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Chapter 17
Comminution
The comminution processes of crushing and milling are widely used in ceramic processing to reduce the average
particle size of a material, to liberate impurities and reduce the porosity of particles, to modify the particle size
distribution, to disperse agglomerates and aggregates, to reduce the maximum particle size, to increase the content of
colloids, and to modify the shape of particles. Some milling processes also provide effective dispersion and mixing,
which is discussed in Chapter 18, and are used to provide communication and mixing simultaneously. The ceramic
processing engineer must be familiar with these very important processes, which can have such a large impact on the
rheology, fabrication behavior, sintering behavior, and ultimate microstructure of the product.
17.1
Comminution Equipment
Primary crushers such as jaw crushers and cone crushers (Fig. 17.1), which produce compression and shear stresses
(nipping), are commonly used individually or in series to reduce the size of coarse feed to an average size ranging down
to about 5 mm or larger in size. Crushing rolls may be used to reduce less coarse feed to below 1 mm. In a hammer mill,
rotating hammers pulverize particles of a brittle but relatively soft material and force the fines through the openings in a
circular, wear-resistant screen (Fig. 17.2). A hammer mill is capable of producing a large reduction in size, down to
about 0.1 mm. One or more of a variety of mills may then be used to further reduce the average particle size, as
indicated in Fig. 17.3. Common mills used for grinding ceramic
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Fig. 17.1
Jaw and rotary crushers.
(Courtesy of Sturtevant Inc., Boston.)
materials are ball mills, vibratory mills, attrition mills, fluid energy mills, and roller mills.
A ball mill is a hollow rotating cylinder or conical cylinder partially filled with hard, wear-resistant media having the
shape of rods, short cylinders, balls, or pebbles, and granular feed material (Fig. 17.4). The mill may be as simple as a
plastic bottle or porcelain jar, or a steel cylindrical shell with a hard, wear-resistant ceramic or hardened steel lining.
Industrial mills range in diameter from several centimeters with a capacity of several grams to several meters in
diameter with a capacity of several tons. The tumbling media in a rotating mill produce a grinding action by impacting
and shearing the particles on their surfaces. Operating variables include the size and angular velocity of the mill, the size
of the media relative to the size of the feed material, the loading of the mill, the relative volumes of media and feed
material, the physical characteristics of the media, agglomeration of feed or product, and, in wet milling,
Fig. 17.2
Roll crusher and hammer mill.
(Courtesy of Sturtevant Inc., Boston.)
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Fig. 17.3
Nominal feed and product mean size capabilities of industrial
equipment.
[From W. Summers, Am. Ceram. Soc. Bull., 62(2),0213 (1983).]

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Fig. 17.4
Schematic diagram of ball mill showing
media cascading from A to B and
subsequent media movement.

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the viscosity of the slurry during milling. In continuous ball milling, dry feed material is continually added, and the
forced convection of air through the mill entrains and removes fine particles. Ball mills are typically used to produce <
200 and < 325 mesh materials with a wide size distribution, more narrow distributions with a mean size of several
microns, and to deagglomerate and mix slurries and powders.
Industrial vibratory mills are either of the horizontal tube type or the vertical torus type (Fig. 17.5). Low-amplitude mills
are used for wet grinding submillimeter feed material to a submicron size with a minimum of wear and contamination.
High-amplitude mills are used for the wet or dry grinding of coarse feed and to obtain a wider size distribution. The
high-amplitude mill is also a satisfactory mixer. The vertical-type vibratory mill is nearly completely filled with
cylindrical media and the feed slurry. Weights mounted eccentrically control the vibration pattern and reduce the power
to maintain the vibration. Vibratory mills used in wet grinding usually have a rubber or ceramic lining and are supported
on rubber or metal springs. Media acceleration produces an impact energy that is significantly greater than the energy in
ball milling.
Fig. 17.5
Schematic of vibratory wet grinding mill.
(Courtesy of SWECO Inc., Florence, KY.)

