2022 - Top 100 Sociology Current Affairs (Part 1)

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2022 Mains: Top 100 Sociology Current Affairs
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Top 100
Sociology
Current Affairs
for
Mains 2022
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Part - I (1-50)
Part 2 will be released later on our Telegram channel
https://t.me/sociologyAndSocialIssues
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| 1.Manual Scavenging |
Link to the article is given below
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article
Syllabus Paper 1
Topic Stratification and Mobility: Dimensions – Social stratification of status groups
Paper 2
Caste System: Untouchability - forms and perspectives
Challenges of social transformation: Caste-conflicts
Related ● Manual scavenging is the removal of excreta (night soil) manually from "dry
Theory toilets", i.e., the toilets without a modern flush system.
● It is a hereditary, caste-based occupation that predominantly involves forced
labour.
● More than an occupation, it has been a custom or practice that has
continued uninterrupted despite all the available technology and
alternatives.
● Qualitative Sociology research method employed: Interview

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● Women engaged as manual scavengers face pressure from the community

and family to continue this practice because their households have few other
options for livelihoods.
● Manual Scavenging is also a form of Social Exclusion
PYQ 1. Has the caste system hindered democracy and adult franchise in India? Discuss.
(2018/20 marks).
2. What, according to you, are the two fundamental axes of social discrimination in
Indian society? Are they changing? (2017/20 marks).
3. What are the changes in the cultural and structural aspects of the caste system
since independence? (2017/10 marks).
4. Which is more significant, the principle of ‘hierarchy’ or the principle of
‘Difference’, in the inter caste relations in the present day? (2017/10 marks).
| 2. Minorities|

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Syllabus Paper 1
Topic Stratification and Mobility: Dimensions – Social stratification of status groups
Paper 2
Caste System: Untouchability - forms and perspectives
Religion and Society: Problems of religious minorities
Related
Theory
NEW FORMS OF DISCRIMINATIION AGAINST MINORITIES
Issues associated with untouchability laws

Mere provisions to protect rights have been insufficient to prevent marginalization
due to the untouchability practice.
Problems faced by Minorities in India:

Jagnath Pathy (1988) has also listed out the defining properties of minority
group. In his opinion, the minorities are:
● subordinate in someway to the majority,
● distinguishable from the majority on the basis of physical or cultural
● features,
● collectively being regarded and treated as different and inferior on the
● basis of these features, and
● excluded from the full participation in the life of the society.
Other problems faced:

1. Problem of prejudice and discrimination
2. Problem of preserving distant social and cultural life

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3. Problem of providing protection

4. Problem of communal tension and riots
5. Problem of lack of representation in civil and politics
6. Problem of separation
7. Failure to stick on strictly to secularism
Sachar Committee Report of 2006 has highlighted that Muslims in India

suffer from three fold problems – problem of identity, security and
equity.
PYQ 1. How do you understand the ‘minority’ question? Examine the violence and
discrimination against the religious minorities in India( 2019/ 20 marks).
2. Write a critical narrative on the concerns of religious minorities in India
(2018/10 marks).
3. Elucidate the concepts of majoritarianism and minoritarianism in
accentuating communal tensions in India (2016/20 marks).
4. Discuss the problems of religious minorities in India. (2014 /20 marks).
| 3.Women and Population Policy|

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article
Syllabus Paper 2
Topic Population Dynamics: Population Policy and family planning
Related National Population Policy 2000

Theory It enumerates certain socio-demographic goods to be achieved by 2010 which
will lead to achieving population stabilization by 2045. The policy has identified
the immediate objectives as meeting the unmet needs for contraception, health
care infrastructure and trained health personnel and to provide integrated
service delivery with the following interventions:
i. Strengthen community health centres, primary health centres and
sub-centres.
ii. Augment skills of health personnel and health care providers.
iii. Bring about convergence in the implementation of related social sector
programmes to make Family Welfare Programme people centered.
iv. Integrate package of essential services at village and household levels by
extending basic reproductive and child health care through mobile health clinics
and counseling services; and explore the possibility of accrediting private
medical practitioners and assigning them to defined beneficiary groups to
provide these services
According to J.J. Spengler, national population policy covers all such

population problems which influence either quality or distribution of
population. Population policy can be both explicit as well as implicit.
Women-Specific Findings of NFHS 5: The Positive Side

1. TFR Below Replacement Level: India’s population growth appears to be
stabilizing.
2. The Total Fertility Rate (TFR), which is the average number of children
born per woman, has declined from 2.2 to 2.0 at the national level.A total
of 31 States and Union Territories (constituting 69.7% of the country’s
population) have achieved fertility rates below the replacement level of
2.1.
3. Better Family Planning: The main reasons for decline in fertility is an
increase in adoption of modern family planning methods (from 47.8% in
2015-16 to 56.5% in 2019-21) and a reduction in unmet need for family
planning by 4% points over the same period.
4. Improvements in Female Literacy: Significant improvements in female
literacy have been witnessed with 41% women having received 10 or
more years of schooling (compared to 36% in 2015-16). Girls who study
longer have fewer children, and are also more likely to delay marriage
and find employment.
5. Improved Maternal Health Delivery: Maternal health services are
steadily improving.

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6. Antenatal care in the first trimester has increased by 11.4% points (from
2015-16 to 2019-21) to reach 70%.
7. Better Menstrual Health and Bodily Autonomy: Evidence indicates
significant progress where women have the right to bodily autonomy and
integrity and the ability to take decisions about their lives.
8. Technology and Banking Related Progress: The proportion of women
who have their own bank accounts has gone up by 25.6% points over the
same time period to reach 78.6%.
9. Around 54% of women have their own mobile phones and about one in
three women have used the Internet.
PYQ 1. Discuss the salient features of the population policy of Government of India.
What modifications would you suggest to make it more effective? (2006)
2. Comment on the influence of social and cultural factors on family planning in
India. (2009)
| 4.LGBTQ+ Issues A Sociological Dimension |

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Syllabus Topic Paper 1

Stratification and Mobility: Concepts - equality, inequality, hierarchy,
exclusion, poverty and deprivation.
Dimensions - social stratification of gender
Paper 2
Social Change in Modern Society: Agents of social change.
Related Theory Let’s know different terms associated with sexuality:

A person’s sexual orientation is their physical, mental, emotional, and sexual
attraction to a particular sex (male or female).
Sexual orientation is typically divided into several categories:
● Heterosexuality, the attraction to individuals of the other sex;
● Homosexuality, the attraction to individuals of the same sex;
● Bisexuality, the attraction to individuals of either sex;
● Asexuality, a lack of sexual attraction or desire for sexual contact;
● Pansexual, an attraction to people regardless of gender, gender
identity, or gender expression; and
● Queer, an umbrella term used to describe sexual orientation, gender
identity or gender expression.
Heterosexuals and homosexuals may also be referred to informally as
“straight” and “gay,” respectively.
Issues faced by the transgender community in India :-

As per the Census of 2011, Transgender population in India is 4.9 lakh. The
highest proportion (about 28%), has been identified in Uttar Pradesh
followed by Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and West
Bengal.
The transgender community in India faces a myriad of issues like-
1. Social exclusion due to factors such as-

● Discrimination by their own family members and society
leading to barriers in accessing public spaces and shelter.
● Lack of access to educational opportunities: as Indian schools
remain unequipped to handle children with alternative sexual
identities.
● Lack of employment opportunities due to hiring biases,
on-the-job discrimination, wage inequalities and thus they are
forced into professions like prostitution and begging for
livelihood.
2. Barriers in accessing health care services, because of the lack

of treatment awareness, and incidences of disrespect, harassment
and violence. The community is highly vulnerable to sexually
transmitted diseases like HIV AIDS and Mental health. Legal hurdles
in possessing identity documents.
3. Discrimination in the legal and policy discourse: They face

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discrimination in family and civil laws. For example, The Hindu

Marriage Act, 1955 and Hindu Succession Act, 1956 specifically
mentions sons and daughters but there is no mention of inheritance
rights for transgenders. Also, officials in governance regime have low
understanding about the distinction between gender identity and sex
characteristics and there was a need of a body to work and engage
with the system.
4. Prone to multiple forms of violence: including child abuse,

sexual violence, hate crimes etc.
MUST READ :-https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5044929/
PYQ 1. What do you understand by LGBTQ? Comment on the issues

concerning their marriage rights? (2019/10 Marks).
2. Discuss the issues relating to the entitlement of transgender in Indian
society. (2018/10 Marks).
3. Using Mead's theory of symbolic interactionism, discuss the stages in
the formation of gender identity. (2014/10 Marks)
|5.Glass Cliff- New Dimension of Women

Oppression |
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Systems of Kinship:Patriarchy
Paper 2
Systems of Kinship in India:Patriarchy
Related Theory
● Glass cliff mainly refers to the obstacles faced by women,

the term also applies to the challenges faced by minorities
and other marginalized groups when promoted to
leadership roles.
● The phenomenon occurs in many different fields, including finance,
politics, technology, and academia.
● When a company is performing poorly, it is associated with bad
press, financial difficulties, and the need to restructure. During such
periods, the company protects its male employees and promotes
female employees to leadership positions.
● By promoting women, the company seems progressive but also sets
them up for failure. Further, when the company fails to succeed,
women can be replaced with their male counterparts, with the
company also having a scapegoat to blame for their failures.
PYQ 1. Define patriarchy. How does patriarchy manifest in interpersonal

relations? (2018/20 Marks).

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2. What are the possible underlying causes of the spurt of increased

violence against women in public spaces in the last decade? (2014/20
Marks ).
Toppers’ Answer Copy

● Meghana Kavali (Rank 83) was a part of our Sociology Answer Writing Program.
● Catherine Saranya (Rank 157) was a part of our Sociology Answer Writing Program.
Click here for their answer copies
| 6.Sex Work -Sociological Dimension |
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article
Syllabus Paper 1
Topic Systems of kinship: Patriarchy

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Paper 2
Challenges of Social Transformation: Violence against women
Related Sociological theories on Prostitution

Theory The functionalists believe there are two main reasons why a person would
become a prostitute. The first reason deals with sexual morality. To break it down
further the argument is that our sexual morality system, while condemning
prostitution, actually and inadvertently encourages it. We live in a society that
encourages the belief that sex with a spouse is “meaningful” while sex with a
prostitute is “meaningless.”
Feminist also argue that society teaches boys to dominate girls and are expected to
continue this behavior into adulthood. On the other hand society teaches girls to be
submissive to boys, and to remain that way into adulthood. To prove this the
feminist point out that prostitution is more prevalent in societies in which there is a
greater presence of gender inequality. The basic idea is that prostitution and male
patriarchy support each other. This is because prostitution supports and encourages
the idea that all women can be bought or are less valuable then men.
Social Psychological Theory: This theory argues that there are three main
reasons why some women become a prostitute. First are predisposing factors such
as parental neglect, child abuse, or some other traumatic event. Attracting factors
such as the belief that a women can have an easy life or make allot of easy money as
a prostitute. And precipitating factors, such as unemployment, peer pressure, or
other outside influences. While predisposing factors may cause a women to consider
becoming a prostitute, it is unlikely she will actually become one without some of
the other listed factors.
PYQ 1. Define patriarchy. How does patriarchy manifest in interpersonal relations?

