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Actinobacterias Carbohidrates
Actinobacterias Carbohidrates
PII: S1590-8658(18)30210-X
DOI: https://doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.dld.2018.02.012
Reference: YDLD 3676
Please cite this article as: Binda C, Lopetuso LR, Rizzatti G, Gibiino
G, Cennamo V, Gasbarrini A, Actinobacteria: a relevant minority for the
maintenance of gut homeostasis, Digestive and Liver Disease (2018),
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dld.2018.02.012
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Title page
HOMEOSTASIS
Cecilia Binda*, Loris Riccardo Lopetuso*, Gianenrico Rizzatti*, Giulia Gibiino*, Vincenzo
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* Department of Internal Medicine, Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Catholic University of
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^ Unit of Gastroenterology and Digestive Endoscopy, AUSL Bologna Bellaria-Maggiore Hospital,
Bologna - Italy
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Electronic word count: 4120
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Corresponding Author:
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Largo Gemelli, 8
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E-mail: antonio.gasbarrini@unicatt.it
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Abstract
Actinobacteria are one the four major phyla of the gut microbiota and, although they represent only
a small percentage, are pivotal in the maintenance of gut homeostasis. During the last decade many
studies focused the attention on Actinobacteria, especially on their role both in gastrointestinal and
systemic diseases and on their possible therapeutic use. In fact, classes of this phylum, especially
Bifidobacteria, are widely used as probiotic demonstrating beneficial effects in many pathological
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conditions, even if larger in vivo studies are needed to confirm such encouraging results. This
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review aims to explore the current knowledge on their physiological functions and to speculate on
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Key words: gut microbiota, Actinobacteria, Bifidobacteria spp, gut homeostasis, dysbiosis,
probiotic.
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INTRODUCTION
The gut microbiota is composed by multiple commensal microbial species including 100 trillion
(10^14) bacteria, quadrillion viruses, fungi, parasites, archeas and yeasts, reaching an overall
biomass of about 1 kg and more than 3 million of genes [1- 4]. The different gastrointestinal regions
community. This is influenced by the acid environment, the presence of bile and pancreatic
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secretion and the high peristaltic activity in the stomach and small intestine, which do not allow a
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stable bacterial colonization, differently from the colon where bacterial colonization is favored by
the low redox potential and the slow transit [5, 6]. The majority of microbes forming the human
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microbiota can be assigned to four major phyla: Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Proteobacteria and
Actinobacteria [7, 8]. Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes represent more than 90% of the relative
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abundance of the gut microbiome and their relationship plays a pivotal role in the maintenance of
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gut homeostasis. Actinobacteria and Proteobacteria represent the remaining 10% [7, 8].
Mainly oropharyngeal origin aerobic gram-positive bacteria inhabit stomach, duodenum and
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jejunum, whereas coliforms and anaerobic species (such as Bacteroides, Bifidobateria, Clostridia
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and Lactobacilli) are predominant in the ileum and post ileocecal valve, respectively [9, 10].
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Gut microbiota is involved in many useful functions, such as energy production from nutrient
biotransformation [11, 12], regulation of lipid metabolism [13], metabolism of vitamins and
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absorption of calcium, magnesium and iron [12, 14, 15], maintenance of the intestinal barrier
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function [16, 17], the development of immune system from the first days of life [18- 23].
Many conditions are supposed to be related to quantitative and qualitative changes in gut
microbiota composition and function, such as inflammatory bowel diseases, celiac disease, irritable
bowel syndrome (IBS), obesity, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and non-alcoholic
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Recently, increasing interest has focused on the phyla of Actinobacteria, especially on
Bifidobacteria family. The purpose of this review is to explore the crucial role of Actinobacteria in
the maintenance of gut homeostasis and the critical importance of their future therapeutic
applications.
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Actinobacteria are Gram positive, multiple branching rods, non-motile, non-spore-forming and
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anaerobic bacteria [31], that include three main anaerobe families (Bifidobacteria, Propionibacteria
and Corynebacteria) and an aerobe family (Streptomyces). The most represented in the human gut
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are Bifidobacteria. Interestingly, the complete genome sequences are available for certain
angulatum [31].