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Milling may be continuous in some models. With vibrations, discharge is quick even when the product is a
pseudoplastic suspension. Vibratory mills are used industrially for milling a wide variety of ceramic materials to a
particle size that is a few microns or smaller. The grinding capacity of a large vibratory mill is limited to about 2 tons
per hour, which is much smaller than can be achieved using a large ball mill.
A planetary attrition mill is a stirred media mill. A central shaft with arms rotating at 16 Hz continually stirs the slurry
of particles and spherical media 0.31.0 cm and provides a means to vary the grinding energy (Fig. 17.6). Intense rolling
and in-line impacts are produced by the differential velocity of media moving around the agitator arm into the cavity
behind the trailing edge. The stirred media mill is used industrially for wet grinding to below 1 µm and for the
dispersion of agglomerates of submicron particles. A pumping system in production models maintains circulation and
uniformity of the slurry and is used for discharge. Oxidizable particles such as carbides and nitrides can be milled under
an inert gas atmosphere, and a thermal jacket can be used to control the slurry temperature. Slurry capacities are quite
large and continuous models are available. In a high-speed attrition mill, small grinding media and granular material are
intensely agitated at 2030 Hz to produce turbulence between a cylindrical rotor and a stator. The intense milling action
produces considerable heat, and water cooling is required. Contamination due to wear of the mill lining and media is
considerable and is commonly eliminated by chemical leaching, sedimentation, or magnetic separation. Attrition
grinding is used for producing submicron powders of hard refractory oxides, carbides, nitrides, titania pigments, and
paper-grade kaolin.
Fluid energy mills grind and classify in a single chamber. Feed material finer than about 5 mm may be either hard or
soft in nature. Impacts and attrition between high-speed particles entrained in a fluid and moving in a circular orbit
provide the grinding action. Centrifugal force causes oversize particles to remain in the peripheral grinding zone, but
fines are drawn off in a central
Fig. 17.6
Recirculating stirred media attrition mill.
(Courtesy of Union Process
Inc., Akron, OH.)

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collector. The particle size and output of the product are controlled by the propellant pressure and the material feed rate.
Mill capacities range from a few grams to several tons per hour. Mill linings may be wear-resistant hard materials or
expendable plastic liners. Product heating in a fluid energy mill is lower than in other dry grinding operations, and an
inert or nonoxidizing atmosphere such as N2 may be used.
A roller mill in which feed material passes between a rotating table and arm supported rollers, and the disk mill in
which material passes between a stationary and a rotating grinding disk are used for the comminution of moderately
hard clays and porous calcined aggregates which break down under moderate stress.
Precious-metal inks of a relatively high viscosity used for electrodes and conduction paths in electronic ceramics and for
decorating china and glass are commonly milled in a small, three-roller mill. The viscous paste adheres to the rolls.
Differential roller speeds produce high shear stresses for dispersion and a precisely controlled particle size.
17.2
Loading and Fracture of Particles
Crushing and milling operations produce both compressive and shear loads on particles. Falling or vibrating media may
produce a compressive in-line impact (Fig. 17.7). Shear is produced when a particle is seized between two surfaces
moving with different velocities. Attrition is produced by frictional stresses. In milling situations using large media or
rollers a combination of in-line and rolling impacts can occur. The role of attrition increases as the media size and
impact force decrease and as the frequency of rubbing contacts increases.
Fig. 17.7
Shear stresses in particles produced by
rolling and rubbing actions and shear and
tensile stresses produced by compressive
loading.