(2018/20 Marks)
2. What are the possible underlying causes of the spurt of increased violence
against women in public spaces in the last decade? (2014/20 Marks )
| 7. Fertility Decline |

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Syllabus Paper 2
Topic Population Policy and family planning.
Emerging issues: sex ratios, reproductive health
Related
Theory Fertility:
Most family-planning programmes and fertility-control policies have traditionally
failed to take adequate cognisance of the complex forces influencing the demand for
children.
Diffusionist approach:
According to the diffusionist perspective, traditional culture is a barrier to behavior
change, with a great deal of research efforts at identifying cultural barriers to
contraceptive use. A similar emphasis on culture as a barrier is evident in the
literature on maternal health. Lack of education and the perpetuation of ‘false
beliefs’ reinforced by traditional birth attendants are cited as major obstacles to
improved maternal health.
Gender and vulnerability:

Reproductive health is not only culturally-specific, but also gender-specific.
Decisions relating to sexuality, fertility, reproduction, and health may be
determined by a range of gender-specific factors, such as relations of power and
control within marriage, households, and kin groups; the economic and symbolic
value of fertility; women's position regarding paid work and access to childcare
resources.

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PYQ 1. What are the emerging concerns on women’s reproductive health? (2017/10
marks).
2. Write a short note on Reproductive Health. (2008/20 marks).
3. Write a short note on Fertility and population growth. (2009/20 marks) .
4. Write short note on Socio-cultural factors related to declining proportion of
females in sex ratio. (2000/20 marks).
| 8. Unorganised sector |
Link Click Here
Syllabus Paper 1
Topic Work and Economic Life: Formal and informal organization of work.
Paper 2
Industrialization and Urbanisation in India:Working class: structure,

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growth, class mobilization.
Related The informal sector is now seen as the next engine of growth for India’s economy. A
Theory majority of women in India are informal workers.
Following points can be used sociologically related informal sector

● Challenges faced by informal sector; lack of social security
● Class divide - Marx
● Alienation - Durkheim
● Dysfunctions of Modernization
PYQ 1. Discuss the changing nature of the problems of the working class in the informal
sector of the economy. (2016/20 marks)
2. Issues relating to the informal labour market in urban India. (2015/10 marks)
|9.Food Habits Discrimination against women

|

article
Syllabus Paper 1
Topic Stratification and Mobility :
Concepts - equality, inequality, hierarchy, exclusion.

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Dimensions - Social stratification of gender.
Systems of Kinship:
Patriarchy and sexual division of labour.
Paper 2
Systems of Kinship in India:
Patriarchy, entitlements and sexual division oflabour.
Related
Theory
Patriarchy is defined by Sylvia Walby in her ‘Theorising Patriarchy, 1990’ as ‘a

system of social structures and practices in which men dominate and oppress
women’. According to her, patriarchy operates through multiple
structures like – production relations in the household where women is
subjected to unpaid labor, discriminatory allocation of occupations in
labor market, capture of political power by patriarchs, male violence
which is often patterned and systematic, patriarchal relations in
sexuality which are manifested in sexual double standards for males and females,
patriarchal cultural institutions like education, media and so on. Walby
distinguishes patriarchy as private patriarchy which is practised in household
and public patriarchy which is the collective response of a patriarchal society to
women.

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Patriarchy is reflected within family as well in wider society and is reflected at

manifest as well as latent level. Within family, authority structure, inheritance
rights and other entitlements, rituals, division of labour reflect it. In society, gender
discrimination, division of labor – some jobs are stereotyped as women’s job
(Pink-collar work) and others as men’s jobs, physical and sexual violence against
woman etc reflect it.
Uma Chakravarti on patriarchy

Uma Chakravarti argues that the establishment of private property and the
need to have caste purity required subordination of women and strict control over
their mobility and sexuality. Female sexuality was channelled into legitimate
motherhood within a controlled structure of reproduction to ensure patrilineal
succession. Her analysis of Brahminical patriarchal relations is especially
noteworthy.
PYQ 1. Define patriarchy. How does patriarchy manifest in interpersonal relations?

(2018 / 20 marks).
2. Examine 'patriarchal bargain' as gendered division of work in contemporary
India (2017/ 10marks).
3. To what extent is patriarchy a case for the problems of women? Discuss.
(2016/ 10 marks).
4. Is male authority absent in matrilineal society? Discuss 2015 /10 marks).
| 10. Indian Secularism|

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Link to the article Click Here

Religion and Society:Secularization
Related Theory The process of secularization has following ideas:
Participation in institutional religion – Extent of religion in our life is

measured by the relative importance that we give to religious institutions
which is reflected in attendance in Churches, temples, mosques etc and role
of these institutions in performing various events in our life like
solemnization of marriage, funeral rites etc.
Disengagement of institutional religion from everyday life –

Disengagement of religious institutions from important events of life is also
seen as a proof of secularization of society. Describing the process of
secularization, Bryan Wilson writes that in the secularization process ‘the
various social institutions gradually become distinct from one another and
increasingly free of the matrix of religious assumptions that had earlier
informed, inspired and dominated their operation’.
Increasing religious pluralism as a symbol of secularization –

Some argue that a truly religious society is monotheistic. Competition
among various religious groups has reduced the power of religion. Religious
loyalties become a matter of convenience for people. Existence of multiple
faiths also runs against the belief that religion is the binding force of society
as a single faith is a precondition for social integration.
Secularization of religious institutions themselves – It is also

argued that religious institutions themselves are adapting themselves to
changed conditions. They have recognized that older values like – belief in
the supernatural, other world, the savior etc – no longer sound plausible to
believers.
Growing individualism – This view argues that religion is no longer an

act of collective worship and individuals today work out their own path of
salvation. But Robert Bellah, in his ‘New Religious Consciousness and the
Crisis in Modernity, 1976’ argues that it doesn’t show that the importance of
religion has declined, rather its form of expression has changed.
PYQ 1. Problematize the concept of secularism in the present context

.(2017/10 marks))

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2. Define Secularisation. What are its major dimensions in the modern

world?(2015/ 20marks)
3. Discuss the challenges thrown by religious revivalism to a secular
nation state.(2018 /10 marks)
4. Examine the impact of secularization on various religious
communities in India. (2012 / 30marks)
| 11.Pandemic and Work|

Work and Economic Life: Formal and informal organization of work.
Paper 2
Industrialization and Urbanization in India:Working class:
structure, growth, class mobilization.
Related Theory ● More Women Unemployed:Women were more affected than

men by employment issues. Issues of Food Insecurity:Loss in
incomes for women as well as their households led to reduction in
food supply and women were affected more than other members of
the family.

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● Issues of Reproductive Health:Women’s health indicators also

deteriorated because they could no longer afford contraception and
menstrual products.
About 16% of women (an estimated 17 million if extrapolated) had
to stop using menstrual pads, and more than one in three married
women were unable to access contraceptives.
● Unpaid Labour:Indian women already do almost three times
more unpaid work than Indian men, and the survey showed a 47%
increase in unpaid labour for women, and a 41% increase in unpaid
care work for women.
● Marginalised Groups:Women from historically marginalised
groups (Muslims, migrants, single/separated/divorced), were more
affected than the average woman. The variance is across the board,
with more single, separated/divorced women having limited food or
running out of food and many more Muslim women losing their
income and livelihood.
PYQ 1. Discuss the changing nature of the problems of the working class in the
informal sector of the economy. (2016/20 marks)
2. Issues relating to the informal labour market in urban India. (2015/10
marks)
| 12.Female Workforce|

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Stratification and Mobility: Social stratification of gender
Work and Economic Life: Formal and informal organization of work
Paper 2
Systems of Kinship in India: Patriarchy, entitlements and sexual
division of labour.
Industrialisation and Urbanization in India: Informal sector
Related Theory
India’s female labour force participation (FLFP) rate is the

lowest among the BRICS countries and is also lower than some of
its neighbours in South Asia such as Sri Lanka and Bangladesh.
In some places, the presence of women is appreciable, for instance, female

participation in projects under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Scheme is about 50%.
Women In Informal Sector:-
● The Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017 more than

doubled the duration of paid maternity leave for women
employees to 26 weeks, proposing an option to work from

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home after this period, on mutual agreement with the

employer, and made crèche facilities mandatory for
establishments employing 50 or more women.
● However, these benefits are mostly enjoyed by formal sector women
workers, constituting less than 5% of the women workforce.
● The lack of affordable and quality childcare services and maternity
benefits increase the burden on informal women workers,
aggravating gender and class inequalities.
Steps to improve female labour force participation:-
● Providing Skill Training: Skill training of women in job roles

aligned to the gig, platform and care sectors as well as other
emerging sectors such as those covered under the
Production-Linked Incentive Scheme needs to be encouraged.
● More Investments: Greater investment in better health and care
facilities would not only improve the well-being of India’s people
and hence their economic productivity, but will also lead to more
employment opportunities for women.
● Providing Child Care Services:
The National Creche Scheme which lays out specific provisions for
working women has suffered diminished government funding.
Revitalizing the provisions of the scheme and adding a network of
public and workplace crèches can be hugely beneficial.
Public crèches can be operated at worksite clusters such as near
industrial areas, markets, dense low-income residential areas, and
labour nakas.

relations? (2018 / 20 marks).
2. Examine 'patriarchal bargain' as gendered division of work in
contemporary India (2017/ 10marks).
3. To what extent is patriarchy a case for the problems of women?
Discuss. (2016/ 10 marks).
4. Is male authority absent in matrilineal society? Discuss 2015 /10
marks).
| 13. Society and Sociology|

You can read the entire article.