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Many factors can impact on the presence of Actinobacteria in the intestine. Although the relation
between phylum diversity and delivery is still unclear, studies demonstrated a higher diversity
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within Actinobacteria phylum among children that underwent vaginal delivery [32-37]. In fact,
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phylum diversity within Actinobacteria, (i.e., Bifidobacterium) was significantly lower in infants
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delivered by caesarean section compared to vaginally delivered newborns during the first week of
life [33 -35], at the age of 1 month [36], and three months [37]. Other studies did not confirm such
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differences or showed a lower effect on Bifidobacteria and Bacteroides colonization at the age of 6
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and 12 month [38, 39]. The lower abundance of Bifidobacteria and Bacteroides in c-section
delivered infants may be explained with a higher mother consumption of antibiotics before, during
and after the delivery. Indeed, postnatal use of antibiotic has been associated with decreased
numbers of Bifidobacterium and Bacteroides and a higher relative abundance of the Clostridium
leptum [40- 42]. Furthermore, a higher abundance of Bifidobacterium genus has been demonstrated
in breastfed infants [43]. Interestingly, it has been demonstrated that human milk is rich in
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substances, like human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs), that may act as probiotics and stimulate the
Weaning causes a further change in microbial composition and Bifidobacteria are no longer the
dominant group, with the adult microbiota established after the second year of life [45]. During the
adulthood, the percentage of Actinobacteria remains stable around 8% [46] and constitutes one of
the prevalent commensal bacterial in the distal small and large intestine [47]. Intriguingly, an Italian
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study on centenarian patients showed a reduction in the total number of anaerobes compared to
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young adults, with a reduction of Bifidobacteria and Bacteroides [48]. These evidences have opened
new horizons for the concept of “fragile” microbiota that could deeply affect the delicate health
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equilibrium in old patients.
environment. It can be divided into a superficial physical barrier constituted by the epithelial cells,
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the tight junctions and the mucus; and a functional barrier represented by gut-associated mucosa
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lymphoid tissue (GALT), peristalsis and antimicrobial substances, able to regulate the
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immunological response to pathogens and tolerance to commensal bacteria [16, 49]. Gut microbiota
is pivotal in the maintenance of intestinal barrier functions, increasing tight junctions expression,
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regulating mucin biosynthesis and catabolism, providing energy for epithelial cells proliferation and
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stimulating the immune system [17, 49]. In this scenario, Actinobacteria are absolute players in
The production of short chain fatty acids (SCFA), such as acetate, propionate and butyrate, from
carbohydrate fermentation is crucial for providing energy to epithelial cells turnover and for their
potent antibacterial activity [16, 17]. In this field, Bifidobacteria have beneficial effects in the
maintenance of gut barrier thanks to their great production of SCFA [50]. In particular, they
produce high concentration of acetate that can protect the host from enteropathogenic infections,
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such as entero-hemorrhagic Escherichia coli and Shigella [51]. Moreover it has been demonstrated
group of bacteria (“lactate utilizer”) to produce butyrate [52]. In this scenario, in vitro studies
demonstrated that SCFA, especially butyrate, are correlated with an increased expression of the
gene MUC2, a mucin glycoprotein that is one of the major component of the mucous layer and thus
of intestinal barrier [53-55]. The mechanism responsible for the increased production of MUC
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induced by butyrate is not definitely established. Gaudier et al demonstrated that butyrate could
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modify MUC gene expression in goblet cells depending on the energy source available with a
consequent higher expression of MUC2 in conditions of glucose deprivation when the consumption
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of butyrate by goblet cells is increased [54]. Authors concluded that butyrate metabolism is
involved not only in mucin synthesis but can play a role also in gene transcription. Another in vitro
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study showed a relationship between SCFA, especially butyrate, the production of prostaglandins
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(PG) by intestinal myofibroblasts and epithelial mucin expression [53]. In fact, SCFA seemed to
enhance the production of PGE1 in subepithelial myofibroblasts that in turn was able to stimulate
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epithelial mucin expression, probably through the epithelial differentiation induced by cell-to-cell
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contact, extracellular matrix and soluble factors such as transforming growth factor β. Other
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important elements that contribute to the viscoelastic properties of the mucous layer are the Trefoil
factors (TFFs). These mucin-associated peptides are mainly secreted by goblet cells, are supposed
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to be involved in the mucosal maintenance and repair, and seem to reduce the recruitment of
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inflammatory cells [56, 57]. Moreover, butyrate contributes to the colonic defense barrier by
increasing the expression of TFFs [58]. In vitro and in vivo studies and in studies showed a possible
effects of butyrate on the expression of heat shot proteins (HSPs), which contribute to the gut
mechanism for the enhancement of HSPs expression has not been already discerned. So far, only
some hypotheses have been proposed. Indeed, SCFA are able to induce cellular acidification
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through a non-ionic diffusion that may induce the production of stress kinases and HSPs. Moreover,
the butyrate seems to inhibit the histone deacetylase, a crucial transcriptional regulator [59].