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The grinding energy produced during milling is proportional to the mass (m) and the change in velocity (v) of the media
on impact:
The mass is increased by using media of a larger size or density (Table 17.1). Media with a high elastic modulus can
produce a high dv/dt; media must also be hard, fine-grained, and nonporous to resist abrasive wear. Using the tetragonal
to monoclinic phase transition in partially stabilized zirconia particles as an index of the grinding stress on milling, we
see in Fig. 17.8 that vibratory milling with dense media produces a much greater stress than is produced in ball milling.
Viscous flow and anelastic deformation reduce the grinding stress. When grinding an anelastic material the impact load
on the particle is lower, because the anelastic deformation reduces dv/dt. Deformable dense materials and porous
agglomerates and aggregates are somewhat anelastic.
During milling, shear and tensile stresses are produced by in-line compressive loads. Shear is also produced by rolling
loads, and attrition is produced by the sliding and rubbing of particles between hard surfaces. The initial tensile and
shear fracture of large particles is expected in microscopic regions of intensified stress produced by point loads and
preexisting defects, as indicated in Fig. 17.9. The reduction of the fracture strength Sf of a material due to the presence
of stress-intensifying flaws of depth c is described by the equation
where y is a constant that depends on a flaw geometry and KIc is the fracture toughness parameter that includes the
work required to extend the crack. Microfissures at the edges and surfaces of particles, surface pores, and internal
microcracks and pores which increase c reduce the fracture strength of brittle particles. Fracture fragments containing
defects that produce a smaller stress intensification are more resistant to grinding. Dense particles with a finer grain
Table 17.1 Density of Industrial Grinding Media

Material Density (Mg/m3)
Flint pebbles 2.4
Porcelain 2.3
Steatite porcelain 2.7
High-density alumina 3.6
Zircon 3.7
Zirconia 5.5
Steel (hardened or carburized) 7.8
Tungsten carbide
15.6

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Fig. 17.8
Grinding stresses produced during ball milling a zirconia
slurry with alumina media are relatively low and less than
produced by hand grinding; when vibratory milling in
a high-energy vibratory shaker with tungsten carbide
media, the stress is much more intense. (Determined
from tetragonal to monoclinic phase transformation
in zirconia powder.)
Fig. 17.9
Microstructural defects reduce the strength and
grinding resistance of a particle.

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size and higher fracture toughness are more resistant to attrition. Abrasion grinding may increase the concentration of
edge and surface flaws, which can aid in fracture. Particles exhibiting anelastic deformation are tougher particles.
Attrition is more important for the grinding of anelastic particles and particles finer than a few microns. Particles having
a glassy matrix are less tough below their glass transformation temperature.
In general, the mean size of fracture fragments is smaller when the impact force is higher, but the reduction ratio is also
very dependent on the microstructure of the particle. Microstructures, intergranular fracture paths, and material defects
that cause crack branching may increase the apparent reduction ratio. As seen in Fig. 17.10, the milling rate of coarse-
grinding tabular alumina is midway between that of single-crystal fused alumina particles and a calcined, porous, finer-
grained alumina aggregate.
Fig. 17.10
Alumina particles having a higher density and strength are
more grinding resistant.
(Data courtesy of SWECO Inc., Florence, KY.)

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Milling also produces atomic-scale lattice defects in particles, as revealed by an observed increase in the dislocation
density, a change in the index of refraction, a phase transition, and a reduction of the coercive force of hard ferrite
particles. These effects are usually less pronounced in wet ball milling, where the impact stresses are lower. When
grinding calcined aggregates that contain fine crystals dispersed in a matrix phase, chemical leaching of a less resistant
matrix phase by the milling liquid significantly reduce the milling time and lattice damage.
Chemical mechanisms other than leaching may improve or retard comminution in a particular mill. Water and other
chemical species may be adsorbed in cracks and reduce the strength of the material, which should aid grinding.
However, water vapor often causes agglomeration in dry milling. Agglomerates absorb some of the impact energy,
reducing the energy for particle fracture, and a ''hard pack" of agglomerates on the lining of the mill isolates particles
from the milling process. Surfactants such as alcohols, oleic acid, glycols, and silicones added at a concentration less
than 1% can minimize agglomeration and powder packing. Control of agglomeration is required for efficient and
Fig. 17.11
Ball milling for 0.5 h using 1 cm media produces relatively
isometric fracture fragments from silica fibers of high-aspect ratio.