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Theories of Social Change
Related Theory
EVOLUTIONARY theories
Evolutionary theory is based on the assumption that societies change

gradually from simple to complex forms. Early anthropologists and
sociologists like L.H. Morgan gave three stages of social
evolution-savagery, barbarism and civilization through which all societies
pass. August Comte believed that human societies evolved in a unilinear
fashion i.e. in one line of development. The notion of social evolution was
taken from the theories of biological evolution.
TELIC theory
A number of sociologists have held that social change can be brought about
by means of conscious and systematic efforts. Lester F. Ward has
asserted that progress can be achieved by means of purposive effort or
conscious planning. Through education and knowledge intellect can assert
itself over emotions and this can lead to the possibility of effective planning.
CYCLICAL theories
Cyclical theories of social change hold that civilizations rise and fall in an
endless series of cycles. Oswald Spengler wrote a book ‘The Decline of
the West’ in 1918, in which he wrote that the fate of civilisation was a matter
of ‘destiny’. He saw society moving in continual cycles of growth and decay.
In recent times Arnold J. Toynbee, the noted English historian, has also
propounded a cyclical theory of the history of world civilization. He
maintains that civilizations pass through three stages, corresponding to
youth, maturity and decline.
STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONAL theories
It is strongly advocated by several sociologists, particularly by Tallcott

Parsons and Morton. According to its advocates, every social system has

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two aspects, one structural and the other functional. A structure is an

arrangement/unit for the performance of functions. Function is the
consequence of the activities of structures. Structural functionalists believe
that society, like the human body, is a balanced system. Each institution
serves a function in maintaining society. When events outside or inside the
society disrupt the social order, social institutions make adjustments to
restore stability.
DETERMINISTIC theories
According to this theory there are certain forces, social or natural or both,
which bring about social change and the circumstances which determine
the course of social change. Sumner and Keller insist that social change
is automatically determined by economic factors. Keller maintains that
conscious effort and rational planning have very little chance to affect
change unless and until the folkways and mores are ready for it.
PYQ 1. Social change can be brought about through development. Illustrate

from the contemporary situation of India(2016/20 marks)
2. Examine any two theories of social change in detail (2017/20 marks)
3. Social conflict is both a cause and a consequence of social change.
Explain (2016/10marks)
4. Critically examine the cultural theories of social change with
suitable examples. (2013/ 20 marks)
| 14. Ageing-Elderly Care|

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Population Dynamics: Emerging issues: Ageing

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Related Theory
The UN World Population Ageing Report notes that India’s ageing

population (those aged 60 and above) is projected to increase to nearly 20% by
2050 from about 8% now.
By 2050, the percentage of elderly people will increase by 326%, with those
aged 80 years and above set to increase by 700%, making them the
fastest-growing age group in India.
A major reason for the steady growth of the elderly population has been the
dramatic rise in life expectancy aided by sustained periods of economic growth
and enhanced access to healthcare facilities.
In a demographic where the growth rate of elders far exceeds that of the young,
the biggest challenge is to provide a range of quality, affordable, and accessible
health and care services to the elderly.
Sociological Reasons Why are Old Age Homes (OAHs) for the
Elderly becoming a Norm?
The OAHs are a consequence of the emergence of the nuclear family
system. Factors such as
● familial neglect
● disintegration of families necessitated by the migration of children and
● their inability to keep pace with the new generation in terms of
education, technology etc pushes them towards these.
● Even at times, elders feel comfortable in OAHs for the freedom and
friendly atmosphere with other elders who keep them company,
enjoying the time by interacting with each other.
● They even show some detachment from family members and feel more
secure in OAHs.

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Dysfunctions of OAHS:-
● These OAHs, however, do not always provide good facilities, not all
elders are taken care of well by the management, some of them impose
restrictions.
● The food served is often reported to be of low quality and deficient in
quantity in many of them. The bedrooms and toilets are often poorly
maintained.
● Some of the managements do not utilise payments made to them by
children of these elderly people, leaving the helpless parents in the
lurch.
● Such abuse and misuse of OAHs come to the limelight often, but
seldom is action taken to rectify the situation.
Sociological theories On Ageing:-
Functionalism (Disengagement Theory And Continuity Theory)

The earliest gerontological theory in the functionalist perspective is
disengagement theory, which suggests that withdrawing from society and
social relationships is a natural part of growing old. There are several main
points to the theory:-
● First, because everyone expects to die one day, and because we

experience physical and mental decline as we approach death, it is
natural to withdraw from individuals and society.
● Second, as the elderly withdraw, they receive less reinforcement to

conform to social norms. Therefore, this withdrawal allows a greater
freedom from the pressure to conform.
● Finally, social withdrawal is gendered, meaning it is experienced

differently by men and women. Because men focus on work and women
focus on marriage and family, when they withdraw they will be
unhappy and directionless until they adopt a role to replace their
accustomed role that is compatible with the disengaged state
(Cummings and Henry).
According to continuity theory, the elderly make specific choices to maintain

consistency in internal (personality structure, beliefs) and external structures
(relationships), remaining active and involved throughout their elder years.
This is an attempt to maintain social equilibrium and stability by making future
decisions on the basis of already developed social roles (Atchley ).
Conflict Theory (Modernization Theory)

According to the guiding principle of conflict theory, social groups compete
with other groups for power and scarce resources. Applied to society’s ageing
population, the principle means that the elderly struggle with other groups—for
example, younger society members—to retain a certain share of resources. At
some point, this competition may become a conflict.
Modernization theory

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(Cowgill and Holmes ) suggests that the primary cause of the elderly losing
power and influence in society are the parallel forces of industrialization and
modernization. As societies modernize, the status of elders decreases, and they
are increasingly likely to experience social exclusion. Before industrialization,
strong social norms bound the younger generation to care for the older. Now,
as societies industrialize, the nuclear family replaces the extended family.
Societies become increasingly individualistic, and norms regarding the care of
older people change. In an individualistic industrial society, caring for an
elderly relative is seen as a voluntary obligation that may be ignored without
fear of social censure.
PYQ 1. Is 'ageing 'an emerging issue in Indian society ? Discuss the major
problems of the old age people in India. (2021 / 20 marks).
2. Why has ‘Active ageing’ become a glocal goal? Do you agree that the
role of elderly care-giving is disproportionately gendered in
developing countries? Why? (2019 / 20 marks).
3. How is ageing becoming an emerging issue in Indian society?( 2016
/ 10 marks).
4. Discuss the problems of elderly in India. What are the different
perspectives to solve their problems? (2015 / 150 marks).
| 15.Migration|

Rural and Agrarian transformation in India: Problems of rural
labour, bondage, migration.
Population Dynamics: Migration

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Related Theory In Durkheim's social evolution migration is a necessary social

condition to push the process of social evolution from one type of social
order or another. The active movement of population pushes the society to
evolve from simple, segmental and mechanical society to a complex,
structurally differentiated, interdependent and organically well-knit society
with an elaborate division of labor.
Everett Lee, a well-known demographer, defines migration broadly

“as a permanent or semipermanent change of residence”. No restriction is
placed upon the distance of the move or upon the voluntary and involuntary
nature of the act.
Migration, according to Eisenstadt, refers to “the physical transition

of an individual or a group from one society to another. This transition
usually involves abandoning one social-setting and entering another and
different one.”
Most of the female migrants have cited ‘marriage’ as the reason for
migration, especially when the migration is within the state. For males, the
major reasons for migration are ‘work/employment’ and ‘education’.
The Parsonian paradigm of pattern variables provides a guideline

for an analysis of mobility and immobility of a population. In Parsons’
scheme of variables, the affective and affective-neutrality value components
show a paradigm shift from tradition to modernity and that has a bearing
on migration. It explains the social conditions under which the movement
of population is active or inactive. Social attachment restricts the mobility
of the population.
PYQ 1. Discuss the dynamics of ‘migrant workers’ in India in the context of

Corona pandemic. (2020/20)
2. What are the issues relating to male migration and its impact on birth
rate? Does it necessarily result in skewed sex-ratio?.(2018/20)
| 16.Population stabilization|

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Population Dynamics: Population Policy and family planning.
PYQ 1. Discuss the salient features of the population policy of Government of

India. What modifications would you suggest to make it more effective?
(2006)
2. Comment on the influence of social and cultural factors on family
planning in India. (2009)
| 17. Religion and Population|

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Population Policy and family planning.
Emerging issues: sex ratios, reproductive health
Related Theory “Fertility is socially controlled to some extent in all populations.

It is a common belief that fertility is a function of two factors viz.
(1) Physiological and
(2) Socio-cultural
The most important of the physiological factors are heredity, health, age,
the ovulation cycle, lactation and sex.
Davis and Blake have classified the socio-cultural aspects into three groups
:-
(a) Factors affecting exposure to intercourse which includes - age of
marriage or of entry into sexual action, frequency of celibacy of females,
length of time spent or between sexual unions during the women’s
reproduction period, aspect of voluntary and involuntary sexual abstinence
and frequency of intercourse,
(b) Factors affecting exposure of conception, which comprises involuntary
fecundity and infecundity, contraceptive usage or non-usage and fecundity
or infecundity as affected voluntary practices e.g. sterilization and medical

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treatment, and
(c) Factors affecting exposure to gestation and parturition, which includes
voluntary and involuntary abortion, and infanticide. The fertility of the
population depends largely on the balance between those parts of its culture
and social systems that favor reproduction and those which hinder it.
PYQ 1. What are the emerging concerns on women’s reproductive health?

(2017/10 marks)
2. Write a short note on Reproductive Health. (2008/20 marks)
3. Write a short note on Fertility and population growth. (2009/20 marks)
4. Write short note on Socio-cultural factors related to declining proportion
of females in sex ratio. (2000/20 marks)
| 18.Educational Disparities|

Social Change in Modern Society:

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Education and Social change
Paper 2
Challenges of Social Transformation:
Illiteracy and disparities in education
Related Theory
According to a United Nations report, India has become the country with
the second longest COVID-19 pandemic-linked school closure in the world.
What has been done by the government?

In the Union Budget 2022-23, the government has proposed ‘one class, one
TV channel’ programme under Pradhan Mantri eVidya. It aims to impart
supplementary teaching. It will change the perception of equating learning
with syllabus completion.
However, the School Children’s Online and Offline Learning (SCHOOL)

survey in India has shown that TV-based education programs are

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completely ineffective.
How can adoption of ‘PERI’ help?

To ensure that schools start functioning at full capacity, a structured
approach of P-E-R-I: Prepare; Engage; Reimagine and Innovate
needs to be adopted. Also, the necessary planning and perspective on the
risk of COVID-19 are essential.
In case of rise in COVID-19, every State needs to develop a roadmap to

prevent avoidable disruptions. The objective criteria for school closure need
to be developed and such a decision should be implemented in a
decentralized manner at the block or the district level.
Also, engaging with key stakeholders including parents, and raising

awareness about the importance of in-person education and the concept of
holistic child development is required. It will help in countering any
misinformation and bring learning on track.
What is the way forward?