Finally, a possible role of butyrate on intestinal permeability has been assessed in different in vitro
studies, which demonstrated a butyrate influence on tight junctions expression. Interestingly, these
intestinal permeability and a concentration higher than 8 mM that, on the contrary, is able to induce
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an increased permeability [56, 61, 62].
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ACTINOBACTERIA AND METABOLISM
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Human intestine does not possess many of the enzymes involved in the degradation and
biotransformation of substances introduced with the diet. Indeed, the majority of enzymes engaged
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in energy production is provided by the commensal bacteria, especially located in the colon and
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belonging to the genus Bacteroides, Bifidobacterium, Ruminococcus and Roseburia [63]. In
oligosaccarides, unabsorbed sugars and fibers, that release hydrogen, carbon dioxide and SCFAs,
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the degradation of proteins, the regulation of lipid metabolism through lipoprotein lipase (LPL), and
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the absorption and biosynthesis of vitamin K, B12, iron, calcium and magnesium [13-15, 64-67].
Bifidobacteria are able to produce large quantities of acetate, but do not produce propionate and
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butyrate, which are mainly produced by Bacteroides phylium and Clostridium cluster XIVa and IV
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[68, 69]. However, the acetate released by B. longum NCC2705 represents a co-substrate for
butyrate production [70] that constitutes the main energy source for colonocytes [71].
Actinobacteria are also involved in the biodegradation of resistant starch [72 - 74]. Actinobacteria,
in particular Bifidobacteria, through the glycosyl hydrolases (GHs) hydrolyze the glycosidic bond
between two or more sugars and cooperate to the breakdown of plant-derived carbohydrate starch
and polysaccharides, such as FOS, GOS, XOS, inulin or arabinoxilan [75 - 77]. Moreover,
Bifidobacteria are supposed to be involved in the transformation of linoleic acid (LA) into
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conjugated linoleic acids (CLA), a group of isomers of LA [78], that have potential health-
Although it has been largely demonstrated that the diet strongly influences gut microbiota
composition, the relationship between diet and Actinobacteria is still unclear. In fact, energy
restrictions, high fiber diet and dietary components such as fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS), galacto-
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oligosaccharides (GOS), xylo-oligosaccharides (XOS) are associated to higher microbial diversity
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[80]. While some studies showed that Actinobacteria abundance is positively associated with a
high-fat diet and negatively associated with fiber intake [81, 82], an opposite association is
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suggested by other studies in which a high concentration of Bifidobacterium spp is positively
coccoides between the two groups. In particular, there was a negative correlation between
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Bifidobacteria and body fat percentage with an inverse correlation with insulin levels and the
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homeostasis model assessment (HOMA) index [83]. However, in this study there was no difference
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in LPS levels between lean and obese subjects and no correlation with body fat percentage, insulin
levels or HOMA-index. Nevertheless, a study by Cani et al [85] demonstrated that mice fed with an
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high fat diet enriched with prebiotic (fermentable dietary fibre, oligofructose (OFS)) could restore
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their levels of Bifidobacteria, improve glucose tolerance, insulin secretion, and induce an increase
of proglucagon mRNA precursor. Authors highlighted that all these changes were correlated with a
evident with other bacterial group [85]. Despite the mechanism of action has not been completely
understood, authors suggested that the product of OFS degradation, the SCFA, could ameliorate the
gut barrier function both through a direct action on colonic cells and by modulating gut microbiota,
especially Bifidobacteria [85]. Furthermore, the use of dextrins derived from maize starch is able to
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stimulate the growth of Actinobacteria and Bacteroidetes in both normal-weight and obese children
A modulation on gut microbiota, and therefore on Actinobacteria phylum, has been shown with the
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polysaccharides, lasting for a prolonged period into the intestinal lumen [67]. There, FODMAPs
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exert an osmotic action collecting water into the lumen and are fermented by commensal bacteria
releasing SCFA, dioxide, hydrogen, methane and carbon [88, 89]. A study by McIntosh et al
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compared the impact of high and low FODMAPs diet in IBS patients and demonstrated an
need for their metabolism [91, 92]. However, not all the patients treated with low FODMAPs
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experienced an improvement of IBS symptoms [90]. This could probably due to different effects of