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Fig. 17.12
Large angular particles of refractory-grade zirconia are
rounded by attrition during ball milling for 3 h.
reproducible grinding. In wet milling, a deflocculant is added to disperse agglomerates and to increase the solids loading
in the slurry. The deflocculant used should not degrade during the milling process.
It is generally observed that mineral particles from compression crushers and hammer mills are more angular and
anisometric than particles produced by grinding. Particles with a low aspect ratio are produced rapidly on ball milling
very uniform glass fibers, as is shown in Fig. 17.11. After 1 h no fibers are observed and the preponderance of particle
surfaces are fracture surfaces. Both fresh angular fracture surfaces and rounded surfaces due to attrition are observed in
ball-milled, stabilized refractory zirconia with a feed size of 200500 µm (Fig. 17.12).
17.3
Milling Performance
Although the choice of a mill may depend on the ultimate capital cost, capacity, period of a milling cycle, particle size
distribution, and material factors, the mill selected must be used efficiently commensurate with wear and maintenance

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expense. We can gain insight into factors effecting milling performance by examining Eq. 17.3.
Media Collision Frequency
The probability of fracture is higher statistically when the frequency of collisions is higher (Fig. 17.13). The collision
frequency per unit volume of the mill increases rapidly with a decrease in the size of the media (Eq. 13.2) and an
increase in the media velocity, which is higher in attrition mills and vibratory mills. In ball mills, the frequency of
impacts is limited by the tumbling velocity and the one-dimensional nature of impacts, and because the mill is only
partially filled. During ball milling, collisions causing grinding occur primarily in the tumbling layers near the center. In
vibratory and attrition mills, collisions causing grinding occur between a relatively larger fraction of media at some
instant of time.
Fig. 17.13
Change in mean particle size of a deflocculated slurry containing 30 vol% of a
grinding-resistant calcined alumina powder when milling in a ball mill and in
a planetary attrition mill at different rotational speeds.
(Courtesy of Mary Kerr, Alfred University.)

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Particle Impact Frequency
The probability of hitting a particle during a collision is higher for cylindrical media, which pack more densely with
finer interstices. In vibratory mills, both area and line impact zones occur, as shown in Fig. 17.14. The probability of an
impact also increases as the concentration of particles on the surface of the media increases and when the particles are
more uniform in size. Particles become more numerous as the particle size decreases. Agglomeration reduces the
frequency of impacts. In wet milling, the slurry viscosity should be high enough to reduce the particle mobility and
maintain a uniform coating on the media and retain particles in the impact zone.
Particle Fracture
The probability of fracture is high when the grinding stress is large and the strength of the particles is low.
Agglomerates may disperse on impact but absorb energy needed for fracture or attrition. Collision forces are dissipated
when the slurry viscosity at the shear rate of milling is too high. A combination of shear and compression stresses may
enhance the fracture of tough particles of a micron size. Crack branching during fracture produces finer fragments (i.e.,
the reduction ratio is larger); this is enhanced in crystals of low symmetry, in flaw-loaded particles, and when the
fracture velocity is higher (higher impact force, chemical interaction at the crack tip). The relative reduction ratio
generally decreases as the particle size becomes smaller.
The factors in Eq. 17.3 indicate that the rate of size reduction decreases as the particles become finer and when no
deflocculant is present to prevent the formation of agglomerates. For efficient milling of a slurry, the slurry should be
deflocculated to disperse agglomerates, and the solids content should be increased to develop a coating of an adequate
viscosity on the media to prevent the escape of particles from the grinding zone but not completely dissipate the
grinding stress (Fig. 17.15); this will also minimize media wear and slurry contamination. Larger media are used for
larger and stronger feed particles.
Fig. 17.14
Line and area impact zones between cylindrical
media produce a higher frequency of impact than
for spheres.