● First, Anganwadi, Pre-nursery, and nursery schools should be
opened urgently and immediately to recover from learning and
nutrition loss.
● Second, Special initiatives and socio-political engagement need to
be started so that every single child who is in need of education or
who has dropped out or has been pushed into child labour can
return to in-person learning.
● Third, there is a need to revive school health services and
institutionalize regular counseling and mental health services for
school-age children.
● Fourth, there is a need to prepare a medium to long-term plan to
compensate for the learning loss, with a focus on overall child
development through strategic and innovative thinking.
● Fifth, hesitation in reopening institutions is the symptom of a flawed
education system and shows the value that is attached to school
education. Hence, it is a socio-political responsibility to ensure the
safe return of every child in the country.
PYQ 1. Education is a major source of social mobility in contemporary

society. Explain. (2016/20 marks) .
2. Education helps in perpetuating social and economic inequalities.
Critically examine the statement. (2015/20 marks).
| 19.Intersectionality|

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Social Movements in Modern India: Women’s movement
Related Theory Kimberlé Crenshaw, an American law professor who coined the term in
1989 explained Intersectional feminism as, “a prism for seeing the way in
which various forms of inequality often operate together and exacerbate
each other,”. She said“All inequality is not created equal,” . An
intersectional approach shows the way that people’s social identities can
overlap, creating compounding experiences of discrimination.
“We tend to talk about race inequality as separate from inequality based on
gender, class, sexuality or immigrant status. What’s often missing is how
some people are subject to all of these, and the experience is not just the
sum of its parts,” Crenshaw said.
Intersectional feminism centres the voices of those experiencing

overlapping, concurrent forms of oppression in order to
understand the depths of the inequalities and the relationships
among them in any given context.
Intersectionality scholars and activists argue that women’s experiences are

also shaped by privileges and disadvantages stemming from other social
groups that they are part of. They reject the notion that all women’s
experiences are the same. Instead, they emphasise the role of
systematic power differences stemming from multiple identities,
such as gender, race and class, which intersect and jointly impact
women’s experiences. That is, they highlight that intersecting identities

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create unique experiences for women at different intersectional social

locations, increases the burden on those at the intersections of multiple
subordinate identities, and invisibilises their struggles.
In India, feminists from marginalised groups have echoed the

need for such an approach to understand and address their
situation. For example, Ruth Manorama says that Dalit women carry
the burden of caste, class, and gender, and advocates for an intersectional
approach to account for the role of multiple subordinate identities in
shaping their experiences.
In line with this, Gomati Bodra Hembrom reveals the role of gender
and caste/ethnicity-based hierarchies in constructing media portrayals of
Adivasi women that support their subordination. Likewise, Sandhya Nare
Pawar draws attention to invisibility of OBC (Other Backward Classes)
women’s concerns, and asserts that mainstream feminism fails to
acknowledge caste-based divisions among women.
In sum, intersectionality offers a framework to appreciate the

diversity within the community of women, to bring women at the
margins to the center, and to dismantle intersecting power
structures that impact the lives of women. The absence of such an
approach in the mainstream feminist movement can push women from
various marginalised groups to split from it and thereby weaken its power
in numbers. Therefore, to avoid further rifts in the feminist movement,
taking an intersectional approach remains key for Brahmin-Dvija feminists
in India.
PYQ 1. Despite gains from the women's movement and state policy of women
empowerment, gender equality is far from achieved. Identify two major
challenges that prevent this goal from being reached. (2017 /20 marks)
2. Discuss the impact of post-1970 feminist movement on Indian middle
class. (2015/20 marks)
| 20.Poverty and Hunger|

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Population Dynamics :
Emerging issues: child and infant mortality.
Paper 2
Challenges of Social Transformation:
Poverty, deprivation and inequalities.

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Related Theory
Impact of the Scheme

● The MDM Scheme has many potential benefits: attracting children
from disadvantaged sections (especially girls, Dalits and Adivasis) to
school, improving regularity, nutritional benefits, socialization
benefits and benefits to women are some that have been highlighted.
● Apart from nutrition, this scheme has been miraculous. Mothers
who first used to interrupt their work to feed their children at home,
now no longer need to do so.
Issues with the Scheme

● Discrimination: Caste-based discrimination continues to occur in
the serving of food, though the government seems unwilling to
acknowledge this.
● Leakages: The scheme has been subjected to leakages similar to
the Public Distribution System.
● Unhealthy and unhygienic: There have been cases of eating
pesticide-contaminated mid-day meals leading to food poisoning
PYQ 1. Give an account of the consequences and remedies of chronic

malnutrition in India. (2020/10 marks)

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2. Discuss some social and cultural determinants of infant mortality

rate. Give your suggestions to prevent infanticide. (2012/20 marks)
3. Critically evaluate the child welfare programmes in India. Have they
benefited all sections of children in India? (2000/60 marks)
| 21.SC/STs Educational Disparities|

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Stratification and Mobility :
Concepts - equality, inequality, hierarchy, exclusion, poverty and
deprivation.
Dimensions – Social stratification of class, status groups.
Paper 2
Challenges of Social Transformation :
Illiteracy and disparities in education.
Related Theory Stratification and Inequalities:-

Inequalities in education are a reflection of the wider social stratification in
society. It is almost always that those who receive poor education are from
poor families. Like strata in society, there are also strata of schools. As
pupils gain different education in different schools, there are disparities in
education.
According to Avijit Pathak in his ‘Social Implications of

Schooling, 2002’, schooling intensifies the existing divide between the
elite and the masses. Children going to privileged schools learn to be
confident while children deprived of that may feel the opposite. Some even
don’t get education of any kind.
According to a report of Pratichi Trust titled ‘The Pratichi

Education Report, 2002’, educational attainment levels also depend on
economic and cultural factors. According to the report, children of SCs and
STs don’t attend schools during harvest season as they have to help their
parents in the cultivation of crops.
Social Discrimination:-
Gender and caste discrimination impinge upon the chances of education
and girls are often forced to contribute to household chores and school is a
distinct second priority among the poor.
PYQ 1. Discuss the issues of access and exclusion in higher education in India.
(2019/10 Marks)
2. Schooling does not ensure upward mobility of all members of the

society.Discuss with reference to class societies. (2018/20 Marks) [similar
question on ‘caste’ societies can be expected]
3. Education and removal of inequality. (2012/12 Marks )
4. Write a short note on Disparities in education. (2008/20 Marks )

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| 22. Suicide|

Sociological Thinkers:
Emile Durkheim - suicide
Paper 2
Poverty, deprivation and inequalities

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Related Theory
Durkheim’s Suicide
The Suicide: Durkheim’s most important reason for studying suicide was to
prove the power of the new science of Sociology. Suicide is generally
considered to be one of the most private and personal acts. Durkheim
believed that if he could show that Sociology had a role to play in explaining
such an individualistic act as suicide, it would be relatively easy to extend
Sociology’s domain to phenomena.
According to Durkheim suicide is neither an individual nor a personal act.

It is a social fact. It should be studied by acquiring data from outside of our
own minds through observation and experimentation. He was interested in
explaining differences in suicide rates but not in the study why any specific
individual committed suicide. Simultaneously he was interested in why are
group had a higher rate of suicide than another. So he assumed that only
social facts could explain it. He proceeded to give sociological classification
of suicides by showing all the principal types of suicide which are due
entirely to social causes.
Another example of the impact of social forces is that, in the past,

suicide was taboo in society and viewed as deviant behavior, with
some religions strictly forbidding it. Devoutly religious societies,
therefore, typically have low rates of suicide.
PYQ 1. Indebtedness is one of the serious issues leading to farmer’s

suicides. Discuss reasons and suggest solutions. (2017/20 marks)
| 23.Ambedkar on tribals|

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Tribal Communities in India: Definitional problems, Issues of
integration and autonomy
Related Theory For Ambedkar, his firm belief in modernity led him to argue on behalf of
social reform as a precursor to political reform. Modern laws, according to
him, couldn’t be applied to a society that was unprepared to do away with
its control over tradition. Ambedkar’s demand for social reform was based
on the everyday conflict with the upper castes that “Untouchables” were
drawn into, including for equality in places of work, in society, and for the
annihilation of the caste system altogether.
Ambedkar’s insistence on the annihilation of caste was absolute.

He backed his arguments through several of his writings, often drawing on
the Buddha’s teachings or attacking the Congress for its passive acceptance
of untouchability. However, being a product of his time, that is modernity,
Ambedkar saw no fault in keeping certain sections of society
disenfranchised or excluded from political reform.
To quote Ambedkar from his deposition to the Simon commission in 1929,

“The aboriginal tribes have not as yet developed a political sense to make

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the best use of their political opportunities and they may easily become
mere instruments in the hands of either of a majority or a minority and
thereby disturb the balance without doing any good to themselves.”
PYQ How have the struggles against untouchability changed their forms and
perspectives from Gandhian to Ambedkarite positions? (2017/10 marks)
| 24.Caste Census|
Caste System (Contemporary issue) |

Related Theory

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Merton’s functional analysis can be used to analyse the consequences

of a caste-based census.
1) Manifest functions:-
● Intention is to have data of the castes with regard to SC and ST and
understand the challenges they face.
● To know about their geographical extent and concentration in
different states.
● Frame a proper policy to address their development issues and take
all necessary steps to ensure their welfare.
Example:- Eklavya Model Residential Schools for educating tribal
children.
2) Latent dysfunctions:-
● It will become a political tool, potent to be used for electoral benefits

by different political parties.
● It will lead to the politicization of caste and the creation of vote
banks on the basis of caste.
● It will lead to inaccurate reporting due to various caste hierarchies
in India and also generate some sort of identity crisis.
Example:- Preferring a candidate on the sole basis of caste while
ignoring other factors of eligibility.
● Public disclosure of caste data will lead to heightened caste
consciousness and might lead to caste conflicts arising from the
relative deprivation felt by caste groups.
PYQ 1. Has caste system hindered democracy and adult franchise in

India? Discuss. (2018)(20 marks)
2. What, according to you, are the two fundamental axes of social
discrimination in Indian society? Are they changing? (2017)(20 marks)
3. What are the changes in the cultural and structural aspects of the caste
system since independence? (2017)(10 marks)
4. Which is more significant, the principle of ‘hierarchy’ or the principle of
‘Difference’, in the inter caste relations in the present day? (2017)(10
marks)
| 25.Suicide Trends|

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Sociological Thinkers: Emile Durkheim - suicide
Paper 2
Challenges of Social Transformation: Poverty, deprivation and
inequalities
PYQ 1. Indebtedness is one of the serious issues leading to farmer’s

suicides. Discuss reasons and suggest solutions. (2017/20 marks)
| 26.Abortion rights|

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Population Dynamics: Population Policy and family planning. Emerging
issues: Reproductive health.
Related Theory Reproductive rights: These are the rights of individuals to decide
whether to reproduce and have reproductive health. This may include an
individual's right to plan a family, terminate a pregnancy, use
contraceptives, gain access to reproductive health services, learn about sex
education in public schools, and gain access to reproductive health services.
Significance of Reproductive rights for women

● As a Human right: Being able to make decisions about your own
bodies and lives is a basic human right.
● Importance for maternal healthcare: Access to
contraception,birth control and safe and hygienic abortion services
and timely and well spaced pregnancies are crucial to reduce
maternal mortality rate and ensure maternal and newborn health.
● Maternal Mortality Rate (proportion of maternal deaths per
1,00,000 live births reported) of India was 122 in 2015-17.
● Women’s social and economic advancement: Women’s
ability to obtain and effectively use contraceptives has a positive
impact on their education and workforce participation, as well as on
subsequent outcomes related to income, family stability, mental
health and happiness, and children’s well-being.