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diverse Bifidobacteria strains. Recent studies demonstrated that the use of Bifidobacterium infantis
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and Bifidobacterium animalis has beneficial effects on IBS symptoms [93 - 95]. However, all the
available studies have not examined the microbiome of patients with IBS following the
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reintroduction phase, but only after the end of the strict low-FODMAP diet, which is usually only
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The gut microbiota plays a pivotal role in the development of immune system and Bifidobacteria,
are also critical in this field. The stimulation of intraepithelial lymphocytes, the production of
mucosal immunoglobulins and the promotion of a tolerogenic immune response are the main
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A decreased number of Bifidobacteria is associated to an enhancement of gut permeability [97] that
leads to the translocation of LPS into the serum. This triggers the immune system activation and
sustains chronic inflammatory conditions, such as insulin resistance, diabetes and liver diseases
[98]. The administration of Bifidobacterium pseudocatenulatum CECT 7765 along with high fat
diet in mice is able to down-regulate the inflammation by reducing the production of inflammatory
cytokines and chemokines, especially IL-6 and MCP-1, which are usually increased in obesity and
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metabolic disorders [99]. The reduction of these inflammatory markers is concomitant with the
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improvement of glucose tolerance and with the increasing of IL-4 and IL-13. These cytokines are
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macrophages that secretes the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10, and to promote the control of
inflammation and normal insulin sensitivity [100]. However, the same study showed that after the
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administration of B. pseudocatenulatum CECT 7765 there were increased level of IL-10 only in
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standard diet fed mice and not in high fat diet-fed mice, indicating that probably parallel regulatory
appropriate inflammatory response to a bacterial stimulus (LPS) that is usually impaired in high fat
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diet fed mice. In fact, the administration of this probiotic in these mice stimulates the production of
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TNF-α by LPS-stimulated macrophages, boosts the oxidative burst and therefore the phagocytosis
function in peritoneal macrophages. Finally, it increases the ability of DCs to present antigens and
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prime a T-lymphocyte proliferative response [99]. In this direction, the reduced phagocytic capacity
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and oxidative burst of macrophages and the impaired function of DCs are possible reasons for the
Grounding on the evidence that Bifidobacterium longum subspecies infantis (B.infantis) induces
regulatory T cells activity in animal models [103, 105 - 108] and increases the relative proportion of
the same cells in peripheral blood of healthy humans [109], Groeger et al studied the effect of
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B.infantis inflammatory mediator production in inflammatory disorders in patients with ulcerative
colitis (UC), psoriasis and chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) [110]. They found that 6-8 weeks of
treatment with B.infantis significantly reduced plasma C-reactive protein (CRP) levels in all three
group of patients, whereas a statistically significant attenuation of TNF-α was observed for psoriasis
and CFS. In the UC group they observed a trend of reduction in TNF-α levels that however did not
reach the statistical significance, probably because of the shorter treatment period (6 weeks of
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treatment vs 8 weeks of treatment of the other two groups). Instead, plasma levels of IL-6 were only
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marginally decreased after treatment reinforcing the hypothesis of a specific influence on immune
response for each gut microbiota component [110]. The use of Bifidobacterium species has also
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been studied in respiratory pathology, alone or in combination with prebiotic or other probiotics like
immunoresponse that is usually skewed in atopic patients and is responsible of higher levels of
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Recently, the interest on the impact of gut microflora on gut-brain axis is increasing. This could
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involve neuroendocrine, immunological and direct neural mechanisms [116 - 118]. Dysbiosis and
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inflammation that may also involve the central nervous system [119]. Both the gut microbiota
production of neurochemicals (i.e., serotonin, SCFA, dopamine and γ-aminobutyric acid) [116, 120]
and neurotoxic metabolites (i.e., ammonia) [119] by strengthens the possibility of an implication of
the gut-brain axis in depression, anxiety, IBS, IBD, and neurodevelopmental disorders such as
autism [116, 121 - 124]. A direct neural communication between the gut and the brain through the
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stimulation of the enteric nervous system and consequently the vagus nerve has also been supposed
[125, 126].