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Fig. 17.15
The grinding rate of a 95% alumina body for alumina
substrates is increased on increasing the solids content
and viscosity of the deflocculated slurry.
Smaller media, ranging down to about 1 mm in diameter, are used for milling micron-size particles or dispersing
agglomerates, because the rate of fine grinding is very dependent on the frequency of collisions. A grinding action that
increases both the frequency and energy of the collisions increases the rate of milling.
17.4
Milling Practice
In ball milling, impact occurs between tumbling media; attrition also occurs between these media and other rotating
media near the bottom. The height of the media before cascading is a function of the media charge, solids loading,
angular speed, and the viscosity of the suspension in wet milling. The critical angular frequency cr(Hz) causing
centrifuging is
where R (meters) is the radius of the mill. Adhesion produced by a viscous slurry that wets the mill effectively reduces
cr and the mill is normally operated at (0.650.85) cr to produce a maximum media height of 5060° measured from
the horizontal through the center of rotation. A lining with baffle bars may be used to minimize media slippage.
Typically, the media charge is about 50% of the volume of the mill, and powder or slurry is added to slightly exceed the
void spaces in the media; this combination provides a good compromise between grinding efficiency and rate of wear of
the media and lining. Wear

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increases rapidly when the material does not fill the interstices between the media. The wear resistance of the media and
lining should be matched. Smaller media charges and higher material loading are often used when dispersing
agglomerates and mixing are the primary objectives. More wear-resistant media are used for tough materials and when
wear particles are a contaminant in the product. The net cost of media and mill linings may favor low-cost, less wear-
resistant media for easily milled material when the wear particles are acceptable in the milled product. Media exceeding
8 cm in diameter are available. Media 1.3 cm in diameter are very popular, and 0.6 media are extensively used for fine
grinding. Media of mixed size may wear more rapidly unless the feed particles are soft. In general, the ratio of media
size to feed size should exceed 25 to 1. Higher-density and/or larger media are used when the viscosity of the
suspension is high. In wet milling the viscosity of the deflocculated slurry is in the range 5002000 mPa·s at the milling
temperature. The viscosity should be sufficient to form a film of slurry on the media, which holds particles in the impact
zone and protects media from wear, and to minimize slippage between the media and the wall of the mill. Results
indicate that when milling to a micron-size chemical deflocculation is critical, the viscosity should not be increased by
partial flocculation. When milling a deflocculated slurry, the viscosity may decrease with milling time as more colloids
are produced or as the packing efficiency increases.
Low-amplitude wet vibratory milling is normally limited to feed sizes smaller than 250 µm, but feed sizes may range up
to about 1.25 cm in high-amplitude mills. Cylindrical media 1.3 cm in diameter are recommended for low-amplitude
milling to a fine size, because smaller media do not produce a uniform distribution of vibration energy. Larger media
are used in high-amplitude mills. Grinding rates in terms of the increase in the specific surface area of the product are
reported to be 1050% greater than for ball milling when the eccentric weights are properly adjusted. The viscosity of the
feed suspension is normally the maximum that can be discharged from the mill with vibration. In low-amplitude
milling, the feed suspension should be premixed and fill the void space between the media. Comparative results for the
milling of silicon carbide and zircon sand to a submicron size, as shown in Fig. 17.16, indicate that power consumption
and media wear are about seven times lower for vibratory milling.
Feed material in attrition mills is usually finer than about 50 µm, and the solids content of slurries can range from 30%
to 70%. The size of the spherical grinding media is in the range of 0.55 mm. Attrition mills are operated at a velocity
that produces turbulence and an increase in the apparent volume of the fluidized charge of slurry and media. Very rapid
attrition is produced by the intense combined compression and shearing stresses, and the frequency of collisions is very
high.
Compressed air, superheated steam, or compressed inert gases may be used as the dynamic medium in fluid energy
milling. Feed material may range up to several millimeters in size.

