CHAPTER 10

Instrumentation/Data Gathering Tools and Techniques

in Quantitative and Qualitative Methods

Data gathering is an essential process in research as it is through the gathered data that the
problems identified in the study are answered. Therefore, appropriate tools and techniques have
to be used in gathering the information needed, to come up with valid and reliable information.

Objectives:

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to:

• Discuss the different tools and techniques used in data gathering.

• Choose correctly and wisely the types of data gathering tools to use in one’s research.
• Write samples of questionnare items for his/her research.

Approaches to Data Gathering

In research, the required information could be taken from either primary or secondary sources,
or both. The information from primary sources are called primary data, while those coming from
secondary sources are referred to as secondary data.

Primary Data

Primary data can be gathered through observation, interview process or questionnaire.

1. Observation

As Kumar (2011) defines it, observation is a "purposeful, systematic and selective way of
watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes place." In many situations,
observation is a very appropriate method of data collection, especially when respondents are not
cooperative or are unaware of the answer as they could not detach themselves from the
interaction. In short, when the researcher is more interested in the behavior than in the
perceptions of individuals; observation is the best approach to collect the required information.

There are two types of observation:

1. Participant Observation — when the researcher participates in the activities of the

group being observed in the same manner as its members whether they know that they
are being observed or not.

2. Non-participant Observation — this is the kind of observation wherein the researcher

does not get involved in the activities of the group but remains a passive observer,
watching and listening to the group's activities and drawing conclusions from these.
2. The Interview

This refers to any person-to-person interaction, either face-to-face or otherwise,

between two or more individuals with a specific purpose in mind (Kumar, 2011). When
interviewing a respondent, the researcher has the freedom to decide the format and content of
questions to be asked from the respondents.

Two different categories of interview:

1. Unstructured Interview. This is dominantly used in qualitative research. Under this

category the researcher has complete freedom to use the words, content, and structure
of the interview, and the order or sequence of questions according to the context of the
study.

2. Structured Interview. In this category, the researcher ask a predetermined set of

questions as specified in the interview a person-to-person interaction which may be
done face-to-face, or by other electronic media. The main advantage of the structured
interview is it provides uniform information which assures the comparability of data.

3. The Questionnaire

This is a written list of questions intended to provide answers to the problems of the study. Most
surveys are based on questionnaires. The respondents read and interpret what are expected in
the questions then write down the answers. It is important that questions in the questionnaire are
clear and easy to understand. It has to undergo content and construct validation before it is
administered to respondents. Likewise, the layout of the questionnaire should be such that it is
easy to read and pleasant to the eye. Also, a good questionnaire is one which is developed in an
interactive style. According to Flick (2011), questionnaire studies aim at receiving comparable
answers from all participants. Therefore, the questions, as well as the interview situation, are
designed in an identical way for all participants.

Choosing between an Interview and a Questionnaire

The following criteria may be observed in the choice between using the interview or the
questionnaire:

1. The nature of the investigation. Since questionnaire ensures anonymity, it is preferred for
studies that involve issues which respondents may feel reluctant to discuss with an
investigator; such as drug use, sexuality, criminal activities, personal finances, etc. However,
depending on the type of study population and the skills of the interviewer, there are situations
wherein better information about sensitive issues can be obtained by interviewing
respondents. Hence, in this situation, both questionnaire and interview may be utilized.

2. The geographical distribution of the study population. In cases wherein the potential
respondents are scattered over a wide geographical area, using the questionnaire is a better
choice since interviewing would entail high costs.

3. The type of study population. For study populations that are illiterate, very young, very old, or
handicapped, the interview or observation is the best option.
 Advantages of the Questionnaire

• It is less expensive.
• It offers greater anonymity since there is no face-to-face interaction between the
researcher and the respondent.

Advantages of the Interview

• It is more appropriate for complex situations as the interviewer has the opportunity to
prepare a respondent before asking sensitive questions and to explain complex ones to
respondents in person.
• It is useful for collecting in-depth information by probing.
• It can supplement information obtained from responses gathered through observation of
non-verbal reactions.
• The interviewer can explain the questions or put them in a form that is understood by the
respondent.
• Interviewing has a wider application since it can be used with almost any type of
population: children, the handicapped, illiterate, or very old.

Guidelines in Constructing a Research Instrument

To ensure the validity of the instrument, make sure that the questions relate to the objectives of
the study.