Standing on previous studies that showed a reduction of Bifidobacteria and lactobacilli following a
stressful experience and emotional stress both in animals and humans [127 - 131], Desbonnet et al
infantis in rats [132]. They demonstrated that a two-week treatment with the probiotic
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Bifidobacteria infantis determines an attenuation of pro-inflammatory immune response and an
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elevation of tryptophan, a precursor of serotonine that represents a target of antidepressant
treatments. Authors concluded that these results might support the beneficial effect of this probiotic
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in the treatment of depression, especially when associated to gastrointestinal disorders. Two years
later, these findings were supported by the evidence that the chronic treatment with Bifidobacteria
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infantis was able to attenuate depression in the rats exposed to maternal separation stress in early
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life [133].
On the other side, a recent study by Lyte at al [134] showed that mice fed with resistant starch (RS)
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had increased levels of Bifidobacteria, according also to a previous study by Tachon et al [135].
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RS-fed mice evidenced a significant increase in anxiety-like behavior that the authors considered to
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function has been supposed. In fact, preliminary data on the use of the probiotic VSL#3, a mixture
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the age-related decrease of long-term potentiation (LTP) in rats [136]. One of the mechanisms
supposed to be involved in the regulation of LTP is the anti-inflammatory effect of VSL#3 on the
modulation of the hippocampal molecules expression, such as CD 68 and CD 11b. These are
markers of microglial activation, and therefore of inflammation. Moreover the authors reported that
VSL#3 is able to influence the expression of several genes in the cortex. In particular, it is able to
attenuate the age-related changes in three genes, PLA2G3, Nid2 and Alox15, which are associated
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to inflammation. Changes of genes expression in the brain may be linked to the variation of several
molecules induced by VSL#3. In fact, this study showed that this probiotic regulates specific
mediators involved in synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus of aged rats, especially brain-derived
neurotrophic factor (BDNF), synapsin and syntaxin. The authors suggested that the synaptotrophic
effect of VSL#3 is mainly due to the BDNF, whose expression was increased in those rats treated
with the probiotic. The increase of BDNF levels was associated to higher level of synapsin. Of note,
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previous studies recognized its fundamental role in sustaining LTP through the induction of
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neurogenesis and synaptogenesis [136].
Lastly, the existence and the importance of gut-brain axis have also been suggested in alcohol
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dependence. Some alcohol dependent subjects develop a high intestinal permeability that is
associated with significantly lower levels of Bifidobacteria [137]. These subjects are characterized
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by higher levels of depression, anxiety and craving and have a consistent higher risk of persistence
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of psychological symptoms after detoxification when compared to alcohol dependent subject with a
lower intestinal permeability, that on the contrary recover completely after the abstinence period.