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Fig. 17.16
Grinding results for calcined alumina, silicon carbide, and zircon and the power
consumption and media wear for vibratory and ball milling of zircon under optimal
conditions.
(Courtesy of SWECO Inc., Florence, KY.)
17.5
Particle Size Distributions

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The particle size distribution of the milled product will vary with the grain size and fracture behavior of particles of the
feed material and the type of mill and its operating conditions. The grain size distribution in many calcined materials is
approximately log-normal if regular grain growth has occurred, and the particle size distribution of the milled product is
often approximately log-normal if milling disperses the grains. On grinding materials containing particles that are
amorphous or single crystals, a somewhat different size distribution that is a function of their different fracture behavior
may be produced.

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The particle size distribution after the industrial ball milling of a < 200 mesh calcined alumina composed of particles
that are aggregates of grains finer than 5 µm is shown in Fig. 17.17. The finest particle size is about 0.1 µm, and the
distributions are log-normal in form. Milling preferentially reduces particles coarser than the geometric mean and
adds to the concentration of fines smaller than . The maximum particle size decreases slowly, and the distribution
remains skewed to larger sizes. Particles as coarse as 30 µm remain after milling for 20,000 revolutions. The general
effect of increasing the material loading of the mill is to decrease the rate of reduction of the maximum size, and a very
broad size range is produced. Dry ball milling typically produces fewer submicron particles because of agglomeration.
The comparative log-normal distribution of sizes produced on ball milling and vibratory milling a calcined, aggregated
alumina is shown in Fig. 17.18. A smaller maximum size and a narrower particle size distribution are obtained after
vibratory milling, because larger particles are less likely to escape impact in three-dimensional vibratory milling using
cylindrical media. Vibratory milling is typically used to grind refractory oxides such as alumina and zirconia to a size
finer than 10 µm and titanates and ferrites for electroceramics and zircon opacifiers with a size range of about 0.11 µm.
Attrition milling produces powders having a relatively narrow size distri-
Fig. 17.17
Change in size distribution M(a) with mill revolutions
on wet ball milling a 200-mesh calcined alumina.

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Fig. 17.18
Size distributions M(ln a) of 60-mesh calcined alumina
after vibratory and ball milling under optimal conditions
(log-normal distribution: ball mill and g =
2.24; vibratory mill and g = 1.97).
(Data courtesy of SWECO Inc., Florence, KY.)
bution with a mean size ranging from a few microns to less than 0.1 µm. Fluid energy milling is used to obtain a narrow
particle size distribution with an average particle size below 10 µm and relatively little submicron material.
The rate of size reduction of dense hard particles such as zircon, alumina, and silicon carbide decreases rapidly when the
mean size is less than about 1 µm in ball milling, less than 0.5 µm in vibratory milling, and less than about 0.1 µm
in attrition milling. For each material and mill, there is a practical grinding limit that is a function of the grinding energy
and the strength and toughness of the particles.
17.6
Milling Efficiency
The history of comminution is replete with equations attempting to describe energy consumption during milling. A
quantitative description of milling can aid in selecting comminution equipment, in optimizing the design and operation
of a particular mill, and in understanding the mechanics of material breakdown for different milling conditions. In
industrial milling situations, the kinetic impact energy is only a fraction of the total energy input. Considerably more
energy is consumed in accelerating the container and media, the elastic compression of media and lining materials,
shearing viscous liquid, and as heat.
Charles* studied the fracture of glass cylinders of size ao using a dropped weight crusher of constant mass and observed
that the characteristic mean size
* R. J. Charles, Trans. AIME, 208, 8088 (1957).