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Associated problems:
1. Challenges in the public health system: It faces an array of
issues, including low public investment, poor infrastructure,
inadequate medical and diagnostic facilities, and inadequately
skilled human resources etc.
2. Societal pressures: There exists a social stigma related to
abortion and contraception and sex education are taboo topics in
India. Unmarried women have limited access to birth control due to
such pressures.
3. Patriarchal structure:It affects women’s agency to make free
reproductive choices and also leads to women undergoing unsafe
abortions and sterilizations to avoid unwanted pregnancies.
4.

(2017/10)
2. Write a short note on Reproductive Health. (2008/20)
3. Write a short note on Fertility and population growth. (2009/20
| 27.Ethnicity|

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Social Movements in Modern India :
Ethnicity and Identity movements.

Ethnic conflicts
Related Theory Theoretical Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity

We can examine race and ethnicity through three major sociological
perspectives: functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism.
Functionalism
Functionalism emphasizes that all the elements of society have functions
that promote solidarity and maintain order and stability in society. Hence,
we can observe people from various racial and ethnic backgrounds
interacting harmoniously in a state of social balance. Problems arise when
one or more racial or ethnic groups experience inequalities and
discriminations. This creates tension and conflict resulting in temporary
dysfunction of the social system. For example, the killing of an
African-American man George Floyd by a White police officer in 2020
stirred up protests demanding racial justice and changes in policing in the
United States. To restore the society’s pre-disturbed state or to seek a new
equilibrium, the police department and various parts of the system require
changes and compensatory adjustments.
Another way to apply the functionalist perspective to race and

ethnicity is to discuss the way racism can contribute positively to
the functioning of society by strengthening bonds between
in-group members through the ostracism of out-group members.
Consider how a community might increase solidarity by refusing to allow
outsiders access. On the other hand, Rose suggested that dysfunctions
associated with racism include the failure to take advantage of
talent in the subjugated group, and that society must divert from
other purposes the time and effort needed to maintain artificially
constructed racial boundaries. Consider how much money, time, and
effort went toward maintaining separate and unequal educational systems
prior to the civil rights movement.
In the view of functionalism, racial and ethnic inequalities must

have served an important function in order to exist as long as
they have. This concept, sometimes, can be problematic. How can racism
and discrimination contribute positively to society? Nash focused his
argument on the way racism is functional for the dominant group, for
example, suggesting that racism morally justifies a racially unequal society.
Consider the way slave owners justified slavery in the antebellum
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White and preferred slavery to freedom.
Interactionism
For symbolic interactionists, race and ethnicity provide strong symbols as
sources of identity. In fact, some interactionists propose that the symbols of
race, not race itself, are what lead to racism. Famed Interactionist Herbert
Blumer suggested that racial prejudice is formed through
interactions between members of the dominant group: Without
these interactions, individuals in the dominant group would not
hold racist views. These interactions contribute to an abstract picture of
the subordinate group that allows the dominant group to support its view of
the subordinate group, and thus maintains the status quo. An example of
this might be an individual whose beliefs about a particular group are based
on images conveyed in popular media, and those are unquestionably
believed because the individual has never personally met a member of that
group.
Another way to apply the interactionist perspective is to look at how people

define their races and the race of others. Some people who claim a White
identity have a greater amount of skin pigmentation than some people who
claim a Black identity; how did they come to define themselves as Black or
White?
Conflict Theory
Conflict theories are often applied to inequalities of gender, social class,
education, race, and ethnicity. A conflict theory perspective of U.S. history
would examine the numerous past and current struggles between the White
ruling class and racial and ethnic minorities, noting specific conflicts that
have arisen when the dominant group perceived a threat from the minority
group. In the late nineteenth century, the rising power of Black Americans
after the Civil War resulted in draconian Jim Crow laws that severely
limited Black political and social power. For example, Vivien Thomas
(1910–1985), the Black surgical technician who helped develop the
groundbreaking surgical technique that saves the lives of “blue babies” was
classified as a janitor for many years, and paid as such, despite the fact that
he was conducting complicated surgical experiments. The years since the
Civil War have shown a pattern of attempted disenfranchisement, with
gerrymandering and voter suppression efforts aimed at predominantly
minority neighborhoods.
Intersection Theory
Feminist sociologist Patricia Hill Collins further developed intersection
theory, originally articulated in 1989 by Kimberlé Crenshaw, which
suggests we cannot separate the effects of race, class, gender, sexual
orientation, and other attributes . When we examine race and how it can
bring us both advantages and disadvantages, it is important to acknowledge
that the way we experience race is shaped, for example, by our gender and
class. Multiple layers of disadvantage intersect to create the way we

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experience race. For example, if we want to understand prejudice, we must

understand that the prejudice focused on a White woman because of her
gender is very different from the layered prejudice focused on an Asian
woman in poverty, who is affected by stereotypes related to being poor,
being a woman, and her ethnic status.
PYQ 1. Explain the growing salience of ethnicity in the contemporary world

with illustrations.(2021/10 marks)
2. Explain the issues relating to ethnicity and sub-ethnicity.(2017 /10
marks)
3. How are the issues of ethnicity and nationalism related? Discuss in
the context of the emergence of ethno-nationalism in
India.(2011/30 marks)
| 28.Social Inequalities|

Stratification and Mobility : Concepts - equality, inequality, hierarchy,
exclusion, poverty and deprivation.
Paper 2
Challenges of Social Transformation : Poverty, deprivation and
inequalities
Related Theory Social inequality results from a society organized by hierarchies of class,
race, and gender that unequally distributed access to resources and rights.
It can manifest in a variety of ways, like income and wealth inequality,

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unequal access to education and cultural resources, and differential

treatment by the police and judicial system, among others. Social inequality
goes hand in hand with social stratification.
There are two main views of social inequality within sociology.

One view aligns with the functionalist theory, and the other
aligns with conflict theory.
Functionalist theorists believe that inequality is inevitable and desirable
and plays an important function in society. Important positions in society
require more training and thus should receive more rewards. Social
inequality and social stratification, according to this view, lead to a
meritocracy based on ability.
Conflict theorists, on the other hand, view inequality as resulting from

groups with power dominating less powerful groups. They believe that
social inequality prevents and hinders societal progress as those in power
repress the powerless people to maintain the status quo. In today's world,
this work of domination is achieved primarily through the power of
ideology, our thoughts, values, beliefs, worldviews, norms, and
expectations, through a process known as cultural hegemony.
PYQ 1. Do you think that poverty, deprivation and inequalities are the

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major challenges in the process of social transformation? What are

your suggestions to address and resolve these problems? (2009/60
marks)
2. Discuss the emerging forms of “inequalities” and “acute poverty” as
major challenges of social transformation in India. (2016/20 marks)
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| 29. Lynching - Social Problems |

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Link Click Here
Syllabus Paper 2
Topic Caste System: Untouchability - forms and perspectives
Religion and Society: Problems of religious minorities.

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Related
Theory
Mob lynching is a form of violence in which a mob, under the pretext of

administering justice without trial, executes a presumed offender, often after
inflicting torture.
• It is an illegally authorized way of punishing somebody by an informal group. It is
most often also referred to as informal public executions by a mob who wish to
punish an alleged transgressor, or to intimidate a group.
• Such incidents are egregious manifestations of prejudice, intolerance, and
contempt towards the rule of law.  
Reasons for cases of mob lynching in India
• Mob Psychology: People have less fear of being punished when they act in
groups as it’s harder to identify real culprits. Further, there is dispersion of
responsibility and guilt unlike in individual action.
• Political Patronage: In competitive electoral politics, the culture of political

mobilization based on social fault lines for polarization of the electorate into vote
banks and use of violence for garnering support and intimidating opponents, has
gained strength.
• Administrative Failure: Given the state of the police and judiciary in the
country, there is a wide-ranging perception that ‘culprits’ go unpunished, and that
there is a chance that the accused in heinous crimes like rape, child lifting and
cow-slaughter will go scot-free. Vigilantism is a consequence of this basic failure of
the government in providing justice.
• Rumors on social media: Misinformation and propagandas spread through

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platforms like Facebook,WhatsApp. E.g. Recent rumors regarding child lifters have
incited many impulsive and unplanned acts of violence across the country.
• Societal factors: The idea of the so-called form of ‘instant’ justice is immensely
popular. Further, the sociopolitical framework of the country involves people with
deep fissures and mistrust, prejudices and biases based
on caste, religion etc.
Impact of mob lynching
• Fuel communalism and casteism: As in most cases, victims of lynching are

the most vulnerable people of society - nomadic tribes, religious minorities, lower
castes etc. This is a threat to the secular fabric of the country as diverse as India.
• Against human rights: The lynching by mob create an atmosphere where

human beings are dehumanised, freedom of speech, expression and personal
choices are endangered and plurality and diversity is not accepted.
• Subverts rule of law: The process of adjudication takes place within the courts
of justice, and not on the streets. A crime cannot be an answer to another crime.
Mob lynching reflects the loss of trust in state capabilities in justice delivery.
• Fear Psychosis: Terrorism kills far fewer people than traffic accidents, but we
have the most stringent laws against terrorism because it causes more than just
deaths. It strikes fear in the daily lives of people, bringing cities to a standstill.
Events of lynching mean to punish someone in a manner that others will see as a
warning and a lesson. Many lynchings are actually hate crimes where identity of the
victims seems to be the real cause behind the killing.
o A study, by IndiaSpend, says that of the lynching deaths reported
between 2010 and 2017, 84% were Muslims. Every such case strikes fear
in the hearts of minorities in India.
• Economic Impact: Tougher laws on cow slaughter, transportation of cattle, and

mob attacks by cow protection groups have disrupted not just the cattle trade and
the rural agricultural economy, but also leather and meat export industries linked to
farming and dairy sectors.
PYQ 1. How do you understand the ‘minority’ question? Examine the violence and
discrimination against the religious minorities in India( 2019/ 20 marks).
2. Write a critical narrative on the concerns of religious minorities in India
(2018/10 marks).
3. Elucidate the concepts of majoritarianism and minoritarianism in
accentuating communal tensions in India (2016/20 marks).
4. Discuss the problems of religious minorities in India. (2014 /20 marks).