• Clearly define and individually list all the specific objectives, research questions or
hypothesis, if any, to be tested.
• List all the relevant questions or hypothesis that need to be answered through your study.
• For each question identified in Step 2, list the information required to answer it.
• Construct the questions that you want to ask of your respondents to obtain the required
information.
• Use simple language tb be easily understood.
• Do not use ambiguous questions, or those that contain more than one meaning and which
can be interpreted differently by different respondents.

Validation of the Research Instrument

In order to establish the content validity and reliability of a non-standardized questionnaire,

certain procedures and techniques need to be carried out.

• Consultation with experts is one, in order to ensure that theoretical constructs directly
related to the major concepts of the study are fully established. Comments and
suggestions from the experts are closely observed and considered in improving the
questionnaire and making it a valid tool for data collection.

• Pre-testing of the revised questionnaire to thirty (30) individuals who resemble the
characteristics of the intended respondents of the study but who will not be the actual
respondents. The Purposes of this trial run are to determine the language suitability and
 comprehensibility of the items, ease in following directions from the point of view of the
respondents, the average length of time required to finish answering the as well as to
determine other problems relevant to the activity. These purposes be explained to the "try-
out" respondents before they are given the questionnaire. They will also be instructed to
underline words and/or encircle the item numbers which are not clear to them, and finally,
to write their suggestions, -if any.

4. Item-analysis is done after the pre-testing. The accomplished questionnaires are scored and
subjected to a test of reliability. Reliability is one very important criterion against which the
merits of a research instrument is judged. It refers to the degree of consistency and precision
or accuracy that a measuring instrument demonstrates. According to Coakes (2013) the test
for reliability has several different models, but the one most commonly used is the Cronbach's
Alpha, a test for internal consistency, which is based on the average correlation of items within
a test. Since Cronbach's Alpha can be interpreted as a correlation coefficient, it ranges in
value from 0 to 1. Alpha values ranging from 0.70 or higher are considered acceptable; hence
those items in the questionnaire with acceptable alpha values may be retained. Those items
that do not meet acceptable standards have to be revised to fit into the context of the study
before the questionnaire is administered in it’s final form.

Secondary Data

Data from Secondary Sources through Document Analysis

• Demographic information; census, surveys on labor force, health reports and economic
forecasts are examples of data found in government or semi-government publications
• Historical and personal records and diaries could also provide some needed information.
• Preview of researches done by others could also provide some required information.
• Published reports in newspaper, magazines Or in the internet could also be sources of
secondary data.
LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.

Name: _____________________________________ Date: ___________________

A. In the given sample researches below, explore the various ways or techniques that you
could use in order to come up with valid and reliable data.

1. "The Quality of Services Provided by the School to its Clientele"

1.1 Write five appropriate questionnaire items and three interview questions.

2. "The Story of My Life"

2.1 What types of information will you gather in order to explain the various aspects of the
subject's life?
B. Read the given statements or instructions and do what is asked for.

1. Research Problem: "The effects of "Kumon prograrn on the elementary pupils". What
kind of data would be needed to answer the problem? Develop a questionnaire or interview
guide for this purpose.

2. You are assigned to conduct a research about the health status of grade one pupils under
the government’s “conditional cash transfer program”. How will you gather data for this?
Construct the appropriate questionnare and/or interview guide based on the given guidelines.
ASSESS

Read the questions or instructions and do what is asked for.

1. When is observation appropriate to use as a data-gathering technique?

2. Which type of interview would you use in your research: structured or unstructured? Justify
your answer.

3. Cite and explain atleast two advantages of the questionnaire as a data gathering tool.

4. How is the content validity of the questionnaire established?

5. Discuss the procedures used in establishing the reliability of the questionnaire.

References:
Books:
Almeida, A. B., Gaerlan A.A., Manly, N. E. 2016. Research Fundamentals from Concept to
Output, Adriana Publishing Company, INC.
Altiney, L., Paraskevas, A. 2008. Planning Research in Tourism and Hospitality Elsevier Ltd.
Leavy P. 2017. Research Design: Quantitative, Qualitative, Mixed Methods, Arts-Based,
Community-Based, Participatory Research Approaches, Guildford Publications
INC
Veal, A.J. 2018. Research Method for Leisure and Tourism, Pearson Education Limited

Website
https://www.slideshare.net/jobitonio/introduction-to-research-37589838?from_action=save
https://libguides.library.cityu.edu.hk/researchmethods/ethics
https://www.apa.org/monitor/jan03/principles