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of the crushed product could be correlated to the kinetic energy input UK:
The parameters A and n (n > 1) are empirical constants for a particular material and constant mode of fracture. This
relation was later confirmed for the compressive fracture of glass spheres. An implication of Eq. 17.5 is that the energy
for size reduction increases rapidly as the product size decreases.
In milling, the total energy input in producing a unit of product, UT, is commonly monitored. A general empirical
equation which often approximates the dependence of UT on a characteristic mean particle size during milling is:
where Ac is an efficiency constant for a particular milling system and m is a fracture constant for a particular material.
Equation 17.6 may be expected to describe the dependence of the energy consumption on particle size during milling
when the fracture mode and general form of the size distribution remain constant, so that a single characteristic size can
be used to represent the size distribution. The constant m, indicating the particle size dependence, is listed in Table 17.2
for several different materials. Higher values are observed for porous aggregates of fine grains, as would be expected
from fracture theory. As is indicated in Table 17.3 for the milling of zircon to a submicron mean size, the lower value of
Ac for vibratory milling indicates that the specific energy consumption is less than for ball milling. For the stirred
media, mill, the exponent m is constant for both materials, but the apparent efficiency is much higher for the softer
limestone.
Results such as those presented in Table 17.3 may be used to evaluate the effect of changing milling conditions or to
ascertain the relative efficiency of
Table 17.2 Size Dependence Index m in Eq. 17.6 for Several Industrial Raw
Materialsa
Material
m
Fused alumina
1.1
Silicon carbide
1.3
Quartz
1.4
Tabular alumina
1.6
Bauxite
2.4
Calcined alumina (porous aggregate) 4.0b
Calcined titania (porous aggregate) 4.4b
aBall milling and low-amplitude vibratory milling to a submicron mean size. (Data
courtesy of Sweco Inc., Florence, KY.)
bVaries with calcination temperature.

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Table 17.3 Values of m and Ac for Milling to a Submicron Mean Size
Mill Material m
Ball Zircona 1.8 650
3350
Vibratory Zircona 1.8 100
520
Attrition Quartzb 1.8 920
2680
Attrition Limestoneb 1.8 500
1500
aData courtesy of Sweco Inc., Florence, KY.
bFrom J. A. Herbst and J. L. Sepulveda, Proceedings of Powder and Bulk Solids Handling Conference, Chicago, 1978.
mills of different capacity or type. In terms of the new surface energy relative to energy input in milling processes, milling is less
than 1% efficient. A small improvement in efficiency may be a very significant factor in reducing the processing cost.
Summary
Crushing and grinding are important processes used to change the particle size distribution and disperse agglomerates in
materials. Feed material finer than about 5 mm may be ground in a variety of mills that differ in capacity, frequency of impacts
for each mill, and impact stress. The feed material must be of a specific size range and consistency. Control of the mass and size
of the grinding media and the solids concentration and dispersion of the feed slurry are important to maximize the rate of grinding
to a particular size with a minimum of contamination. Particle fracture is controlled by the frequency and energy of particle
impacts in the mill and the fracture resistance of the particles. Relative to ball milling, vibratory milling and attrition milling
produce finer particles and a narrower size distribution at a faster rate. Ball milling is used for high-capacity grinding and when a
wide size distribution or mixing and dispersion of agglomerates with a minimum of damage to particle or additive phases is
preferred. Control of the mill materials, mill loading, and feed consistency is required to minimize wear and chemical
contamination during milling.
Suggested Reading
1. Sheila A. Padden and James S. Reed, ''Grinding Kinetics and Media Wear During Attrition Milling," Am. Ceram. Soc. Bull., 72
(3), 101112 (1993).
2. Mary C. Kerr and James S. Reed, "Comparative Grinding Kinetics and Grinding Energy during Ball Milling and Attrition
Milling," Am. Ceram. Soc. Bull., 71(12), 18091816 (1992).

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Table 17.1 Density of Industrial Grinding Media

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Media Collision Frequency

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Particle Impact Frequency

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Attrition milling produces powders having a relatively narrow size distri-

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* R. J. Charles, Trans. AIME, 208, 8088 (1957).

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