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| 30.Child Marriage - Sociological Perspective|

Challenges of Social Transformation:Poverty, deprivation and
inequalities.
Social Change In Modern Society:- Law and Social Change
Related Theory Statistics related to Child Marriage
● The problem of child marriage is widely spread across the country,

however, it is most common in northern, eastern and western India
like in Jharkhand, Bihar, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal,
Uttar Pradesh, among others.
● As per NFHS-5 data, about 25% of women aged 18-29 years
married before the legal marriageable age of 18. It means that the
legally mandated age of 18 has not been complied.
● According to the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB)
data of 2020, a total of 785 cases were registered under the
Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006.

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Sociological Reasons Behind Child Marriage

1. Cultural aspect:- The practice of child marriage in northern India
is closely associated with pious occasions such as Akha Teej in
Rajasthan when mass child wedding takes place in may districts,
however administration fails to stop these weddings due to social
pressure.

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2. Patriarchal attitudes: Child marriage is often seen as a defense

against premarital sex, and the duty to protect the girl from sexual
violence and harassment is transferred from father to husband.
3. Skewed sex ratio: In many states like Gujarat and Haryana, sex
ratio is too skewed to find a bride. As a result of this, forced
marriage whereby a girl is abducted or bought by the future
husband has become a norm.
4. The social norms compel the parents to begin preparations for a
girl’s marriage once she has reached menarche.
5. Poverty plays an important role in child marriages. It is aimed to
avoid the burden of the huge costs of dowry associated with delayed
marriages.
6. Education outcomes: Only 4% of child marriages in India take
place among women who have completed more than 12 years of
education. A significant proportion of child marriages takes place
among women with less than 12 years of schooling.
PYQ Construct a sociological narrative on the increasing trend of child abuse in

India.(2018/10 marks).
| 31.Malnutrition|

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Challenges of Social Transformation:Poverty, deprivation and

inequalities.
Related Theory
Challenges of growing malnutrition:
1. Weak Implementation of schemes: Due to the top-down

approach, and poor implementation processes, lack of effective
monitoring, siloed approaches, shortage of qualified human
resources, etc.
2. Food wastage: India wastes about 7% of its total annual food
production and almost 30% of the fruits and vegetables because of
inadequate warehousing facilities and cold storages.
3. Low status of women: Indian women's nutrition, feeding and
caring practices for young children are inadequate. This is related to
their status in society, to early marriage, low weight at pregnancy
and their lower level of education.
4. Shifts in diet and lifestyle patterns: More consumption of
foods and drinks high in fat, sugar and salt as nowadays they are
cheaper and more readily available.
5. Social structure: Several schemes do not reach large sections of
the people especially marginalized tribes and Dalits, who find

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themselves ostracized by the distribution system.

6. COVID-19 pandemic has exposed the fragility of globalized food
systems. It is characterized by increasing dependence on food
imports by low- and middle-income countries; underinvestment in
local farmers, farmer associations, and smallholder-oriented value
chains; and increasing rates of diet-related non communicable
disease.
PYQ 1. Give an account of the consequences and remedies of chronic

malnutrition in India. (2020/10 marks) .
2. How do the recommendations of Swaminathan Commissions
(2004-2006) ensure food and nutrition security for the Indian
masses? (2018/10 marks).
3. Critically evaluate the child welfare programmes in India. Have they
benefited all sections of children in India? (2000/60 marks).
4. Discuss some social and cultural determinants of infant mortality
rate. Give your suggestions to prevent infanticide. (2012/20 marks)
| 32.Surrogacy Act|


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Emerging issues: Reproductive health.
Related Theory Surrogacy is the practice whereby one woman carries the child for another
with the intention that the child should be handed over after birth.
Such a surrogacy arrangement may be
● Altruistic surrogacy- where the couple does not pay the surrogate
mother any compensation other than the medical and insurance
expenses related to the pregnancy.
● Commercial surrogacy- here compensation (in cash or kind)
paid to the surrogate mother, which exceeds the reasonable medical
expenses associated with the pregnancy.
Surrogacy in India
India has emerged as a surrogacy hub for couples from other countries.A
study conducted in July 2012, put the surrogacy business at more than
$400 million with more than 3000 fertility clinics all in India.
Concerns regarding surrogacy bill in India-
1. Exploitation of the Surrogate and the Child:
One could argue that the state must stop the exploitation of poor
women under surrogacy and protect the child’s right to be born.
However, the current Act fails to balance these two interests.
2. Reinforces Patriarchal Norms:
The Act reinforces traditional patriarchal norms of our society that
attributes no economic value to women’s work and, directly
affecting the fundamental rights of the women to reproduce under
Article 21 of the constitution.
3. Denies Legitimate income to Surrogates:
Banning commercial surrogacy also denies a legitimate source of
income of the surrogates, further limiting the number of women
willingly to surrogate. Overall, this step indirectly denies children to
the couples choosing to embrace parenthood.
4. Emotional Complications:
In altruistic surrogacy, a friend or relative as a surrogate mother
may lead to emotional complications not only for the intended
parents but also for the surrogate child as there is great deal of risk
to the relationship in the course of surrogacy period and post birth.

(2017/10)
3. Write a short note on Fertility and population growth. (2009/30)

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| 33.Habitus- Sociological Concept|
Link to the article Click here

Sociological Thinkers:-Karl Marx
Related Theory ● The concept of Habitus was made popular by French sociologist
Pierre Bourdieu in his book Outline of a Theory of Practice (1977).
● He used the concept to address the sociological conundrum between
structure and agency and explained that habitus was shaped by
structural position, but also generated action.
● According to Bourdieu, when people exhibit agency they
unconsciously refer to social structures, thus reflecting on and
reproducing them. Individual actions are thus reflected by the
socialization and habitus of the individual.
● The term habitus refers to a collective entity by and into which
dominant social and cultural conditions of a society are established and
reproduced. It is a subjective and yet not an individual system of
structures, concepts, schemes of perception, actions and norms that are
internalized by individuals in the same group.
● Habitus helps instill a sense of the world in individuals by attributing
cultural value to material or immaterial objects.
● Even at a very intimate level, habitus postulates specific properties.
What one considers, ‘natural’, ‘taboo’, ‘neutral’ and ‘good’ or ‘bad’ is
constructed by one’s habitus. For instance, while certain social classes
appreciate Bollywood music, certain other social classes only consider
Carnatic or Hindustani music to be worthy of appreciation.
● Its connection to capital
Though not considered a Marxist sociologist, Bourdieu was influenced
by Karl Marx’s work. Both argued that capital formed the foundation

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of social life and dictated one’s position within society. Bourdieu took
this idea of capital beyond the economic and into the more symbolic
realm of culture. In sociology, ‘capital’ refers to a person or group’s
accumulated status within a stratified society. There are different forms
of capital.
● Economic capital refers to a person’s wealth which determines his

economic class in society. Cultural capital refers to a person’s
cultural competencies. A person’s accent, their knowledge about
dressing according to occasions, their knowledge of etiquette, taboos
and manners, their understanding of cultural objects such as artwork or
music, and the books they read are a few examples of cultural capital.
Cultural capital can be translated to other forms of capital as it helps in
gaining access to social groups like prestigious colleges. This in turn
helps with economic capital as they have better job prospects due to
associations and networks.
● Social capital refers to the social networks and relationships that a

person has developed and can call upon to achieve social advantages or
mobility. The network connection one’s family has in a company, which
helps them get the job easier than others, or gaining membership to an
exclusive club because the person knows the club owner’s son, are a few
examples of social capital. It also includes ethnic capital which refers to
the advantages of belonging to a specific ethnic group, linguistic capital
which refers to one’s linguistic skills that help in gaining more
acceptance in a field, and intellectual capital which refers to the value
that one’s knowledge, capabilities, and relationships bring to an
organization.
PYQ 1. In what way is the process of socialization helpful in the

development of personality? Explain with suitable
examples.(2002/20 marks)
2. According to Mead, “We play a key role in our own socialization.”
(2019/20 marks)
| 34.Caste Hierarchies and Migration Pattern|

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Syllabus Topic
Paper 2
Rural and Agrarian transformation in India: Problems of rural
labour, bondage, migration.
Population Dynamics: Migration
Related Theory In Durkheim's social evolution migration is a necessary social

condition to push the process of social evolution from one type of social
order or another. The active movement of population pushes the society to
evolve from simple, segmental and mechanical society to a complex,
structurally differentiated, interdependent and organically well-knit society
with an elaborate division of labor.
Everett Lee, a well-known demographer, defines migration broadly

“as a permanent or semipermanent change of residence”. No restriction is
placed upon the distance of the move or upon the voluntary and involuntary
nature of the act.
Migration, according to Eisenstadt, refers to “the physical transition

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of an individual or a group from one society to another. This transition

usually involves abandoning one social-setting and entering another and
different one.”
Most of the female migrants have cited ‘marriage’ as the reason for
migration, especially when the migration is within the state. For males, the
major reasons for migration are ‘work/employment’ and ‘education’.
The Parsonian paradigm of pattern variables provides a guideline

for an analysis of mobility and immobility of a population. In Parsons’
scheme of variables, the affective and affective-neutrality value components
show a paradigm shift from tradition to modernity and that has a bearing
on migration. It explains the social conditions under which the movement
of population is active or inactive. Social attachment restricts the mobility
of the population.

Corona pandemic. (2020/20)
2. What are the issues relating to male migration and its impact on
birth rate? Does it necessarily result in skewed sex-ratio? (2018/20)
| 35.Sanskritisation|

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Perspective on Indian Society :MN SRINIVAS
Caste system :MN Srinivas
Related Theory ‘Sanskritization’ was first introduced by Prof. M.N. Srinivas.