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BIFIDOBACTERIA AS PROBIOTIC
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approach, but only few Bifidobacteria strains have been studied alone. Thus, in the latter cases the
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For example, the probiotic formulation VSL#3, a mixture of lyophilized four Lactobacilli (L. casei,
conditions. Its efficacy has been mainly assessed in the prevention of pouchitis relapse in patients
with UC [138, 139], with promising results in maintaining remission and treating mild-to-moderate
UC both in adult and children [140 - 143], in metabolic disorders, in non-alcoholic steato-hepatitis
(NASH) [144, 145] and in the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhea [146]. An amelioration of
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the pro-inflammatory status in patients affected by UC has been demonstrated with the use of
Bifidobacterium infantis alone [110], as mentioned above, and Bifidobacterium breve in association
with GOS [147]. The use of Bifidobacteria, alone or in association with other probiotics is also
effective in the alleviation of symptoms in patients with IBS [93 - 95, 148 - 150], constipation [151,
152] and in the reduction of antibiotic-associated diarrhea in infants [153]. Moreover, a recent study
showed that a supplementation of B.breve in association with breast feeding is able to reduce the
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incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) in preterm neonates born between 28 and 34 weeks of
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gestation. However, further studies are needed for neonates < 28 weeks where the reduction of NEC
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Furthermore, in vitro and murine models studies highlighted how Bifidobacteria, especially B.
longum and B. lactis strains, seem to be active against rotavirus infection [155] and could protect
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against colorectal cancer (CRC) [156, 157]. Grounding on a previous study where the use of a
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combination of RS and B. lactis had significantly increased the acute apoptotic response to a
genotoxic carcinogen (AARGC) in rat colon [158], Le Leu et al confirmed his protective action
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against CRC in rats model, supporting the importance of this synbiotic in cancer prevention. The
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mechanism(s) of actions that sustain(s) apoptosis with this symbiotic remain(s) unclear, but authors
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supposed the presence of immunomodulating properties derived by the interaction between B.lactis
controlled study on humans affected by colorectal polyps (no CRC) or CRC [157] highlighted how
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the dietary symbiotic, B. lactis, L. Rhamnosus and oligofructose-enriched inulin, was able to reduce
colon cell proliferation and cell DNA-damage. However, the two groups responded differently to
the synbiotic, maybe because of an increased resistance to qualitative and quantitative changes of
In addition, the effects of Bifidobacteria are not limited to the gastrointestinal tract. In fact, a
possible therapeutic role of such probiotic has also been supposed in the treatment of respiratory
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pathologies [112-115], psoriasis, chronic fatigue syndrome [110], depression [132, 133] and in the
CONCLUSIONS
This review shows how Actinobacteria phylum, despite it represents a minority group of
commensal bacteria, plays a pivotal role in the development and maintenance of gut homeostasis
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(Figure 1). Its involvement has been supposed in the modulation of gut permeability, immune
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system, metabolism and gut-brain axis. An unbalanced abundance has been evidenced in several
pathological conditions. For this reason, the interest in the use of Actinobacteria, especially of
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Bifidobacteria family, as probiotic is constantly increasing. This group may represent a significant
part of the next-generation of probiotics with a potential efficacy both in gut diseases and extra-
and the host and consequently their therapeutic implications in the prevention and treatment of
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several systemic disorders with the end goal of promoting gut health.
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FIGURE LEGEND
Figure 1
Stremptomyces. Actinobacteria exert crucial physiological functions in the gut. FOS: fructo-
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Table 1
diseases.
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maintenance of remission and
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treatment of mild-to-moderate UC
IBS RESPIRATORY PATHOLOGIES
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CONSTIPATION PSORIASIS
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ANTIBIOTIC-ASSOCIATED CHRONIC FATIGUE SYNDROME
DIARHEA
NEC DEPRESSION
COLORECTAL CANCER
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COGNITIVE DETERIORATION
RCU/ UC: ulcerative colitis, IBS: irritable bowel syndrome, NEC: necrotizing entero-colitis,
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NASH: non-alcoholic steato-hepatitis.
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CONFLICT OF INTEREST
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Figure 1
i
cr
PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS
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an
Immunological function:
Gut Barrier: -maintenance of gut permeability
-production of acetate
-down-regulation of inflammation by
M
-production of lactate that is used by
production of IL-4 and IL-13
“lactate-utilizer” for the production of
-induction of regulatory T-cells
butyrate
ed
-regulation of Th-2 immunoresponse
-maintenance of gut permeability
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Metabolism: Gut-Brain Axis:
-production of acetate -potential anti-depressant effects with the
elevation of tryptophan levels
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Corynebacteria Streptomyces