient field gradient gradient Current capacitive
number (kV Peak/cm) (kV RMS/cm) (kV RMS/cm) Conductor Module current
number Abscissa (m) Ordered (m) (A RMS/km) (A RMS/km)
1 14.979 10.592 24.832
1 –5.9 25.27 0.305 0.4
7 14.902 10.537 24.832
2 16.892 11.945 24.832 7 –5.5 25.27 0.303 0.4
2 –5.9 19.27 0.344 0.4
8 16.834 11.904 24.832
8 –5.5 19.27 0.343 0.4
3 15.495 10.957 24.832
3 –5.9 13.27 0.316 0.4
9 15.391 10.883 24.832
4 14.902 10.537 24.832 9 –5.5 13.27 0.313 0.4
4 5.5 25.27 0.303 0.4
10 14.979 10.592 24.832
10 5.9 25.27 0.305 0.4
5 16.834 11.904 24.832
5 5.5 19.27 0.343 0.4
11 16.892 11.945 24.832
6 15.391 10.833 24.832 11 5.9 19.27 0.344 0.4
6 5.5 13.27 0.313 0.4
12 15.495 10.957 24.832
12 5.9 13.27 0.316 0.4

TABLE 6 Surface gradient of the electric field per active conductor of the
line when it rains

Critical surface
Surface electric Surface electric electric field
Conductor field gradient field gradient gradient
number (kV Peak/cm) (kV RMS/cm) (kV RMS/cm)

1 14.979 10.592 19.754

7 14.902 10.537 19.754
2 16.892 11.945 19.754
FIGURE 4 Sectional section of the phase conductors of the transmission
8 16.834 11.904 19.754
line
3 15.495 10.957 19.754
9 15.391 10.883 19.754
The corona losses are distributed in each active conductor
4 14.902 10.537 19.754
and their average per bundle with good weather conditions is
10 14.979 10.592 19.754
different (see Figure 4.). For the tower structure, with mirror
symmetry (ABC-ABC), the main conductors (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 5 16.834 11.904 19.754
6) have different corona losses among them; the losses have a 11 16.892 11.945 19.754
certain symmetry per circuit and the central phase has the high- 6 15.391 10.833 19.754
est losses, 52.88% higher than those of the phase at the highest 12 15.495 10.957 19.754
elevation and 38.26% higher than the one at the lowest eleva-
tion. Finally, the total losses of the line under good weather
conditions are 6.047 kW.
Tables 5 and 6 show, respectively, the surface gradients of by the conductors is such that no water droplets are formed
the electric field and the critical capacitive current, both with on the conductors due to dew. In this case, the average corona
rainfall. Note that both the critical electric field and the critical losses over the year are 6177 kW.
capacitive current decrease the specified 20%. An important aspect of the algorithm is that it allows the cal-
The corona losses in each active conductor and the average culation of corona losses taking into account the line unbalance.
ones per bundle when it rains maintain the same distribution, Table 7 shows the annual average corona losses for different
only the values change, which are higher per phase and total, phase arrangements of circuit II in reference to circuit I. For
42.78% and 50.28% respectively. the calculation without taking into account the unbalance, the
The algorithm allows calculating the average corona losses in Peterson formula was used, assuming a symmetrical line.
a year. It was assumed that it will rain on one third of the line, All results are close to those of the symmetrically trans-
that is, on 8 km, while on the other 16 km, there will be good posed line with a maximum difference of 10.01% below and
weather conditions. It is assumed that the temperature reached a minimum of 2.75% above.

730
TABLE 7 Influence of the unbalance of the double circuit line with two
conductors per phase at 220 kV, on the value of corona losses
Arrangement of
the phases of
circuit II with Corona effect
respect to circuit losses in kilo Differences in
I, Unbalance. Watt. percentage.
0.000% 6.720 ——
ABC-ABC 12.435% 6.047 –10.01
ABC-ACB 8.482 6.431 –4.30
ABC-CBA 5.452 6.975 3.79
ABC-CAB 1.955 6.905 2.75
The largest difference with the symmetrically transposed
line (10.01%) occurred for the mirror symmetry, ABC ABC,
which gave the largest imbalance to the negative sequence
with 12.431%. It can be stated that the value of the losses
due to corona effect, when the symmetrical line is assumed, is
conservative.
The variation trend is not uniform, because a double circuit
line, with two conductors per phase, has a matrix of potential
coefficients of order twelve by twelve in which there are one
hundred and thirty-two mutual elements (132) that change their
value in each case.
Corroborating the non-uniformity of the variation trend,
Table 1 shows that the phase arrangement giving the lowest
unbalance u, which gives an unbalance to the negative sequence,
1.955%, gives corona losses 2.75% higher than those of the
assumed symmetrical line with zero unbalance.
The advantage of this result is that it is possible to know the
value of the average corona losses per phase and per circuit, the
line balance and the best direction of the changes that should
be made, for example, in the configuration of the conductor
bundles to reduce the value of the losses or the asymmetry of
the line.
The differences in corona losses calculated with the algo-
rithm keep the same units, 6 kW, as the Peterson formula that
disregards the unbalance of the lines.
In the double circuit line, with more than one conductor
per phase, the tendency of variation of corona losses is not to
decrease when the unbalance decreases, but there is an arrange-
ment of the phases of circuit II in reference to circuit I, that
gives higher losses than with zero unbalance.
4 CONCLUSION
With the developed algorithm it is possible to calculating the
transmission lines’ corona losses. This calculation can made for
each of their active conductors, considering their real unbalance
with any configuration, with single or bundled conductors and
up to four circuits. It is possible to analyse the line unbalance
imposed by the type of tower, the number and disposition of
conductors in each bundle, the sag and the type of conduc-
tors installed in the phases and the shield wires. It is capable
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LLAMO-LABORÍ AND SANTOS-FUENTEFRIA
to now the effect of rain, the dew, the height of the line trace
above sea level, its operating voltage, the frequency, the annual
average ambient temperature and the roughness of the sur-
face of the conductors. It was shown that the formulas used
to calculate corona losses give results generally higher than the
real ones because they assume that the line has a symmetrical
transposition of its conductors.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank the Technological University of
Havana Jose Antonio Echeverría (CUJAE), the Unión Electrica
(UNE) for funding the project. Also, the authors wish to thank
the professor Juan Almirall Mesa for its important criteria as
specialist and María Magdalena La Serna Gómez for helping us
with the English language revision of the final version of the
article.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest that
could be perceived as prejudicing the impartiality of the research
reported.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The data presented in this study are available on request from
the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available
due to privacy and sensitive nature of the data.
ORCID
Héctor Silvio Llamo-Laborí https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4675-
8189
Ariel Santos-Fuentefria https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9131-
5539
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How to cite this article: Llamo-Laborí, H.S.,
Santos-Fuentefria, A.: A new method to calculate
corona losses for active conductors considering real
transmission line unbalance. J. Eng. 2022, 725–731
(2022). https://doi.org/10.1049/tje2.12155