Sanskritization is basically letting the lower caste individuals perform
rituals and adopt various methods of living as like those of upper caste
people by abandoning the disgrace associated with caste-based domination
and oppression. Also, the concept of Sanskritization helps lower castes to
elevate their position in the social hierarchy. In the study performed by
Srinivas, he noticed the behavior changes in lower castes and how they are
adopting the living style of Brahmins to be superior and indulge in various
reputed ceremonies. They did this to be a part of important organizations
and be there at higher ranks as of what they had before. Due to these
reasons, they left few of the beliefs, rituals, and ways of living which are
considered to be impure by the upper castes.
Defining Sanskritization Srinivas writes, “lower caste people

adopt higher caste customs, culture, practices, and beliefs to
acquire higher status in society
In the past the process of Sanskritization was slow and it offered very little
opportunities to the lower section of the society for upper mobility. This, in
turn, made it difficult for them to empower themselves in terms of economy
as well as politics and made them inferior. There were also some sanctions
against radical change in styles of life. These sanctions operated with
particular force upon the lower castes that were able to touch the barriers of
untouchability rarely, if any.
Later the British rule released the lower castes from the grip of such
oppressive sanctions. The court of law refused to recognize the rights of
upper castes to the exclusive use of the particular status symbol. The path of
Sanskritization was thrown upon various sections of society. Thus
Sanskritization became a barrier for lower castes against the sanctions of
society.
Sanskritization has had many effects on society in the last many years.
People belonging to various tribes and low-caste groups involved
themselves in Sanskritization to change the society and lead

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towards betterment due to inequality prevailing in the country.

This further had a great impact.
If we relate Sanskritization with social needs of people it is found
to be very important when it comes to change because that can
help them to raise their status in the society and a chance to
become superior from being inferior.
PYQ 1. How far is Srinivas Sanskritization modernizing force or

traditionalizing force in understanding the changes in the caste
system? (10 marks/2015)
| 36. Socio-Religious Movements|

Impact of Colonial Rule On Indian Society:Social Reforms
Related Theory The religious reform movements of modem times had an underlying unity.
Most of them were based on the twin doctrines of Reason (Rationalism) and

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Humanism, though they also sometimes tended to appeal to faith and

ancient authority to bolster their appeal.
They opposed the ritualistic, superstitious, irrational and obscurantist

elements in Indian religion.
Swami Vivekananda once said: “Is religion to justify itself by the discoveries
of reason through which every science justifies itself”
Justice Ranade came to the conclusion that society as a living organism is

constantly changing and can never go back to the past.
The best of reformers argued that modern ideas and culture could be best
imbibed by integrating them into Indian cultural streams.
The religious reform movements helped many Indians to come to terms

with the modern world. These movements led to the emergence of Indian
nationalism and eventually the freedom struggle.
PYQ 1. The main objectives of socio-religious movements during the

colonial rule in India were, reforming and synthesizing. Hinduism.
Write on any two such important movements. (20 marks /2017)
2. Jyoti Rao Phule as an agrarian radical (10 marks/2o15)
Add on articles
● Swiggy To Offer Paid Time-Off During Periods To Women Delivery Partners [Sociology
syllabus topic: Reproductive Health (Paper 2) | Problems of Labour | Informal Sector | Gig
Economy]
| 37.Dowry Deaths|

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Systems of Kinship: Patriarchy
Paper 2
Social Movements in Modern India: Women’s movement
Systems of Kinship in India: Patriarchy
Related Theory
Patriarchy: Literally, rule by father, this concept is used to refer to a

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system that values men more and gives them power over women.
Gender violence: There has been a recognition that while all women are
in some way disadvantaged vis-a-vis men, all women do not suffer the same
level or kind of discrimination. The concerns of the educated middle class
woman is different from the peasant woman just as the concern of the Dalit
woman is different from the ‘upper caste’ woman. Let us take the example
of violence. There has also been greater recognition that both men and
women are constrained by the dominant gender identities. For instance,
men in patriarchal societies feel they must be strong and successful. It is
not, manly, to express oneself emotionally. A gender-just society would
allow both men and women to be free. This, of course, rests on the idea that
for true freedom to grow and develop injustices of all kinds have to end.
Collective action theory:-

It refers to action taken together by a group of people whose goal is to
enhance their condition and achieve a common objective. Here the article
highlights that grassroot level movements are necessary to bring in change
collectively.
Feminist approach:-
The dowry deaths have been fuelled by the economic dependence of women
on men after marriage and on parents before marriage. The most
vulnerable sections of women are those who are economically dependent
for their needs.

relations? (2018/20)
2. Write a short note with sociological perspective on Domestic Violence
Act,2005.(2014/10)
| 38.Two child norm|

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Politics and Society: State
Paper 2
Related Theory A new study, published in the highly regarded journal, The Lancet, and
prepared by the Seattle-based Institute for Health Metrics and
Evaluation (IHME), has shaken up the world of population policy. It
argues that while India is destined to be the largest country in the world, its
population will peak by mid-century.
Population explosion, or overpopulation results in poverty. As there are

more mouths to feed, even after more hands to earn, the distribution of
resources and population is uneven all over the globe, in general and in
India, in particular. Population policy is needed to reduce poverty, to
enhance gender equality, to provide good, equal and quality education to all
so that socio-economic strata of society becomes more stable, to maintain
good health and well-being of all the people and most importantly, to curb
the high population growth.
G. Myrdal also argues that a population programme must work itself into
the whole fabric of social life.
PYQ 1. Discuss the salient features of the population policy of Government of

India. What Modifications would you suggest to make it more effective?
(2006/60)

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2. Comment on the influence of social and cultural factors on family

planning in India. (2009/30)
| 39. Urban Poverty |
The hand drawn illustration and news article snippet are clearly visible on STEP-UP SERIES portal.

article
Syllabus Paper 1
Topic Stratification and Mobility:
Concepts poverty and deprivation.

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Paper 2
Challenges of Social Transformation: Poverty, deprivation and inequalities
Rural and Agrarian Transformation in India: Migration
Several types of problems faced by the poor in cities

● Housing Vulnerability: They have no ownership rights and entitlements.
Related According to Census 2011, 17.7% of urban population comprising 65 million
Theory people lives in slums.
● Economic Vulnerability: Irregular employment with low wages makes
them more vulnerable. This restricts availability of formal credit from banks,
they have no access to formal safety net programmes, and productive assets.
● Social Vulnerability: The income inequality creates divergence between
lower strata of society i.e. poor and middle class. It increases social
differences in education and skill development programmes.
● Personal Vulnerability: At personal level, poor are more vulnerable for
getting social justice in their day to-day work. The poor are victims of all
types of injustice and violence. Particularly, low caste people and minorities,
especially women, children, the elderly, disabled and destitute have no
access to social justice.
PYQ 1. Discuss the dynamics of ‘migrant workers’ in India in the context of Corona
pandemic. (2020/20marks)
2. What are the issues relating to male migration and its impact on birth rate?
Does it necessarily result in skewed sex-ratio? (2018/20marks)
3. What are the sociological reasons and implication of “reverse migration"
during the recent pandemic in India ? (2021/20marks)
.Add on points for Sociology
| 40.Gail Omvedt|

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Sociological thinkers
Related Theory Click Here

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PYQ 1. Compare the problems of a dalit poor family living in an urban slum with
a similar type of family living in a rural setting. (2017/10 Marks)
2. Write a short note with a sociological perspective: Different forms of
Dalit assertion. (2016/10Marks)
3. Describe the impact of land reforms on the peasants of Indian society
(2014/20 Marks)
4. Comment on the factors responsible for the growth and consolidation of
middle level peasantry in rural India. How is it related to capitalism in
Indian agriculture? (2011/30 Marks)
5. Analyze the term dalit and the evolution of the related concept as a
reflection of the changing consciousness and self assertion of the dalit
community (2011/30 Marks)
| 41.Gig Economy|

Works and Economic Life: Labour and Society
Paper 2
Industrialization and Urbanization In India:- Working class:
structure

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Related Theory
A
gig economy is a free market system in which temporary positions are
common and organizations contract with independent workers for
short-term engagements. So, instead of a regular wage, workers get paid for
“gigs”.
Sociological analysis of Gig economy:

● A mixture of both employee and employer characteristics( job
seeker and entrepreneurship)- Rise of Portfolio Worker.
● It also shows the rise of the Post-Industrial State.
● In the digital age, the worker need not sit at a fixed location; the job
can be done from anywhere, so employers can select the best talent
available for a project without being bound by geography.
(Unbound jobs).
● It is a natural corollary of Globalization- borderless
connectivity through improved telecommunications and rise of
digitization.
● An absence of Social security -like provident fund, medical
benefits, retirement corpus etc.
● Sociologists say though the independence may be
appealing in the beginning once the competition increases
survival complex, most of them are freelancers hence do
not get much recognition. It also leads to identity-crisis.
● Atomization of Work-the replacement of long-term, full-time
work with benefits, and a career path, with occasional, short-term
contract gigs without benefits or any escalating career structure.
● The rise of Risk society- As said by Ulrich Beck – modern
society instead of reducing risks to its populace it is increasing it.

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(Internal Contradiction).
● Gig workers lack bargaining power as there is lack of
Unionization.e.g: Ola, Uber driver demands falling on deaf ears.
● It can be a deliberate choice due to lack of interest in work or a
forced one due to career breaks, inability to find full-time
employment etc.
PYQ 1. What is 'informal labour'? Discuss the need for and challenges in
regulating informal labour in post-industrial society.(2019 /20
marks)
2. What do you understand by 'informalisation of labour'? Write your
answer with special reference to India.(2017/10 marks)
3. "Globalization has pushed the labour into informal organization of
work". Substantiate your answer with suitable examples.(2016/10
marks)
| 42.Bureaucracy -Sociological Way|

Sociological Thinkers: Max Weber : Bureaucracy

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Related Theory
SOCIOLOGICAL DIMENSIONS of MISSION KARMAYOGI
Mission Karmayogi or National Programme for Civil Services Capacity

Building (NPCSCB)
● Capacity Building scheme for Indian civil servants to prepare them

for the future, by making them "creative, constructive and
innovative through transparency and technology."
● Two paths, self driven, where the official can choose field of interest,
and guided, where officials will be provided with the wherewithal to
perform their jobs effectively.
● To be delivered through the iGOT Karmayogi digital platform.
● NPCSCB to be governed by the Prime Minister’s Human Resource

Council comprising state Chief Ministers, Union Cabinet ministers
and experts.
● Capacity Building Commission comprising experts and global

professionals to prepare and monitor annual capacity building plans
and audit human resources available with the government.
● The schemes will be accessible for all, from section officers to

secretaries.

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PYQ 1. Which concepts did Weber use to analyze the forms of legitimate
domination? (2015 / 1o marks).
2. How does Weber use the notion of ideal types in his theory of
bureaucracy? (2014/ 20 marks).
| 43.Caste and Economy|
Link to the article Click here

Sociology the Discipline:comparison with other social sciences
(Economics)
Paper 2
Rural and Agrarian Social Structure- Agrarian structure -Land
Reforms |
Caste System
Related Theory The caste system in India shapes the ownership pattern of land and capital.
It has led to ownership and land inequality. India has one of the highest
land inequalities in the world today. It started under British rule. They
assigned land ownership to proper cultivators who belong to certain castes
at the expense of others/laborers belonging to lower castes who cultivate

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granted/gifted lands. It is still reflected in the post-independent

land ownership pattern in India because Dalits and lower castes
remained excluded in the post-independent land reforms.
The relation between caste system , economic reforms and land

productivity and growth:-
● The farm cultivators could not transform into the capitalist

entrepreneurs in the modern sectors, except a few castes in
western and southern India.
● There is an elite bias in higher education. Further, it is found

that there is a historical neglect of mass education.The Indian
education system has been suffering from an elite bias since colonial
times. These elite were largely from upper castes. This has
continued in post-independent India. The service growth since 1991
reforms is an outcome of this historic elite bias in education.
● Caste system generated a barrier to entrepreneurship. It

was done through its rigid social control and networks which
facilitated economic mobility for some and erects barriers for others
in the modern sector.
PYQ 1. Examine the changing initiatives of the land tenure system in India.
(2019 / 10 marks).

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2. Analyze the major components of Land Reform Acts. Show their

effectiveness in curbing rural inequality. (2016/10 Marks).
| 44.Indian Abortion Laws|

Population Dynamics: Population Policy and family planning. Emerging
issues: Reproductive health.
Related Theory Reproductive rights:These are the rights of individuals to decide

whether to reproduce and have reproductive health. This may include an
individual's right to plan a family, terminate a pregnancy, use
contraceptives, gain access to reproductive health services, learn about sex
education in public schools, and gain access to reproductive health services.
Significance of Reproductive rights for women

● As a Human right: Being able to make decisions about your own
bodies and lives is a basic human right.
● Importance for maternal healthcare: Access to
contraception,birth control and safe and hygienic abortion services
and timely and well spaced pregnancies are crucial to reduce
maternal mortality rate and ensure maternal and newborn health.
● Maternal Mortality Rate (proportion of maternal deaths per
1,00,000 live births reported) of India was 122 in 2015-17.
● Women’s social and economic advancement: Women’s

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ability to obtain and effectively use contraceptives has a positive

impact on their education and workforce participation, as well as on
subsequent outcomes related to income, family stability, mental
health and happiness, and children’s well-being.
Associated problems:
1. Challenges in the public health system: It faces an array of
issues, including low public investment, poor infrastructure,
inadequate medical and diagnostic facilities, and inadequately
skilled human resources etc.
2. Societal pressures: There exists a social stigma related to
abortion and contraception and sex education are taboo topics in
India. Unmarried women have limited access to birth control due to
such pressures.
3. Patriarchal structure:It affects women’s agency to make free
reproductive choices and also leads to women undergoing unsafe
abortions and sterilizations to avoid unwanted pregnancies.

(2017/10)
3. Write a short note on Fertility and population growth. (2009/20
Add on content

| 45. Caste and Marriage|

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Stratification and Mobility: Dimensions – Social stratification of
status groups.
Paper 2
Caste System: Untouchability - forms and perspectives.
Challenges of social transformation: Caste-conflicts.
(Inter-Caste Marriages)

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Related Theory
● Intermarriage lies at the heart of intergroup relations. Increased

rates of intermarriage in a society are considered a measure of
assimilation of different groups (Pagnini and Morgan). But in
Indian society, even though a multitude of castes and sub-castes
existed together for centuries, they were not assimilated because of
the rigid caste system.
● In addition, the lack of strict enforcement of registration of all
marriages makes it very difficult to state with any certainty the
prevailing rates of intercaste marriages in Indian society.
● This change in the marriage pattern in India is a very recent

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phenomenon due to the impact of modernization, socio-economic

development and globalization of the Indian economy. Various
socio-economic and demographic factors also affect the pattern of
inter-caste marriages in India.
There is a significant spatial variation in the pattern of inter-caste

marriages. There seems to be higher inter-caste marriages in
socio-economically developed states like Punjab, Haryana,
Assam, Maharashtra and Karnataka in comparison with the
socio-economically backward states of northern India namely
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan.
It is expected that the incidence of such inter-caste marriages will increase

with degree of modernization and socio-economic development. There is a
need to glorify, give media exposure and encourage such marriages in order
to reduce the caste barrier prevalent in Indian society. India will require
long time yet to come when the marriage system in India will be completely
feed of caste discrimination.
Inter-caste marriages are the only means of completely eradicating the

caste barriers in India, whether urban or rural. The initiative should begin
from the urban areas proceeding towards the rural areas as the urban areas
have a cosmopolitan educated and well aware population making it easier
to promote inter-caste marriages
PYQ 1. Rising 'ethnocentricism' is leading to conflict in our society. Assess

this statement with appropriate reasons. (2021/20marks).
2. What are the various forms of untouchability in India ? Critically
examine.(2021/10 marks)
3. "The Indian caste system is unique and has been unhealthy for the
growth of sociology of India." How far do you agree with this
view?(2020/10 marks)
4. Has the caste system hindered democracy and adult franchise in
India. Discuss.(2018/10 marks)
5. Critically assess the forms in which untouchability continues to be
practiced.2010/ 30 marks)
| 46.Women’s Marriageable Age|

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Population Dynamics:
Population Policy and family planning.
Emerging issues: reproductive health
Related Theory

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(2017/10 marks)
2. Write a short note on Reproductive Health. (2008/20 marks)
3. Write a short note on Fertility and population growth. (2009/20 marks)
| 47.Disparities in Digital learning|

Sociology - The Discipline: Sociology and Economics
Paper 2
Challenges of Social Transformation: Illiteracy and disparities in

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presents
education
PYQ 1. Education is a major source of social mobility in contemporary

society. Explain. (2016/20 marks) .
2. Education helps in perpetuating social and economic inequalities.
Critically examine the statement. (2015/20 marks).
| 48.Poverty and Deprivation|

Stratification and Mobility: Concepts- poverty and deprivation
Paper 2
Challenges of Social Transformation : Poverty, deprivation and
inequalities
Rural and Agrarian Transformation in India: Migration
Related Theory Reason for rising urban unemployment:-
Slowdown in Major Employment Generating Sector: The shrinking

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sectors that have been affected the most —construction (–50%), trade,
hotels and other services (–47%), manufacturing (–39%), and mining
(–23%) — are those that create the maximum jobs in the economy.
Reverse Migration: The magnitude of economic slowdown can be

exemplified by a wave of massive ‘reverse migration’ during the early phase
of the lockdown whereby millions of workers returned to their home States
due to a loss of livelihoods in cities.
Vulnerable Informal Sector: Vulnerable employment is characterized

by inadequate earnings, low productivity and difficult conditions of work
that undermine the basic rights of workers.
Increasing Number of Working Poor: The poor quality of jobs and

high informality are key for the high level of “working poors”. The working
poor are working people whose incomes fall below a given poverty line due
to low-income jobs and low familial household income.

Corona pandemic. (2020/20 marks)
2. What are the issues relating to male migration and its impact on
birth rate? Does it necessarily result in skewed sex-ratio? (2018/20
marks)
3. What are the sociological reasons and implication of “reverse
migration" during the recent pandemic in India ? (2021/20 marks)
| 49.Maternal Mortality|

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Population Dynamics
Emerging issues: Child and infant mortality, Reproductive health.
Related Theory
SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF MATERNAL MORTALITY:-

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(2017/10 marks).
2. Write a short note on Reproductive Health. (2008/20 marks).

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3. Write a short note on Fertility and population growth. (2009/20 marks).
| 50.Women’s Commodification|

Systems of Kinship: Patriarchy

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Paper 2
Systems of Kinship in India: Patriarchy
Related Theory ● Theory of rape

1. Biological theory
2. Commodification theory
3. Developmental theory
4. Rape as gender based hate-crime
5. Control theory
● Feminists - rape acts as social control in patriarchal society

● Faulty socialization (Mead)
PYQ 1. Write a short note on the nature of atrocities on married women.

(2014/20 marks)
2. Discuss in detail atrocities women and suggest annihilative measures for
them (2004/30 marks)
Part 2 will be released on our Telegram channel

https://t.me/sociologyAndSocialIssues
Visit www.reliableANDvalid.com for courses on:
● UPSC Sociology current affairs
● ARSENAL: Visualisation driven comprehensive course for UPSC Sociology. For every topic
of the UPSC Sociology syllabus, the portal has study materials, question bank, current affairs,
terms and definitions, videos, animations, diagrams etc.
● UPSC Sociology answer writing practice for 2022 and 2023
● ELEVATOR: UPSC Sociology test series | Full Length Tests

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Email id: musmuna95@gmail.com
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Click here for TABLE OF CONTENT

Link to the article is given below

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● Women engaged as manual scavengers face pressure from the community

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Link to the article is given below

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NEW FORMS OF DISCRIMINATIION AGAINST MINORITIES

Issues associated with untouchability laws

Problems faced by Minorities in India:

Other problems faced:

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3. Problem of providing protection

Sachar Committee Report of 2006 has highlighted that Muslims in India

| 3.Women and Population Policy|

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Link to the article is given below

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Related National Population Policy 2000

According to J.J. Spengler, national population policy covers all such

Women-Specific Findings of NFHS 5: The Positive Side

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| 4.LGBTQ+ Issues A Sociological Dimension |

Link to the article is given below

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Syllabus Topic Paper 1

Related Theory Let’s know different terms associated with sexuality:

Issues faced by the transgender community in India :-

1. Social exclusion due to factors such as-

2. Barriers in accessing health care services, because of the lack

3. Discrimination in the legal and policy discourse: They face

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discrimination in family and civil laws. For example, The Hindu

4. Prone to multiple forms of violence: including child abuse,

MUST READ :-https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5044929/

PYQ 1. What do you understand by LGBTQ? Comment on the issues

|5.Glass Cliff- New Dimension of Women

Link to the article is given below

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Syllabus Topic Paper 1

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● Glass cliff mainly refers to the obstacles faced by women,

PYQ 1. Define patriarchy. How does patriarchy manifest in interpersonal

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2. What are the possible underlying causes of the spurt of increased

Toppers’ Answer Copy

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| 6.Sex Work -Sociological Dimension |

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Related Sociological theories on Prostitution